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    classification of tool steels

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    149 views16 pages

    Tool Steel Classification

    Uploaded by

    Bijoy Balakrishnan
    classification of tool steels

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    Tool Steels Classification W- Water-hardening Tool Steels. O- Oil hardening Tool Steels. | | A- Air hard ening Die Ste carbon H omium Die Steels Shock resisting Tool Steels f and M- Tungsten and Molybdenum High-speed Steels. | L-Low Alloy (Special Purpose) H- Hot Working Steels. ¥ P- Pre hardened Steels - : t . W- Water-hardening Tool Steels. W1 and W2 are both readily available and of low cost. W2 contains vanadium and is more uniform in response to heat treatment; it is of a finer grain size with a higher toughness. Both are shallow-hardening and, when hardened with a hard case and a softer internal core, have high toughness. They are quenched in water or brine O- Oil hardening Tool Steels. Steels O1 and O2 have, for many years, been the workhorses of the die-steel [ industry and are known familiarly as manganese oil-hardening tool steel, Readily available and of low cost, these steels, which are hardened in oil, have less movement than the water-hardening steels and are of equal toughness when the water-hardening steels are hardened throughout. For special applications, type 06, which contains free carbon in the form of graphite, has been used successfully. A- Air hardening Die Steels. The principal air-hardening die steel employed is steel A2- This steel has a minimum movement in hardening and has higher toughness than the oil-hardening die steels, with equal or greater wear resistance. It has a slightly higher hardening temperature than the manganese types. The availability of the popular A2 steel is excellent Type A8 is the toughest steel in this group, but its low carbon content makes it less wear-resistant than A2 [ D- High carbon High chromium Die Steels. The principal steels of wide application for long-run dies are steels in this group. containing 1.50% carbon is of moderate toughness and intermediate ti D4, and f ntaining additional carbon, are id somewhat lower toughness. Selection between red and machining and grinding problems are air-hardening and have minimum very high these is base ar resistance on the length D2 and D4, containing movement in hardening of run de ybdenut S- Shock resisting Tool Steels. These steels contain less carbon and have higher toughness. They are employed where heavy cutting or forming operations are required and where breakage is a serious problem with higher-carbon materials that might have longer life through higher wear resistance alone. Choice among the grades is a matter of experience. T and M. Tungsten and Molybdenum High-speed Steels. Steels T1 and M2 are equivalent in performance and represent standard high- speed steels which have excellent properties for cold-working dies. They have higher toughness than many of the other die steels, combined with excellent wear resistance. While they are expensive, they are readily available. T15 and M4 are hardened by the standard method rather than carburizing, because they already have a very high carbon content combined with a high vanadium content. L- Low alloy Tool Steels. Of the many low-alloy steels effective as die materials, steel L6 is a chromium- nickel steel. In large sizes it is water-quenched and has a hard case and a soft core, with an attendant high overall toughness. In small sizes it may be oil- quenched H- Hot Working Steels. Die casting dies. extrusion dies, hot forming dies, and hot drawing mandrels are typical hot-work applications. P- Pre hardened Steels. Steels which are pre hardened from a range of 28-33 HRc is available for plastic components Effects of alloying elements NICKEL (Ni) It is added to steel generally with Chromium.It helps to produce fine grain in see steel. This leads to lesser distortion durin improves resistance to corrosion. An alle y invar having 35 to 36% Nickel has nearly co-efficient of thermal expansion. This alloy used to manufacture measuring instruments. 5 Nickel Steel has good miagnetic properties. CHROMIUM(Cr) Small quantities of Chromium is added to Carbon Steel to increase its hardness. However ductility is reduced. Chromium promotes grain growth in steel.Two of the most important properties of Steels containing chromium are wear resistance and cutting ability, Chromium also increases the corrosion resistance of steel. MOLYBDENUM(Mo) It is often used in conjunction with Chromium. It is used in tool steels because it increases the hot hardness. Within the temperature range where it is effective it is twice as strong and much cheaper than Tungsten. It is commonly used in forging dies that must resist impact and abrasion at elevated temperature VANADIUM (V) It acts as a deoxidizer and also removes Nitrogen from steel. It forms complex carbides with Carbon. These carbides together with chromium and nickel greatly strengthen the steel. A 0.3 to 0.25% Vanadium increases the elastic limit, yield point and impact strength th, with almost no loss in ductility MANGANESE (Mn) It is usually present in all commercial steels. It reduces the harmful effect of Sulphur by forming Manganese Sulphide. 11 to 14% Manganese and 1 to 1.4 Carbon Alloy is resistant to wear and abrasion under high impact stress SILICON (Si) When added to Steel it is a more efficient deoxidiser than Manganese. Addition of small percentage of Silicon increases the strength with little loss in Ductility, ill is used in spring steels which contain about 2% Silicon, 0.8% Manganese and 0.6% Carbon. TUNGSTEN (W) It is more effective than molybdenum in retaining hardness at very high temperatures. It is a primary alloying element in tool steels, that must maintain their hardness at high operating temperatures COBALT (Co) Cobalt is added to high speed steel from 1 to 12% for the purpose of obtaining a cutting tool with a sharp edge. It is also used for making magnet steels containing about 35% ( PHOSPHOROUS (P) Phosphorous, when dissolved in ferrite, increases strength, hardness and resistance to corrosion. It is added'to low carbon steels upto 0.12%. It is undesirable to have phosphorous in high strength and high carbon steels, because it makes steel brittle at low temperatures, a property called "cold shortness”. SULPHUR (S) Sulphur is harmful to steel as it makes the steel brittle at higher temperatures a property called "hot shortness". However about 0,3% Sulphur is added to free cutting steels to increase machinability 2 REATMENT OF TOOL STEEL HEAT TREATMENT OF TOOL si “KEL es Contents What is tool steel: Hardening and tempering «0.0000 Dimensional and shape stability... Surface treatment. : Testing of mechanical properties... Some words of advice to tool designers... sees sei essere “The purpowe ofthis brochure isto provide some idea ofhow tool steels hestreatel and how it beluwes. Special atetion spa to hardness tough ‘ess and dimensional stabi. What is tool steel? ‘et scence too ste anon Ngheloyed pes fs tended pinay or rpm pc ope moulg acing ad long, iccning,exrunn, gag sd tod Conventional high speed stels and powder snetallergy (PMO) steels ae also incuded in the ange “Tool steel normally delivered in the sf ar eae condiin. This so make the material ey ‘omachine with curting tous and w give ita niro- scructure suitable for hardening. ‘The microstructure consist ofa sof matixin which carbides are embedded. In carbon ste, these carbides consist fron carbide, while the alloyed steel they re chromium (CP, tungsten (W), molybdenum (Mo) of vanadium (V) ear bide depen on the composition ofthe Carbide ae compounds of carbon aod these alloying elements ad are characterized by w high hardness A higher carbide cent me Nghe resistance to wear nally sted, is emportaon shat sre crenly istbuted Other alloying element are also use steel suchas eubal (Co) an ice (M0, bu these do not form carbides: Cobalt is orn ‘wed to improve red hardness in high peed ses ickel to impeeve throygt-hardening properties Hardening and tempering When a tools hardened, many factors ince thereat SOME THEORETIC \SPECTS Insof annealed oo steel, most of the alloying ele ‘ments are hurd up wit carbon ia carbides. In auton to these there are the alloying elements ‘cobalt and nickel which do not form carbides but ar instead dissolved in the matri. ‘When the ste is heated fr hardening, the basic ideais to dssohe the carbides to sucha de saree that the matrix acquires a alloying content ‘that gives the hardening effect—without becoming coarse grained and brite, Note thatthe carbies are partially lssohe This means thi the matric ‘becomes alloyed with carbon and carbideforming clement ‘When the steels hosted othe hardening ten erature (austeiting temperature), the carbides are paral dissolved. and the matixis also tered. tis waastormed from fete to austenite ‘This means that the iron atoms change thelr post tin in the atomic tice and make roo for som ‘ofcarbon and alloying elements The carbon and alloying elements from the cbidesare dissolved in the marx. the steel quence sufciently rapid in th hardening process, the carbon atoms donot have time to repoation themselves to llow the reform ing of ert from austenite, ie sv ig aaneling Tnsead they ae ed in posits where they real do nothave enough room, and the reauk is high microstresses that cum be dened as increase hardness. This hard structure called martensite ‘Thus, martensite canbe eet 3 ford solution ‘ofcarbon in ferrite 2 Unicel in © matnit crea Heat treatment When a ste! is hardened, the matrix snot completely converted into martensite. Some aste nite sah lef and is called “retained austenite” ‘The amount increases with increasing alloying content, higher hardening temperature and longer soaking times. ‘Aer quenching, the steel has a microstruc ture consisting of martensite, reained austenite snd carbides. “This structure contains inherent stresses thst can easily cause cracking, But this can be pre- vented by reheating the sel toa certain tenipera ture. reducing the stresues and transforming the r= taped austenite to an extent that depends upon the reheating temperature. ‘This reheating afer hardening is called ter ering. Hardening ofa too tee should alayebe followed immediately by tempering should be noted that tempering at low tem peratures only afects the martensite, while ten Dering at high temperature also afects the retain! usteni, Aer one tempering at high temperature, the iicroarucare consists of tempered martensite, newlyfored martemite, some retained austenite and carbides Precipitated secondary (newly es and nesy-frmne martes uring high tempera carte preston ‘Tool steel shoudl always be double tempered The second tempering takes care ofthe secondary _martersite formed afer the frst tempering. Three tempers are recommended for high-speed sel ‘with high carboa content Tempered oe Temper tie 100 RIGOR, bandon and temperod Distortion de to hardening mas be taken consideration when a too is rough-nachine Rough machining eases local heating and mee ‘eal part of simple desig, but can be signin ssyminetrical machining for example of ove hal adiecasting die, Here, treswrebeving is ley Stress relieving This treatment is done after rough machining at cata heating to 550-650" C (1000-121 F). The ‘neil shoul! be heated unl ithas achieved ‘unions temperature all the way through a then cooled showy, for example in a urine The ides behind stress relieving is thatthe yield strength ofthe material atthe elevated tem peratureiss low that the material canno rest the inherent trees, The yield strength is ex ‘ceeded and these stresses ae released, resting in a greater or lesser degree of distortion. The correct work srquence i: rough machining. stress reliving ad finish machining ‘The excuse that stress relieving takes too such me is hardly valid. Rectifying a part during finish machining ofan annealed materials with few exceptions cheaper than making dinensinal adustraents on hardened too. Heating to hardening temperature ‘The fundamental rule for heating to hare temperature i that it should take place slowly ‘This minimizes distro, In yacuum furnaces and furnaces with con trolled protective gas atmosphere, the heat i in ‘creased gradually. When meiten sat baths are used, preheating is employed, whereas heating is automatialy slow ina mule furnace when steels packed in castiron chips Ina fluidized bed the advantages of salt bath and protective atmosphere are combined. Heating and cooking rates canbe compared with salt bal The Aloxides and gas used at protective almiow- phere are less detrimental to the environment saltbach Wisimportant thatthe tools are protected against oxidation and decarburization. The best protection is provided by a vacuum furnace, where the surtace ofthe steel remains unafected aoe Vacwum face Sut eats nace * ate ah Fumaces with a controll protective gas atmosphere or sl ths also provide goo protes Ian elecuic muflefumace ie wed, the tool «can be protected by packing it in spent charcoal or easton chips Ti should be observed that these packing material can have «carburizing effect if the steehs have low carbon content, such as conventional hot work steels Wrapping in stainless steel ol also provides geod protection when heating in a mute furnace Decarburzation resus in low surface hard nes anda sk of racking Carburization results ins harder surface layer, ‘which can have negative effects Holding time at hardening temperature It isnot posible to sate exact recommendations ‘briefly to cover all heating tuations, Factors such as furnace type, furnace rating. semper lone ii ne Carel ld be rapid to minimize distortion, slow Slow quenching results in fee temperature Aitlerence between the surtace and core ofa part, and sections of dtferent thickness will have a more ‘ior cooling rate This is of great importance when quenching through the martensite range, below the M, peratre. Martensite formation leads to an in volume and stresses in the material. This also the reason why quenching should be interrupted before room temperature has been reached, normaly t 0-70 (120-160, However, if the quenching rate is too slow. especially with heavier cross-sections, undersrable transformations inthe racrostuctare can take place, king 3 poor tool performance Water is used asa uuallyed stecks, 10% 3 ide (sa soda should be ade to the water in order to achieve opinsum cooling efcicacy ‘Water hardening can often eause problems in the form of distortion and quench cracks. Oil nardening is safer. but hanfening in air or marter best of al ld be ed fr lowalaped steele 1d prefer ul be kept tain perio of shouldbe of good quality ‘dquenching type It be changed after a Hardening ols should havea temperature of 140-160" F) to give the best cooling ff ciency. Lower temperatures mean higher viscosity, ithe ollis thicker, Temperature Tne Martem pring Hardening i ols aot che satest way to ‘quench steel. in view ofthe risks of distortion and Inarening cracks. These risks can be reduced by means of martempering. In tis process the ma- terials quenched in two steps. First itis cooled from hardening temperature ina salt bath whose temperature is just above the M, teinperatue.Itis ‘kept there until the temperature has equalized between the surface and the core afte which the tool canbe allowed to coo freely in air down. through the martensite transformation range. ‘When martempering othardeaing steels it should also be kept in mind thatthe material trans. forms relatively rapid and should not be kept to Jong atthe martempering bath temperature. This can lead to excessive banite transformation and the rsk of low hardness. Highaloy sels can be hardened ino, rmartempering bath or as. The advantages and dis advantages ofthe diferent methods ean he dis cussed. Oil gives good Sih and high hardness, bat It ako maxiizes the risk of excessive distortion or racking, fn the cate of thick part, quene oils often the only way to achieve maim hare Martemperingin sal bath produces 3 finish high hardness and less tak of exce distortion or cracking, For cern types of steel, the temperature of the salt bath is normaly kept at about 50 (930° F). This temperature ensures a relatively rik thermal shock, but a sufcient cling rte avoid phase ransformations all martensite transformation has, in many ceases, tuto occur when the steel is cooled in sir from the martempering bath temperature How. the dimensions are big, itis often necessary to use a forced quenching rate depending of the hhardenabilty ofthe steel. Air quenching entails the lest risk of excess ive distortion, A tendency towards lower hardness ‘noticeable at greater thicknesses. One disadvane tage is poorer finish. Some oxidation takes place when the material comes into contact with ar and «cooks slowly fom the high baedening tempera: The choice of quenching medium must be ‘made from job to job, but a genera recorapnend> tion could perhaps be made a fallows: ‘A martempering bah i the safest in most “Air isused when dimensional stability is enucal, (il should be avoided and used only when tix necessary to achieve satishctory hardness in heany sections enpertre Cooling rates fo various media, ‘Three welHinown quenching methods have ‘been mentioned here. Some new concepts have ‘een intciced with modern types of fumaces, and the technique of quenching ata controlled rate Ina protective gas atmosphere oti a vac for ece svt gos s becoming increasingly wide- Spread, The cooling rate is roughly the same asin air for protective gas atmosphere, but the problem, of oxidized surfaces eliminated. Modern vac ‘uraces have the poslbilityto use overpressure larry quenching which inerenees the quenching peed The surtaces are conspletely clear era scuvn hardening, With these techniques, as with quen ir the rinks of encesstely slow eoting porne in mind, even for vacuity hrc wecpresmare is sed The effec thats handaess is normally wer than expected. Hard ness inthe centre of heavy sections is even lower This effect ean be critical wth highepecd see! and hot work steel, where acentre setion can be cooled so slowly that carbide precipitation takes place on the way down. Here, the matrix beccames Aepleted of carbon and carideforming alloying cements. The ren is redied hardness and strength ofthe core, Tempering ‘The material should be tempered immediatly alter quenching. Quenching should be stopped a temperature of 50-70" C (120-160"F) and temper ing should be done at onc. Ifthisis not possible, the material mus! be kept warm. eg. ina special “hot cabinet”, avaiting tempering. ‘The choice of tempering temperatures often determined by experience. However, certain sidelines can be drawn and the following factors can be taken into comideration hardness * toughness + ddmension ehonge, rnaxisnay hardness is desired, temper a about 200°C (3), but never lower tha SPC (GH0°T). High speed steel i normaly trnpered at bout 20°C (26°F) above the peak secondary Inardening temperature Hf lower artiness is desire, this means a hhigher tempering temperature. Reduced hardness does not always mean increased toughness, 353 evident fom the toughness values in our product ‘brochures Avoid tempering within temperature ranges that reduce toughness. If dimensional st bit is ako an important consideration, the choice of tempering temperture must often be a compro- mise. If posable, however. priority should be given to toughness. Conrectionsype tempering frmaee How mar Towed OTOP (10-160 stutenite remains untransiormed when the on isto be tempered When the materiel cooks ater tempering, most of the austenite i tran _ lormed to martenite, tis untemperes, A second tempering gives the material opti toughness at the hardness in question The same ine of reasoning can be applied with regard to retained austenite in high-speed stel In this case, however, the retained austenite is highly alloyed and sbrwsransforming. During tempering some diflusion takes place inthe austenite, se ‘ovary carbides are precipitate the austenite he ‘comes loweralloyed ands more easly transformed to martensite when it coals afer tenpering. Here, several temiperings can be beneficial in diving the transformation ofthe retained austenite ether to Holding times ip connection with tempering Here also, one shoul! avoid all complicated for rulae and rules of thumb, ad adopt the following recommendation Hold the materilforat let 2 hour at fll temperature eac tine Dimensional and shape stability DISTORTION DURING THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF TOOL STEEL. ‘Whea a piece oftool steels hardened and tens peted, some warpage or distortion normally occurs ‘This distortion is usually greater at high tempers ture This is well known, and ts normal practice to leave some machining allowance othe tol prior to hanlening. This makes it possible to adjust the tool othe correct dimensions after hardening and tempering by grinding, for example. TOW DOES DISTORTION TARE PLACE? ‘The causes stresses in the material. These stresses canbe divided into: + transformation stresses, Machining stresses This typeof stress is generated during machining operations such a turning, ning renter extent during old fonning oper such as blanking, ending and drawing.) U stresses have built up i a pat, they wil asec i Heating reduces sreng i sess through local distortion, This can lead to overall distortion, Inorder to reduce distortion while heating during the hardening process, a stress relieving ‘operation can be carried out. tis recommended that the material be streaereieved afer rough ‘machining. Any distortion can then be adjusted during final machining prior to quenching. mn? Vel strengts Bp. i I i 4 hur Temperate fet of temperatare om the ye strength of OF ‘Meri sof onneated. 3 + during quenching. Asa ger ‘Thermal stresses ‘These stresses are created when apiece is heated ‘They increase i heating takes place rapidly or unevenly. The volume ofthe steel i increased by ‘heating. Uneven heating can result in local var ations in volume grow, leading to tresses and distortion. ‘Aaan alternative with large or complex parts ‘heating can be done in preheating stages in order to equalize the temperature in the component. near expen 10 us 210 a 5m 78080 UF oftemperature " AR2 Mirae, slowly «nou 0 ature remit erally aia thrnighout the piece Whathas been said regarding heating also applies to quenching. Very powerful stresses arixe ral re, the slower that quenching can be done, the less distortion wil ‘occur due to thermal stress, IRs importan thatthe quenching medium is applied 2s uniformly as possible. This is especially val when forced ar oF protective gas atmoxphere (asin vacuum farnaces) is used. Otherwise tem perature diferences inthe tool can lead to signi- cant distortion. ‘Transformation stresses This ype of strest arises when the microstructure ofthe steels transformed, This is because the three microstructures in question ferrite, auste nite and martensite—have diferent densities, ie vokimes. The greatest effectis caused by transforma tion om austenite to martensite. This causes volume inceewe. Excessively so cause loa pid and uneven quenching ean rlensite formation ad thereby volume increases locally in apiece ad give rise to stresses inthis section. These stresses ca lead 9 distortion and, in some cases, quenching cracks. “The following values for machining allowances can be used as guidelines Machining alton ance co ent td denser Vote ‘ie dimension iE oa ficow bao SVERKER 21 ond SYERKER3 904 eaRwo. bao FANADIS 4 Seprcooe bisa FANADIS §Seperceae bist VASADIS Io Sepecle bisa Temata FASADIS 29 Sarthe alsa = chia hare cee oie Stavax ese “Treoanaton a ™ ELMAX SupCie area Contr Volume changes eo srucsural trnormation evan subwaaiE Vapar surassis (Qro 90 SUPREME forar Danae ON HE REDUCED? Distortion ean be minimized by * Keeping the design simple and syrametrica + eliminating machining strescosby stron rele ag afer rough machining + heating slows daring hardening table grace of ste Note: CORRAX'w a precipitation hardening steel Machining allowance i ede o compensate for rnkage during ageing. The shrinkage depends anagig taney oe “Surface treatment NFTRIDIN THe purpose of iteding is te increase the surface thadnesaf the sto and improve its wearing prop erties This treatment takes place ina mediuns (gos ‘or sa) which gives off nitrogen. In nitriding itro- ‘gen dfs into the steel and forms hard, weae- ‘esstnt nitrides. This results in an intermetalic surface yer with good wearing and fictional properties. Nitriding s done ia gas at about S1O*C (050°) and in salt or ga a about S70°C (105° ‘ras ionitiding, normally at around SOD" (GRO". The process therefore requires stees that are resistant to tempering in order thatthe core strength is not reduced. Examples of upplicutions + Nitrcing is used in some cases on prehardened! plastic moulds in order to prevent indentation and defects on the parting faces. Ht should be foted, however, that a ntrded surface cannot ‘be machined with cuting tools and can only be around with dificult. nitrided surface will ‘se problems in weld repairing as wel. Nitriding can also have a steserelieving effect. Heavily machined parts may, therefore, undergo some distortion during nitriding du to the re lease of residual stresses from machining ein such acase, a tres reeving between rough snd finish machining is recommended, + Thelife of forging din canbe increased by nitriding. Iemust be roted, though, thatthe tresument ean give ese to higher susceptibility to cracking in sharp comers. Furthermore, the evige ofthe lash land must be given a rounded prot + Exinision dies of ORVAR 21M can be nitride to advantage—especiall inthe ease of aluminium alloys Exceptions canbe profiles with sharp ‘ornersiand thin sections of the des AFFROGARBURIZING [A widelylnowo method is string in a sak bath ‘The temperature is normally 570°C (060°). Due o aeration the cyanate content of he bath can Dre beter controlled and the nitriding effets very soo ‘Aniurocrburizing effect can abo be achieved in gas atmosphere at 70°C (106°). The results alter these methods are comparable. ‘The total nitriding time must be varied for liferent tool types and sizes. Inthe case of large sizes, the heating ime to the specied nitriding temperature can be considerably longer than in the case of sal oo TON NIT ‘This sa new nleding technology. The method can be surnmarized as flows: ‘The pat to be nrided is placed in a process chamber fled with gas mainly nitrogen. The part {orn the cathode sd the shell ofthe chamber the snodeln an electric circuit Whew the iret ‘made the ga is onise and the partis subjected to ion bombardment The gas serves as a heating sind nitriding median. The advantages of on ntiing inchde alow scesaemiperature an a hard eagh srtace Inyer The depth of i with gastrin, om ating plat Tn this method, the steel is heated in median that gives off erbon (gas alt or dry carburizing ‘compound. The carbon diffuses into the Zurace ot themateral snd ater hardening this gives a sur face layer with enhanced hardness and wear resis tance. This method is sed for structural steel but isnot generally recommended fr alloy too teks, HARD CHROMIUM PLATING Hard chromium plating can improve the wear resistance and corrosion resistance ofa ool Hard

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