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The horizontal positions of points is a network developed to provide accurate control for
topographic mapping, charting lakes, rivers and ocean coast lines, and for the surveys required
for the design and construction of public and private works of large extent.
The horizontal positions of points can be obtained in a number of different ways in addition to
traversing like triangulation, trilateration, intersection, resection and satellite positioning.
The principle of triangulation is based on the trigonometric preposiotion that if one side and two
angles of a triangle are known, the remaining sides can be computed. Furthermore, if direction of
one side is known, the directions of remaining sides can be computed.
A triangulation system consists of a series of joined or overlapping triangles in which an
occasional side is measured and remaining sides are calculated from angles measured at the
Module 2-Geodetic Surveying and Theory of Errors
vertices of the triangles. The vertices of the triangles are known as triangulation stations. The
side of the triangle whose length is predetermined is called base line. The lines of triangulation
system form a network that ties together all the triangulation stations.
A trilateration system also consists of a series of joined or overlapping triangles. However, for
trilateration the lengths of all the sides of the triangle are measured and few directions or angles
are measured to establish azimuth. Trilateration has become feasible with the development of
electronic distance measuring (EDM) equipment which has made possible the measurement of
all lengths with high order of accuracy under almost all field conditions.
A combined triangulation and trilateration system consists of a network of triangles in which all
the angles and all the lengths are measured. Such a combined system represents the strongest
network for creating horizontal control.
Since a triangulation or trilateration system covers very large area, the curvature of the earth has
to be taken into account. These surveys are, therefore, invariably geodetic. Triangulation surveys
were first carried out by Snell, a Dutchman, in 1615.
PRINCIPLE OF TRIANGULATION:
Fig. 1.2 shows two interconnected triangles ABC and BCD. All the angles in both the triangles
and the length L of the side AB, have been measured.
We have, ,
We have,
From the known lengths and the respective bearings consecutive co ordinates are
computed,
Line Latitude Departure
AB
AC
BD
CD
Note: if lengths of a side are computed by more than one means, to achieve better
accuracy, mean of the computed lengths of a side is to be considered.
Sl. Second –
First-order Third order
No Characteristics order
triangulation triangulation
. triangulation
A signal is a device erected to define the exact position of a triangulation station so that it can be
observed from other stations whereas a tower is a structure over a station to support the
instrument and the observer, and is provided when the station or the signal, or both are to be
elevated. Before deciding the type of signal to be used, the triangulation stations are selected.
The selection of triangulation stations is based upon the following criteria.
The triangulation stations should be permanently marked on the ground so that the theodolite and
signal may be centered accurately over them. The following points should be considered while
marking the exact position of a triangulation station :
The station should be marked on perfectly stable foundation or
rock. The station mark on a large size rock is generally preferred so that
the theodolite and observer can stand on it. Generally, a hole
10 to 15 cm deep is made in the rock and a copper or
iron bolt is fixed with cement.
i. If no rock is available, a large stone is
embeded about 1 m deep into the ground with a
circle, and dot cut on it. A second stone with a
circle and dot is placed vertically above the first
stone.
ii. A G.I. pipe of about 25 cm diameter driven vertically into ground up to a depth of one
metre, also servedas a good station mark.
Module 2-Geodetic Surveying and Theory of Errors
iii. The mark may be set on a concrete monument. The station should be marked with a
copper or bronze tablet. The name of the station and the date on which it was set, should
be stamped on the tablet.
iv. In earth, generally two marks are set, one about 75 cm below the surface of the ground,
and the other extending a few centimeters above the surface of the ground. The
underground mark may consist of a stone with a copper bolt in the centre, or a concrete
monument with a tablet mark set on it (Fig. 1.23).
v. The station mark with a vertical pole placed centrally, should be covered with a conical
heap of stones placed symmetrically. This arrangement of marking station, is known as
placing a cairn (Fig. 1.27).
vi. Three reference marks at some distances on fairly permanent features, should be
established to locate the station mark, if it is disturbed or removed.
vii. Surrounding the station mark a platform 3 m × 3 m × 0.5 m should be built up of earth.
SIGNALS
Signals are centered vertically over the station mark, and the observations are made to these
signals from other stations. The accuracy of triangulation is entirely dependent on the degree of
accuracy of centering the signals. Therefore, it is very essential that the signals are truly vertical,
and centered over the station mark. Greatest care of centering the transit over the station mark
will be useless, unless some degree of care in centering the signal is impressed upon.
A signal should fulfill the following requirements:
i) It should be conspicuous and clearly visible against any background. To make the
signal conspicuous, it should be kept at least 75 cm above the station mark.
ii) It should be capable of being accurately centered over the station mark.
iii) It should be suitable for accurate bisection from other stations.
iv) It should be free from phase, or should exhibit little phase.
2) LUMINOUS SIGNALS
Luminous signals may be classified into two types:
i. Sun signals
ii. Night signals.
i) Sun signals (Fig. 1.29): Sun signals reflect the rays of the sun towards the station of
observation, and are also known as heliotropes. Such signals can be used only in day time in
clear weather.
a) Heliotrope: It consists of a circular plane mirror with a small hole at its centre to reflect
the sun rays, and a sight vane with an aperture carrying a cross-hairs. The circular mirror
can be rotated horizontally as well as vertically through 360°. The heliotrope is centered
over the station mark, and the line of sight is directed towards the station of observation.
The sight vane is adjusted looking through the hole till the flashes given from the station
ii) Night signals: When the observations are required to be made at night, the night signals of
following types may be used.
a. Various forms of oil lamps with parabolic reflectors for sights less than 80 km.
b. Acetylene lamp designed by Capt. McCaw for sights more than 80 km.
c. Magnesium lamp with parabolic reflectors for long sights.
d. Drummond’s light consisting of a small ball of lime placed at the focus of the
parabolic reflector, and raised to a very high temperature by impinging on it a
stream of oxygen.
e. Electric lamps.
Module 2-Geodetic Surveying and Theory of Errors
TOWERS
A tower is erected at the triangulation station when the station or the signal or both are to be
elevated to make the observations possible form other stations in case of problem of
intervisibility. The height of tower depends upon the character of the terrain and the length of the
sight. The towers generally have two independent structures. The outer structure is for
supporting the observer and the signal whereas the inner one is for supporting the instrument
only. The two structures are made entirely
independent of each other so that the
movement of the observer does not disturb the instrument
setting. The two towers may be made of masonary, timber
or steel. For small heights, masonary towers are most suitable.
Timber scaffolds are most commonly used, and have been
constructed to heights over 50 m. Steel towers made of
light sections are very portable, and can be easily erected and
dismantled. Bilby towers patented by J.S. Bilby of the U.S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey, are popular for
heights ranging from 30 to 40 m. This tower
weighing about 3 tonnes, can be easily
erected by five persons in just 5 hrs. A schematic of such
a tower is shown in Fig. 1.30.
iii) MEASUREMENT OF BASE LINE
The instruments used for triangulation surveys, require great degree of precision. Horizontal
angles are generally measured with an optical or electronic theodolite in primary and secondary
triangulation. For tertiary triangulation generally transit or Engineer’s transit having least count
of 20" is used.
Methods of observation of horizontal angles
The horizontal angles of a triangulation system can be observed by the following methods:
a. Repetition method – Secondary order triangulation and tertiary order triangulation
b. Reiteration method – Primary order triangulation
Measurement of vertical angles is required to compute the elevation of the triangulation stations.
vi) ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS
To determine the azimuth of the initial side, intermediate sides, and the last side of the
triangulation net, astronomical observations are made.
vii) SOME EXTRA PRECAUTIONS IN TAKING OBSERVATIONS
To satisfy first-second, and third-order specifications as given in Table 1.1, care must be
exercised. Observer must ensure the following:
1) The instrument and signals have been centered very carefully.
2) Phase in signals has been eliminated.
3) The instrument is protected from the heating effects of the sun and vibrations caused
by wind.
4) The support for the instrument is adequately stable.
5) In case of adverse horizontal refraction, observations should be rescheduled to the
time when the horizontal refraction is minimum.
Horizontal angles should be measured when the air is the clearest, and the lateral refraction is
minimum. If the observations are planned for day hours, the best time in clear weather is from 6
AM to 9 AM and from 4 PM till sunset. In densely clouded weather satisfactory work can be
done all day. The best time for measuring vertical angles is form 10 AM to 2 PM when the
vertical refraction is the least variable. First-order work is generally done at night, since
observations at night using illuminated signals help in reducing bad atmospheric conditions, and
optimum results can be obtained. Also working at night doubles the hours of working available
during a day. Night operations are confined to period from sunset to midnight.
Module 2-Geodetic Surveying and Theory of Errors
THEORY OF ERRORS
A discrepancy is defined as the difference between two or more measured values of the same
quantity. However, measurements are never exact and there will always be a degree of variance
regardless of the survey instrument or method used. These variances are known as errors and will
need to be reduced or eliminated to maintain specific survey standards.
Even when carefully following established surveying procedures, observations may still contain
errors. Errors, by definition, are the difference between a measured value and its true value. The
true value of a measurement is determined by taking the mean value of a series of repeated
measurements. Surveyors must possess skill in instrument operation and knowledge of surveying
methods to minimize the amount of error in each measurement.
1. Blunders
A blunder (or gross error) is a significant, unpredictable mistake caused by human error that
often leads to large discrepancies. Blunders are typically the result of carelessness,
miscommunication, fatigue, or poor judgment. Examples of common blunders are:
Improperly leveling the surveying instrument.
All blunders must be found and eliminated prior to submitting a survey for inclusion in the
project mapping. The surveyor must remain alert and constantly examine measurements to
eliminate these mistakes. Blunders can be detected and eliminated by reacting to “out-of-
tolerance” messages by the data collector when they occur. They can also be detected by
carefully examining a plot of the collected survey points while in the office.
TYPES OF ERRORS:
The errors which creep in surveying may be classified into the following three:
1. Mistakes
2. Systematic errors
3. Accidental errors
vertical angles due to manufacturing defects or out of adjustments. There are limitations on the
scales used which contribute to instrumental errors.
NATURAL ERRORS: Errors will creep in because of the natural phenomena like variation in
temperature humidity refraction, curvature of the earth and magnetic declination. They are to be
properly accounted to arrive at exact values.
HUMAN LIMITATIONS: Human eye cannot distinguish between two points closer than 0.25
mm. when ends of a chain/tape line is marked, the thickness of line contributes to error, when
next length is measured.
CARELESSNESS: These errors are purely due to the mistakes. They are quite large. They can
be avoided by following good surveying practice by taking precautions and check readings.
DEFINITIONS
The following are some of the terms which shall be used
1. Independent quantity: An observed quantity may be classified as i) independent and ii)
conditioned. An independent quantity is the one whose value is independent of the values
of other quantities. It bears no relation with any other quantity and hence change in other
quantities does not affect the value of this quantity. Ex: reduced levels of several bench
marks
2. Conditioned quantity: A conditioned quantity is one whose value is dependent upon the
values of one or more quantities. It is also called a dependent quantity. For ex: in a
triangle ABC, ∠A+∠B+∠C = 180˚. In this conditioned equation, any two angles may be
regarded as independent and the third as dependent or conditioned.
3. Direct observation: An observation is the numerical value of a measured quantity.
Direct observation is the one made directly on the quantity being determined e.g.the
measurement of a base, the single measurement of an angle etc..
4. Indirect observation: an indirect observation is one in which the observed value is
deduced from the measurement of some related quantities, eg. The measurement of angle
by repetition.
5. Weight of an observation: the weight of an observation is a number giving an indication
of its precision and trustworthiness when making a comparison between several
quantities of different worth. Thus, if a certain observation is of weight 4, it means that it
is four times much reliable as an observation of weight 1. When two quantities are
assumed equally reliable, the observed values are said to be equal weight. Observations
are called weighted when different weights are assigned to them.
6. Most probable value : the most probable value of a quantity is one which has more
chances of being true than has any other.it is deduced from several measurement
7. True error : A true error is the difference between the true value of quantity and its
observed value
8. Residual error: A residual error is the difference between the most probable value of
quantity and its observed value.
The goal of any survey should be to produce accurate and precise observations. Often
measurements with greater accuracy and precision requirements employ multiple observations to
minimize procedural errors.
WEIGHT OF AN OBSERVATION
• The weight of an observation is measure of its relative trustworthiness. Quality of each
measurement result is evaluated by means of a number known as weight. The more
reliable the result, higher its weight. The weights are established either by estimation or
in accordance with the measurement condition.
Rules for assigning weights to the observations:
Rule 1: the weight of an angle varies directly as the number of observations made on the angle.
Rule 2: for an angle repeated a great number oif times, the weight is inversely propotional to the
square of the probable error.
Rule 3: For a line of levels, the weight varies inversely as the length of the route.
LAWS OF WEIGHTS:
Law 1: Weight of an arithmetic mean of a number of observations of unit weight is equal to the
number of observations.
Where, W = weighted arithmetic mean when weight of all observations are w1,w2,w3……..wn.
Example:
Weight
0 ’
48 20 8” 3
480 20’ 10” 2
480 20’ 12” 3
W = Weight of result of sum or difference (when weight of all observations are different, i.e, w1,
w2, w3 ………wn)
Example:
Weight
0 ’
α = 46 30 30” 3
β = 240 42’ 20” 2
Law 4: If a quantity is multiplied by a factor, the weight of the product is equal to the weight of
that quantity divided by the square of the factor.
Let z be the factor,
Module 2-Geodetic Surveying and Theory of Errors
Law 5: If a quantity is divided by a factor, the weight of the result is equal to the weight of that
quantity multiplied by the square of the factor.
Let z be the factor,
Law 6: If an equation is multiplied by its own weight, the weight of the resulting equation is
equal to the reciprocal of the weight of the equation
Law 7: if an equation is added to or subtracted from a constant or if all the signs of the equation
are changed, the weight remains unchanged
Most probable value: Different conditions under which the measurements are made, cause
variations in measurements and therefore, no measured quantity is completely determinable. A
fixed value of a quantity may be conceived as its true value τ. The difference between the
measured quantity and its true value τ is known as error ε,
However, μ cannot be determined from a sample of observations. Instead, the arithmetic mean is
accepted as the most probable value and the population standard deviation is estimated as,
The standard deviation given by the above expression is also called the standard error (SE).
VARIANCE
Variance of a quantity is expressed as
and hence the precision of the mean is enhanced with respect to that of a single observation.
There are n deviations (or residuals) from the mean of the sample and their sum will be zero.
Thus, knowing (n – 1) deviations the surveyor could deduce the remaining deviation and it may
be said that there are (n – 1) degrees of freedom. This number is used when estimating the
population standard deviation.
MOST PROBABLE ERROR
The most probable error is defined as the error for which there are equal chances of the true error
being less and greater than probable error. In other words, the probability of the true error being
Module 2-Geodetic Surveying and Theory of Errors
less than the probable error is 50% and the probability of the true error being greater than the
probable error is also 50%. The most probable error is given by,