Useful Celestial Notes

School of Nautical Studies
SQA
Celestial Nav
Handbook
S.Moran Page 1 Revised April 2018
CLASSIFICATION: 2 - Internal / Non-Confidential

The
Sextant

The Sextant
Principle:-
When a ray of light is reflected twice in the same plane by two plane mirrors the
angle between the first and last directions of the ray is twice the angle between the
mirrors.

Adjustable Errors in order of Correction:-
1. Perpendicularity:- The index mirror must be perpendicular to

the plane of the instrument.
Set the index bar near the middle of the arc. Hold the sextant horizontally,
arc away from you, view the true image of the arc and also the reflected
image of the arc in the index mirror. The true and reflected images should
appear as one continuous line. Correct by means of the first adjustment
screw (1) on the back of the index mirror.
2. Side error:- The horizon glass must be perpendicular to the

plane of the instrument.
a) Star Method – Set the index bar at zero, hold the
sextant vertically and view a well defined star. The
true and reflected images should be in the same
vertical plane. Correct by means of the second
adjustment screw (2) furthest from the plane of the
instrument on the horizon glass.
b) Horizon Method – Set the index bar zero, hold the

sextant near horizontal and view a well defined
section of the horizon. The true and reflected
images should form one continuous line. Correct
using the second adjustment screw.
3. Index error:- The horizon glass and the Index mirror must be
parallel when the sextant reads 00°00.0’.
a) Star Method – Set the index bar at zero, hold the

sextant vertical and view a well defined star. The
true and reflected images should be
superimposed. Correct by means of third
adjustment screw (3) closest to the plane of the
instrument on the horizon glass.
b) Horizon Method – Set the index bar at zero, hold the sextant vertical
and view a well defined section of the horizon. The true and reflected
images should form one continuous line. Correct using the third
adjustment screw (3).

c) Sun Method – Set the index bar at zero, hold the sextant vertically and
using the appropriate shades, view the sun. Rotate the micrometer
screw until the true and reflected images are just touching and note the
reading “on” the arc. Reverse the images and note the reading “off”
the arc. Halve the difference between the readings and name the
correction “on” or “off” according to the largest reading.
e.g:- “on” the arc 32.6’

“off” 31.4’
Difference= 01.2’
Half difference= 00.6’ named “on”
N.B. Movement of the third adjustment screw (3) may reintroduce

side error.If index error is small therefore it may be easier
to apply the error rather than continuing to attempt to
correct it.
Errors which cannot normally be corrected by the observer
Centring error – If the geometric centre of the instrument is misaligned or shifted due
to any mechanical fault, centring error may exist .
Worm and Rack error – There is free movement between the worm of the
micrometer and the rack of the arc.
Optical errors – Prismatic errors of the glasses, shades, mirrors and lenses.
Graduation error – Incorrectly cut graduations on the arc.
Collimation error – The axis of the telescope is not parallel to the plane of the
instrument.

This error can be detected by use of the inverting telescope; this is not supplied with
modern sextants since the rising piece which holds the telescope collar is rigidly
fixed to the frame and no adjustment is possible.
Some Sextant Questions
i. State the principle of the sextant.

ii. Name the first/second/third adjustable error.
iii. Correct the first adjustable error.
iv. Correct the second adjustable error using horizon/star.
v. Correct the third adjustable error using horizon/star.
vi. Explain why re-adjustment of the second error may be necessary.
vii. Obtain Index Error using sun method.
viii. Explain how to improve horizon.
ix. Name some non-adjustable errors.
x. State where the non-adjustable errors are collated.
xi. Read the micrometer “on” and “off” the arc.
xii. Take a Vertical Sextant Angle.
xiii. State the purpose of the telescope eye piece.
xiv. Which planets can be observed by day.
Care of the Sextant
 Sextants are delicate and expensive instruments. They must always be

handled with care to avoid damage and derangement of the adjustments.
 Sextants must always be stored in the appropriate box in a secure location

that is not subject to excess of movement.
 When handling the sextant always hold it by the handle or the frame, never
the arc or the index bar.
 Always depress the clamp fully to avoid damage to the worm and rack.
 Take care when changing telescopes, do not cross thread.
 Do not expose to sun when not in use.
 Always dry the sextant if exposed to moisture.
 When replacing a sextant in its box always close the shades, set index bar as
required and ensure the clamp is firm. The sextant should not rattle in its box.

 If the sextant is to be stowed for a long period of time a thin coat of Vaseline
on the arc and worm will preserve the instrument.
Errors in taking a sight – with possible resolutions
 Sextant Errors – some errors can be corrected e.g. Perpendicularity, Side

error and Index error, whilst others cannot e.g. Centring, Worm and Rack,
Optical, Graduation and Collimation.
 Operator Error – even the most experienced observer can make mistakes
and research has shown that an expert will only be able to take an altitude to
within +/- 2.0’ of the actual alititude.
 Poor Horizon – to improve the horizon, if possible reduce the height of eye of
the observer.
 Chronometer Error – make sure that the chronometer error is known
accurately and kept up to date.
 Sextant Reading – double check the sextant reading before resetting the
index arm.
 Chronometer Reading – double check the chronometer reading.
 Calculation Errors – double check calculations before using the results for
navigation.
 Star Sights – try to spread the choice of stars around the horizon, in order to
give a better position line cross. Avoid taking star sights in only one sector
e.g. all to the port side of the vessel, etc.
 Almanac Corrections – double check corrections taken from the nautical
almanac.
 Low Altitude Objects – avoid taking sights of altitude objects as the chances
of parallax, refractive and reflective errors increase with a reduction in
altitude.

The Chronometer
&
Time

Chronometer
A Chronometer is a clock designed to have sufficient long-term accuracy that it can

be used as a portable time standard on a vehicle, usually in order to determine
longitude by means of celestial navigation.
History
Until the mid 1750s, navigation at sea was an unsolved problem. Navigators could
determine their latitude by measuring the sun’s angle at noon. However to find
their longitude, they needed a portable time standard that would work on a ship.
Conceptually, at local noon they could compare the chronometer’s time to
determine their longitude (in modern practice, a navigational almanac and
trigonometric sight reduction tables permit navigators to measure the Sun, Moon,
visible planets or any of 57 navigational stars at any time of day or night).
The problem of the clock was difficult. At the time, the best clocks were pendulum
clocks, and the rolling of a ship at sea caused these to be inaccurate. John
Harrison, a carpenter, developed a clock based on a pair of counter-oscillating
weighted beams connected by springs, whose motion was not influenced by
gravity or the motion of a ship. His chronometers H1-H3 were all of this design but
were large and heavy, and required to be suspended from a beam in a ship.
He finally solved the problem with his H4 chronometer, essentially a large 5”

diameter watch, winning a prize from the British Admiralty. His design used a
temperature compensated balance wheel. This method remained in use ‘till
microchips reduced the cost of a quartz clock to the point that electronic
chronometers became commonplace.
John Harrison invented the balance wheel and escapement mechanism, and was
(eventually) given credit and paid for this. Ownership of the design passed to the
Admiralty, who now needed manufacturers. Thomas Earnshaw, John Arnold and
others tackled this, with the development of the practical spring detent escapement
chronometer. Aaron Lufkin Dennison was the pioneer in the industrial revolution of
watch making as early as 1850 in developing the American system of Watch
Manufacturing by Interchangeable Parts at the Waltham Watch Company, which is
at the base of today’s worldwide manufacturing methods. The American Hamilton
Watch Co. harnessed mass production to produce chronometers in quantity for the
US Navy during World War II.
Mechanical Chronometers
The crucial problem was to find a resonator that remained unaffected by the
motions of a ship at sea. The balance wheel solved that problem. Balance wheels

for chronometers used bi-metallic strips to move small weights towards and away
the centre of the wheel, in order to adjust the period of the balance wheel for the
temperature of the chronometer.
The other crucial problem was that the energy of most spring materials changes
with temperature. A special alloy of steel was eventually developed, just to solve
this problem. Additionally, this spring had to be given a special oval shape.
The escapement drives the balance wheel, usually from a gear train. It is the part
that ticks. Escapements have a locking state, and a drive state. In the locking
state, nothing moves. The motion of the balance wheel switches the escapement
to drive, and the escapement then pushed on the wheel for a brief part of the
wheel’s cycle.
The escapement is the part of a clock most prone to wear, because it moves the
fastest. The efficiency of an escapement’s design, that is, how much energy is
converted into resonant motion, directly affects the accuracy of a clock, and how
long a clock can operate between windings.
A chronometer’s escapement is usually designed to minimize the energy and time

required to unlock the escapement, so that it affects the resonant frequency of the
oscillator as little as possible.
Today
Quartz clocks and atomic clocks have made mechanical clock-chronometers

obsolete for time standards used scientifically and/or industry, although some
customer watchmakers can still produce them. The techniques used to mass-
produce mechanical clock chronometers are now lost.
Time
Historically, time standards were based on the Earth’s rotational period. However,
the rate at which the Earth rotates is not constant. Earth rotational standards were
first replaced by ones based on the period of the Earth’s orbit but, because its orbit
is elliptical, the Earth moves faster when it is closer to the sun, so the orbital period
is not constant, either. Relatively recently, time interval standards based on very
accurate and stable atomic clocks have replaced the previous standards base on
the Earth’s rotational and orbital speeds.
The internationally recognized time interval is the second. The second is used as
the basic time interval for many time scales. Other intervals of time (minutes,
hours, days, and years) are usually defined in terms of the second.
Some time standards

Solar time is based on the solar day, which is the period of time between one solar
noon and the next. A solar day is approximately 24 hours, on average. However,
because of the irregular rate of the Earth’s rotation, solar time varies as much as
15 minutes from mean solar time.
Sidereal time is time by the stars. A sidereal day is the time it takes the Earth to
make one revolution with respect to the stars. A sidereal day is approximately 23
hours 56 minutes 4 seconds.
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is time on the Prime Meridian. GMT used to be an
international time standard. In that sense, technically, GMT no longer exists
although Universal Time is essentially what GMT used to be. Greenwich Mean
Time also used to be the international standard for civil time. In that sense as well,
GMT technically no longer exists, although GMT is still often used as a synonym
for UTC, which is the international standard. The only sense in which Greenwich
Mean Time technically still exists is as the name of a time zone.
International Atomic Time (TAI) is the primary international time standard from
which other standards, including UTC, are calculated. TAI is kept by the BIPM
(International Bureau of Weights and Measures), and is based on the combined
input of many atomic clocks around the world, each corrected for environmental
and relativistic effects.
Universal Time (UT) is a time scale based on the mean solar day, defined to be
as uniform as possible despite variations in the rotation of the Earth.
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) differs from TAI by an integral number of

seconds. UTC is kept within 0.9 seconds of UT1 by the introduction of one-second
steps to UTC, the “leap second”. To date these steps have always been positive.
Local Mean Time (LMT). Local Mean Time is defined in the Admiralty Manual of
Navigation as follows: LMT at any instant is the Local Hour Angle of the Mean Sun at that
instant, measured westwards from the meridian of that place, +/- 12 hours.
LMT is the mean time kept at any place when the Local Hour Angle of the Mean
Sun is measured from the meridian of that place.
Essentially LMT is the time at each meridian and can be obtained by dividing the
value of the meridian (in degrees, minutes, seconds) by 15 to obtain a time
difference, either behind(-) or ahead(+) of GMT.
Zone Time (ZT)
Each meridian has it’s own Local Mean Time (LMT). As a ship travels eastwards
the ship’s clocks (not the chronometer) have to be advanced, and retarded when
travelling westwards.
To avoid continuous change of clocks the world is split up into 24 time zones each
extending over 15° of longitude.
The time kept in each zone is the LMT of the central meridian of that zone.
Each zone is given a number which is prefixed by – or + to indicate the number of
hours to be added or subtracted from the Zone Time to give GMT.

i.e. zone 0 from 7 ½ °E to 7 ½ °W keeps LMT of 0° i.e. GMT

i.e. zone +1 from 7 ½ °W to 22 ½ °W keeps LMT of 15°W i.e. GMY less 1 hour.
i.e. zone -1 from 7 ½ °E to 22 ½ °E keeps LMT of 15°E i.e. GMT plus 1 hour.
The diagram below shows the worlds time zones, viewed from the North Pole.
TO FIND THE CORRECT U.T.
For most navigation problems it is required to know a UT. The question may
sometimes provide this.
However, the most common presentations are:
Date and time at the ship and a chronometer time, OR! AM or PM twilight.
It is necessary to find an approximate UT to decide upon the Date and because the
chronometer is not a 24 hour clock, whether it is reading AM or PM.
[This is particularly important when large values for Longitude are encountered].
Example 1:
15th January, time at ship is 1920hrs; DR 15° 00’N, 10° 00’W. The chronometer
read 7h 59m 10s which was 2m 20s slow on UT.
LT 15d 19h 20m 00s [Always include the Day]

Long (in time) 40m 00s
Approx UT 15d 20h 00m 00s

The chronometer is therefore indicating approx 2000hrs.
Chron 15d 19h 59m 10s

Error 2m 20s
UT = 15d 20h 01m 30s
Example 2:
21st November an AM sight of Polaris in DR position
45° 00’N 150° 00’E
The chronometer showed 8h 37m 10s which was 1m 8s fast on UT.
LT twilight 21d 06h 34m [from the Nautical Almanac]

Long E 10h 00m
Approx UT 20d 20h 34m
Chron 20d 20h 37m 10s

Error (fast) 1m 08s
UT = 20d 20h 36m 02s

Rotational Speed of the Earth
As can be seen from the figure below, if the Earth is rotating at a constant speed,
the speed of rotation of the Earth’s surface at the Equator is faster than positions
approaching the Poles, until at the Poles the speed of rotation of the earth’s
surface is zero.
The speed of rotation of the Earth’s surface is therefore a function of latitude.
At the Equator the surface of the Earth rotates at the rate of 15° per hour – the
equivalent of 900 miles per hour, whereas at the Poles it is zero.
The Latitude of the Equator is zero°, the cosine of which is 1 and the Latitude at
the Poles is 90° the cosine of which is zero.
The speed of the surface of the Earth is therefore the speed at the Equator
multiplied by the cosine of the Latitude.
e.g. in Lat 60° the speed of the rotation of the Earth’s surface is:- 900 x cos 60°

UNITS OF DISTANCE AT SEA
A Statute Mile is 1625 metres (5280 ft) and has no connection with angular
measurement.
A Geographical Mile is the length of an arc at the Equator subtended by one minute
at the Earth’s centre i.e. 1855.4 metres (6087.2 ft).
The Sea Mile:

At any place on the Earth’s surface the Sea Mile is the length of the meridian which
is subtended by an angle of 1’ at the centre of curvature at that place.
A sea mile varies between 1842.8 metres at the equator to 1861.7 metres at the
Poles.
This variation occurs because the curvature at the Poles is less sharp than at the
Equator, hence the centre of curvature will be further away from the surface at the
Poles than at the Equator.
Thus an angle of 1’ at the Polar centre will subtend a greater arc at the surface than
the same angle at the Equatorial centre of curvature.
(above sketch is exaggerated to emphasise the illustration)
NAUTICAL MILE is fixed by international agreement at 1852 metres.
CABLE is taken to be one tenth of a Nautical Mile

KNOT is the Maritime Unit of Speed and is one Nautical Mile per hour.
Apparent
Motion
&
the
Celestial
Sphere

The Earth or Observer Centred View of the Universe (Apparent Motion)
Because of the distances involved it is convenient to assume that the observer is

situated on the Earth at the centre of a vast Celestial Sphere, on the inside surface
of which the heavenly bodies i.e. Sun, stars and planets, are ‘painted’. It is with
this assumption that navigational situations can be diagrammatically portrayed or
‘viewed’ from outside the sphere.

The Earth’s poles are projected onto the sphere to give Celestial Poles (PN & PS).
The Earth’s equator is projected onto the sphere to give a celestial equator, called
the Equinoctial. This is a great circle on the sphere, all points of which are 90°
from the celestial poles.
A Great Circle is a circle on the surface of a sphere whose plane passes through
the centre of the sphere.
A Great Circle divides the earth into two equal halves
A Small Circle is a circle on the surface of a sphere whose plane does NOT pass
through the centre of the sphere
Just as the earth has real annual motion around the sun, on the celestial sphere
the Sun will have apparent motion around the Earth. This path is called the
Ecliptic and the sun moves along the ecliptic at approximately 1° per day.
The Earth spins in an easterly direction and this gives the bodies on the celestial
sphere an apparent westerly motion. Therefore all celestial bodies will have an
apparent daily motion across the sky from east to west. (thus; all bodies rise in the
east and set in the west).
The point where the ecliptic and the equinoctial cut when the sun is moving from
south to north of the ecliptic is known as the First Point of Aries.

The point where the ecliptic and the equinoctial cut when the sun is moving from
north to south of the ecliptic is known as the First Point of Libra.
Co-ordinates of the Celestial Sphere

Declination of a Body: is the angle at the centre of the celestial sphere, or the arc
of the celestial meridian, measured from the equinoctial to the body.
Parallel of Declination: a small circle on the celestial sphere, parallel to the
equinoctial.
Celestial Meridians or Hour Circles: these are semi-great circles on the celestial
sphere joining the celestial poles.
Siderial Hour Angle of a body (SHA): is the angle at the celestial pole or the arc of
the equinoctial, measured wesward from the hour circle passing through the First
Point of Aries to the hour circle passing through the body.
The SHA and declination of a star are almost constant since both Aries and stars
can be regarded as fixed points on the celestial sphere. The SHA & Declination of
the Sun and planets are continually changing. The relevant information can be
found in the daily pages of the Nautical Almanac.
Relating Apparent Daily Motion of the Celestial Sphere to the Earth

Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA): of a body is the angle at the celestial pole or the arc
of the equinoctial, measured westward from the Greenwich Celestial Meridian to
the hour circle passing through the body, from 000° to 360°.

The GHA of all bodies is continuously increasing at a rate of approximately 15° per
hour because of the westward daily rotation of the celestial sphere.
Since the stars are already related to Aries by their SHA it is only necessary to find
the GHA of Aries and add it to the SHA of the star to find the GHA of that star.
GHA = GHA Aries + SHA

Local Hour Angle (LHA): is the angle at the celestial pole or the arc of the
equinoctial, measured westward from the Observer’s Celestial Meridian to the hour
circle passing through the body, from 000° to 360°.
LHA Body = GHA Body + East Longitude
OR
LHA Body = GHA Body – West Longitude
The
Nautical

Almanac
Use of the Nautical Almanac
Familiarity with the Nautical Almanac and the contents thereof is absolutely
ESSENTIAL.
The Nautical Almanac contains the GHA, tabulated for every hour of UT for the
Sun, Moon, Planets and Aries.
Extreme care should be taken both in daily pages and increments tables to USE
THE CORRECT COLUMN.
The Increments Table (AKA ‘Yellow Pages’) contain the corrections to be added to
GHA for minutes and seconds of times.
The GHA of stars is found by taking the GHA of Aries and adding the SHA of the
star.
The SHA and Declination of 57 stars are tabulated in the daily pages in
alphabetical order and a complete list of 173 stars is to be found at the back of the
book.
The declination of the Sun, Moon and Planets is tabulated for every hour of UT. To
interpolate for minutes for time the ‘d’ correction is used.
The ‘d’ is the hourly rate of change of declination i.e. how much ‘d’ changes in one
hour.
The ‘d’ number at the bottom of the appropriate column on the daily pages is
extracted and the correction is found by entering the appropriate minutes column in
the increments tables.
The correction is additive if the hourly declination is increasing and subtractive if
the hourly declination is decreasing.
With the exception of the Sun there is a ‘v’ correction which takes into account the
seasonal variations in the movements of the planets
The sun does have ‘v’ correction but this is incorporated in the tabulated daily page
values.
The ‘v’ correction is always positive, with the exception of Venus (the only Inferior
Planet used for navigation) which may be negative, this being indicated by a minus
sign prefix to the ‘v’ correction.

For specialised use of the Almanac, such as Polaris correction tables, see
additional course notes and the explanation in the back of the Almanac starting on
page 254.
Unit FOLS35 Celestial Navigation
Deriving GHA / LHA and Declination.

Paper 1.
1. Find the GHA of the Sun on 6th January 0000 at 17h 12m 13s GMT.
2. Find the GHA of the Sun on 9th June 0000 at 11h 59m 58s GMT.
3. Find the LHA of the Sun on the 19th December 0000 at 11h 32m 14s GMT for
an observer in Longitude 33° 12'E.
4. Find the LHA and declination of the Sun on the 20 th September 0000 at
05h 23m 45s GMT for an observer in Longitude 53° 17'W.
5. Find the GHA of the star Spica on 10th September 0000 at 00h 50m 22s GMT.
6. Find the LHA of Zubenelgenubi on 27th September 0000 at 12h 14m 23s GMT
for an observer in longitude 10° 11'W.
7. Find the LHA and declination of the star Altair on 28 th March 0000 at 06h 32m
47s GMT for an observer in Longitude 120° 32'E.
8. Find the LHA and declination of Venus on 15 th December 0000 at 05h 23m
15s GMT for an observer in Longitude 45° 26'W.
9. Find the LHA and declination of Mars on the 29 th December 2000 at 19h 34m
56s GMT for an observer in longitude 90° 48'E.
Unit FOLS35 Celestial Navigation

Deriving LHA and Declination.
Paper 2

1. Find the LHA and declination of the Sun on the 23rd March 0000 at 05h 32m 24s
GMT for an observer in Longitude 002° 27'E.
2. Find the LHA and declination of the Sun on the 14 th September 0000 at 19h 46m 45s
GMT for an observer in Longitude 145° 23'W.
3. Find the LHA and declination of the Sun on the 20 th March 0000 at 07h 35m 34s
4. Find the LHA and declination of the star Fomalhaut on 20 th June 0000 at 08h 32m
47s GMT for an observer in Longitude 120° 32' E.
5. Find the LHA and declination of the star Regulus on 10th June 2000 at 18h 43m 17s
6. Find the LHA and declination of the star Sabik on 17 th December 2000 at 08h 32m
47s GMT for an observer in Longitude 120° 32'E.
7. Find the LHA and declination of Jupiter on 23rd March 0000 at 12h 23m 15s GMT for
an observer in Longitude 45° 26'W.
8. Find the LHA and declination of Venus on 30th December 2000 at 22h 53m 18s GMT
for an observerin Longitude 45° 26'E.
9. Find the LHA and declination of Mars on the 10 th September 0000 at 04h 05m 26s
GMT for an observer in longitude 01° 18'W.
Sunrise,

Sunset,
Twilight &
Horizons
SUNRISE, SUNSET ,TWILIGHT and Horizons

Visible Horizon
Is the horizon which the observer sees as the dividing line between sea and sky
and with no obstructions can be viewed through 360°.
Sensible Horizon
Is a plane at right angles to the Zenith/Nadir line and passing through the
observer’s eyes.
Rational Horizon
Is a plane parallel to the Sensible Horizon but which passes through the centre of
the Earth.
Sunrise & Sunset

Visible sunrise and sunset is taken as the instant when the sun’s Upper Limb is in
contact with the sea horizon.
Theoretical sunrise and sunset is the instant when the sun’s centre is on the
Rational Horizon. The effect of refraction is to accelerate visible sunrise.
If a bearing of the sun is taken at sunrise or sunset there is a quick method
(compared with doing an Azimuth calculation) of obtaining a compass error, this is
known as an Amplitude.

Refraction
If you have ever half submerged a straight stick into water, you have probably
noticed that the stick appears bent at the point it enters the water (see Figure 1.)
This optical effect is due to refraction.
As light passes from one transparent medium to another, it changes speed, and
bends.
How much this happens depends on the refractive index of the mediums and the
angle between the light ray and the line perpendicular (called the normal) to the
surface separating the two mediums (medium/medium interface)

Typical Altitude corrections worked in reverse.
SUN
True Alt 0° 00.0’

Refrn + 34.5’ (ignoring limb correction)
A.Alt + 34.5’ (centre)
SD - 16.0’
Remainder 18.5’
From the above it can be seen that an Amplitude of the Sun should be taken when
the Sun’s Lower Limb is approximately one Semi-diameter above the visible
horizon.
Twilight
Twilight is the period of part light occurring before sunrise and after sunset due to
the scattering of sunlight in the atmosphere by moisture and dust particles.
Morning twilight (Dawn) lasts from the time that the Sun’s centre is 18° below the
Rational Horizon.
Civil Twilight
Begins/Ends when the Sun’s centre is 6° below the Rational Horizon.
The Zenith Distance is 96°. (There is just not enough light to read by).
Nautical Twilight
Begins/Ends when the Sun’s centre is 12° below the Rational Horizon.
The Zenith distance is 102°.
Astronomical Twilight
Begins/Ends when the Sun’s centre is 18° below the Rational Horizon. The Zenith
Distance is 108°. The sky is completely dark.

The Nautical Almanac tabulates the LMT of sunrise and sunset and the beginning
and end of Civil and Nautical twilights. The information is given for the middle day
of the page but may be taken for any of the three days without serious error.
In all cases when taking sights, the eastern stars being taken first because at
sunrise the eastern stars will fade first and at sunset the eastern horizon will fade
first.
During Civil Twilight the sky is too bright and during Astronomical Twilight the
horizon is too dark.
The duration of twilight is a direct function of the latitude of the observer. The
angle between the horizon and the sun’s path is 90° minus the Observer’s latitude.
This means at the equator (Latitude 0°) the sun’s path will be perpendicular to the
horizon and consequently the sun will pass quickly through the twilight zone. And,
conversely, at higher latitudes the sun will spend longer in the twilight zones and
(dependant upon the season – directly linked to declination) may not leave the
twilight zone once the sun has set. Examination of the Almanac will indicate this
phenomenon.
The sun’s horizontal movement needs to be considered when taking Amplitude

observations and it is recommended that Amplitudes are not taken at high latitudes
because inaccuracies could occur.

Exercise: Finding the Times of Sunrise/set and Twilight
1. Find the LMT of sunrise for a vessel in DR 52°30'N 42° 18'W on the 22 nd of
June 0000.
2. Find the GMT of sunset for a vessel in DR 38°30'S 78°26'E on 4 th January
0000.
3. Find the LMT of the beginning of AM nautical twilight for a vessel in DR
49°06'N 58°10' W on the 11th December 0000.
4. A vessel in DR 18°31 'N 111 °10'E is keeping zone time (zone-7). Find the
LMT time of the end of civil twilight during the evening of 15 th. December 0000.
5. Find the Local Mean times of the beginning and end of the most suitable
period for taking star sights on the morning of the 11th June 000 in DR
32°30'S 54° 18'W.
Solved Example:
Find the LMT of sunrise for a vessel in DR 52°30'N 42° 18'W on 22nd June 0000.
Sunrise at 52 N 03 h 40 m 00 s
Sunrise at 54 N 03 h 27 m 00 s
52-30
a
52 b 54
c
0340 0327
a= 0°30
b= 2
c=13
a/b x c= 3m 15s
Sunrise at 52-00 N 03h 40m 00s

Correction (-) 03m 15s
LMT Sunrise 03h 36m 45s
Ans: LMT Sunrise 03h 36m 45s

Sextant
Altitudes
&
Corrections

Altitude Corrections
To get the accrate result we need when taking sextant altitudes, the true altitude of
the body needs to be measured from the centre of the earth.
As this is not physically possible corrections are necessary as the observation is
taken from the surface of the Earth, and in the case of the Sun it is taken of the
edge (or Limb) of the body instead of centre.
SEXTANT ALTITUDE
Is the angle measured between the body and the visible horizon.
OBSERVED ALTITUDE
Is the angle measured between the body and the visible horizon after the index
error has been applied.
APPARENT ALTITUDE

Is the angle between the limb of the body and the sensible horizon.
TRUE ALTITUDE
Is the angle between the centre of the body and rational horizon at the earth’s
centre.
INDEX ERROR
Is an instrument error causing the sextant to read too high or too low. It may be
given as + or -, or as ‘on the arc’ or ‘off the arc’.
DIP
The observer is usually well above the surface of the earth and is therefore looking
downwards to the visible horizon.
A negative correction is applied to bring the angle up to the plane of the sensible
horizon. Dip could also be found by this formula:
Dip (in meters) = 1.76 Height of Eye (in meters)
REFRACTION
Rays of light from the body to the observer are ‘bent downwards’ as they pass
through the earth’s atmosphere. This makes the altitude seem greater than it
actually is and so a negative correction is applied. Altitudes of 10° or less should
be avoided due to abnormal refraction,
SEMI-DIAMETER
Since the sun appears as a disc rather than a point of light the observer must
measure to the edge, or limb of the body for an accurate measurement. The angle
is taken Upper or Lower limb (the top or bottom of the disc) and the semi-diameter
applied to obtain the correct angle.
The values for semi-diameter are given in the daily pages of the Almanac and must
be subtracted from Upper limb observations and added to Lower limb
observations.
Stars and planets, being so far away, appear as points of light and do not have this
correction.
Mars and Venus however, may have an additional correction due to their varying
proximity to the Earth and the altitude.
DIP
The observer is usually well above the surface of the earth and is therefore looking
downwards to the visible horizon.
A negative correction is applied to bring the angle up to the plane of the sensible
horizon. Dip could also be found by this formula:
Dip (in meters) = 1.76 Height of Eye (in meters)

CHANGE IN SEMI-DIAMETER
The values for sun change as the distance of the Earth from the parent body
changes during the orbit,
Sun Semi Diameter

Earth at Perihelion (closest) January 2nd 0° 16.3’
Earth at Aphelion (farthest) July 4th 0° 15.8’
Procedure for Altitude correction to derive Latitude by Meridian Altitude
Sextant Altitude (SA) …………

Index error (IE) …………
Observed Altitude(OA) …………
Dip …………
Apparent Altitude(AA) …………
Total Correction(TC) …………
True altitude(TA) …………
Solved Example:
Q. Sextant altitude of Deneb 15°22.6

Index Error 1.1' off the arc
Height of eye 15.5m. Find True altitude
Sextant altitude 15°22.6

Index Error (off) (+) 1.1'
Observer’s Alt 15°23.7
Dip (15.5m) (-) 6.9
Apparent Alt 15°16.8’
Total Correction (-) 3.5’
*(Additional Correction)
True Alt 15°13.3’
Answer: True Alt 15°13.3’

* There may be additional corrections for Temperature and Pressure, (table A 4)

and additionally for Venus and Mars

Unit HR0935 Celestial Navigation
Altitude Corrections
Find the True Altitude given the following information:-
1 Sextant altitude of Deneb 15°22.6

Index Error 1.1' off the arc
Height of eye 15.5m
2 On 5th January the sextant altitude of the Sun's LL 34°26'.2.

Index error 1.5' on the arc.
Height of eye 21.4m.
3 On June 21st the sextant altitude of the Sun's U.L. 29°12'6.

Index Error 3.0' off the arc.
4 Sextant altitude of AInilam 62°12'.

Index Error 2' off the arc.
5 On 3 July the sextant altitude of the sun's L.L. was 47°30'.

Height of eye 14.1m
6 On 20 June the sextant altitude of the Suns U.L. was 75° 15.3'.
Index error 1.5' off the arc.
7 The sextant altitude of the star Arcturus was 21 °11'.

Height of eye 26m
8 On 24th June the sextant altitude of the Sun's U.L. was 4°22.2
Index error 2.0' off the arc.
Height of eye 20.9m
Temp. 5°C. Pressure 1022 mbs.
9 The observed altitude of the star Vega was 5°17'

Height of eye 6.3m
Temp. -3°C. Pressure 982 mbs.


Meridian
Passage
&
Latitude by
Meridian
Altitude

LATITUDE BY MERIDIAN ALTITUDE
Meridian passage occurs when the body, in its movement across the heavens, due
to the daily rotation of the earth, crosses the observers meridian.
At this point the body bears due North or South of the observer, and the altitude
reaches a maximum.
Observation of this altitude at meridian passage, provides a quick and easy

method of obtaining a position line, and because of the bearing of the body, the
position line will lie in an East/West direction i.e. the observers Latitude may be
derived.
Meridian passage time is required in order to know what time to make the
observation and to be able to extract the Declination of the body from the Nautical
Almanac (to the nearest minute).
To find the time of meridian passage of the Sun or a Planet, extract the LMT of
meridian passage of the body from the daily pages of the Nautical Almanac, apply
to it the ships Longitude, converted into time and thus obtain the UTC of meridian
passage of the body.
e.g.
on September 23rd 2000 the Sun is observed on the meridian and the DR is
12°15’N 92°45’W. Required the UTC of meridian passage and the Declination.
LMT Mer Pass 23d 11h 52m

Long in time (W) +06h 11m
UTC Mer Pass 23d 18h 03m
dec 0° 23.9° S
(d=1.0) 0.1 +
dec 0° 24.0’ S
The declination is then applied to the Zenith Distance to obtain the Latitude.

Time of Meridian Passage

When a body is on the Observer’s Celestial Meridian the LHA is 000° or 360° and at
this time it is possible to calculate the observer’s latitude.
It is important to use the correct declination in the calculation and therefore the exact
GMT of meridian passage needs to be established. The time can be found using the
tabulated information in the daily pages of the Nautical Almanac, however the most
accurate way is using the next less method, which should avoid errors in
ascertaining the correct GMT day.
e.g.
To find the GMT of meridian passage of the sun on May 13 th 2000 in Long 120°W.
LMT 13d 00h 00s (Begins) 13d 24h 00s (Ends)
0
Long (120 W ) 08h 00s 08h 00s
GMT 13d 08h 00s 14d 08h 00s
Therefore GMT of meridian Passage must lie between these two times.
LHA (Sun) 000° 00.0’

Long W 120° 00.0’
GHA (Sun) 120° 00.0’
Next Less 105° 55.2’ 19h (13th) (Found by examination of daily pages)
Inc 014° 04.8’ 56m 19s (Found by examination of increment pages)
Therefore: the GMT of Meridian Passage of the Sun is 13d 19h 56m 17s
Principle of Meridian Altitude Calculation

Consider a figure drawing of the Observer’s Celestial Meridian at meridian passage:
Z
X Z
Q
X Lat
De
c
T
A
R
QX = DEC
QZ = LAT

RX = TRUE ALTITUDE
ZX = 90 – True Altitude (Zenith Distance) Named opposite to the bearing
of the body
Therefore when ZX & Declination are the same name; LAT= ZX + DEC
When ZX & Dec are different names; LAT = ZX - DEC.
PRO FORMA – MER. PASS
DATE _______ DR LAT _____LONG___________ NAME OF BODY
Pick out LMT time of Meridian Passage from Almanac.

Apply Longitude in time to derive UT of Mer. Pass.
LMT: Day hr min sec

Long ____________________
UTC Day hr min sec
Derive Declination N or S taking note whether it is increasing or decreasing, for the

hour.
Take note of the ‘d’ correction for a whole hour which is found at the bottom of the
column.
Enter the increments table for the minutes of meridian passage and using ‘d’ as the
argument, derive the ‘d’ correction which is additive if increasing, subtractive if
decreasing.
SA Dec N/S
i.e. __________ (d) ‘d’ cor’n ________ +/-
OA
Dip __________ Dec ________ N/S
AA
TC __________
TA
~ 90° __________
ZX
Dec __________ + / -
Latitude __________ N/S Position line runs 090°/270°
The bearing of the body depends on the relationship between Dec and lat.
NOTES
(a good indicator of how to apply the declination to ZX is the DR Latitude, if given)
ZX is named opposite the bearing of the body when:-
1. When ZX and Dec are the same name ADD to find the latitude.
2. when ZX and Dec are different names SUBTRACT to find the Latitude.

Example:
1. From the following observations on the meridian, find the UTC of meridian
passage and the observers Latitude in each case.
Date at ship 4th January 0000 in DR position Latitude 12°20’N, Longitude

96° 30’W. Sext. Alt. of the Sun's LL was 54°39',
I.E. 2.5' off the arc. H.E. 9.0m.
Answer:
Lat 120 20.0’N Date @ Ship 4th. January 0000

Long 0960 30.0’W
LMT of Mer. Pass. = 04d 12h 05m Dec’l 220 40.5’ S

Long (W) = 06h 26m (+) “d” (0.3) 0.2 (-)
GMT of Mer. Pass. = 04d 18h 31m Dec’l 220 40.3’ S
SA 540 39.0’ S
IE (off) 2.5’ (+)
0
OA 54 41.5’
Dip (9.0) 5.3’ (-)
0
AA 54 36.2’
TC 15.5’ (+)
0
TA 54 51.7’ S
~ 900 00.0’
ZX 350 08.3’ N
Dec’l 220 40.3’ S
Lat 120 28.0’ N
Time of Meridian Passage = 04d 18h 31m

Latitude = 120 28.0’ N

Latitude By Meridian Altitude
Paper 1
From the following observations on the meridian, find the UTC of meridian passage and the
observers Latitude in each case.
1. Date at ship 4th January 0000 in DR position Latitude 12°20’N, Longitude 96° 30’W
Sext. Alt. of the Sun's LL was 54°39'
I.E. 2.5'off the arc.
H.E. 9.0m.
2. Date at ship 20th September 0000 in DR position Latitude 71°19'S, Longitude 38°40'W
I.E. Nil
H.E. 19.0m.
3. Date at ship 23rd September 0000 in DR position Latitude 58°58'N, Longitude 165°15'E
Sext. Alt. of the Sun's UL was 31°56’
I.E. 1.7' on the arc
H.E. 4.7m
4. Date at ship 5th January 0000 in DR position Latitude 29°00'S, Longitude 050°30'W
I.E. Nil
HE 15.5m.
5. Date at ship 18th December 0000 in DR position Latitude 36°30'S, Longitude 015°37'E
Sext Alt. of the Sun's UL was 77°14.5'
I.E. 3.4' off the arc
HE 18.0m.

Latitude By Meridian Altitude

Paper 2
From the following observations on the meridian, find the UTC of meridian passage and the
observers Latitude in each case.
1. Date at ship 11th June 0000 in DR position Latitude 34°08'N, Longitude 045°10'W
Sext. Alt. of Sun's LL was 78°42'
I.E. 2.0'off the arc.
H.E. 13.0m.
2. Date at ship 21st Sept 0000 in DR position Latitude 53°40'S, Longitude 165°46'W
Sext. Alt. ofsun's UL was 36°10'
HE 12.8m.
I.E. 1.0'on the arc
3. Date at ship 19th June 0000 in DR Longitude 170°42'E

Sext Alt. of Sun's LL 08°19' N
H.E. 2.0m.
4. Date at ship 16th December 0000 in DR Latitude 30°17'N, Longitude 143°45'W

Sext Alt. of Venus was 39°39'
H.E. 25.0m.
5. Date at ship 27th March 0000 in DR Longitude 042°10'E

Sext. Alt. of Jupiter was 52°17' N
H.E. 15.8m.
I.E. Nil
6. Date at ship 26th Sept 0000 in DR position Latitude 58°25'N, Longitude 016°30'E
Sext. Alt. of Mars was 54°48'
HE 16.5m.
I.E. 1.5' on the arc

Latitude by POLARIS
Polaris (or the North Star) is almost directly above the North pole. This means that
when a observer stand on the north pole and look directly up towards zenith,
observer should be able to see Polaris right above the observer, at an angle apx 90
degrees above the horizon. Thus when an observer stands at the equator and looks
directly north, Polaris should be found on the horizon. Polaris could not be seen from
the Southern Hemisphere.
Thus the angle Polaris is above the horizon is equal to the degree of latitude of the
observer. Therefore at the equator, Polaris is 0 degrees above the horizon and at the
north pole, Polaris is 90 degrees above the horizon.
This unique location of Polaris helps navigator to obtain ship’s latitude by simple
calculation. Which can be performed by obtaining sextant altitude of the Polaris and
by using tables for correction in the Nautical Almanac pages 274-276.

PRO FORMA – POLE STAR
0 0
DATE DR LAT ’ N/S LONG ’ E/W
Local time d h m Sext Alt

Long _______ i.e. _______
Approx UTC d h m Obs Alt
Dip _______
Chron d h m App Alt
Error d h m s T.Cor’, _______
UTC d h m s True Alt
-1° 00.0’ _______
a0
GHA a1
Inc _______ a2 _______
GHA LATITUDE N/S
Long _______
LHA _______ Azimuth
Position Line

0 0
P/L runs °/ °T through Lat ’ N / S; and DR Long ’ E/W
Entering the Polaris Tables of corrections with the argument LHA of Aries () follow
the instructions at the bottom of the page.
In order to make any star observation the observer must be able to see both the star
and the horizon. In addition, to observe Polaris the observer MUST be in the
Northern hemisphere.
NOTES
1. If a time is given in 24 clock apply the longitude in time then the error and
thus obtain the UTC.
2. It must always be borne in mind that the date at Greenwich may DIFFER from
the date at ship. If any reference is made to the date or time at ship this
information MUST be used to determine the date and time (AM or PM) at
Greenwich. A very large Longitude is the controlling factor. In such a case
the calculation below is used to find the approximate GMT.
Approx Local Time + or – Long (in time) = Approx UTC
3. The direction of a position line is always @90° either side of the body’s
Azimuth.

Polaris Paper 1
From the following observations of Polaris during twilight, find the direction of the P/L
and the latitude in which it crosses the D.R. longitude.
1. Date at ship: 28th June 0000 AM D.R.43°10'N, 037°30'W

Sext. Alt. Polaris 430 41’ I.E. 1'.5 on the arc
H.E. 8.4m.
Chron. showed 6h 17m 03s Error 6m 27s fast of GMT
2. Date at ship: 16th Sept. 0000 AM D.R. 56°59'N, 121°00'E

Sext. Alt. Polaris 57° 43'. I.E. 2.0 ' on the arc
H.E. 13.7m.
Chron. showed 9h 10m 33s. Error 4m 16s slow of GMT
3. Date at ship: 18th Dec 0000 AM D.R. 27°20'N, 150°30'E

Sext. Alt. Polaris 26° 32' I.E. 1.0’ off the arc
H.E. 10.5m.
Chron. showed 9h 34m 10s. Error NIL
Temp: 25°C Pressure 1030 mb
4. Date at ship: 18th March 0000 PM D.R. Lat 28°50'N, Long 177°14'W
Sext. Alt. Polaris 29° 45' I.E. 2'.5 off the arc
H.E. 19.4m.

Polaris Paper 2
From the following observations of Polaris during twilight, find the direction of the P/L and
the latitude in which it crosses the D.R. longitude.
1. Date at ship: 28th June 0000 AM D.R. 53°10'N, 1150 00’W

Sext. Alt. Polaris 52° 41’ I.E. 1.2 ' on the arc
H.E. 8.0m.
Chron. showed 10h 21m 03s Error 1m 16s fast of UTC
2. Date at ship: 5th January 0000 AM D.R. 48°40'N, 167°42'E

Sext. Alt. Polaris 47° 47.2' I.E. 1.2' off the arc
H.E. 10.8m.
Chron. showed 7h 58m 02s Error 2m 00s slow of UTC
3. Date at ship: 13th September 0000 AM D.R. 49° 50’N, 049°50'W

Sext. Alt. Polaris 50° 17.3' I.E. 1.3 ' on the arc
H.E. 14.9m.
Chron. showed 7h 16m 24s Error 1m 46s fast on UTC.
4. Date at ship: 24th December 0000 PM D.R. 52°17'N, 041°12'W

Sext. Alt. Polaris 53° 00.4' I.E. 1.8 ' off the arc
H.E. 11.6m.
Chron. showed 7h 16m 24s Error 1 m 56s fast of UTC
5. Date at ship: 16th June 0000 AM D.R. 50°30'N, 013°00'W

H.E. 11.6m.
Chron. showed 4h 10m 49s Error Nil

Polaris Paper 3
From the following observations of Polaris during twilight, find the direction of the P/L and
the latitude in which it crosses the D.R. longitude.
1. Date at ship: 11th September 0000 AM D.R. 49°32'N, 042°50'W

H.E. 15.0m.
Chron. showed 7h 52m 43s Error 1 m 16s fast of UTC
2. Date at ship: 23rd December 0000 PM D.R. 52°30'N, 041°12'W

Sext. Alt. Polaris 53° 00.4' I.E.I. 8' off the arc
H.E. 11.5m.
3. Date at ship: 22nd June 0000 AM D.R. 50°40'N, 013°00.0'W

Sext. Alt. Polaris 510 11.5’ I.E. 1.0' off the arc
H.E. 10.5m.
Chron. showed 4h 10m 49s Error NIL.
4. Date at ship: 23th January 0000 PM D.R. 57°55'N, 004°02'E

H.E. 14.5m.
Chron. showed 4h 30m 02s Error 3m 20s slow of UTC
5. Date at ship: 16th June 0000 AM D.R. 25°10'N, 150°10'E

H.E. 13.0m.
6. Date at ship: 26th Sept 0000 PM D.R. 41°02'N, 142°28'W

Sext. Alt. Polaris 40° 58.0' I.E. 0.5’ off the arc
H.E. 15.9m.

Azimuth,
Amplitude
&
Formulae

Formulae
Sin Amplitude = Sin declination
Cos Latitude
___________________________________________________________________
Cos CZX = (cos LHA x cos Lat x cos. Dec) +/- (sin Lat x sin Dec)
Sign + when Lat and Dec same name; Sign – when Lat and Dec opposite name.
A = Tan Lat NAMED OPPOSITE TO LAT EXCEPT WHEN HOUR ANGLE

Tan LHA BETWEEN 90° and 270°.
B = Tan Dec ALWAYS NAMED THE SAME AS DEC

Sin LHA
Tan Azimuth = ____1_____

(C x cos Lat)
“C” is obtained by adding or subtracting A & B as follows:-
A & B Same Name: Add

A & B Different Name: Subtract
The Azimuth is named the same as “C” FIRST, then East or West depending on
LHA.
NB:
This is NOT the formulae sheet which is issued in HND/HNC Phase Tests

COMPASS ERROR: ‘AZIMUTH’

An Azimuth is the angle at the Zenith contained between two Great Circles; the
Observer’s Meridian and the Vertical Circle passing through the body.
Problem Solving:
1. Find the approximate UTC.
2. Find the correct UTC using information gained in (1) above and the given
chronometer time.
3. Find the LHA of the body.
4. Solve by:-
a. Using ABC Tables in Nories following the instructions given therein.
OR
b. By calculator using the following formulae:-
A = Tan Lat NAMED OPPOSITE TO LAT EXCEPT WHEN LOCAL

Tan LHA HOUR ANGLE BETWEEN 90° and 270°
B = Tan Dec ALWAYS NAMEDTHE SAME AS DEC

Sin LHA
“C” is obtained by either adding OR subtracting A & B as follows:-
A & B Same Name: Add

A & B Different Name: Subtract
Tan Azimuth = 1
C x Cos Lat

“C” is named the same as the greater.

Notes:
1. When LHA is between 000° and 180° Azimuth is named West.
When LHA is between 180° and 360° Azimuth is named East.
2. GHA star = GHA Aries + SHA star.
3. If zone time is given convert Longitude to time to the nearest whole hour and
apply in the normal way – i.e the minutes and seconds are the same for UT
and zone time.
4. If time at ship and chronometer time are given then longitude in time must be
applied to local time to find UT.
5. Naming of the compass error:-
Compass Best: Error West. Compass least: Error East.

PRO FORMA AZIMUTH

0 0
DATE BODY D.R. LAT ’ N/S LONG ’ E/W
Local time d h m Dec

Long in time ___h m ‘d’ corr ______
Approx UT d h m DEC
Chron d h m s
error ______m__s
UTC
GHA ° ’ A= Tan Lat

Inc ________ Tan LHA
’v’
GHA B= Tan Dec
Sin LHA
SHA(Star) ________ C = (A+/-B) N/S
GHA
Long ________
0
LHA ’ Tan Az = _____1____
(C x Cos Lat)
0
Az = N/S E/W
True 0
T (or) T Az 0
T
0
Variation E/W Az _______0 C
0
Magnetic M Error
0
Deviation E/W Var _______0 E/W
0
Compass C Dev _______0 E/W
The Azimuth is first named NORTH or SOUTH depending on ‘C’, then EAST or
WEST depending on LHA.

Azimuths - Sun
1. On 11th Sept at about 0930 LMT in DR Lat. 54° 46'N, Long. 000°17'W the sun
bore 144°C. A chronometer, known to be 4m 18s slow on GMT showed 9h
32m 14s. If the variation is 9.5°W, find the compass error and the deviation.
2. On 11th March at about 1535 LMT in DR Lat. 32° 48'N, Long 31°10'E the sun
was observed bearing 240°C. A chronometer which was 3m 14s fast on GMT
showed 1h 35m 27s. If the variation was 3°E, find the compass error and the
deviation.
3. On 10th June at 1421 LMT in DR Lat. 28°00'N Long 050°00'E the sun was
observed bearing 261°C. If the variation was 6°W , find the compass error
and the deviation.
4. On 10th June at about 0800 LMT in DR Lat. 23°15'N Long. 31 °36'W the sun
was observed bearing 093°C. The chronometer, which was 5m 20s slow on
GMT showed 10h 02m 04s. If variation is 10°W find the compass error and
the deviation.

Azimuths - Stars
1. On 13th September at 01h 41m 51s GMT in DR Lat. 57° 30'N Long. 002° 00'E
the star DUBHE was observed bearing 028°C.
If the variation was 3°E find the compass error and the deviation.
2. On 24th December at about 0146 LMT in DR Lat. 19° 17'S Long. 155° 32'W
the star ALDEBARAN was observed bearing 300°C. A chronometer, which
was 2m 12s slow on GMT showed 12h 08m 19s.
If the variation was 2°W, find the compass error and deviation.
3. On 26th September at 0321 LMT in DR Lat. 25° 33'N Long. 095°15'W the star
FOMALHAUT was observed bearing 239°C.
If the variation was NIL, find the compass error and deviation.
4. On 17th December at about 2115 LMT in DR Lat. 32° 00'S Long 49° 43'W the
star ALPHERATZ was observed bearing 333°C. A chronometer, which was
5m 03s fast on GMT showed 0h 39m 29s.
If the variation was 8°W, find the compass error and deviation.
5. On 27th September at about 0230 LMT in DR Lat. 40° 12'N Long. 136° 15’W
the star CAPELLA was observed bearing 050°C. A chronometer, known to be
correct on GMT showed 11h 35m 24s.
If the variation was 19°E, find the compass error and deviation.

COMPASS ERROR: ‘AMPLITUDE’

An Amplitude is the angle at the Zenith contained between two Great Circles, the
East/West Great Circle passing through the Zenith (the Prime Vertical) and the Great
Circle passing through the body on the rational horizon.
If the question states ‘Sunrise or Sunset’ or the sun ‘rose’ or ‘set’ it must not be
solved by the ABC azimuth method.
In fact the question may not give the time but only state ‘Sunrise/Sunset’ or ‘AM /
PM’ amplitude.
If this is the case, take the time of Sunrise/Sunset from the Nautical Almanac but
remember! this is the LMT and therefore longitude in time must be applied in order to
find the UTC.
Sometimes the ship’s time is given as the sun is either rising or setting – again
Longitude in time is applied to obtain UTC.

PROBLEM SOLVING:
1. Find the UTC [see above]
2. Take the Declination from the Nautical Almanac.
3. Bearing in mind that the accuracy required is to within 0.2° and that questions
usually require the formula to be used.
4. Though a tabular method is available, it is recommended that the ‘Amplitude
Formula’ be used.
AMPLITUDE FORMULA:
Sin Amp = sin Dec

Cos Lat
5. The Amplitude is named East or West FIRST, depending on whether the body
is rising or setting and North or South LAST and always takes the same
name as the declination.
6. It must then be converted into a three figure notation azimuth – e.g.
Amplitude ‘W 20 S’ = 250°T
7. It must be remembered that the compass error is equal to a combination of

the Variation (which will be given, if required, in the question) and the
Deviation.
i.e. COMPASS ERROR = VARIATION +/- DEVIATION
PROFORMA
0 0
DATE BODY DR LAT ’ N/S LONG ’ E/W
Local Time d h m Dec

Longitude ________ d’cor’n _____________
UTC d h m Dec _____________ N/S
Sin Amp = sin Dec

Cos Lat
Amplitude = W/E ° N/S Azimuth = °T

0
True azimuth T
0
Compass azimuth ____________ C
0
Error E/W
Var ____________ 0 E/W
Dev ____________ 0 E/W

Amplitudes
1. December 30th at 0706hrs LMT in DR Lat 33° 24'N Long 020° 31’E the sun
rose bearing 126° C.
If the Variation is 1° W find the compass error and the deviation.
2 January 5th at 1954hrs LMT in DR Lat 46° 34'S Long 121° 12’W the sun set
bearing 208° C.
If the Variation is 26°E find the compass error and the deviation.
3 Sept 27th at 1718hrs LMT in DR Lat 56° 10'N Long 003° 18'E the sun set
bearing 264° C.
If the Variation is 6°W find the compass error and the deviation.
4 June 9th in DR Lat 8° 04'S Long 028° 50’W the sun rose bearing 090’C when
a chronometer, known to be 2m 53s slow on GMT showed 8h 03m 10s.
If the Variation is 28°W find the compass error and Deviation.
5 June 24th in DR Lat 30° 00’N Long 135° 28’E the sun rose bearing 076°C
when the chronometer, which had no error showed 8h 05m 27s.
6 September 10th in DR Lat 47° 30'N Long 048° 16'W the sun set bearing
303°C.

Azimuths & Amplitudes
From the following information find the compass error and the deviation for the direction of
the ship's head:
1. Time at ship 0850hrs on 10th June 0000 DR position 46° 33'N 031° 28'W
The Sun bore 125°C Variation 12°W
2. Time at ship 0910hrs on 10th June 0000 DR position 21° 24'S 090° 15'W
The Sun bore 040.0°C Variation 12°E
Chron. showed 03h 15m 21s Error 1m 22s slow of GMT
3. Time at ship 1845hrs on 18th June 0000 DR position 56° 18'N 153° 42'W
The Sun bore 264°C Variation 23°E
Chron. showed 04h 49m 22s Error 4m 17s slow of GMT
4. Time at ship 0115hrs on 10th Dec. 0000 DR position 34° 45'N 035° 15'E
The Star Dubhe bore 026°C Error 3m 18s fast of GMT
Chron showed 10h 56m 18s Variation 2°E
5. Time at ship 1940hrs on 18th Dec. 0000 DR position 14° 18'N 088° 18'E
The Planet Venus bore 246°C Variation 01 °W
Chron. showed 01h 42m 23s Error: nil
6. Time at ship 0532hrs on 20th Sept. 0000 DR position 32° 05'N 043° 18'W
The Sun rose bearing 102°C Variation 20.5°W
7. Time at ship 1752hrs zone time on 17th Sept. 0000 in DR position 31° 46'N 141° 18'W
The Sun set bearing 253°C Variation 14°E
8. Date at ship 19th March. 0000 DR position 29° 29'S 105° 51'E
The Sun rose bearing 103.5°C Variation 08°W

Inherent Flaws in Amplitudes
As noted earlier, the correct instant when an amplitude should be taken is when
the sun’s lower limb is one semi-diameter above the horizon
Any error in estimating this apparent altitude can result in a significant error in the
resultant bearing, especially in higher latitudes and particularly in higher latitudes
in winter months.
Low Latitudes High Latitudes
Horizon
Sun changing bearing slowly Sun changing bearing rapidly

Sun changing altitude rapidly Sun changing altitude slowly
In low latitudes where the sun rises more or less vertically amplitudes are a
reasonably check on compass error however in higher latitudes the sun rises and
sets along a shallow trajectory it is changing its bearing rapidly and its altitude slowly
it is difficult to accurate judge the precise time to take the amplitude.






Unit HR09S35
Position Lines
From the following observations find the direction of the position line and the
intercept.
1. Time at ship: 0815 on the 18th of June DR 49 02’ N 005° 15’ W

Sext Alt sun’s LL 39 22’
I.E. 2.0’ on the arc Height of Eye 9.5 m
Chron 08h 31m 04s Error 5m 50s slow
2. Time at ship: 0935 the 5th of Jan DR 12 03’ N 090° 16’ W

Sext Alt sun’s UL 40 05.5’
I.E. 1.5’ on the arc Height of Eye 4.9 m
3. Time at ship: 1400 on the 18th of March DR 41 29’ N 058° 29’ W

Sext Alt sun’s LL 39 41’
I.E. 1.0’ off the arc Height of Eye 14 m
Chron 06h 02m 28s Error 1m 14s fast
4. Evening twilight on the 23rd of Sept DR 51 05’ S 020° 44’ W

Sext Alt Antares 49 12.7’
I.E. Nil Height of Eye 9.7 m
Chron 08h 33m 00s Error Nil
5. Morning twilight on the 29th of Sept DR 28 07’ N 015° 43’ W

Sext Alt Procyon 52 09.8’
I.E. 3.0 on the arc Height of Eye 15 m

6. Time at ship: 0532 on the 9th of March DR 16 40’ N 117° 33’ E

Sext Alt Vega 55 34’
I.E. 1.5’ off the arc Height of Eye 14.0 m
7. Time at ship: 1815 on the 18th of March DR 31 30’ N 132° 45’ W

Sext Alt Jupiter 50 56’
I.E. 1.0’ on the arc Height of Eye 14 m
8. Time at ship: 1730 on the 22nd of Jan DR 29 48’ S 161° 15’ E

Sext Alt Venus 49 24’
I.E. Nil Height of Eye 21 m
9. Time at ship: 1453 on the 5th of Jan DR 20 00’ S 057° 42’ W

Sext Alt Mars 41 04’
I.E. 2.5’ off the arc Height of Eye 20.5m

Unit HR0935
Plotting Position Lines
As we have already discovered, a position line is an arc of a position circle whose

radius is the Zenith Distance, also:-
The observer will be somewhere on the position line.
The Position Line always runs at right angles (90 0) to the true bearing of the body.
If we can obtain two position lines, then the point where they intersect will be the
observed position of the observer.
When we take an altitude of the sun outside of meridian passage, we calculate the
True Altitude and from this, the True Zenith Distance (ZX).
Using the Marc St. Hilare method we can calculate the Zenith Distance for our
assumed or DR position.
The difference between the TZX and the CZX will give the Intercept, named Away or
Towards the celestial body.
Using the ABC method, we can also find the bearing of the celestial body.
Now that we have collected the following information:-
(i)The DR Position
(ii)The Intercept
(iii)The true bearing of the body
we can now plot the information on a chart using the following procedure:-
1. Plot the DR position
2. Lay off the bearing of the celestial body from the DR position in the direction of
the bearing
3. Using the Latitude scale, measure off the intercept along the bearing from the DR position, either
Away or Towards the observed body to give the Intercept Terminal Point or ITP

4. Plot the Position Line through the ITP
Example:-
Observer in DR Lat: 510 25’N Long: 0060 10’W
Azimuth Intercept
3120 T 3.4’ (T)
2540 T 1.0’ (A)
Find the observer’s position

Unit HR0935: Celestial Navigation

Plotting Position Lines Paper 1
Chartlet: 5048
Q 1. DR Position 510 25’ N 0060 10’ W
Azimuth Intercept
Star A 3120T 3.4 miles towards
Star B 2540T 1.0 miles away
Find the vessel’s position
Q 2. DR position 510 37.2’ N 0060 30’ W
Azimuth Intercept
Star A 1910T 2.5 miles away
Star C 2910T 2.9 miles towards
Find the position of the vessel
Q 3. DR position 510 27’ N 0060 34.4’ W
Bearing Intercept
Star A 2540T 4.4 miles towards
Star C 0270T 6.3 miles away
Find the vessel’s position

Unit FOLS35: Celestial Navigation

Chartlet: 5048
1. The following information was obtained from simultaneous observations of two stars
using DR 51° 38.5' N, 006° 50.0' W
Star A; Azimuth 050° Intercept 1.5' away.

Star B; Azimuth 140° Intercept 1.5' towards.
Find the position of the vessel.
using DR 51° 30.8' N, 006° 45.0' W

3. The following information was obtained from simultaneous observations of three stars
using DR 51° 39.0' N, 006° 30.0' W

Star C; Azimuth 030° Intercept 1.2' away.
using DR 51° 30.0' N, 006° 30.0' W

Star B; Azimuth 132° Intercept NIL

5. The following information was obtained from simultaneous observations of three stars
using DR 51° 30.0' N, 006° 15.2' W

Star C; Azimuth 350° Intercept NIL.

Unit FOLS35: Celestial Navigation
Chartlet: NZ South
1. From the following observations taken by a vessel during morning twilight in DR

position DR 41° 58' S, 174° 42' E find the position of the vessel?
Body Azimuth Intercept

Nunki 091° T 1.7’ (T)
Acrux 214° T 3.0’ (A)
Arcturus 348° T 2.1’ (T)
2. A vessel proceeding toward the Cook Strait at slow speed obtained the following star
observations during evening twilight:-
Body Bearing Intercept

Spica 070° T 2.7' towards.
Achernar 208° T Nil
Procyon 317° T 3.7' away.
If the DR position used was DR 41° 50' S, 174° 40' E find the position of the vessel at the
time of the observations?
3. At 0724 UTC during evening twilight on September 25 th 2000, a vessel on passage

through the Southern Ocean bound for Dunedin in New Zealand obtained the following star
sights:-

Suhail 107° T 4.0' (T)
Achernar 225° T 2.2’ (A)
Betelgeuse 353° T 1.3' (A)
If the DR position was DR 41° 38' S, 174° 41' E find the position of the vessel at the time of
the observation?

4. A vessel following a Great Circle passage from Kekerengu in New Zealand to the
Panama Canal obtained the following sights during evening twilight on the 31 st August 0000
at 0548 UTC

Rigel 039° T 0.9' towards
Rigil Kent 173° T 0.6’ away
Fomalhaut 258° T 0.7' away
If the DR position was 41° 57' S, 174° 42' E find the position of the vessel at 0548 UTC
The Running Fix
A “fix” is a common term used when the vessels position can be confirmed by the
intersection of two or more position lines i.e. “fixing” the vessel’s position or,
obtaining a “fix”
Position lines can be from celestial observations, terrestrial bearings, terrestrial

ranges, GPS co-ordinates, sounding contours etc..
A running fix is when we combine two position lines, which are obtained at different
times in order to obtain a fix.
To do so we must also know the ship’s course & speed.
Procedure
Plot the given DR position.
Plot the given bearing, lay off the given Intercept and then plot the position line.
Plot the vessel’s course from the ITP position.
Using the ship’s speed, calculate the distance run during the time interval given.
Lay off the distance run on the plotted course.
This will give the DR position for the time of the second observation.
It is also the position through which we will transfer the first position line.
Plot the first P/L through the second DR position. This will be a “transferred” P/L.
Plot the second P/L or Latitude (whichever is given).
Where the two P/L’s intersect this will be the “fix”



The Running Fix Paper 1
Chartlet: 5048
1. At 0930 in DR position Lat 51° 22' N Long 006° 10' W an observation of the Sun gave
a bearing of 082°T and an intercept 0.8' towards.
Track 310°T, Speed 8 knots.
At 1200 hrs a Meridian Altitude of the Sun gave a Latitude of 51° 37.0' N.
Find the vessels position at 1200 and 0930?
2. At 1015 in DR position Lat 51° 40' N Long 006° 47.5' W a vessel is drifting South at a
rate of 2.5. knots. At the same time a sight of the Sun produced a bearing of 068°T and an
intercept of 2.6' away.
At 1200 hrs a meridian altitude of the Sun gave a Latitude of 51° 32.2' N.
Determine the vessels position at both 1200 and 1015?
3. At 0740 hrs in DR Lat 51° 24'N Long 006° 51 'W a vessel steering 056°T at 7 knots
obtains a sight of the Sun resulting in a bearing of 094°T and an intercept of 1.9' towards.
At 1200 hrs a newly charted oil production platform in position Lat 51° 41.0' N Long 006°
15.6' W was observed bearing 267°T.
Find the position of the vessel at 1200 hrs?
4. At 0900 hrs in DR Lat 51 ° 21 'N Long 006° 5O’W an observation of the Sun gave a
bearing of 090°T and an Intercept 1.0' towards. At 1200 hrs a Meridian Altitude of the Sun
gave a Latitude of 51° 35.6'N.
If the vessel was steering 0250 T at 5 knots throughout find the vessels position at 1200 hrs?


The Running Fix Paper 2
Chartlet: NZ North
*Positions given in brackets are accurate to within 1’ and are to be used for identification purposes only
1. At 1436 in DR position 400 32.8’S; 1730 58’E, a vessel observes Stephens Island light
(400 40’ S; 1740 00’ E) bearing 1680T.
At 1942 in cloudy conditions a sight of the star Arcturus produced a bearing of 026 0T
with an intercept of 1.2 miles away.
Using the 1436 DR position and a course of 071 0 T at 7 knots, find the position of the
vessel at 1942?
2. At 1906 during evening twilight in DR position 40 0 38’S; 1740 47’E, an observation

of Sirius produced a bearing of 0620T and an Intercept of 2.6’ towards.
At 2212 Stephens Island light was observed bearing 2170 T
If the vessel was steering 2880 T at 10 knots throughout find the position of the vessel
at 2212?
3. At 0545 during cloudy twilight conditions a single sight of the star Rasalhague
produced a bearing of 3580T and an intercept of 3.2 miles away when worked with a
DR position of 400 18’S, 1740 19’E.
At 0830 a sight of the sun’s lower limb resulted in a bearing of 106 0T with an
intercept of 2.8 miles(T)
If the vessel was steering 1340T at 8.5 knots throughout find the position of the vessel
at 0830?
4. At 1200 LMT a Sextant Altitude observation of the sun’s lower limb at meridian
passage gave a latitude of 400 18.4’S through DR Long 1740 46’E.
At 1530 a further observation of the sun produced a bearing of 260 0T and an intercept
of 1.4 miles away.

If the vessel was steering 2070T at a speed of 8 knots throughout find the vessel’s
position at 1530?
Plotting Simultaneous Position Lines.
Celestial sights for a fix cannot all be taken at the same moment. In fact it is more
likely that the sights will be taken over a period of between 10 to 20 minutes.
To plot an accurate fix, the DR/EP for each sight must be “run on” or “run back”
along the ship’s course at the ship’s speed ( like a running fix) to a common
nominated time.
For example:
Time Body Bearing Intercept

0545 Star A 1020 T 1.8 miles away
0600 Star B 3260 T 1.9 miles away
0615 Star C 2110 T 2.2 miles away
Using DR position 510 56’ N, 0060 43’ W find the position of the vessel at 0600?
In the above situation where the observations are made at different times, a common
time is nominated e.g. 0600.
The DR position is allocated to the chosen time, and as Star A was observed 15
minutes before 0600 it will be plotted by running the DR forward by 15minutes while
Star C will be run back by 15 minutes.
See the worked examples on Moodle.


Simultaneous Star Sights Paper 1
Q 1. A vessel proceeding towards St. Georges Channel through the Celtic Sea steering
0310T at 20 knots obtains the following sights during morning twilight:-

0545 Star A 1020 T 1.8 miles away
0600 Star B 3260 T 1.9 miles away
0615 Star C 2110 T 2.2 miles away
Using DR position 510 26’ N, 0060 43’ W find the position of the vessel at 0600?
Q 2. The following celestial observations were taken during morning twilight by a vessel on
passage through the Celtic Sea bound for Dungarvan harbour:-

0600 Dubhe 0360 T 1.4 miles towards
0612 Rigel 1620 T 2.7 miles away
0624 Alpheratz 2670 T 3.5 miles towards
The vessel, in DR position 510 30’ N; 0060 33’ W was steering 3130 T at 24 knots.
Find the position of the vessel at 0600?
Q 3. On a vessel steering 1900 T at a speed of 18 knots through the Celtic Sea the following
celestial observations were taken during evening twilight in DR position 51 0 38’ N; 0060 14’
W

1840 Dubhe 0280 T 1.8 miles towards
1900 Capella 1520 T 0.6 miles away
1920 Deneb 2900 T 2.8 miles towards
Find the position of the vessel at 1920?


Simultaneous Star Sights Paper 2
Q 1. During evening twilight on August 28th. 0000 on a vessel on passage to Port Nelson in
New Zealand the following star sights were taken:-

1806 Sirius 0540 T 5.7 miles towards
1812 Rigil Kent 1640 T 0.4 miles towards
1818 Diphda 2740 T 2.3 miles away
If the vessel was in DR position 400 22’ S, 1740 37’ E steering 2430 T at a speed of 20 knots
find the position of the vessel at 1818?
Q 2. During evening twilight on a vessel steering 2690 T at a speed of 18 knots the following
celestial observations were taken:-

1948 Hamal 0010 T 2.5 miles away
2000 Canopus 1280 T 4.4 miles towards
2012 Peacock 2210 T 2.1 miles towards
If the DR position used for the observations was 40 0 38’ S; 1740 36’ E, find the position of
the vessel at 2000?
Q 3. A vessel used DR position 40 0 25’ S; 1740 26’ E when obtaining the following star
sights:-
Time Body Bearing Intercep

0530 Diphda 0690 T 0.9 miles away
0540 Miaplacidus 1760 T 1.6 miles towards
0550 Altair 321 T 4.8 miles away
If the vessel was steering 1290 T at 18 knots find the position of the vessel at 0530?

Sight Reduction Tables
These tables are designed to assist the navigator in two distinct operations:-
(i) preparation & planning of observations of stars.

(ii) the reduction (or calculation) of these observations.
The tables contain:-
(a) the values of altitude (Hc, to the nearest minute).

(b) the true azimuth (Zn, to the nearest degree) for seven selected stars
for the complete ranges of latitude and LHA of Aries.
A total of 41 stars are used, 19 of which are of the first magnitude (brighter than a
magnitude of 1.5 ), and 17 of the second magnitude.
The names of the 19 ‘first magnitude’ stars are given in capital letters.
Magnitude is a measurement of a star’s brightness.
Brightness of stars are assigned a number starting with the brightest star having a
magnitude of - 1.
Dimmer stars have a magnitude of zero or positive numbers.
Therefore, the larger the number the dimmer the star.
The brightest star Sirius, has a magnitude of - 1.4 while the sun has a magnitude of
- 26.75.
The arrangement of the tables provides:-
(i) the best selection of seven stars available for observation, for any position
and time of an observer.
(ii) the necessary data for presetting the sextant altiude for the seven stars.
(iii) the azimuth of the seven stars.

The tables are entered with the arguments of Latitude and LHA of Aries 
Latitude is tabulated to the nearest whole degree
LHA Aries  is also tabulated to the nearest whole degree



The tables are entered with Latitude first, followed by LHA Aries .
From this we will obtain the altitude (Hc) and the azimuth (Zn) for seven stars.
As in the following example:-
You will have noticed that some of the stars have an asterisk beside them?
The reason for this asterisk is to indicate that they are the three best stars
which will give a three P/L fix with an optimum angle of approximately 90 0 –
1200 between them
Consider this:-

Factors to be taken into account when taking star sights


Always begin by shooting the stars with an easterly bearing.

As the sun rises the stars to the east will be the first to fade while at sunset the stars
to the east will be the first to appear but the easterly horizon will be the first to fade.
Always use stars with an altitude greater than ~10 0

This avoids the effects of refraction
Always take a minimum of three stars with equidistant separation if possible.

See the notes above
Star Constellations
The constellations are totally imaginary things that poets, farmers and astronomers
have made up over the past 6,000 years (and probably even more!).
The real purpose of the constellations is to help us tell which stars are which,
nothing more.
On a really dark night, you can see about 1000 to 1500 stars. Trying to tell which is
which is quite difficult.
The constellations help by breaking up the sky into more managable bits.
They are used as mnemonics, or memory aids.
For example, if you spot three bright stars in a row in the winter evening, you might
realize, "Oh! That's part of Orion!"
Suddenly, the rest of the constellation falls into place and you can declare: "there's
Betelgeuse in Orion's left shoulder and Rigel is his foot."
And once you recognize Orion, you can remember that Orion's Hunting Dogs are
always nearby, Canis Major & Canis Minor



Constellation of Ursa Major
aka the ‘Plough’ ; the ‘Big Dipper’



Chapter 19
Specimen Question Paper
Unit: FOLS 35 Celestial Navigation
Outcome(s):
2: Calculations from observations of celestial bodies, the error of the

compass
3: Calculations from observations of celestial bodies, the direction of a

position line and a point through which it passes
4: Determine the vessel’s position from simultaneous celestial observations
Time Allowed: 3 hours
MCA/MNTB Pass Mark: 65%
1. (i) From the following information find the compass error and deviation for the
direction of the ship's head?
Date at the ship 19th March 0000 in DR position 29°29'S 105°51'E
The Sun rose bearing 101.5°C Variation 08°W (12)
(ii) Explain with the aid of a sketch why amplitudes are less accurate in
higher latitudes? (4)
2. (i) On the 19th June 0000 in DR position 580 20'S 170°42'E the sextant
altitude of the sun’s lower limb on the meridian was 08 0 19’N. If the height
of eye was 2.0 metres and the index error was 1.5’ off the arc, find:
(a) The UTC of meridian passage? (4)

(b) The latitude of the observer? (10)
0
(c) If the sun was bearing 358 G at the time of meridian passage calculate the
gyro error. (2)

3. (i) On the 28th of June 2000 AM a vessel in DR position 48°10'N 037°30'W

observed the sextant altitude of Polaris during twilight to be 480 41.3’. The
chronometer, which was 6m 27s fast on UTC showed 6h 17m 03s.
If I.E. was 1 '.5 on the arc and H.E. was 8.5metres, find:
(a) The direction of the position line? (4)
(b) The latitude at which it crosses the DR longitude? (8)
(c) Briefly explain the use of the Nautical Almanac and outline the contents. (4)
4. (i) During twilight on the morning of the 28th of September 0000, a vessel in DR
position Lat 28°07’ N Long 030° 43’W observed the sextant altitude of
Schedar to be 330 06.8’. The chronometer at the time of observation
showed 7h 02m 03s and was 0m 13s fast on UTC. If the index error was
3.0' on the arc and height of eye was 15 metres, find
(b) The intercept? (12)
(c) Describe the difference between a position circle and a position line and
explain how both are closely related to true altitude? (6)
5) (i) For the following scenario use the chart 5048 which is provided.
At 0740 hrs in DR Lat 51° 24'N Long 006° 51 'W a vessel steering 056°T at 7
knots obtains a sight of the Sun resulting in a bearing of 094°T and an
intercept of 1.9' towards.
At 1200 hrs a newly charted oil production platform in position Lat 51° 41.0' N
Long 006° 15.6' W was observed bearing 267°T.
Find the position of the vessel at 1200 hrs? (10)
(ii) Using the extracts of the Sight Reduction Table find the approximate value of
altitude and azimuth for 3 best stars to be chosen for observation on the 28th of
March 0000 at UTC 08h 32m 47s.
The observer’s DR is 550 00’ N 1230 10’ E (8)
(iii) Provide reasons for above selection of stars. (4)

Answers to Specimen Paper
1. From the following information find the compass error and deviation for the
direction of the ship's head?
Date at the ship 19th March 0000 in DR position 29°29'S 105°51'E
The Sun rose bearing 101.5°C Variation 08°W
(12)
~ LMT* 06h 02m 19th March Dec’l 000 43.2’ S

Long (E) 07h 03m 24s (-) “d” (1.0) 1.0 (-)
0
UTC 22h 58m 36s 18th March Dec’l 00 42.2’ S
Sin Amp = Sin Dec’l

Cos Lat
= Sin 000 42.2’

Cos 290 29’
= 0.0123
0.8705
Sin Amp = 0.0141
Amplitude = E 0.80 S
Amplitude = 090.80 T
True 090.80 T
Variation 8.0 W,
Magnetic 098.8 M
0
Deviation 002.7 W
0
Compass 101.5 C
Deviation: 02.70 W,
Compass Error: 10.70 W,
* Time of Sunrise at 29 29 S from Almanac,

(ii) Explain with the aid of a sketch why amplitudes are less accurate in
higher latitudes?
(4)
Low Latitudes High Latitudes
Horizon
Sun changing bearing slowly Sun changing bearing rapidly

Sun changing altitude rapidly Sun changing altitude slowly
In low latitudes where the sun rises more or less vertically amplitudes are a
reasonably check on compass error however in higher latitudes the sun rises
and sets along a shallow trajectory it is changing its bearing rapidly and its altitude
slowly it is difficult to accurate judge the precise time to take the amplitude.

2. On the 19th June 0000 in DR position 580 20’S 170°42'E the sextant altitude of the
sun’s lower limb on the meridian was 080 19’N. If the height of eye was 2.0
metres and the index error was 1.5’ off the arc, find:
(a) The UTC of meridian passage?

(4)
(b) The latitude of the observer? (10)
LMT of Mer. Pass. = 12h 01m 19th Jun. Dec’l 230 25.1’ N
Long (E) = 11h 22m 48s (-) “d” (0.0) 0.0 (-)
UTC Mer. Pass.= 00h 38m 12s 19th Jun Dec’l 230 25.1’ N
SA 080 19.0’ N
IE (off) 1.5’ (+)
OA 080 20.5’
Dip(2.0) 2.5’ (-) Time of Meridian Passage = 00h
38m 19 June
th
AA 080 18.0’ Latitude = 580 07.2’ N

TC 09.7’ (+)
TA 080 27.7’ N
~ 900 00.0
ZX 810 32.3’ S
Dec’l 230 25.1’ N
Lat 580 07.2’ N
(c) If the sun was bearing 3580G at the time of meridian passage calculate the
gyro error.
(2)
At Meridian Passage, Sun bears: 000° T, (180°)

Gyro Bearing: 358°
Gyro Error 02° L

3. On the 28th of June 0000 AM a vessel in DR position 48°10'N 037°30'W

observed the sextant altitude of Polaris during twilight to be 480 41.3’. The
chronometer, which was 1m 03s fast on UTC showed 6h 03m 03s.
If I.E. was 1 '.5 on the arc and H.E. was 8.4 metres, find:
(a) The direction of the position line?

(4)
(b) The latitude at which it crosses the DR longitude?
(8)
AM Civil Twilight time:
45°N = 03 38 tab int: 5°

50°N = 03 09 mins: 29 Req: 3°10’
Correction: 18.4 minutes, (18 mins)
LMT Civil Twilight = 03h 20m, (03h 38m - 18mins)

LMT = 03h 20m, 28th June
LIT (+) = 02h 30m (037 30)
~UT = 05h 50m 00s on the 28th of June
Chronometer: 06 03 03 GHA = 006° 13.4’

Error, (-): 00 01 03 Inc = 0° 30.1’
UT: 06 02 00 28th of June GHA  = 006° 43.5’, (+360)
Long = 037° 30’ (-)
LHA = 329° 13.5’
SA: 48° 41.3’

IE: -1.5’, (on)
OA: 48° 39.8’
Dip: - 5.1’
AA: 48° 34.7’ Latitude: 48° 11.3’ N
TC: - 0.9 Azimuth: 001.2° T
TA: 48° 33.8’ P/L = 271.2° / 091.2°
-1°: 47° 33.8’
+a0: 00° 36.6’, (Mental interpolation)
+a1: 0.6’
+a2: 0.3’
Lat: 48° 11.3’

(c) Briefly explain the use of the Nautical Almanac and outline the contents. (4)
The Nautical almanac provides essential astronomical information for every

kind of sea going vessel, from cruise lines to fishing boats. It describes the
positions of a selection of celestial bodies for the purpose of enabling
navigators to use celestial navigation to determine the position of their ship
while at sea.
The Almanac specifies for each whole hour of the year the position on the
Earth's surface (in declination and Greenwich hour angle) at which the sun,
moon, planets and first point of Aries is directly overhead. The positions of 57
selected stars are specified relative to the first point of Aries.
The Almanac contains tabulations for the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars for use
in the determination of position at sea from sextant observation. In addition, it
gives times of sunrise, sunset, twilight, moonrise, for use in planning of
observations; all necessary interpolation and altitude correction tables; the
phase of the moon; a pole-star table; diagrams and notes for the identification
of stars and planets; information on eclipses of the Sun and the Moon; a set of
concise sight reduction tables and the standard times of most countries of the
world.
In Great Britain, The Nautical Almanac has been published annually by HM

Nautical Almanac Office, ever since the first edition was published in 1767. In
the United States of America, a nautical almanac has been published annually
by the US Naval Observatory since 1852. Since 1958, the USNO and HMNAO
have jointly published a unified nautical almanac, for use by the navies of both
countries.

4. During twilight on the morning of the 28 th of September 0000, a vessel in DR

position Lat 28°07’ N Long 030° 43’W observed the sextant altitude of Schedar to
be 330 06.8’. The chronometer at the time of observation showed 7h 02m 03s
and was 0m 13s fast on UTC. If the index error was 3.0' on the arc and height
of eye was 15 metres, find:

(b) The intercept?
(12)
Ships Time: 05h 28m 00s 28th Chron. 07h 02m 03s
Long (W): 2h 02m 52s (+) Error (fast) -0m 13s
~ GMT: 07h 30m 52s 28th UTC 07h 02m 00s 28th
GHA  (07h) 111° 56.6’ Dec: 56° 25.0’ N
Incr (02 00) 0° 30.1’
GHA  112° 26.7’
SHA * 350° 10.6
GHA * 102° 37.3’
Long W (-) 030° 43.0’
LHA 071° 54.3’
Cos CZX = (cos LHA x cos Lat x cos Dec) +/- (sin Lat x sin Dec)
Cos CZX = (cos 071°54.3’x cos 28°07’ x cos 56°25.0’) + (sin 28°07’ x sin 56° 25.0’)
= (0.3106 x 0.8820 x 0.5531) + (0.0.4713 x 0.8331)
= 0.1515 + 0.3926
= 0.5441
= 57.03° = 57° 02.2’
Sext. Alt: 33° 06.8’ A = Tan 28 07 = 0.5343 = 0.1746 S

IE -3.0’ Tan 071 54.3 3.0604
Obs Alt: 33° 03.8’
Dip: - 6.8’ B = Tan 56 25.0 = 1.5061 = 1.5844 N
App Alt: 32° 57.0’ Sin 071 54.3 0.9505
TC: - 1.5’
True Alt 32° 55.5’ C = B - A, (1.5844 - 0.1746) = 1.4098 N
~ 900 00.0’
TZX: 57° 04.5’ Tan Az = _____1_____
CZX: 57° 02.2’ 1.4098 x cos 28°07’
Intercept: 2.3’ Away = 0.8042
Azimuth = N 38.8° W = 321.2° T
P/L runs 051.2°/231.2° T

(c) Describe the difference between a position circle and a position line and
explain how both are closely related to true altitude?
(6)
 Position circle will be produced from any observation and it would be of

thousands of miles in radius. Hence the practical application of the position
circle is minor.
 If an observer assumes a DR position, then a PZX triangle can be formed and

the Zenith Distance calculated on the basis of this DR position.
 The part of position circle’s circumference which lies within the vicinity of the
DR position can be considered a straight line and also be considered a
POSITION LINE which is at right angles to the Azimuth.

5) (i) For the following scenario use the chart 5048 which is provided.
At 0740 hrs in DR Lat 51° 24'N Long 006° 51 'W a vessel steering 056°T at
7 knots obtains a sight of the Sun resulting in a bearing of 094°T and an
intercept of 1.9' towards.
At 1200 hrs a newly charted oil production platform in position Lat 51° 41.0' N
Long 006° 15.6' W was observed bearing 267°T.
Find the position of the vessel at 1200 hrs? (10)
Steaming Time: 4hrs 20min (1200 – 0740)

Distance steamed: 30.3 miles (4.33 x 7)
Sun bearing 0940T

+/- 0900
P/L runs 0040T / 1840T
At 1200 platform bearing 2670T
Position of the vessel @ 1200 Lat 510 41.2’ N Long 0060 07.6’ W

(ii) Using the extracts of the Sight Reduction Table find the approximate value of
altitude and azimuth for 3 best stars to be chosen for
th
observation on the 28 of March 0000 at UTC 08h 32m 47s.
The observer’s DR is 55 00’ N 1230 10’ E
0
(8)
GHA (08h) 3050 37.6’

Incre (32 47) 080 13.1’
GHA 3130 50.7’
Long, (E) 1230 10.0’ (+)
LHA  077 00.7
The Chosen Stars are:
REGULUS RIGEL DENEB

18° 12’ 26° 48’ 20° 00
095° 178° 323°
(iii) Provide, with the aid of a sketch, reasons for above selection of stars.
(4)
1. All first magnitude star

2. Marked with a Diamond, which denotes most suitable star to observe
3. The angular difference is near to ideal 90-120 degrees window.
4. A suitable Altitude - 15-65° degrees

Chapter 20: Answers to Exercises

Chapter 7 - GHA; LHA; Declination:
Paper 1
1. 0760 33.3’
2. 0000 12.6’
3. 0260 58.7’
4. LHA 2090 16.1’ / Declination 010 08.2’ N
5.1600 32.3’
6. 3170 10.6’
7. LHA 1060 52.6’/ Declination 080 48.4’ N
8. LHA 2260 25.3’ / Declination 220 06.6’ S
Paper 2
3. LHA 2260 35.0’/ Declination 000 10.0’ S
5.LHA 2670 29.9’ / Declination 120 04.6’ N
Chapter 7 Sunrise, Sunset, Twilight
1. LMT 03h 37m

2. GMT 14h 14m
3. LMT 06h 26m
4. LMT 17h 52m
5. Start 06h 00m End 06h 58

Chapter 9 Sextant Altitude Correction

1. 15° 13.3’
2. 34° 31.4’
3. 28° 50.0’
4. 62° 05.9’
5. 47° 36.2’
6. 74° 53.0’
7. 20° 56.6’
8. 3° 48.1’
9. 5° 02.5’
Chapter 10 latitude by Meridian Altitude: Paper 1
Q 1.
Time of Meridian Passage = 18h 31m 4th January
Q 2.
Time of Meridian. Pass. = 14h 27m 40s 20th September
Latitude = 710 29.4’S
Q 3.
Time of Meridian. Pass. = 00h 51m 00s 23rd September
Q 4.
Time of Meridian. Pass. = 15h 27m 00s 5th January
Latitude = 290 21.4’ S
Q 5.
Time of Meridian. Pass. = 10h 54m 32s 18th December
Paper 2
Q 1.
Time of Meridian Passage = 15h 00m 40s 11th June


Q 2.
Time of Meridian. Pass. = 22h 56m 04s 21st September
Q 3.
Time of Meridian. Pass. = 00h 38m 12s 19th June
Latitude = 580 07.2’ S
Q 4.
Time of Meridian. Pass. = 20h 53m 00s 16th December
Q 5.
Time of Meridian. Pass. = 12h 38m 20s 27th March
Q 6.
Time of Meridian. Pass. = 05h 39m 26th September
Latitude = 580 29.5’N
Chapter 10 Polaris: Paper 1
Q.1 Latitude 43º 09.4' N

Azimuth 000.90 T
P/L runs 270.90T / 090.90 T

Azimuth 359.0º T
P/L passes 269.0º T / 089.00 T
Q.3 Latitude 27º 14.4'N

Azimuth 359.9ºT
P/L passes 089.9 T / 269.9º T


Azimuth 359.5º T
P/L passes 269.5º T /089.50 T
Paper 2
Azimuth 358.80 T
P/L runs 268.80T / 088.80 T

Azimuth 000.1º T
P/L passes 270.1º T / 090.10 T

Azimuth 359.7º T
P/L passes 089.7 T / 269.7º T

Azimuth 000.1º T
P/L passes 270.1º T /090.10 T

Azimuth 001.3º T
P/L passes 271.3º T /091.30 T
Paper 3
Azimuth 359.30 T

P/L runs 269.30 T / 089.30 T

Azimuth 001.2º T
P/L passes 271.2º T / 091.20 T

Azimuth 001.2ºT
P/L passes 091.2 T / 271.2º T

Azimuth 000.5º T
P/L passes 090.5º T /270.50 T

Azimuth 000.8º T
P/L passes 270.8º T /090.80 T

Azimuth 001.0º T
P/L passes 271.0º T /091.00 T
Chapter 12 Azimuths: Sun

Q 1. Az =S 43.00 E/ Compass Error 7.00 W/ T.Az =1370 T/ Dev 02.50 E
Q 2. Az = S 63.60 W / T.Az = 243.60 T/ Compass Error 3.60 E/ Dev 00.60 E
Q 3. Az = S 89.20 W / T.Az = 269.20 T/ Comp Error 8.10 E/ Dev 02.10 E
Q 4. Az = N 77.50 E / T.Az = 077.50 T / Comp Error 15.50 W / Dev 05.50 W
Chapter 12 Azimuths: Stars

Q 1. Azimuth 018.1° T, Compass Error 08.9° W, Deviation 12.9° W
Q 2. Azimuth 301.9° T, Compass Error 01.9° E, Deviation 3.9° E


Q 5. Azimuth 065.5° T, Compass Error 15.5° E, Deviation 3.5° W
Chapter 13 Amplitudes
Q 4. Azimuth 066.8° T, Compass Error 23.2° W, Deviation 4.8° E
Chapter 13 Azimuths & Amplitudes

Q 2. Azimuth 044.3° T, Compass Error 04.3° E, Deviation 7.7° W
Chapter 14 Position Lines

Q 1. Intercept 8.6’ (T)
Azimuth S 80.7° E 099.3° T
P/L runs 009.3°/189.3° T


Azimuth S 46.7° E 133.3° T
P/L runs 043.3°/222.3° T
Q 3. Intercept 0.6’ (A)

Azimuth S 40.4° W 220.4° T
P/L runs 130.4°/310.4° T

Azimuth N 69.4° W 290.6° T
P/L runs 020.6°/200.6° T
Q5. Intercept 5.6’ (A)

Azimuth S 58.9° E 121.1° T
P/L runs 031.1°/211.1° T

Azimuth N 44.1° E 044.1° T
P/L runs 134.1°/314.1° T

Azimuth S 81.4° W 261.4° T
P/L runs 171.4°/351.4° T

Azimuth N 57.3° W 302.7° T
P/L runs 032.7°/212.7° T

Azimuth S 75.0° W 255.0° T

P/L runs 165.0°/345.0° T
Chapter 15 Plotting Position Lines

Paper 1
1. 51°29.6’ N 006°10.6’ W
2. 51°40.1’ N 006°33.1’ W
3. 51°21.5’ N 006°39.0’W
Paper 2
1. 51°36.4’N 006°50.3’W
2. 51°-29.2’N 006°49.2’W
3. 51°37’N 006°28.7’W
4. 51°26’N 006°35.6’W
5. 51°29.8’N 006°17’W
Paper 3
1. 41°55.5’ S 174°44.3’ E
2. 41°51.8’ S 174°44.7’ E
3. 41°38.8’ S 174°46.3’ E
4. 41°56.3’ S 174°43.7’ E
Chapter 16 the Running Fix Paper 1
Q 1. Position of the vessel @ 0930 Lat 510 24.2’ N

Long 0060 09.4’ W

Position of the vessel @ 1200 Lat 510 37.0’ N
Long 0060 33.6’ W

Long 0060 49.6’ W
Position of the vessel @ 1200 Lat 510 32.2’ N
Long 0060 49.6’ W
Long 0060 07.4’ W
Long 0060 38.3’ W
Chapter 17 Simultaneous Star Sights Paper 1
Q 1. Position at 0600: Lat 510 23.2’ N

Long 0060 44.2’ W


Long 0060 28.0’ W

Long 0060 23.3’ W
Paper 2
Q 1. Position at 1818: Lat 400 22.2’ S

Long 1740 40.0’ E

Long 1740 40.6’ E

Long 1740 24.5’ E
Chapter 22
Enrichment Publications:
Available at South Tyneside College Library

1. Ocean Sailing , Tom Cunliffe, (623.19 CUN)

2. NAVBasics includes nautical almanac, chart and radar plotting sheet
(623.058 WIT)
3. Illustrated Navigation , Ivar Dedekam ( 623.8 DED)

4. Practical Navigation for officers of the watch, A Frost ( 623.8 FRO)
5. Practical Navigation , H Subramaniam, (623.8 SUB)
6. Manual of Celestial navigation , Arthur A Ageton, ( 623.808 AGE)
7. The art of astronomical Navigation, Stephen Merceron Burton and Charles H.
(Charles Henry) Cotter ( 623.81 BUR)

8. Celestial navigation , Tom Cuniffe, (623.81 CUN)
9. Celestial navigation (solutions) for deck officers C.L Dubley ( 623.81 DUB)
10. Positional astronomy and astro-navigation made easy - a new approach using
the pocket calculator, Henry Robert Mills ( 623.81 MIL)

11. Celestial Navigation in the computer age , Alton B Moody, ( 623.81.MOO)
12. Astro Navigation, The Admiralty Manual of Navigation Vol.2, Nautical Institute,
(623.81 NAU)
13. Celestial Navigation : A step by step self-teaching course, Gerry Smith
( 623.81 SMI)
14. Celestial Navigation, Jeff Toghill , ( 623.81 TOG)

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School of Nautical Studies

S.Moran Page 1 Revised April 2018

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Adjustable Errors in order of Correction:-

1. Perpendicularity:- The index mirror must be perpendicular to

2. Side error:- The horizon glass must be perpendicular to the

b) Horizon Method – Set the index bar zero, hold the

a) Star Method – Set the index bar at zero, hold the

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e.g:- “on” the arc 32.6’

N.B. Movement of the third adjustment screw (3) may reintroduce

Errors which cannot normally be corrected by the observer

Graduation error – Incorrectly cut graduations on the arc.

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Some Sextant Questions

i. State the principle of the sextant.

Care of the Sextant

 Sextants are delicate and expensive instruments. They must always be

 Sextants must always be stored in the appropriate box in a secure location

 Take care when changing telescopes, do not cross thread.

 Do not expose to sun when not in use.

 Always dry the sextant if exposed to moisture.

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Errors in taking a sight – with possible resolutions

 Sextant Errors – some errors can be corrected e.g. Perpendicularity, Side

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S.Moran Page 8 Revised April 2018

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A Chronometer is a clock designed to have sufficient long-term accuracy that it can

He finally solved the problem with his H4 chronometer, essentially a large 5”

S.Moran Page 9 Revised April 2018

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A chronometer’s escapement is usually designed to minimize the energy and time

Quartz clocks and atomic clocks have made mechanical clock-chronometers

Some time standards

S.Moran Page 10 Revised April 2018

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Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) differs from TAI by an integral number of

Zone Time (ZT)

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i.e. zone 0 from 7 ½ °E to 7 ½ °W keeps LMT of 0° i.e. GMT

TO FIND THE CORRECT U.T.

LT 15d 19h 20m 00s [Always include the Day]

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The chronometer is therefore indicating approx 2000hrs.

Chron 15d 19h 59m 10s

LT twilight 21d 06h 34m [from the Nautical Almanac]

Chron 20d 20h 37m 10s

S.Moran Page 13 Revised April 2018

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Rotational Speed of the Earth

The speed of rotation of the Earth’s surface is therefore a function of latitude.

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