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Our Indian history is very ancient,it begins with the Indus valley civilization 3250 - 2759 B.C.The
people of India are largely the product of successive invasions from immemorial times who had
swept into the country.The existence of various types of people in our country created a spirit
of tolerance among the people.We have developed a secularoutlook from the ancient period.
The term culture is expressed through
language,literature,art,religion,architecture,philosophy,social customs and tradition.Indian
culture co-existed for centuries under all our invaders from the'Harappan civilization' to the
modern days.Due to the foreign contacts and intermingling with the pre-existing cultures ,our
Indian culture instead of loosing its identity has only benefited.By absorbing the good features of
other cultures we have indeed enriched our Indian culture.

Evolution of Indian society

India is a huge country with people belonging to different cultural background making the people
distinct from one another. The early Indian society was governed by 'Dharmasastra',the works
of great sages helped to lead a harmonious life.According to 'Manu Smriti',early Indian society
was divided into Aryans and Non-Aryans.The Aryans were further divided into four
groups,theBrahmanas,Kshatriyas,Vaishayas,and Sudras.
The brahmins occupied highest place in the society.Their duty was to teach vedic literature and
to perform various sacrifices.They should maintain a high standard of morality and should lead a
very simple life.The Kshatriya's main duty was to defend the country.The Vaishyas were
required to attend to agriculture,trade,and commerce.The Sudras formed the majority of the
society their duty was to serve the other communities.As time passed each one of these
subdivisions became a'caste' itself and became very rigid.
The early society gave much importance to 'Varnasrama Dharma'.The life of an individual was
divided into four stages known as 'Asramas'.
They are Bramacharia or a student,Grihasta or a married house holder,Vanaprastha a forest
hermit and Sanyasin an ascetic who renounced the world.Women were not given a place of
honour,they were not allowed to study vedas.
The early Indian society gradually lost its glory due to many kinds of abuses and superstitious
beliefs in it.The Brahmins for their own benefit encouraged the superstitions.It was at this
juncture,Buddhism and Jainism appeared in India.
Buddha and Mahavira preached in the language of common people.They opposed castesim
,animal sacrificeand other superstitious rituals.They raised their voices against the evils and
showed a new path to the people.They taught equality,universal peace,non-violence and
kindness to all living things.They greatly reformed the society through their moral rules and new
order of life.
Influence of Islam on Indian society
During the early medieval period the conquests of 'Arabs' and'Turks' resulted in the introduction
of a new religion called 'Islam' in India.The society was divided into two communities namely the
'Hindus' and the 'Muslims'.Many Hindus converted themselves into Islam.The impact of Islam on
Indian society led to the 'Bkakthi Movement'.
The saints who preached 'Bhakthi' taught 'tolerance' and 'devotion' to God.They proclaimed that
there is only supreme God and absolute devotion to God is a means of 'Salvation'.They
stressed the equality of all human beings and declared that it was only through 'Bhakthi' that
man could experience God.They emphasized friendly relations between the two
communities.Indian art,architecture and music also received new dimensions due to Islamic
contacts.Hindi and urdhu literature flourished.
The pioneers of Bhakthi cult were Ramanandha,Kabir,Guru nanak,Chaitanya,Tulasidas and
Surdas.They tried to harmonize Islam and Hinduism.The Bhakthi movement started in south
India during 7th and 8th centuries by'Alwars' and 'Nayanmars'.They sang devotional songs.The
great saints like'Aathi Sangarar','Ramanujam' and 'Madhwa' tried to bring about a revival of the
old Hindu beliefs.
Bhakthi cult was a movement of social integration.It united the Hindu and Muslim
sentiments.People followed the preaching of their saints and abandoned superstitious beliefs
and followed oneness of god.
impact of British rule on Indian society
The most important impact of the British rule in India was the Westernization of the Indian
society.the western education awakened a spirit of reform among the various classes of Indian
society.It modifies the ideas and customs of the educated Indians.It created a feeling of
brotherhood among the Indians and enabled the people to think India as their motherland and
united them.Knowledge of English helped to bring about development in every field from our
government,industry,technology,education,arts,sciences etc.
English education helped Indians learn nationalism and liberalism from the west.This period saw
the birth of modern Indians who became more self-reliant and self -confident.Critical outlooks of
past and new aspirations for the future developed.This new spirit made Indians to question the
authority,reason and judgment over the blind faith and superstitious beliefs.
Thus there was growth and development in our culture.our Indian society is a grand synthesis
(combination) of cultures.This synthesis has made India a uniqueMosaic of Cultures as
described by our late prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru.
Unity in Diversity
Diversity in Geographical features:The physical features of a country influence to a great extent
the life and history of its people.India has diverse geographical features.India is separated from
rest of Asia by the Himalayas,with its western and eastern ranges.Mountains of the north,the
northern fertile plain,the Thar desert,the Deccan plateau,western and eastern Ghats from part of
its physical features.The vast dimensions of India, the varied climatic conditions across the
various regions of India resulted in racial and linguistic differences.Yet there is a common bond
among the people.
Geographical conditions play an important part in responding to human activities.Cherrapunji in
Meghalaya receives highest rain fall and the dry Thar desert in Rajasthan receives only scanty
rainfall.The Himalayan mountain ranges are snow clad peaks while the southern parts of India
records highest average temperature.Animal and plant life also varies according to the climatic
conditions.The soil is too variable ,it is fertile at the northern plains and saline dry soil is found at
Rajasthan.This also brought about diversity in the life of the people.
population
Indian population is 16% of the world's population.The huge population is made up of different
ethnic groups,following different religions,speaking different languages,observing different
customs and traditions.It is this marvelous diversity of people in India,which has made it both
museum and a laboratory for the study of man. Hence India is called as 'ethnological Museum'.
Diversity in Language,customs and traditions
In India people speak about 845 languages and has 545 dialects.At present 22 official
languages are recognized by the Indian government.The people of north India speak the Indo-
Aryan group of languages and the Dravidian languages are spoken primarily in southern
India.Hindi is the national language and English the concurrent language.People differ in
race,figure,and mode of dress,food,customs,and habits from region to region.
Diversity in Religion
India is the birth place of many religions.Hinduism,Buddhism,Jainism,and Sikhism have their
origin in India.Vedic religion is an ancient religion of our country.In the first century B.C
St.Thomas an Apostle of christ first brought Christianity to India.The persians brought
'Zoroastrianism'.Muslim conquest of India brought Islam into India.Religious tolerance is found
in our country from the past till today.People are free to profess,practice, and propagate any
religion of their choice.Different Festivals are celebrated in
India.Diwali,Muharram,Bakrid,Mahaveer jayanthi,Guru naanak
jayanthi,Christmas,Onam,pongal,Dassara etc.are celebrated with religious fervor and gaiety in
India.
Diversity in Literature
The Vedas are the earliest literary works of our country.The Vedic hymns were composed in
Sanskrit.Prakrit and Sanskrit were spoken throughout our country.The vedic literature are the
Brahmanas,Aranyakas and upanishads.TheRamayana and Mahabharatha are the two epics of
India.'Thirukural' byThiruvalluvar is the greatest literary work in Tamil.The Bagavath geetha is
the holy book of Hinduism.The hymns of Alwars and Nayanmars are compiled under the name
of Naalayira Thivya Prabandham and Devaram.
Art and Architecture
Different styles of art and architecture are found in India.The north Indian temples have towers
like structure over the shrines and the Sikara bulges in the middle and ends almost in a
point.The south Indian Sikara looks like a pyramid made up of successive storeys,each smaller
than the one beneath it.Hindustani andcarnatic music are the classical music of north India and
South India respectively.Famous dance forms of North India
are Manipuri,Kathak andBhangra whereas in the south Bharathanatiyam,Kathakali and
Kuchipudi are the famous dances.The pilgrim centers are found all over
india.Amarnath,Badrinath, Kedarnath,Kasi,Rameshwaram,nagappatinam,Nagoor,Velankanni
etc.are the religious centers visited by people all over India.The universities of
Naalantha,Taxila,Kanchi and Vickramashila were the ancient centres of learning.
Magnificient palaces,Chaityas,Viharas and Stupas were built by the kings like Ashoka and
chandra gupta Maurya.The inscriptions on the Rumindi pillar remain perfect even today.The
Ghandhara and Madhura art flourished during the Kushan period.The paintings at Ajantha and
Ellora caves are examples of Gupta's art.Rajput built large marble temples,forts,palaces in
Rajasthan.The Chalukyas,Rastrakudas,Hoysalas,Pallavas,Cholas,Cheras,and Pandyas were
also patrons of architecture.
The Pallavas of Kanchipuram laid the foundation of the Dravidiyan art.The Temples and
sculptures of Pallavas at Mahabalipuram,the Pragatheeswarar temple at Tanjore, Godess sri
Meenakshi Amman Temple at Madurai,Sri Ramanatha swamy temple at Rameshwaram and the
Thirumalai nayak palace at Maduraiare the best examples of south Indian or Dravidian Art.
The medieval art of Sultanates and Moguls were Qutub Minar,the jamma Masjid,the Gol
Gumbaz,Fatepur Sikri,the tombs of imperial Mughals,the Taj mahaletc. are fine examples of the
Indo-Islamic architecture.It developed due to the fusion of Hindu and Islamic cultures.During the
British rule many buildings were built in western styles in big cities.
During the British rule the whole country was brought under one rule.Sardar Vallabhai patel
integrated all the princely states into one political unit soon after independence.
Though India is diverse in religion,culture,language,distinct from one another there is an
underlying unity among our people,which is unique and not found in any part of the world.
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A sect is a small religious group that has branched off of a larger established religion. Sects
have many beliefs and practices in common with the religion that they have broken off from, but
are differentiated by a number of doctrinal differences. In contrast, a 


is a large,
well established religious group.

The word sect comes from the Latin   (from 

 to follow), meaning an organized
religious body or organization, from Latin, meaning a course of action or way of life.

Sociologists use the word   to refer to a religious group with a high degree of tension with the
surrounding society, but whose beliefs are (within the context of that society) largely traditional.
A cult, by contrast, also has a high degree of tension with the surrounding society, but its beliefs
are (within the context of that society) new and innovative. Sects, in the sociological sense, are
generally traditionalist and conservative, seeking to return a religion to its (perceived) religious
purity.

In European languages (other than English) the word 'sect' is used to refer to a dangerous
religious sect, similar to how English-speakers popularly use the word 'cult'. In some countries,
such as Belgium, the government maintains a list of 'sects' to warn parents of their dangers.
Critics say that some of the 'sects' on these lists are actually parts of recognized denominations,
for example, Opus Dei.

In Latin America, it is often applied to any non-Catholic group, regardless of size, often with the
same negative connotation that 'cult' has in English.

The word   comes from the Latin noun   (a feminine form of a variant past particple of
the verb 
, to follow), meaning "(beaten) path", and figuratively a (prescribed) way, mode, or
manner, and hence metonymously, a discipline or school of thought as defined by a set of
methods and doctrines. The present gamut of meanings of   has been influenced by
confusion with the homonymous (but etymologically unrelated) Latin word   (the feminine
form of the past participle of the verb   , to cut), as sects were scissions cut away from the
mainstream religion. Note that speakers of some other languages use the same word for both
the meaning   and the meaning 
, for example in Italian:  .

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There are several different sociological definitions and descriptions for the term. Among the first
to define them were Max Weber and Ernst Troeltsch (1931). In the church-sect typology they
are described as newly formed religious groups that form to protest elements of their parent
religion (generally a denomination). Their motivation tends to be situated in accusations of
apostasy or heresy in the parent denomination; they are often decrying liberal trends in
denominational development and advocating a return to true religion. The
Americansociologists Rodney Stark and William Sims Bainbridge assert that "sects claim to be
authentic purged, refurbished version of the faith from which they split". They further assert that
sects have, in contrast to churches, a high degree of tension with the surrounding society. Other
sociologists of religion such as Fred Kniss have asserted that sectarianism is best described
with regard to what a sect is in tension with. Some religious groups exist in tension only with co-
religious groups of different ethnicities, or exist in tension with the whole of society rather than
the church which the sect originated from.

Sectarianism is sometimes defined in the sociology of religion as a worldview that emphasizes

the unique legitimacy of believers' creed and practices and that heightens tension with the
larger society by engaging in boundary-maintaining practices.

A religious or political cult, by contrast, also has a high degree of tension with the surrounding
society, but its beliefs are, within the context of that society, new and innovative. Whereas the
cult is able to enforce its norms and ideas against members, a sect normally doesn't strictly
have "members" with definite obligations, only followers, sympathisers, supporters or believers.
A sect may also have members which choose to leave later, which is allowed whereas a cult
uses any means necessary to keep its members (including coercion).

Mass-based socialist, social-democratic, labor and communist parties often had their historical
origin in utopian sects, and also subsequently produced many sects, which split off from the
mass party. In particular, the communist parties from 1919 experienced numerous splits; some
of them, it is argued, were sects from their foundation.

One of the main factors that seems to produce political sects is the rigid continued adherence to
a doctrine or idea after its time has passed, or after it has ceased to have clear applicability to a
changing reality.

The English sociologist Roy Wallisargues that a sect is characterized by

³epistemological authoritarianism´: sects possess some authoritative locus for the legitimate
attribution of heresy. According to Wallis, ³sects lay a claim to possess unique and privileged
access to the truth or salvation and ³their committed adherents typically regard all those outside
the confines of the collectivity as 'in error'´. He contrasts this with a cult that he described as
characterized by ³epistemological individualism´ by which he means that ³the cult has no clear
locus of final authority beyond the individual member.


 

The historical usage of the term sect in Christendom has had pejorative connotations, referring
to a group or movement with heretical beliefs or practices that deviate from those of groups
considered orthodox.

Early Christianity started as a Jewish sect

Roman Catholic sects

There are many groups outside the Roman Catholic Church which are regarded as Catholic
sects, such as the Community of the Lady of All Nations, the Palmarian Catholic Church,
the Philippine Independent Church, the Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church, the Free Catholic
Church, the Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God, and others.

The ã

 
  started in Lima, Peru, has multiple cases of psychological
abuses experienced by youth that were attracted to the movement.

  

The Indologist Axel Michaels writes in his book about Hinduism that in an Indian context the
word ³sect does not denote a split or excluded community, but rather an organized tradition,
usually established by founder with ascetic practices.´ And according to Michaels, ³Indian sects
do not focus on heresy, since the lack of a center or a compulsory center makes this impossible
± instead, the focus is on adherents and followers





 




 
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India is a land of fairs and festivals where fairs have become a tradition. Out of numerous of
fairs Mahakumbh Mela is considered to be the most pious and sacred festival in India as it is
being celebrates in India since centuries. Mahakumbh Mela pertains a great mythological
importance because faiths,customs, traditions of Indian people revolves around it. It's a great
get together of millions of people from all parts of India who comes to take part in it. Thousand
of sages, hermits and saints, great souls wearing saffron colored clothes, marks and arcs of
sandal and saffron and holy ash on their forhead and body and Trishul in hands comes on this
holly occasion and make themselves gracious .The complete Mahakumbh Mela takes place at
four most promising places of India named as Allahabad (Prayag), Haridwar (the court of lord
Hari), Ujjain and Nasik (court of lord Shiv) after every twelve years, while the ArdhKumbh Mela
is celebrated every six years at Haridwar and Prayag.
It is very hard to point out the exact origin of "Mahakumbh Mela " because there are many
mythological stories and fore sayings behind it and this fair is so primitive and effective that It
would not be appropriate to say about it in just few words. "Mahakumbh Mela " can be analysed
this way: Maha means great ,Kumbh means a pot or a kalash and Mela means a fair.so it
becomes "A Great Fair For a Pot". According to Indian astrology Maha Kumbh Mela is
celebrated when planet Jupitor enters into zodiac sign of Aquarious and sun enters into zodiac
sign of Aries. Haridwar, Prayag, Nasik, Ujjain are the main centers of Mahakumbh bath. Dates
for bath are calculated in advance according to zodiacal positions of Sun, Moon & Jupitor, but
it's not all . The roots of Mahakumbh Mela are buried in ancient history specially in Indian
mythology and Indian Vedas.
Due to their misdeeds, gods had lost their power and demons had become more powerful ,so in
order to make gods powerful, to get powerful goods and alliance with demons ,churning of
kshir sagar was done. Both were agreed on one fact that nectar will be divided equally in
demons and gods. First thing that came as an output was poison (vish) that was drunk by lord
Shiv for the welfare of world, so he is known as "Neelkanth" .Kamdhenu cow,Half Moon ,Airawat
Elephant,5 headed horse ,godess laxmi,Tree of Pearls and several other things came as a
result of churning of "Shir Sagar". At last appeared Pot of elixir, when the nectar appeared gods
and demons start to fight, this fight ended after 12 days and 12 nights .Although With the help of
lord Vishnu gods succeed to get the whole nectar, but during their fight with demons the drops
of nectar from the pot fall into the rivers in Prayag, Haridwar, Nasik, Ujjain and the water of the
rivers became like nectar.So people say during that time water in these rivers posses(holds) the
virtues of nectar and help people to demolish the effects of their evil deeds and help them to
get ride of sorrows and pains. So Mahakumbh Mela is organized at these places and people
gather here to pay their homage to god and get the graces of god.

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The Kumbh Mela is the greatest of the north Indian fairs and it has exerted a mesmeric
influence over the mind and the imagination of the ordinary Indian from time immemorial. It is
held once every three years by rotation, on the banks of the Godavari in Nasik, the Shipra in
Ujjain, the Ganga in Haridwar and the confluence of the Ganga, Yamuna and the mythical
Saraswati in Prayag or Allahabad as it is called now. The Purna (complete) Kumbh or Maha
Kumbh, the biggest and the most auspicious fair, which falls once every 12 years, is always at
Allahabad, for the Sangam or confluence of rivers is considered to be particularly holy. The last
Maha Kumbh was held in 1989. When the particular configuration of the Kumbh at Allahabad
falls on a Monday, it is called the Somvati Amavasya and the spiritual benefits increase
manifold. The Purna Kumbh is followed by the Ardh Kumbh in importance and this fair falls
every six years when millions of devout congregate at Allahabad on the banks of the holy river,
braving the hazards of cold, disease, hunger and a myriad other privations, to gain spiritual
salvation and contentment.

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Historically speaking, the roots of the Kumbh can be traced to the river festivals in which pots of
grains were soaked in the waters of the holy rivers and put to seed, with the rest of the grain
during sowing time. It has also been considered to be a pre-Aryan fertility ritual, for the Kumbh
symbolizes not only the Mother Goddess but also the womb, the generative pot. Rivers, as
givers of life and agents of fertility, became tirthas (holy places) as they act as bridges between
heaven and earth, the human and the divine.

Credit for organizing the Kumbh into a congress of Hinduism, where rishis, munis, sadhus and
yogis gathered to discuss and debate upon the finer points of their faith and disseminate their
religion, goes to the seventh-century Shaivite philosopher and religious guru Adi
Shankaracharya. He infused new life into the tottering citadel of Hinduism, which had been
badly battered by the breakaway religions of Buddhism and Jainism, by organizing the Kumbh
Mela.

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The origin of Kumbh, which is an ancient and continuing element in the Indian ethos, extends
backwards into mythology. The story is related with some variation in the Ramayana,
Mahabharata and the Puranas. According to one source, the gods, who had been defeated by
the demons, approached Vishnu, the preserver of the universe, seeking the boon of
rejuvenation and the gift of immortality. Vishnu directed them to the primeval ocean in which
were hidden the secrets of life and death. The gods sought the help of the demons, to whom
they promised part of the spoils. Making a paddle out of Mount Mandar and a rope out of
serpent Anant Nag, they churned the ocean till it yielded the holy cow and the flying horse, the
lyre and the siren, Lakshmi and Vishwakarma. Finally, Dhanvantari, the divine physician,
emerged holding the Kumbh (pitcher) of Amrit (the nectar of life) that could bestow immortality.
As both the demons and the gods lunged for the pot, Dhanvantari changed himself into a rook
and flew off to the heavens, with the pitcher. On his journey, which lasted twelve days, he rested
at four spots-Prayag, Nasik, Ujjain and Haridwar-which have consequently been consecrated by
drops of nectar that fell there. Therefore, these places are considered holy by the Hindus and
have become important pilgrim spots.
Then there is story that neatly sums up the attitude of the ordinary Hindus to the Kumbh.
According to this, as Parvati, the consort of Lord Shiva, watched the millions gather at the holy
Kumbh, she became pensive and turning to Shiva said "You are indeed compassionate my
Lord, but to me it seems your compassion has done more harm than good for only a fool would
lead a virtuous life when Moksha can be attained by a mere dip in the holy river." On hearing
her complaint, Shiva suggested that they pay a visit to the Kumbh. Taking the form of a Brahmin
couple, Lord Shiva lay prone on the ground while beside him Parvati sobbed profusely like a
bereaved wife. When the pilgrims stopped to enquire about her plight, she answered all queries
by saying, "Lord Shiva has promised that the mere touch of a sinless man can bring my
husband to life. But if the person is not sinless, he will die instantly." On hearing this all the
pilgrims recoiled, for none of them truly believed that they had been cleansed of their sins after
the holy dip. Thus the widow sat crying, until a drunk came staggering along and as soon as he
found out her problem, he was certain that a dip in the river would purify him. After a quick dip in
the river, he returned and bent down to touch the dead Brahmin, whereupon Shiva revealed
himself and said, "You indeed attained Moksha my son, so far only you." Back at their heavenly
abode, Shiva asked Parvati, "With all my divine compassion I do not seem to have succeeded in
making salvation so very cheap, after all, have I?


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The Kumbh Mela became an important meeting ground for the devout Hindus and its
importance has not diminished over the years. Even today, millions of pilgrims from all over the
world, from various walks of life, sects and communities, gather at the Kumbh. For most it is a
once-in-a-lifetime trip. They probably plan and save over many years to make this visit to the
king of tirthas, the Purna Kumbh, seeking salvation. For thousands of traders, shopkeepers and
pedlars who gather there, the mela means business and profits. Many come to enjoy the lively
and colorful bustle of crowds buying curios and magical stuff and generally having fun. It is both
a holy day and a holiday for the people.

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The main rite performed at the mela is the ritual bath. Orthodox Hindus, who give great
importance to the performance of ritualistic action, believe that a dip in the sacred waters on the
auspicious day will cleanse them and their ancestors back to the eighty-eighth generation, off all
evil and sin, thus ensuring their salvation or freedom from the cycle of death and rebirth. Ritual
bathing is a public act and is performed in the open and ideally on the banks of a river or
stream. It includes the complete submergence of the body under water and an oblation to the
sun. The most auspicious day for the ritual bath at Kumbh is on the day of the new moon.

The ascetics and sadhus are an integral part of the Kumbh. One of the aims of all devout
Hindus, who make a pilgrimage to the Kumbh, is to have darshan of these holy men. By
touching their feet and listening to them, their followers hope to gain spiritual enlightenment.

The most conspicuous sadhus at the Kumbh are the Nagas or naked sadhus. The Nagas smear
their bodies with ash and sport long matted hair. Constant exposure to the elements and
rigorous self-control makes them impervious to the extremes of hot and cold. They ever need to
adjust their clothing to suit the weather. Originally a militant armed band, the Nagas were
recruited to defend the ascetics who had taken the vow of nonviolence and therefore could not
retaliate when hostile Buddhist, Vaishnavite or other monastic orders attacked them. The eyes
of the Nagas are usually red with the intake of charas and ganja, which is also considered to be
one of the means of attaining siddhi (greatness).

Besides the Nagas, there are several other types of sadhus-the Urdhwavahurs who practice
severe physical austerities and their bodies are usually emaciated and limbs shriveled; the
Parivajakas, who live under a vow of silence and go about tinkling little bells to get people out of
their way; the Shirshasins who stand all 24 hours and sleep with their heads resting on a vertical
pole attached to an oblong pole or meditate for long hours standing on their heads; and the
Kalpvasis, who spend the entire month of Kumbh on the banks of Ganga, meditating,
performing rituals and bathing thrice a day.

There are also thousands of godmen among the bustling crowds, who try to outdo each other in
selling themselves. Many guarantee peace, freedom and salvation over loudspeakers
competing raucously for attention.

On the day of the new moon, the day begins at about 3 AM, when the first pilgrims line up for a
dip in the river. Scantily clad, they chat non-stop 'Jai Ganga Maiya' (long live mother Ganga).
When they finish, they leave quickly, to make way for the next lot of bathers. Most of them
shave their heads before the holy bath, as it is considered a part of the ritual.

With the first rays of the sun, the processions of akharas or groups of sadhus of a particular sect
begin. The different sects of sadhus move in the form of a procession towards the river. The
processions are usually led by the Nagas. A messenger who carries a turban aloft a pole
precedes every akhara at the Kumbh, announcing their arrival. There is an air of ostentation
about these holy men. The heads of the sects move in golden chariots, with silk umbrellas and
leopard-skin rugs. All the akharas try to outdo each other in terms of grandeur and fanfare. The
endless crowd surges towards the Sangam, the magnet that draws them all together. Everyone
is absorbed in the magic of the moment.

After their minds and bodies have been cleansed by the purificatory dip, the pilgrims don fresh
clothes and proceed to perform puja on the riverbank. After having had their meals, the pilgrims
walk around listening to discourses of various sadhus or have a darshan of the well-known
godmen. By next morning the pilgrims are ready to leave. Some stay back a few days, weeks,
even a month, but eventually they depart in the belief that all their sins are cleansed and that
they have achieved spiritual salvation.

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The first known sculptures are from the Indus Valley civilization (3300±1700 BC), found in sites
at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa in modern-day Pakistan. Later, as Hinduism, Buddhism,
and Jainism developed further, India produced bronzes and stone carvings of great intricacy,
such as the famous temple carvings which adorn various Hindu, Jain and Buddhist shrines.
Some of these, such as the cave temples of Ellora and Ajanta, are examples of Indian rock-cut
architecture, perhaps the largest and most ambitious sculptural schemes in the world.

The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved during the Gupta Empire period (4th-6th
century AD) to reach a very high fineness of execution and delicacy in the modeling. Gupta
period art would later influence Chinese styles during the Sui dynasty, and the artistic styles
across the rest of east Asia. Newer sculptures in Afghanistan, in stucco, schist or clay, display
very strong blending of Indian post-Gupta mannerism and Classical influence. The celebrated
bronzes of the Chola dynasty (c. 850-1250) from south India are of particular note; the iconic
figure of Nataraja being the classic example. The traditions of Indian sculpture continue into the
20th and 21st centuries with for instance, the granite carving of Mahabalipuram derived from
the Pallava dynasty. Contemporary Indian sculpture is typically polymorphous but includes
celebrated figures such as Dhruva Mistry.

The first sculptures in India date back to the Indus Valley civilization, where stone and bronze
carvings have been discovered. This is one of the earliest instances of sculpture in the world.
Later, as Hinduism,Buddhism and Jainism developed further, India produced some of the most
intricate bronzes in the world, as well as unrivaled temple carvings. Some huge shrines, such as
the one at Ellora were not actually constructed using blocks, but instead carved out of rock,
making them perhaps the largest and most intricate sculptures in the world.

During the 2nd to 1st century BCE in far northern India, in what is now
southern Afghanistan and northernPakistan, sculptures became more explicit, representing
episodes of the Buddha¶s life and teachings. Although India had a long sculptural tradition and a
mastery of rich iconography, the Buddha was never represented in human form before this time,
but only through some of his symbols. This may be becauseGandharan Buddhist sculpture in
modern Afghanistan displays Greek and Persian artistic influence. Artistically, the Gandharan
school of sculpture is said to have contributed wavy hair, drapery covering both shoulders,
shoes and sandals, acanthus leaf decorations, etc.

The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved during the Gupta period (4th to 6th century)
to reach a very high fineness of execution and delicacy in the modeling. Newer sculptures
in Afghanistan, in stucco, schist or clay, display very strong blending of Indian post-Gupta
 mannerism and Classical influence, Hellenistic or possibly even Greco-Roman. Meanwhile,
elsewhere in India, less anatomically accurate styles of human representation evolved, leading
to the classical art that the world is now familiar with, and contributing to Buddhist and Hindu
sculpture throughout Asia.

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It is an old art form. Some baskets from the Southwestern areas of America are nearly 8,000
years old. Baskets are made from plants, typically reeds and grasses. These plants are woven
together with different techniques to create baskets, mats, bowls and other products. American
Indians approached the construction of basket weaving in different ways, based on learned and
adapted techniques. Also weaving techniques varied by clans or tribes, using different colors or
patterns to create the finished product.

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The traditional colors of the Navajo are red, white and black. Incorporating these colors
within a geometric design in baskets has specific meanings. Baskets are woven using the
sumac plant died with other plants to create various colors. A pattern with a four- to six-pointed
black star represents sacred mountains. White portions in the weave represent a person's
ideals and values. The red portion represents the sun.

A Navajo-styled basket is usually finished with a regular or herringbone-styled braid around the
rim. Navajo Indians use baskets for a number of items, including cornmeal mush, medicine, clay
and hair-care items.
The Hopi Weave
The Hopi Indians are known for the coiled type of weaving. Wicker is a common material for
authentic Hopi-styled baskets. Plaiting with twill is another Hopi weaving technique. Coiled
baskets are made by sewing the material around itself in a circular pattern. Incorporating
different colors or types of materials produces various patterns. A checked pattern or a star
pattern is a common Hopi basket type. Animals like the turtle or eagle are woven into coiled
baskets as well. The Hopi like to incorporate bright colors into the baskets by dying the grasses
or reeds to contrast with the natural tones of the raw material.



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The Pomo Indians use a specific type of weave to create strong and durable storage baskets.
Noted specifically for the light and dark bands of weave, this type of weave is reinforced with
special "lattice" bands for added durability.
Within the light and dark bands a weaver decorates the sides of the basket with a pattern. Often
that pattern is disrupted with the start of another pattern. This is created to symbolize as a place
where spirits may come and go.

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Abstract: In order to meet the tourism industry restructuring and the need for upgrading tourism
products, in-depth study of the relationship between culture and tourism become increasingly
urgent. According to the article, culture is the soul of tourism is the tourism resources of the charm
is that it is the starting point and the main tourist destination, is the source of prosperity and
development of tourism; tourism is needed to tap the culture, rich in culture, and optimize the
culture and the culture of protection. The relationship between tourism and culture complement
each other and complement each other. The organic form lasting bonds of culture and tourism are
conducive to healthy and sustained development of tourism.
Keywords: culture; tourism; mutual relations; sustainable development

The rapid development of the tourism industry places great emphasis on the characteristics
of the third generation of productivity - the economy of culture, a culture of economic, cultural and
economic interdependence, mutual penetration. Culture, the economy means that they refer to
culture and access to markets, culture and access to industry, culture, permeated with the
economy, commodity elements, so that culture has economic power, become an important part of
the productive forces; and the economic and cultural-oriented refers to the modern economic
development, culture, science and technology, information, and even psychological elements of
an increasingly pivotal role. As a new century, 'sunrise industry' in the tourism industry, its
economic and cultural integration is a foregone conclusion. The supply of one corner from the
tourism point of view, the operator's aim is economic profit, but he must provide cultural
enjoyment to achieve profitability; from travel demand in the corner of the point of view, tourists
want to enjoy culture. Therefore, in contemporary tourism industry, any one of the tourist economy
and cultural activities are a certain way, and tourism economic activity in the various sectors such
as production, circulation, exchange and decision-making, management and so on, are all more
or less implies a variety of cultural factors, especially the production and consumption of tourism
products is firmly established in the cultural genes on. Thus, the economic attributes of the
tourism industry and cultural attributes are mutually cross-linked and integration, the relationship
between tourism and culture are complementary and mutually reinforcing.

First, culture is the soul of travel

As early as 1981, the famous economist, Mr. Yu Guangyuan on 'Tourism and Culture' one
article pointed out: 'Tourism is not only an economic life, but also a cultural life,''Tourism is not
only an economic undertaking is also a culture; from the perspective of tourism resources, cultural
development of the cause also has a decisive role. 'By the nineties, Yu Xue-Cai and other tourism
and cultural experts to understand more profoundly that the Tourism and Culture is the soul and
backbone of the tourism industry is a source of sustainable tourism development, tourism
development, economic growth.
(A) culture is where the charm of tourism resources
From the cultural and humanistic look at the relationship of tourism resources, cultural
resources, pregnant with cultural tourism, cultural tourism resources involves both culture and
cultural tourism resources development and appreciation of both the need for interpretation of
culture. Human Tourism resources belong to the cultural aspects of many cultures are a product
of cultural tourism resources, a lot of cultural resources, as long as the minor development can
become attractive tourism products. A large number of cultural tourism resources are rich and
deep cultural connotation of visitors to appreciate, sentiment which, planners, tourist operators to
develop the use of it, must have a certain degree of cultural qualities. From the cultural and
natural tourism resources in the relationship between the view, great rivers and mountains
nurtured culture, cultural shine fine mountains and rivers, the two complement each other. In
addition, many natural tourist resources, although it is does not have a cultural identity and
historical and cultural overlay color, but natural beauty will undoubtedly need to appreciate the
cultural level, need to use scientific knowledge to interpret, but also, to the natural landscape into
a tourism product must pass the Tourism Development It is a culture means to achieve.
Therefore, in this sense, natural tourism resources also has a certain cultural identity, and culture
are inseparable.
(B) the pursuit of culture, is the starting point and the main tourist destination of
Tours of the main vacation purpose is music born out of needs, health needs, health needs,
seeking knowledge of the needs and aesthetic needs. These need to follow well-known
psychologist Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory, belonged to the high-level cultural needs.
People's faith in a foreign country ambience of urban civilization, rural scenery, folk customs and
filled with curiosity, filled with longing and expectation, which is a typical manifestation of human
psychology seeks unconventional; people always want to risk the odd wild secluded mountain
landscape was America's feelings, in the magnificent majestic rivers to get influenced by the
United States, which is human consciousness awakening aesthetic and rhythm; People are
always looking forward to get inspiration in nature, in the riverbed of human civilization to obtain
wisdom, which is human to seek knowledge , enlightening demand reflected; People always
hoped to join the natural to forget troubles, get happy, through its participation in a foreign land
wash away the dust and stains of the folk activities, access to joy, through tourism group harmony
between people forget the intrigues, infighting, access to spiritual consolation, which is human
instinct for self-reflection; humans through Bashansheshui build stronger bodies, through the
return to nature, enjoying nature can eliminate fatigue and ease the work pressure, which is
human fitness health needs. The need to meet the needs of a culture of participation is also a
cultural expression.
(C) culture is the source of prosperity and development of tourism
There is no culture of an enterprise is not a dynamic enterprise, an enterprise without culture
there is no future business, not a culture of business enterprise is no soul, no culture of enterprise
is one the market will ruthlessly eliminated business. Tourism enterprises too. A rich cultural
atmosphere, rich cultural tourism enterprises that can be united domestic workers cohesion of the
people; external to attract customers to obtain benefits.
(D) The cultural exchange is to achieve social and economic benefits of tourism an important
way to
In terms of the social and cultural exchanges can broaden horizons and increase knowledge,
enhance mutual understanding, strengthening friendship; regards cost effectiveness, cultural
exchanges can get more information flow, capital flow and personnel flow, and promoting source
region and destination to get more economic benefit. In a sense, the lack of cultural
connotation of tourism is not the soul of tourism, the lack of cultural quality of tourism products is
difficult to have attractive and viable. From another side, tourism is a function of the realization of
cultural enlightenment and entertainment functions in media culture, mining, optimize culture, rich
culture and protection of cultural means.
(A) the development of tourism is conducive to excavate cultural
Since the 20th century, since the 90s, and cultural tourism in the core functions of academic
and business circles have been increasingly attracted attention. LIN loan (1990) pointed out that:
'only the tourism industry for economic characterization and expression is far from enough,
impossible to measure the economic analysis of tourism in a social context, psychological
aspects, in particular, cultural aspects, can not clarify the the reaction of these effects for the
economy, so the need for economic analysis based on the gradual application of economic
analysis and cultural analysis linked to the multi-disciplinary research methods. 'Yu Shi-Ying said:'
75 'before the development of China's tourism industry for economic growth point is a historical
necessity, the 20th century, 90 years should be our starting point to develop the tourism industry,
its growing point is the culture, the task of adjusting is to gradually make the tourism economy into
the cause of culture-based economy. By the 21st century, cultural tourism has become sought
after, competing mining objects. Ancient city of Lijiang in Yunnan, 'Shangri-La' is discovered
through a special culture which has won the majority of visitors of all ages. Thus, the development
of tourism is conducive to mining culture.
(B) the development of tourism is conducive to rich culture
Tourism is a creative industry. Its creation is the core of the continuous upgrading of cultural
taste and cultural connotation of the continuous sublimation and cultural background of the
continuously enriched. From the United States, Disney Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck and other
cartoon movies, the 20th century, the beginning of 50 years to build gardens, and only Mickey
Mouse, Donald Duck and Sleeping Beauty castle, pirate ship and a few other scenes, as time
goes on, ride roller coaster ride flying saucer, over time, tunnels, water curtain watching movies,
watching movies and other modern high-tech four-dimensional three-dimensional illusions and
human results of the extensive application of Disneyland, Disneyland has greatly enriched the
cultural connotations. Shenzhen in the 20th century, 80 generations ago was a desolate small
fishing village can be said that a cultural desert, but after two decades of construction and
development, through the Window of the World, Splendid China and other cultural landscape
construction, Shenzhen has become China's theme park trend leader.
(C) the development of tourism contribute to the optimization of cultural
Whether the natural landscape, or human landscape, regardless of the original landscape or
man-made landscapes, to attract visitors attention, so that visitors Liulianwangfan always those
which are aesthetic rules, giving associations to the United States, the United States of feelings,
aesthetic experience, beauty inspired landscape. Therefore, an outstanding master of tourism
planning, landscape design and master planning of tourism products can always master of the
landscape and tourism in the tourism product the design of the United States, the United States
for refining, sublimation of the United States, so as to continuously optimize and upgrade tourist
attractions and tourism products the cultural elements and cultural functions. While beautiful
mountains of Guilin, Guilin, the water is certainly very attractive, of course, Guilin, folk customs
million species, but how a short trip to experience and feel the beauty of Guilin, it is not easy. The
good news is widely Vivian Balakrishnan China Guilin Tourism Co., Ltd. invested in the
construction of cultural industries 'Impression Liu San Jie' relatively successful completion of this
task. Play is performed in order to 'Impression Liu San Jie' is the general topic, big or freehand to
the Third Sister Liu has left people with the impression that the classic folk songs, ethnic customs,
Lijiang fishing boat combination of elements such as innovation and the successful interpretation
of the harmonious relationship between man and nature, and created a Heaven and Man of the
art realm. Whole work from life, is higher than life, is to Guilin cultural and human culture, a high
degree of refinement and system optimization, is cast in the cultural landscape of mountains and
rivers is another new cultural landscape.
(D) the development of tourism is conducive to the protection of cultural
Tourism resources development process, but also the process of cultural rescue. For the
vast majority of tourism development projects, people are attention to the cultural penetration and
cultural protection. Building a model of China's ancient palace on behalf of - the National Palace
in 300 years of wind and rain after baptism, had been damaged severely, in order to better carry
out domestic and foreign tourists and opening up, the state has invested a billion dollars of funds
for repairs, has been basically completed; China's Tibetan architectural treasures - the Potala
Palace, the three Towers of Jiangnan - Yueyang Tower, the Yellow Crane Tower, Pavilion of
Prince Teng and other cultural heritage, mostly in the development of tourism resources to repair
and protection.

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Indian rock-cut architecture is more various and found in greater abundance than any other form
of rock-cut architecture around the world.[1] Rock-cut architecture is the practice of creating a
structure by carving it out of solid natural rock. Rock that is not part of the structure is removed
until the only rock left are the architectural elements of the excavated interior. Indian rock-cut
architecture is mostly religious in nature. In India, caves have long been regarded as places of
sanctity. Caves that were enlarged or entirely man-made were felt to hold the same sanctity as
natural caves. In fact the sanctuary in all Indian religious structures, even free standing ones,
retain the same cave-like feeling of sacredness, being small and dark without natural light.

Rock-cut architecture is the practice of creating buildings and other physical structures by
carving natural rock. In India the term 'cave' is often applied, and in China 'cavern,' but one must
differentiate natural caves from rock-cut architecture which is man-made and designed along
the conventions of architecture itself and thus in every respect a part of architecture and its
history. Though rock-cut architecture differs from traditional architecture in many obvious ways,
many rock cut structures are often made to replicate traditional architectural forms in the
facades and even in their interiors. The interiors were usually carved out by starting at what
would wind up being the roof and then working downward, for the obvious reason that stones
would not be falling on one's head. The three main uses of rock-cut architecture
were temples (like those in India), tombs (like those in Petra, Jordan) and cave dwelling (like
those in Cappadocia, Turkey).

Rock-cut architecture is also said to be cut, hewn, etc., "from the living rock". Another term
sometimes associated with rock-cut architecture is monolithic architecture, what is rather
applied to free-standing structures made of single piece of material. Monolithic architecture
often is rock cut architecture (e.g. Kailasanatha Temple) but monolithic strictures might be also
cast of artificial material,
Ancient monuments of rock cut architecture are widespread in several regions of world. Some of
the most ancient known examples are located on several Mediterranean islands
e.g. Malta(Hypogeum of Ħal-Saflieni), Sardinia (Anghelu Ruju, built in 3,000 - 1,500 BCE) and
others.

Large scale rock cut structures were built in Ancient Egypt and among important monuments
could be mentioned the Great Temple of Ramesses II, known as Abu Simbel, located along the
Nile in Nubia, near the borders of Sudan about 300 kilometers from Aswan in Egypt. It dates
from about 1280 BCE, and consists of a monumentally scaled facade carved out of the cliff and
a set of interior chambers that form its sanctuary. In the 5th century BCE, the Lycians, who
inhabited southern Anatolia (now Turkey) built hundreds of rock-cut tombs on a similar
prototype, but smaller in scale.[

 ]
Excellent examples are to be found near Dalyan, a
town in Muğla Province, along the sheer cliffs that faces a river. Since these served as tombs
rather than as religious sites, the interiors were usually small and unassuming. The
ancient Etruscans of central Italy also left an important legacy of rock-cut architecture, mostly
tombs, as those near the city of Tarquinia

The Oldest Caves is the Barabar caves, Bihar built around 3rd Century BC,other early cave
temples are found in the western Deccan, mostly Buddhist shrines and monasteries, dating
between 100 BC and 170 AD. They were probably preceded as well as accompanied
by woodenstructures which are destroyed over time while stone endures. Throughout the
history of rock-cut temples, the elements of wooden construction have been retained. Skilled
craftsmen learned to mimic timber texture, grain and structure. The earliest cave temples
include the Bhaja Caves, theKarla Caves, the Bedse Caves, the Kanheri Caves and some of
the Ajanta Caves. Relics found in these caves suggest an important connection between the
religious and the commercial, as Buddhist missionaries often accompanied traders on the busy
international trading routes through India. Some of the more sumptuous cave temples,
commissioned by wealthy traders, included pillars, arches, and elaborate facades during the
time maritime trade boomed between the Roman Empire and south-east Asia.

Although free standing structural temples were being built by the 5th century, rock-cut cave
temples continued to be built in parallel. Later rock-cut cave architecture became more
sophisticated as in theEllora Caves, culminating ultimately the monolithic Kailash Temple. After
this, rock-cut architecture became almost totally structural in nature (although cave temples
continued to be built until the 12th century), made from rocks cut into bricks and built as free
standing constructions. Kailash was the last spectacular rock-cut excavated temple.
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The earliest caves employed by humans were natural caves used by local inhabitant for a
variety of purposes such as shrines and shelters. The early caves included overhanging rock
decorated with rock-cut art and the use of natural caves during the Mesolithic period (6000 BC).
Their use has continued in some areas into historic times. The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka,
a World Heritage Site, are on the edge of the Deccan Plateau where deep erosion has left
huge sandstone outcrops. The many caves and grottosfound there contain primitive tools and
decorative rock paintings that reflect the ancient tradition of human interaction with their
landscape, an interaction that continues to this day.
Cave temples
When Buddhist missionaries arrived they naturally gravitated to caves for use as cave temples
and abodes, in accord with their religious ideas of asceticism and the monastic life.
The Western Ghatstopography with its flat-topped basalt hills, deep ravines and sharp cliffs,
was suited to their natural inclinations. The earliest of the Kanheri Caves were excavated in the
1rst and 2nd centuries B.C. as were those at Ajanta which were occupied continuously by
Buddhist monks from 200 BCE to 650 AD. The Buddhist ideology encouraged identification with
trade, monasteries became stopovers for inland traders and provided lodging houses that were
usually located near trade routes. As their mercantile and royal endowments grew, cave
interiors became more elaborate with interior walls decorated with paintings and reliefs and
intricate carvings. Facades were added to the exteriors as the interiors became designated for
specific uses as monasteries (viharas) and worship halls (chaityas). Over the centuries simple
caves began to resemble three-dimensional buildings, needing to be formally designed and
requiring highly skilled artisans and craftsmen to complete. Theses artisans had not forgotten
their timber roots and imitated the nuances of a wooden structure and the wood grain in working
with stone.

Early examples of rock cut architecture are the Buddhist and Jain cave basadi, temples
andmonasteries, many with chandrashalas. The aesthetic nature of these religions inclined their
followers to live in natural caves and grottos in the hillsides, away from the cities, and these
became enhanced and embellished over time. Although many temples, monasteries and stupas
had been destroyed, by contrast cave temples are very well preserved as they are both less
visible and therefore less vulnerable to vandalism as well as made of more durable material
than wood and masonry. There are around 1200 cave temples still in existence, most of which
are Buddhist. The residences of monks were called Viharas and the cave shrines,
called Chaityas, were for congregational worship. The earliest rock-cut OO, similar to
free-standing ones later, had an inner circular chamber with pillars to create
a circumambulatory path (pradakshina) around the stupa and an outer rectangular hall for the
congregation of the devotees.

The Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra, a World Heritage Site, are 30 rock-cut cave Buddhist temples
carved into the sheer vertical side of a gorge near a waterfall-fed pool located in the hills of
theSahyadri mountains. Like all the locations of Buddhist caves, this one is located near main
trade routes and spans six centuries beginning in the 2nd or 1st century B.C. A period of intense
building activity at this site occurred under the Vakataka king Harisena between 460 and 478 A
profuse variety of decorative sculpture, intricately carved columns and carved reliefs are found,
including exquisitely carved cornices and pilaster.[13] Skilled artisans crafted living rock to imitate
timbered wood (such as lintels) in construction and grain and intricate decorative carving,
although such architectural elements were ornamental and not functional in the classical sense.

Another example of cave temple architecture are the Badami Cave Temples at Badami, the
earlyChalukya capital, carved out in the 6th century. There are four cave temples hewn from the
sides of cliffs, three Hindu and one Jain, that contain carved architectural elements such as
decorative pillars and brackets as well as finely carved sculpture and richly etched ceiling
panels. Nearby are many small Buddhist cave shrines.
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The Pallava architects started the carving of rock for the creation of a monolithic copies of
structural temples. A feature of the rock-cut cave temple distribution until the time of the
early Pallavas is that they did not move further south than Aragandanallur, with the solitary
exception of Tiruchitrapalli on the south bank of theKaveri River, the traditional southern
boundary between north and south. Also, good granite exposures for rock-cut structures were
generally not available south of the river.

A rock cut temple is carved from a large rock and excavated and cut to imitate a wooden or
masonry temple with wall decorations and works of art.Pancha Rathas is an example of
monolith Indian rock cut architecture dating from the late 7th century located at
Mamallapuram,a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Ellora cave temple 16, the Kailash Temple, is singular in that it was excavated from the top
down rather than by the usual practice of carving into the scarp of a hillside. The Kailash
Temple was created through a single, huge top-down excavation 100 feet deep down into the
volcanic basalticcliff rock. It was commissioned in 8th century by King Krishna I and took more
than 100 years to complete. The Kailash Temple, or cave 16 as it is known at Ellora
Caves located at Maharastraon the Deccan Plateau, is a huge monolithic temple dedicated
to Lord Shiva. There are 34 caves built at this site, but the other 33 caves, Hindu, Buddhist, and
Jain, were carved into the side of the plateau rock. The effect of the Kailash Temple is that of a
free-standing temple surrounded by smaller cave shrines carved out of the same black rock.
The Kailash Temple is carved with figures of gods and goddesses from the Hindu Puranas,
along with mystical beings like the heavenly nymphs and musicians and figures of good fortune
and fertility. Ellora Caves is also a World Heritage Site.
#/ 


There is no time line that divides the creation of rock-cut temples and free-standing temples built
with cut stone as they developed in parallel. The building of free-standing structures began in
5th century, while rock cut temples continued to be excavated until the 12th century. An
example of a free-standing structural temple is the Shore Temple, with its slender tower, built on
the shore of the Bay of Bengal with finely carved granite rocks cut like bricks and dating from
the 8th century. It is considered to be part of Group of Monuments at
the Mahabalipuram UNESCO World Heritage Site.