PLANNING THEORY

Synoptic Rationality
· Most frequently used planning approach for comprehensive plans
· Used when there is a consensus in the community
· Includes four classical elements (not necessarily done in this order)
· goal setting
· identification of policy alternatives
· evaluation of means against ends
· implementation of the preferred alternative

Incremental Planning
· Used to change just one aspect of a plan
· Although, it is a hard concept…that is, not to have an impact on other plan components
· Decision making is a series of small, incremental steps…it is sometimes known as “the science of muddling
through”
· Planners are continuously barraged with information, demands, crises and short-term problems that must be
dealt with, with very little time or money

Transactive Planning
· Developed in the 1960s as a way to get the public involved in the planning process
· Planning for the people, by the people
· Community meetings were the principle forum
· More emphasis is given to the process of personal and organizational development, and not just the achievement
of specific community objectives
· Plans are evaluated on improvements to the quality of life, not the delivery of services

Advocacy Planning
· Developed in the 1960s, by Paul Davidoff, to defend the interest of weak and poorly represented groups (e.g.,
minorities or low-income groups)
· Didn’t necessarily help the community, rather it created a lot of planner in-fighting since each planner has to
defend “their” group’s interest
· It did prove successful, however, in blocking some insensitive plans
· A direct result of advocacy planning can be seen in the increasing requirements for environmental, social and
financial impact reports to accompany large-scale project proposals

Radical Planning
· DOES NOT WORK
· An example of radical planning would be to allow neighborhood committees take over the planning functions
that are usually found in centralized community development departments

Utopianism
· Solve society’s ills through physical planning
· Goals are clearly and powerfully stated, usually be a single person recognized by his supporters as a “visionary”
· Examples abound, including Le Corbusier’s Contemporary City, Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City, Daniel
Burnham’s White City, and Frank Lloyd Wright’s Broadacre City
Methodism
· Where the method to be used is very clear, but the ends to be achieved are largely undefined or unknown
· Certain techniques are so well established in planning practice that simply performing them has become syn-
onymous with good planning (e.g., zoning reviews, public hearings, building code appeals, subdivision reviews,
geographic information systems)

COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING
Identify Goals, Objectives,
· In a broad sense, a Comprehensive Plan is a document that provides a Community Values and Needs
community with a reference for how development can best be accom- demographics
economics
modated at present and in the future. Generally, a comp. plan considers Base Studies population
history
not only physical development aspects, but social and economic devel-
opment, as well. Development of Plan Concepts
· There are several guidelines for preparing a comp. plan that should be
followed uniformly (to protect yourself from charges of inconsistency Development of Plan Alternatives
in land use decisions, and to withstand legal challenges by not being
vaguely written, or esoteric): Evaluation of Plan Alternatives
· language should be precise
· plan should be comprehensive Plan Selection and Refinement
· based on sound research and technical studies
· do not base on abstract planning theories Plan Adoption
· policies must be clearly stated
· policies must be consistently applied Implementation by Private and
· The generalized comprehensive planning process (at right): Public Investment Actions

Review and Evaluation

STRATEGIC PLANNING
• Strategic planning is more focused than other types of planning,
and its main purpose is to direct resource deployment to accom- Analyze the community’s needs
plish the goal
• Successful strategic planning focuses on implementation, mea- Analyze the issues to be addressed
suring progress, continuous monitoring, evaluation, re-deployment
of resources and adjustments Identify WOTS
• Short term
• Progress is measured with objectives quantified by time and mea- Formulate project
sure of success
• Strategic planning: Define alternative strategies
• focuses on a specific, limited issue
• identifies the type of resources needed and when they are Evaluate their effectiveness
needed
• assesses outside opportunities and threats which may affect Choose most effective
the outcome
• assesses the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats Develop tactical or operational plans
(SWOTs) of the organization/community
• emphasizes action and “practical results” Monitor performance
• uses public participation to develop and refine strategies,
measures and approaches Evaluate an recycle
• The strategic planning process (below):
VISIONING
• “What do we want to be?”
• A typical start-up process to a comprehensive plan
• Goals in visioning are typically based on what already exists in a community, and it does not look at any of the
existing opportunities and constraints.
• For example, in a community that has one major employer that is an industrial plant, an economic development
goal might be to diversify the economy by encouraging other industries and complimentary services to locate
there. In the visioning process, however, this same community might envision a totally different physical and
economic based environment, no longer dominated by a plant, but an opposite physical environment such as a
quaint tourist mecca for antique collectors.

PLANNING HISTORY/TIMELINE
1785 - Land Ordinance Act of 1785 established rectangular survey coordinates. It also provided government land
cheaply to whoever would farm it, which led to intense land speculation.
1851 - Sir Titus Salt introduced an all units economic rent (where a minimum amount of rent was needed to cover
costs of maintenance and original construction costs without additional profit to the owner) in Saltaire, En-
gland. It proved that the gross exploitation (laissez faire) of the working class was not needed for growth.
1853 - Central Park (NY) land purchase authorized.
1856 - Central Park was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted.
1867 - The first New York Tenement House Law is passed.
1867 - San Francisco ordinance preventing slaughterhouses next to residential districts. (The beginning of land
use zoning.)
1880 - Pullman, Illinois, a model/planned industrial town is built by George Pullman.
1893 - The City Beautiful Movement begins. with “White City” at the Columbian Exposition, at the World’s
Fair in Chicago, Illinois. (The key players were Daniel Burnham, Frederick Law Olmsted, Charles McKim,
and Augustus St. Gaudens.)
1898 - Ebenezer Howard writes To-Morrow: A Peaceful Path of Real Reform. Helped introduce the Garden
Cities concept; whereas, satellite cities are self-supporting, with a finite population, and are surrounded by
green belts. This book begins the Garden City Movement in Europe.
1901 - The New York “New Law” was adopted to regulate tenement housing. It required inspections, included
penalties, created a planning department, and mandated light and air courts, toilets, and not more than 70% of
a lot.
1901 - The McMillan Committee appointed to restore the original character of the (Pierre Charles) L’Enfant Plan
for Washington, D.C., of 1790. (The key players were Daniel Burnham, Frederick Law Olmsted, and Charles
McKim.)
1903 - Letchworth, England, was the first Garden City designed by Ebenezer Howard.
1906 - The Antiquities Act of 1906 was the first major “historic preservation” legislation that stemmed from a
concern of the wholesale destruction of pre-historic remains in the Southwest.
1907 - The Connecticut legislature crates the first, official planning board in Hartford.
1909 - Washington, D.C. established the first planning association: the National Conference on City Planning
(NCCP).
1909 - Daniel Burnham developed and published his Chicago Plan, the first regional city plan in the U.S.
1916 - The National Park Service is created.
1916 - New York adopts the first comprehensive zoning ordinance, which included both districts and subdivision
ordinances. Edward Bassett, the “father” of zoning, was the author.
1917 - The American City Planning Institute (ACPI) is created. The first president was Frederick Law Olmsted,
Jr. Its purpose was to provide a forum for the consideration of technical details for the new science of city
planning.
1919 - Welwyn, England, was the second Garden City designed by Raymond Unwin.
1921 - The Vieux Carre was established as the nation’s first historic preservation commission.
1922 - The Standard State Zoning Enabling Act was issued by the U.S. Department of Commerce (under Secre-
tary Herbert Hoover). It confused the concept/definitions of zoning and comprehensive planning.
1922 - First suburban, auto-oriented shopping center is constructed: Country Club Plaza in Kansas City, MO.
1924 - Sunnyside Gardens were developed. These “tenement” houses were large blocks (super blocks) of apart-
ments surrounding open space. The plan actually considered how people lived.
1925 - Burgess develops the “concentric” model of urban development
1925 - Cincinnati adopted the first comprehensive plan based on the welfare of the city as a whole. (Alfred
Bettman, an attorney, authored the plan, and Ladislas Segoe, an engineer turned planner, helped.)
1926 - The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of comprehensive zoning in Euclid v. Ambler Realty Com-
pany.
1928 - Radburn, New Jersey, was the first Garden City built in the U.S.
1928 - The Standard City Planning Enabling Act was issued by the U.S. Department of Commerce (under Herbert
Hoover). It dictated what could occur in each city.
1929 - Publication of the Regional Plan of New York and its Environs by Clarence Perry. Broke new ground in its
treatment of the neighborhood, finance, government services, and the economic base of the city. Whereas,
basic needs should be made available to “all” in any given development. Introduced the Neighborhood Unit
Principle (i.e., apts. w/ schools within walking distance, and surrounded by non-thru streets).
1931 - First U.S. local historic district ordinance passed in Charleston, SC.
1932 - Federal Home(?) Loan Bank was established
1933 - The Tennessee Valley Authority established (by Senator George Norris) as an independent multi-functional
government agency for the regional planning and development of the Tenn. River Valley
1935 - Federal Emergency Relief Act (administered by the Rural Resettlement Administration) was created for
soil conservation and agricultural adjustment to relocate farmers from poor land to good farm land. Estab-
lished “Greenbelt Towns”: Greenbelt, MD; Greenhills, OH; and Greendale, WI.
1934 - Housing Act of 1934 created the Public Works Administration (PWA) and the Federal Housing Administra-
tion (FHA) to stimulate construction and lower financing costs. Established minimum standards for housing
construction.
1934 - Creation of American Society of Planning Officials (ASPO) as a national citizens’ focus on planning. (First
president was Alfred Bettman, the Cincinnati attorney who authored the first comprehensive plan.)
1935 - National Historic Sites Act passed, authorizing the U.S. Department of the Interior to survey sites under a
National Historic Landmarks Program and acquire historic property.
1937 - Housing Act of 1937 created the US Housing Authority (USHA) to loan funds to local housing authorities to
build low-rent public housing, through slum clearance. (Introduced by Wagner Steagall.)
1939 - Homer Hoyt develops the Sector Theory of urban growth.
1941 - Ladislas Segoe writes Local Planning Administration.
1947 - Housing and Home Agencies Administration established. This was the predecessor of HUD.
1947 - Levittown, New York was the first New Town.
1949 - Housing Act of 1949 established the goal: “A decent home for every family in a suitable environment.” The
beginning of redevelopment whereby cities interfere substantially in the local private land market.
1949 - National Trust for Historic Preservation chartered by Congress.
1954 - Housing Act of 1954 established comprehensive planning grants (Section 701) for communities under
21,000 to finance master plans; amended the 1949 Act to include rehabilitation and conservation; encouraged
infill; and required a workable plan for urban renewal.
1956 - Federal Aid Highway Act creates the Interstate Highway System linking all state capitals and cities larger
than 50,000.
1960 - Kevin Lynch writes Image of the City.
1961 - Jane Jacobs writes The Death and Life of Great American Cities.
1961 - Paul Davidoff develops the concept of advocacy planner whereby a planner serves a given client group’s
interests and does so openly.
1961 - Hawaii initiates first statewide zoning code.
1963 - Columbia, Maryland, was a New Town that emphasized community and class integration.
1966 - National Historic Preservation Act establishes an expanded National Register, and Advisory Council on
Historic Preservation and grants to the states.
1967 - Ian Clark writes Design by Nature, was very important for environmental planning in this country.
1968 - Inter-Governmental Relations Act establishes A-95 Review Agencies to coordinate projects between the
three levels of government (through a state clearinghouse).
1969 - National Environmental Policy Act enacted, requiring an Environmental Impact Statement for all major
federal actions.
1970 - Clean Air Act enacted to prevent significant deterioration of air quality, to develop state implementation
plans, and to control fixed and mobile source emissions.
1974 - Housing and Community Development Act of 1974 set up Community Development Block Grants (CDBG)
which replaced the categorical grants-in-aid.
1978 - American Planning Association created by a merger of the ACPI and ASPO.
1991 - Intermodal Surface Transportation Enhancement Act (ISTEA) enacted to fund transportation improve-
ments.
1999 - Transportation Enhancement Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21) enacted to continue to fund transporta-
tion improvements.

[IMPORTANT] PLANNING MOVEMENTS

Agrarian (1800s)
• Premise: A life rooted in agriculture is the most humanly valuable.
• Key Actors: Thomas Jefferson and Hector St. John de Crevecoeur

Laissez Faire (1800s)

• Premise: Out of totally unrestricted competition, all society would ultimately benefit, and the individual
hardship resulting from such competition was essential to the ultimate good of the state. Exploit the poor...

Public Health (late 1800s)

• Premise: To guarantee government involvement in public health and safety of the worker (e.g., plant safety,
maximum hours, minimum housing standards, and light and air provisions).
• Achievements: Central Park, the First New York Tenement House Law of 1867, and the San Francisco Ordi-
nance of 1867
• Demise: It lost support during the 1920s as the nation prospered

City Beautiful (c. 1900-1920s)

• Premise: 1) The beauty of public works projects that attract the wealthy makes pleasant the life of the poor,
are accessible to all men, and create a unifying civic pride
• Premise: 2) The attraction of those with wealth crates a flow of money that filters down to all citizens
• Premise: 3) Creation of broad, tree-lined avenues brings light, air, and nature to the slum.
• Key Actors: Daniel Burnham, Fredercik Law Olmsted, McKim, St. Gaudens, and Charles Gottlieb.
• Achievements: St. Louis World’s Fair, Carnegie libraries
• Demise: Big business lost interest and there was increased awareness of corruption related to City Beautiful
projects. Although the movement declined, the emphasis on physical site planning was internalized in planning
efforts regulating the development of the suburbs.
• Other Notes: -Began with the Columbian Exposition at the Chicago World’s Fair in 1893.
-The “White City” team could not agree on a color scheme so it was painted all white.
-The first example (in the United States) of a great group of buildings designed in relation to
one another and to surrounding open spaces.
Garden City (c. 1920s in the U.S.)
• Premise: An anti-urban, agrarian, romantic approach to the city predicated on: the sacredness of nature, the
inherent immorality of the city, and a return to the pre-industrial village.
• Key Actors: Ebenezer Howard from his book, To-Morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform (1898).
• Achievements: Letchworth, England (1903-1920)
Welwyn, England (1919-1934)
Radburn, New Jersey (1928)
• Welwyn Notes: Welwyn was designed by Louis de Soissons to have an ultimate population of 40,000. It was far
more successful than Letchworth because its location allowed workers to travel to London and those living in
London to work in Welwyn. It was also designed with the “superblock” street scheme.
• U.S. Notes: The Garden City started to take effect in the U.S. in the 1928 with the design of Radburn, New
Jersey. It was influenced by Ebenezer Howard’s cities and Raymond Unwin’s Hampstead Garden suburb (1907).
It was the first comprehensive suburban neighborhood design, and resulted in the total planning and physical
design of a predominantly residential area with spatial openness, lush greenery, parks, shopping facilities, and
schools.

EARLY PLANNING AND TOWN DEVELOPMENT

Garden City: Radburn, NJ (1928)
• “City of the Motor Age”
• Used superblocks and cul-de-sacs
• Public pedestrian ways ran between properties that led to natural amenities (parks, schools and shopping)
• Utilized the underpass to cross busy streets
• Not really a “Garden City” because it DID NOT have a planned greenbelt, nor was it self-contained as a social
production unit, nor did it have a single-tax land rent system

Greenbelt Towns: Greenbelt, MD; Greenhills, OH; and Greendale, WI (1935-1950s)

• Established by the Emergency Relief Act of 1935
• Administered by the Rural Resettlement Administration (RRA)
• Created for soil conservation primarily to relocate farmers from poor soil to good land.
• Greenbrook, New Jersey was never built because the RRA was stopped by the courts, because the federal
government couldn’t use powers of eminant domain thay way.
• All cities were owned and operated by the Federal government until they were sold to private enterprise by the
Eisenhower Administration in the 1950s.

New Towns: Levittown, NY and Park Forest, IL (1947-1948)

• They were primarily massive land subdivisions and single-family housing projects. They provided a few com-
munity facilities and were built on the model of the war housing projects of the 1940s.

New Towns: Reston, VA (1960s)

• Emphasis on major amenities, large open spaces, and a high quality of physical design.
• 75,000 population cluster plan with houses in seven villages (of approximately 10,000 each)
• Lies within in D.C.’s 2000 plan, that proposes new growth be handled in satellite cities rather than in uncon-
trolled sprawl.
• 6,810 total acreage, of which 22% is public open space.
• Housing includes: detached, town houses, tower units, and apartments.

New Towns: Columbia, MD (1960s)

• Emphasis on overlapping communities...
IMPORTANT NAMES, TITLES AND OTHER INFORMATION
Frederick Law Olmsted
• Co-designer of Central Park
• Co-designer of Riverside, Illinois
• Site planner for the 1893 Columbian Exposition

Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr.

• Designer of Forest Hills Gardens
• Designer of Palos Verdes Estates
• First president of the American City Planning Institute

Ebenezer Howard
• Author of To-Morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform (1898)
• Garden City theory
- Satellite garden cities surrounding a central garden city; whereas, each city was self-supporting while relying
on the central city for regional facilities.
- Finite population of 32,000 thus preventing deteriorating sprawl at the edges
- Single-tax land rent system

Daniel Burnham
• Author of the Plan of Chicago (1909)
• McMillan Committee Chairman (to restore the original L’Enfant plan for D.C.)
• Author of the Plan of Manila (1904)
• Father of City Planning in the U.S.
• Developed the “White City” concept for the 1893 Columbian Exposition
• “Make no little plans; they have no magic to stir men’s blood and probably will not be realized. Make big plans;
aim high in hope and work, remember, that a noble, logical diagram once recorded will never die, but long after
we are gone will be a living thing, asserting itself with ever-growing insistency. Remember that our sons and
grandsons are going to do things that would stagger us. Let your watchword be order and your beacon beauty.”

Edward Bassett
• Author of Zoning (1916), the concept of a comprehensive zoning code
• Based on this work, New York State adopted the first comprehensive zoning ordinance in the U.S.
• Gave power to cities to regulate and limit building heights, bulk, and area of yards and courts.
• Also divided city up into districts (or zones).

Kevin Lynch
• Author of Image of the City (1960)
• Professor at MIT.

Jane Jacobs
• Author of The Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961)
• The principle need for the development of a satisfying urban life was the need for a close-grained diversity
of primary uses that are mutually supporting, both economically and socially.
• Four primary conditions are required for generating useful city diversity (a city planners’ responsibility):
- mixture of uses
- small blocks
- retention of old buildings
- concentration
Frank Lloyd Wright
• Author of the Broadacre City: A New Community Plan (1935)
• Lot sizes varied with family size
• His agrarian, romantic idea did not work; it failed to consider economic facts and social revolution; and accom-
modated only to the very rich
• A VERY outdated philosophy
New York City Codes:
New York Tenement House Law of 1879 (the “Old Law”) 1867 Tenement Law
• Developed to require stricter standards of housing than the 1867 law. 1879 Old Law
• Raised housing code expectations. 1901 New Law
1916 Comprehensive
• Requirements included: Zoning
- that new tenement buildings be constructed on a dumbbell plan
- two toilets per floor
- a narrow air shaft between adjacent structures with windows opening onto it (from the interior rooms)
- no more than 65% land coverage (on other than corner lots)

New York State Tenement House Law of 1901 (the “New Law”)
• Developed to require building permits.
• Became the model for tenement laws throughout the U.S. and was one of the forerunners of the various reforms
that would affect American cities in the 20th century.
• Requirements included:
- permits for construction, alterations, and conversion
- inspection upon completion of work
- penalties for noncompliance
- a permanent tenement house department to administer the law
- construction on two New York City lots
- larger and wider air courts between structures

New York Comprehensive Zoning Code

• Comprehensive in that it combined land use zoning control of building height, building setbacks, and yards in
one integrated ordinance.
• Divided city into three land use zones, five classes of building height districts, gave classes of bulk and area
according to height.
• This comprehensive zoning ordinance began to toll the demise of the City Beautiful movement as the dominant
planning movement in the U.S. and rise of the City Efficient movement dominated by engineers, lawyers, and
administrators, which was to replace it in the 1920s.
• Also signaled a shift away from direct governmental alterations of city form via public projects to the improve-
ment of the city through indirect legal/administrative controls or private construction.

Standard City Planning Enabling Act

• Issued by the Department of Commerce in 1928
• Purpose for the adoption by each state to grant municipalities the right to engage in land use policy and control
activities.
• This Act was issued after the Zoning Enabling Act which caused some problems.
• Confusion in the phrasing of act itself between “planning” and “zoning” which led to the interpretation that the
act of zoning was identical to the act of planning
Housing Act of 1934
• Created the Public Works Administration (PWA) and Federal Housing Administration (FHA) to stimulate con-
struction and lower financing costs.
• Federal government entered the housing field and revolutionized the home and mortgage lending industries.
• Main features included:
- federal insurance and mortgage lending by private institutions to property owners for construction of new
single-family homes, alterations, and repairs of existing and rental houses
- the FHA established a down payment of 20%, 20 year loans, and was designed to optimize resale value

Housing Act of 1937

• Developed the U.S. Housing Authority (USHA) which loaned funds to local housing authorities to build low-
rent public housing or for low-income housing.
• Only housing authorities could receive funds, not local city governments.
• Laid the foundation for most of the Federal housing programs for the next 40 years.
• Main features included:
- local housing authorities determined the need for public housing, location of projects, the planning construc-
tion, and management of the developments
- rents could not exceed 1/5 of a family’s income if three or fewer dependents...1/6 if four or more dependents
- only families in substandard units eligible
- required that one substandard unit be eliminated for each new one built

Housing Act of 1949

• Developed a program of federal aid for urban redevelopment, or Title I, projects.
• Established a goal of 800,000 new housing projects.
• Cities began to interfere substantially in the local private land market.
• “A decent home for every family, in a suitable environment.”
• Governmental concern was widened to include housing of all, not just the low-income.
• Recognized that there was a clear distinction between slum clearance and low rent housing.
• Main features included:
- planning and implementing a code enforcement program
- Section 502, Section 504, Title V, and Rural Housing Loans

Housing Act of 1954

• Developed to extend the clearance programs of the 1949 Act to the rehabilitation of areas in the process of
deteriorating and the conservation of non-deteriorating areas in danger of becoming deteriorated.
• Emphasized a three-part approach: slum clearance, rehabilitation, conservation
• Specified a comprehensive plan was needed to get funds
• Changed Title III form “Slum Clearance & Community Development” to “Slum Clearance & Urban Renewal.”
• Title I, Section 701 provided funds for the development of comprehensive planning programs for communities
under 25,000 with a 50/50 match (a major, long-lasting program).

Housing and Community Development Act of 1974

• Set up Community Development Block Grants (CDBG) to replace the categorical grants in-aid program.
• CDBG is an entitlement grant that does not require the elaborate justification that the categorical programs did.
• To eliminate slums and blight. To conserve and expand the nation’s housing stock. To improve the quality of
community services. To expand economic opportunity.
• Mostly benefits low- and moderate-income families.
• Grossly mis-managed and abused.
Telecommunications Act of 1976
• Regulations made by local governments can’t prohibit the provision of personal wireless service.
• Regulations made by local governments can’t discriminate among functionally equivalent equipment.
• Regulations made by local governments can’t inhibit a request to construct or modify personal wireless facili-
ties beyond a reasonable period of time after the request is made.
• Regulations made by local governments can’t regulate facilities on the basis of environmental effects of radio
frequency emissions that are beyond Federal guidelines.
• Deregulated Broadcast, Cable, Telecommunication, and Video Programming services.

Development of Planning Organizations

• 1917 - American City Planning Institute (ACPI)
• 1934 - American Society of Planning Officials (ASPO)
• 1939 - ACPI renamed the American Institute of Planning (AIP)
• 1978 - ASPO and AIP combine to form the American Planning Association (APA)

American City Planning Institute (ACPI)

• Parent institution of AIP.
• Formed in Kansas City in 1917.
• Purpose was to provide a forum for the consideration of technical details of the new science of city planning.
• Growing awareness of the inadequacy of the City Beautiful movement.
• New emphasis tended to bring the civil engineer to the forefront of city planning and the diminishment of the
roles of architects and landscape architects. (Dohhh!)

American Society of Planning Officials (ASPO)

• Created in 1934.
• Result of work by the Ohio State Conference on City Planning.
• National citizen-focused planning organization.
• Created to serve as a clearinghouse for information about city planning to government officials and to increase
communication among planners.
• The first president was Alfred Bettman (author of the Cincinnati Comprehensive Plan).

Concepts of Spatial Organization

• Cantral place theory, developed by Walter Christaller
• Concentric theory, developed by Burgess in 1925.
- As growth occurs, each inner zone tends to invade the next outer zone
• Sector theory, developed by Hoyt in 1939.
- Different income classes of a city tend to be found in distinct areas describable in terms of sectors centered on
the CBD
• Multiple Nuclei Zone theory, developed by Harris and Ullman in 1945.
- No single center, but several nuclei of activity, each influencing the land use patterns of a city

LANDMARK CASES
Welch v. Swasey, 214 US 91 (1909)
• Massachusetts town established the constitutional right of cities to limit building heights by districts.
Pennsylvania Coal v. Mahon, 260 US 393 (1922)
• “If regulation goes too far, it will be recognized as a taking.” (First takings ruling)
Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty Co., 272 US 365 (1926)
• Upheld zoning as constitutional, as being within the police powers of a state. If zoning classifications were
reasonable, then they would be upheld. (Alfred Bettman argued for the Village of Euclid)
Berman v. Parker, 348 US 26 (1954)
• Held that aesthetics was a valid reason to support actions taken for the public welfare. Upheld redevelopment
programs that took property in eminent domain and resold the property to private developers for redevelopment.
Golden v. Planning Board of the Town of Ramapo, 409 US 1003 (1972)
• Court allowed the exclusionary device of performance standards/availability of public services to stand. Local
governments can condition development approval on the provision of services through phased growth, which
for some properties can take up to 18 years (unless the developer provides the services earlier).
Village of Belle Terre v. Borass, 426 US 1 (1974)
• Extended the concept of zoning under police power to include a community’s desire for certain types of life-
styles. Upheld the power to prohibit more than two unrelated individuals from living together as a single family.
Southern Burlington County NAACP v. Township of Mount Laurel, 423 US 808 (1975)
• Through exclusionary zoning, Mt. Laurel made it impossible for multifamily, mobile home, or low- to moder-
ate-income developments...only large lot single family. The Court found that Mt. Laurel must make its “doors
open to everyone, of all income levels.”
Construction Industry Association of Sonoma County v. City of Petaluma, 424 US 934 (1976)
• Communities can restrict the number of building permits granted each year if reasonable. This does not violate
the “right to travel.”
Penn Central Transportation Co. v. City of New York, 438 US 104 (1978)
• Held valid the NYC Landmark Preservation Law as applied to the Grand Central Terminal; whereby, prohibit-
ing some development of air rights was not a taking when the interior of the property could be put to a profitable
use. Reaffirmed that the owner must be denied all reasonable use of a property before a taking occurs.
Southern Burlington County NAACP v. Township of Mount Laurel, 456 A 2d 390 (1983)
• Eight years after the first case the Court found that Mt. Laurel still had exclusionary policies in place. The Town
was ordered to utilize affirmative measures such as housing subsidies, reservation of certain developments for
multifamily housing, and zoning laws that allow mobile homes.
First English Evangelical Lutheran Church v. County of Los Angeles, 482 US 304 (1987)
• Court rejected the concept that the sole remedy for a taking is payment of the full value of the property. Whereby,
the city could either buy the property out-right, or revoke the ordinance and pay the church for its losses during
the time of the trial.
Nollan v. California Coastal Commission, 483 US 825 (1987)
• Development exactions are valid, as long as there is a reasonable relationship between the imposed exaction and
the impact on a project. Whereby, the CCC gave conditional approval to for the Nollan’s new house if they
dedicated an easement (for public beach access) across their lot. This was not reasonable.
Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council, 505 US 1003 (1992)
• When a regulation goes so far as to deny all economic use of a property, it will be considered a taking unless the
prohibited use is “barred by existing rules or understandings” derived from the state’s law of property and
nuisance. Whereby, Lucas purchased two parcels in 1986 and the State enacted controls in 1988 that determined
the land unavailable for development. This is a takings, since it was developable when it was purchased.
Dolan v. City of Tigard, 114 S Ct 2309, 2315 (1994)
• Permit conditions that require the deeding of portions of a property to the government can be justified only if the
required dedication is related to the nature and extent of the impact of the proposed development. Whereby, the
City disallowed the exaction of a floodplain for a commercial establishment that wanted to expand.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
• Population -
a collection that contains anything.
• Sample -
a subset of a population.
• Sampling frame -
a selection from an accessible population (e.g., selecting a sample from a phone book).
• Random selection -
the best method of sampling.
• Random assignment -
comes after we’ve selected our sample, then they are assigned to a group (e.g., one-half gets medication and
one-half gets a placebo). THIS IS CRITICAL TO INTERNAL VALIDITY.
• Statistic -
applies to a sample.
• Parameter -
applies to a population.
• Distribution -
summary of value frequency or ranges of values.
• Central tendency - : (“mu” represents the mean of a population)
• Mean - x (“x-bar” generally represents the mean of a sample) E x1
the average of a distribution. (2+2+2+2+3+3+3+4+4 = 25 / 9 = 2.777) x = ------
• Median - Md (“M sub d”)
n
the middle number of a distribution. (2+2+2+2+3+3+3+4+4 = 3)
• Mode - Mo (“M sub o”)
the number of a distribution that has the highest frequency. (2+2+2+2+3+3+3+4+4 = 2)

PROBLEM:
There are four birds that grow in 1-inch intervals and are 1-inch at birth. Their mean height is 4 inches,
the median height is 3 inches, and the mode height is 2 inches. What are their heights now?
SOLUTION:
2 2 3 9

• Normal distribution -
a probability of distribution that is symmetrical around the mean. A BELL CURVE. The x, Md, and Mo are all at
the center point.
• Skewed right -
a probability curve where a few high numbers pulls the mean to the right.
• Skewed left -
a probability curve where a few low numbers pulls the mean to the left.

x M Mo Md x x Md Mo
Mo d

normal distribution skewed left skewed right

 1 68% of the population is within one
standard deviation
2 95% of the population is within two
standard deviations
-F x F 3 99% of the population is within three
-2F 2F
-3F 1 3F standard deviations
with a higher population,
the bell curve will be 2
taller and skinnier 3

• Range -
the difference between the highest and the lowest score. (This is extremely unstable since it is determined by
only two values in the sample.)
• Variance - s2 (“s squared”, although sometimes “sigma” when referring to a population.) E (x - x)2
2
the measure of a dispersion around the mean calculated as the average of the sum of the s = ---------
squared deviations from the mean. n-1

/
• Standard deviation - s
E (x - x)2
a spread of scores around a single sample. Also the square root of the variance.
s= ---------
• Standard error - F
n-1
a spread of scores around a the average of scores.

PROBLEM:
15, 20, 21, 20, 36, 15, 28, 15
VARIANCE:
x = 20.875 (x - x)2 = 15 - 20.875 = (-5.875)2 = 34.515 (x - x)2 = 384.62 = 384.62 = 54.945
20 - 20.875 = (-0.875)2 = .765 n -1 8-1 7

the VARIANCE ----->

2
21 - 20.875 = (0.125) = .015
E (x - x)2 20 - 20.875 = (-0.875)2 = .765
2
s = --------- 36 - 20.875 = (15.125)2 = 228.765
n-1 15 - 20.875 = (-5.875)2 = 34.515
28 - 20.875 = (7.125)2 = 50.765
15 - 20.875 = (-5.875)2 = 34.515
384.620

STANDARD DEVIATION:

s=
/E (x - x)2
---------
n-1
= /54.945 = 7.07

• Statistical significance -
indicates whether or not something happened by chance.
VARIABLES / DATA
• Quantitative (political party or blood type)
• Qualitative (income, GPA, house prices)
• Discrete data is where each item is a separate, whole unit, with no fractional values possible (e.g., a building
with ten rooms).
• Continuous data is where any number value can change to another in a given moment (e.g., height, GPA,
interest rates).
• Discontinuous data is a fixed value throughout time (e.g., gender: male or female, tests: pass or fail, home
ownership: yes or no).

TYPES OF SCALES
• Nominal scale -
is the assignment of arbitrary names, numbers, or symbols for the purpose of designating subclasses. (e.g.
using social security numbers instead of names, or assigning a 1 for “yes” and a 2 for “no” on a survey). It is the
weakest level of measurement, since mathematical equations can’t be applied. The only scale that doesn’t
include relationships between the other variables.
• Ordinal scale -
is the assignment of names, numbers, or symbols for the purpose of defining an ordered relationship without
the property of magnitude (e.g., the tallest is 1, the second tallest is 2, the third tallest is 3, and so on). It
doesn’t, however, give any information about the difference between the measurements.
• Interval scale -
is the assignment of names, numbers, or symbols for the purpose of defining an ordered relationship with the
property of magnitude (e.g., temperature; whereas, the bigger the number the warmer it is). However, math-
ematical equations still cannot be assigned to an interval scale. For example, although 60 degrees is twice 30
degrees, it IS NOT twice as warm.
• Ratio scale -
is the assignment of names, numbers, or symbols for the purpose of defining an ordered relationship with an
absolute zero point and equal intervals (e.g., distance; whereas, 60 miles is twice as far as 30 miles. This is
also true when converted to kilometers, while not so when Fahrenheit is converted to Celsius).

RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
• Research hypothesis - (HI or HA)
is a statement expressing relationships between phenomena. The acceptance or nonacceptance upon a logical
analysis of data using the scientific method. First describe your prediction (what you are trying to prove).
Second, describe all possible outcomes.
• Null hypothesis - (HO )
is the hypothesis of no difference. Where statistical relations have occurred for no reason other than the laws of
chance operating unrestricted.

EXAMPLE: If my HA is “a = 1”, then the HO is “a = 1”

• One-tailed hypothesis -
is when your hypothesis has a specific outcome (e.g., by doing x, the outcome will be y).
• Two-tailed hypothesis -
is when your hypothesis does not specify an outcome (e.g., by doing x, the outcome will be either y or z).
• Type 1 error -
when you reject the null hypothesis when it should have been the outcome that was accepted.
• Type 2 error -
when you accept the null hypothesis when it should have been the outcome that was rejected.
BUDGETING AND ORGANIZATION
• Budget -
allocating and spending tax dollars to provide services to the public which the citizenry would otherwise have to
provide for itself. A series of goals with price tags attached. It also serves to set spending priorities.
• Operating budget -
the operating budget entails the everyday expenditures for salaries, supplies, and maintenance.

BUDGET PREPARATION
• Revenue forecasting -
revenue forecasting requires a thorough understanding of the past, an objective view of the future, and an
intuitive feel of the future. It assumes that the future will have some relationship to the past and that past events
can influence the future in a predictive manner. (e.g., if the current tax base is x, and we anticipate growing by
y, then the future revenue will be z$.)
• Estimating spending needs -
using the building block method (as most large municipalities do), departments prepare individual estimates of
their staff, materials, equipment, and funds it needs or would like to have. These budgets are given to depart-
ment or division heads, and are adjusted. The final, adjusted budgets added together become the budget. In
another approach, a municipality prepares spending estimates based on its current budget, adding new requests
as they come up. This is sometimes called a continuation budget or a current level request.
• Capital Improvement Program -
generally reflects onetime major project expenditures to be used over a long period of time. A CIP is a list of
ranked projects with descriptions, costs, projected delivery dates, and potential funding sources.
• Planning Programming Budgeting System (PPBS) -
a technique that organizes the budget so that it relates to a goal or an activity
• Zero Base Budgeting -
a budget that starts from “scratch” every year.

TAX REVENUE
• Taxes (serve three primary functions) -
1) generating revenues to finance government goods and services; 2) redistribute income; and 3) reducing
income and spending, when overall demand is excessive
• Tax revenues foregone because of tax incentives, subsidies, etc., are called tax write-offs.
• Imposing a tax (several criteria may be used to decide whether to impose a tax) -
- fairness...a tax should reflect the ability to pay of those who bear its burden (e.g., don’t tax the poor a lot).
- certainty...the rules of taxation should be clearly stated and evenly applied.
- convenience...a tax should be convenient to pay, with billing dates coinciding with income streams.
- efficiency...the costs of collection and enforcement should not be out of proportion with revenues.
- productivity...a tax should produce sufficient, stable revenue.
- neutrality...a tax should not distort the way a government would normally use its resources.
• Progressive tax -
the ratio of tax payments to income increases as income rises.
• Proportional tax -
the ratio of tax payments to income is constant as income rises.
• Regressive tax -
the ratio of tax payments to income declines as income rises.

PERSONAL INCOME TAXATION EXAMPLE:

progressive proportional regressive
Income tax ratio liability tax ratio liability tax ratio liability
$10,000 10.0 $1,000 10.0 $1,000 10.0 $1,000
$20,000 15.0 $3,000 10.0 $2,000 07.5 $1,500
 PROPERTY TAXATION EXAMPLE:
1) A property is assessed at $80,000 market value (mv).
2) Property taxes are calculated at 100 percent of market value.
3) Local tax rate is $1.533 per $100 of assessed valuation (av).

conversion of mv into av units = 80000 / 100 = 800

property tax = $1.533 x 800 = $1,226.40

FINANCING METHODS
• Current revenue (pay-as-you-go)...current funds for capital improvements
• Reserve funds...accumulation of funds for future capital improvements
• General obligation bonds...voter approval to sell bonds for capital improvements
• Revenue bonds...sell bonds at high interest rates for capital improvements
• Lease-purchase...private developer pays for capital improvement and municipality “rents-to-own”
• Special assessments
• State and federal grants-in-aid
• Tax Increment Financing

REGRESSION ANALYSIS
• Regression analysis -
the frequency distribution of one variable when another is held fixed at each of the several levels.
y = a0 + a1 + k (whereas, “a0” and “a1” are the range of responses and “k” is the constant)

COST / BENEFIT ANALYSIS

• Present value -
needed when benefits/costs are not consistent over time, since a dollar today is worth more than a dollar a year
from now, with the impact of inflation. Present value (PV) calculations give the future value (FV) of money by
applying a discount rate (DR), that considers (or discounts) the impact of inflation and the growth of services
over time (T). [Financial statements will either give actual dollars, which do not consider inflation, or constant
dollars, which do consider this loss in value.

EXAMPLE:
What is the value today of $10,000 in five years if the expected discount rate is 12%.

future-value 10000 10000 10000

PV = ------------------------------- = -------------------- = ------------- = ---------- = $5504.50
(1 + annual DR/12) (12 * term) (1+(0.12/12)) (12*5) (1.01)60 1.817

** or use Present Value of a Single Dollar chart to determine the discount rate, and then multiply
by future value. If determining the present value in terms of how much money a project will make
on its revenues, the discount rates should be compounded annually. That is to say the number for a
savings over five years of 10% would be 3.791.
• Goals Achievement Matrix (GAM) -
the most comprehensive approach to project evaluation. The GAM is essentially a chart that shows the antici-
pated attainment of a project’s goals and the assignment of accomplishing a goal to a group.

EXAMPLE: CREATION OF A PEDESTRIAN MALL

new jobs new businesses bus. retention
Children 0 2 -1
Professionals 60 6 6
Elderly 15 1 3

• Cost-Effectiveness Analysis (CEA) -

focuses on a single objective and a project’s effectiveness with respect to that objective. The usual circum-
stances for a CEA is when two or more projects achieve the same level of service and the comparison comes
down to the cost for each alternative.

EXAMPLE:
Alternative A Alternative B Alernative C
Benefit 10% reduction 10% reduction 10% reduction
in smog in smog in smog

Cost $325,000 $500,000 $320,000

• Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) -

compares what a community gains from the project to what the community must forego in order to achieve it.
Any project with a higher ratio than 1, provides more benefits than costs (e.g., if the costs are less than the
benefits, whereby the city would make money, a project would be “a go.”).

EXAMPLE:
A new public pool near the downtown would cost the city $25,000 per year to operate. The increased traffic
and shopping generated in the downtown would roughly equal $30,000 in tax revenues.

benefits 30000
ratio = ---------- = --------- = 1.2 = the project would be “a go”...
costs 25000

• Cost revenue analysis (CRA) -

focuses exclusively on the costs and revenues associated with a specific form of growth. The result of such an
analysis is a statement of net governmental surplus or deficit expressed in financial terms.
• PERT -
Program Evaluation and Review Technique is a scheduling technique that graphically depicts the interrelation-
ships of the tasks that constitute the project.
• Critical path programming -
is used to determine which particular steps in a project will be most “critical” to keeping the project going.
• Fiscal impact analysis -
determines whether a particular project or scale of development within a community will generate sufficient
revenues to defray the necessary public service costs.
EXAMPLE: COST/BENEFIT ANALYSIS WITH CASH FLOW
A proposed highway project has an estimated cost of $100 million and effective life-span of 10 years.
Annual operating costs are expect to be $10 million and annual toll revenues are estimated at $20 million. In
the eleventh year, the roadway will need major repairs costing $20 million, payable at the end of that year.
The road will take three years to build with the state paying $10 million before construction, $20 million at
the end of the 1st year, $40 million at the end of the 2nd year, and the remainder after the 3rd year.
A) Prepare a cash flow table
year: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Total
const.
costs:-10-20 -40 -30 -20 -120
net
rev. 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 200
-10-20 -40 -30 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 -10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 $80 M

B) Prepare a discounted cash flow schedule using a 8% interest rate

Benefits
$10M / year for 23 years
@ 10.371 (PV of an annuity) =
10 x 10.371 =
less $10M / year for 3 years
(the first three that there was
no income) @ 2.577 =
10 x 2.577 =
Costs:
$10M (start) x 1.0 (PV) = $10.0
$20M (1st yr) x 0.926 (PV) = $18.5
$103.7 M $40M (2nd yr) x 0.857 (PV) = $34.3
$30M (3rd yr) x 0.794 (PV) = $23.8
$20M (11th yr) x 0.429 (PV) = $06.8
$93.4 M
$ 25.8 M
$ 77.9 M Net present value = 77.9 - 93.4 = ($15.5 M)

C) Prepare a discounted cash flow schedule using a 4% interest rate

Benefits
$10M / year for 23 years
@ 14.837 (PV of an annuity) =
10 x 14.837 =
less $10M / year for 3 years
(the first three that there was
no income) @ 2.773 =
10 x 2.773 =
Costs:
$10M (start) x 1.0 (PV) = $10.0
$20M (1st yr) x 0.962 (PV) = $19.2
$148.6 M $40M (2nd yr) x 0.922 (PV) = $37.0
$30M (3rd yr) x 0.889 (PV) = $26.7
$20M (11th yr) x 0.577 (PV) = $11.5
$104.4 M
$ 27.8 M
$120.8 M Net present value = 120.8 - 104.4 = $16.4 M
LOCATION QUOTIENTS
• Location quotient -
a technique for comparing a region’s percentage share of a particular activity or industry with its percentage
share of the local versus national market. Location quotients help us identify what are known as "basic" and
"non-basic" (or service) industries in the local economy.
local employment in industry national employment in industry
LQ = ---------------------------------- / ---------------------------------------
total local employment total national employment

If a location quotient is 1 (one) or greater we say that the industry is a basic industry. That is, the industry exports
goods outside the local economy and in so doing draws money into the community. Basic industries, as noted
previously, are the industries which are said to really turn the wheels of a local economy. The greater the
location quotient exceeds 1, the greater the importance of the industry as a basic industry.
• Basic industries -
Basic industries are those which draw money into the economy from outside its borders. (LQ>1)
• Non-basic industries -
non-basic or service-producing industries serve the needs of the local populace and businesses within the locality's
borders. (LQ<1)
• Economic base analysis -
the study of cities and regions that focuses on export ratios (or basic-service ratios).
• Export ratio -
the ratio of employment in basic industries to employment in non-basic industries that utilizes economic multi-
pliers. It varies with the size of the community; whereas, the larger the community, the larger the multiplier
(e.g., there are more places to spend money).
• Shift-share analysis -
a given region may change at a rate that is faster than the national average if (1) the region has a mix of industries
strongly weighted toward growth; or (2) the region’s internal supply advantages have improved in relationship
to those offered in other regions, thus making it more competitive as an industrial location. How does the shift in
our share of defense contractors reflect on our local economy?
- Shift-share analysis examines three components of regional employment growth between two periods of time:
national growth, industry mix, and competitiveness. The three components are summed to obtain the total
change in employment of a particular industry.
• Input-Output modeling -
a technique developed to monitor the real pattern of money flows. It recognizes that an increase in production in
one industry is going to result in increases in other industries due to the linked nature of all productive activities
(e.g., the current market). Shows relationships among sectors of an economy.
• Retail gravitational law (by W.J. Reilly)
two cities attract retail trade from any mid-sized town in direct proportion to the population of the two cities and
in inverse proportion to the square of the distances from these two cities from the mid-sized town.

distance between City X and City Y

exntent of trade area = population of larger city
1+ population of smaller city
•
POPULATION ESTIMATES AND PROJECTIONS
• Estimate current population, unless you are fortunate to start immediately after the Census, the first step in
population projections is to prepare an estimate of the current population to use as a “base.” Since this estima-
tion contains a lot of speculation and guesswork it is best to use several methods and cross-check them against
each other. The following methods should be considered:
• net migration and natural increase methods...employment shifts and birth/death rates could be used
• ratio or step-down methods...if the subject area was 10% of a metropolitan area 10 years ago, then assume
it still is and use the metro area’s current population (which is maintained) and take your 10%.
• symptomatic methods...the basic assumption here is that changes in related obtainable data are predictive
changes in the population as a whole. Related data include building permits, school enrollment, new telephone
hookups, new electric meters, dwelling unit counts, and voter registration. For example, if you know that there
were a certain number of DUs during the last Census, then determine the current number and apply the “going”
persons per household number for your area.
• Population projections are generally estimates of population in future years based on current data and trends.
• Cohort survival is the method of choice: it is detailed and very accurate for short-term projections. The Census
breaks the population of a study area into five-year age groups (for both male and female) called cohorts. To
make a projection from this data, each cohort is “survived” into the future (or next cohort bracket) until the
target year is reached. Appropriate death rates and birth rates (applied to women of childbearing age, 15-44).
Net migration rates are also applied to each cohort. All of these “outside” rates that are applied can be adjusted
independently (per cohort) as the case arises.
• Net migration and natural increase is a much simpler method. Rather than applying natural increase (and
decrease) rates to each individual cohort, a natural increase average is applied to the entire population in this
method. No data on population composition is available with this method, however.
• Employment-driven methods are generally caused by one of four factors: (1) a better or new job; (2) the
attraction of milder climates; (3) a desire for better housing, although mostly within the same community; and
(4) reasons of health, education, or retirement. So, unless you live in a resort- or retirement-community, the
predominant reasons for migration are economic and job related. Two types of employment ratios should be
computed:
• employment as a % of the total labor force:
(persons employed 16 to 85 yrs) + (persons unemployed 16 to 85 yrs)
labor force participation rate = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
working population, age 16 to 85 yrs
• employment as a % of the total population:
persons employed (all ages)
employment rate = ---------------------------------
total population (all ages)

• Step-down methods are often used since population forecasts exist for states, counties, and MSAs. For in-
stance, if projections are available for a state, these may be taken directly to the county level by applying a
percentage of the population figure (which should be based on previous years).
• Mathematical and graphic techniques has long been practiced by planners. 6000

The most common is a straight line projection based on past population counts. 5000

4000
Other methods include a gradually increasing rate, a gradually decreasing rate,
3000
and a Gompertz curve (or trend reversal). These latter methods all require math-
2000
ematical equations; whereas, the straight line only needs a ruler...
1000
• Holding capacity is one technique that can be applied to small areas. The as-
sumption is that prevailing densities in a community can be applied to vacant 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

areas nearby that have strong development potential. Deductions can be made
for roads, open space, unsuitable topography, and so on, and an ultimate “build-out” figure can be calculated.
RECENT DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS
• Urbanized areas in the U.S.: 75.25% (1990)
70.00% (1960)
• Persons per household: 2.63 (1990)
2.75 (1980)
3.11 (1970)
3.30 (1960)
• Owner occupied housing: 64.20% (1990)
• Renter occupied housing: 38.50% (1990)
• Most housing built: 1970 - 1979
1980 - 1989 (2nd highest)
• Suburban population: < 25% (1950)
> 50% (1990)
• Housing stock on septic: 25% (1990)
• Hsg. stock on public water: 85% (1990)
• Commute to work (1990): 73.2% drove alone
05.2% public transit
05.6% walked or worked at home
15.0% car-pooled
• Population that moved: 16.0% (1990)
20.0% (1950)
• Highest rate of movement: 19.4% in the West
• Lowest rate of movement: 11.5% in the Northeast
• Metropolitan areas: Chicago Cleveland
(from 1970 - 1990) 4% increase -8% decrease
Built up land: 46% 33%
• Metro areas have not changed in population too drastically, but movement within the areas has increased;
whereas, center city population is down and suburban population is up.
• Non-family vs. family households: 1990 was the first time that there were more non-family households
• African-American migration trend between 1940 to 1960 was from Florida to the Middle West.
CENSUS BUREAU TERMINOLOGY
• Metropolitan Area -
is the “collective” term for MSAs, PMSAs, and CMSAs. It is also a large population nucleus with several
adjacent communities that are integrated.
• Metropolitan Statistical Area -
must include (1) at least one city with 50,000 or more inhabitants, or (2) an urbanized area (of at least 50,000
inhabitants) and a total metropolitan population of at least 100,000 (75,000 in New England).
• Primary Metropolitan Statistical Area -
an area that meets the requirements for an MSA and also has a population of one million or more may be
recognized as a CMSA if (1) separate component areas can be identified within the entire area by meeting
statistical criteria specified in the standards, and (2) local opinion indicates there is support for the areas. If
recognized, the component areas are designated PMSAs. PMSAs, like the CMSAs that contain them, are com-
posed of entire counties.
• Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area -
made up of several PMSAs.
• Census Tract -
the largest area of data where all information is released. A Census Tract is typically between 2000 and 8000
people.
• Census Block Group -
several Census Blocks are combined together. More data can be released at this level than at a Block level.
• Census Block -
the smallest level at which Census data is collected. Not all data is released for the Blocks for privacy, since
there are only about 400 housing units per Block.
• Block Numbering Areas -
are rural areas that do not have Census Tracts.
• 1990 was the first Census that used Block data throughout the U.S.

ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING
• Rivers and Harbors Act (1899)
• Water Pollutant Control Act (1948)
• Water Quality Act (1965)
• National Environmental Policy Act (1969)
• NEPA provides that any major federal action or policy that has a significant impact on the environment will
require the preparation of an environmental impact statement (EIS).
• formed the Environmental Protection Agency
• Environmental Impact Statements must address the following five topics:
• the probable impact of the proposed action
• any adverse environmental effects which cannot be avoided should the proposal be implemented
• alternatives to the proposed action
• the relationship between local short term uses of man’s environment and the maintenance and enhancement
of long-term productivity
• any irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources which would be involved in the proposed ac-
tion should it be implemented
• Coastal Zone Management Act (1972)
• mandates state programs to delineate coastal boundaries, regulate activities within them, and inventory
areas requiring protection
• Federal Water Pollutant Control Act (1972)
• required states to control water pollution
• “the Clean Water Act” (1977)
• amendment to the Federal Water Pollutant Control Act of 1972
• anyone wishing to discharge pollutants into a body of water must apply for a permit to do so
• the amount of wastes discharged is regulated by both ambient and effluent water quality standards
• control of pollutions (e.g., dredgings, soil, waste, incinerator residue, sewage, garbage, munitions, chemical
waste, biological, radioactive materials, heat, discarded materials, etc.)
• excluded sewage from ocean-going vessels, however
• http://gsa.gov/pbs/pt/call-in/factshet/1298a/1298afact.htm
• The Clean Air Act
• the Federal government sets the ambient standards and the states must devise methods that will allow these
standards to be met
• Air Quality Control Regions (AQCR) are the airsheds of our communities
• PSD standards dictate total ambient and effluent standards, and new air pollution sources are not allowed
unless there is a reduction in pollutants greater than the pollutants contributed by the new source
• Ambient standards -
standards for air and water quality relating to the quality of the receiving environment (e.g., the baseline for
gauging improvements)
• Effluent standards -
standards for air and water quality relating to the discharges into the environment from specific sources
• watch for questions about things that affect us as citizens (e.g., point-source pollutants)

TRANSPORTATION PLANNING
• ADT -
the average daily traffic is all the traffic in a 24-hour period at a certain location
• AADT -
the annual average daily traffic is the expected traffic on any given day at a certain time in a certain location
• VMT -
the vehicle miles traveled of a roadway...
• Principal Arterials -
serve longer trips, carry the highest traffic volumes, carry a large percentage of the VMT on minimum mileage,
and provide minimal land access
• Minor Arterials -
interconnect the principal arterials, provide less mobility, slightly more land access, and distribute travel to
smaller geographic areas than principal arterials
• Urban Collectors -
provide both land access and traffic circulation with residential, commercial, and industrial areas by collecting
and distributing traffic to these areas
• Local Streets -
provide direct access to adjacent land and to the higher classified streets
• Origin Destination Study -
a detailed survey to estimate travel demands on a traffic system
• Peak hour/period -
the highest volume of traffic in a day
- usually 4:30 - 5:30 PM
• Peak parking demand -
the hour (of day) when most parking is needed for a city, development, area, etc.
 EXAMPLE: LEVEL OF SERVICE (GRADES)

Level of Service Operating Conditions

A Free flow, high operating speed, no delays
B Stable flow, speed somewhat restricted, short delays
C Stable flow, speed determined by traffic, moderate delays
D Unstable flow, tolerable but fluctuating speeds, long delays
E Unstable flow, near roadway capacity w/ limited speed very long delays
F Heavy congestion, very low speeds, frequent stops

• Level of service -
the ability of a road or street to accommodate traffic flow determines the level of service provided. Free flowing
or delayed flow determines a high level of service whereas, high traffic volumes, too many access points, and
poor signal timing causes lower levels of service.
• Traffic models -
estimated future travel needs or traffic demands
• Trip generation -
proximity, ease of access, time available for travel, value placed on time, and income available for transporta-
tion services, help people decide the mode of transportation they will use.
• Trip Generation Manual by the Institute of Transportation Engineers -
the accepted manual for trip generation measurements by the type and density of land use
• Trip -
there are three types of trips (1) home-to-work; (2) home-to-nonwork; and (3) nonwork-to-nonwork
• Trip production -
new developments that generate trips (e.g., new residential subdivisions)
• Trip attraction -
new developments that attract trips (e.g., shopping centers or non-residential developments)
• Trip distribution or traffic assignment -
assignment of traffic volumes to different land uses
• Average Vehicle Trip rates -
how many trips generated by a new
EXAMPLE: AVERAGE VEHICLE TRIP RATES
development or land use
Generator Vehicle Trips per Unit
• Vehicle Occupancy Rate -
single-family residential 10.0
the average number of occupants per
planned unit developments 8.0
vehicle on the roads
duplexes and townhouses 7.0
- 1.2%
apartments & condos 6.0
• Volume-to-Capacity ratio -
mobile homes 5.5
a measure of congestion to a
retirement homes 3.5
roadway’s designed capacity
• TDM -
Transportation Demand Manage-
ment plans direct short-term programs to meet traffic problems (e.g., alternative modes of transport, like buses,
and high occupancy vehicle--HOV--lanes)
• Intelligent Vehicle Highway System -
advanced technology that automatically drives cars (that have the gear...on highways with the gear)
• Multi-modal transportation -
different modes of transportation on one road (e.g., auto, lightrail, pedestrians, and bikepaths)
• Parking demand -
the eight (8) most important factors that affect parking demand include:
• land and building use • socio-economic characteristics of users
• availability of alternative modes of transportation • availability of parking spaces
• cost of parking • accessibility
• peak and periodic use factors • employee vs. visitor and patron parking
• Parking stalls -
• standard stall sizes are 9’ x 18’ for full size cars and 8’ x 16’ for smaller cars
• angled stalls (of 60 - 65 degrees) can be reconfigured to accommodate 25% more parking along a street by
changing the angle to 75 - 90 degrees.

EXAMPLE: RANGES OF PARKING DEMAND

Generator Peak Space Factor
shopping center 1:1000 to 5:1000 (spaces:Gross Leasable Area)
office 1:2000 to 3:1000 (spaces:Gross Leasable Area)
general office 1:300 (spaces:gross floor area)
office & medical center 1:10 to 3:4 (spaces:employees)
medical center 3:4 to 9:2 (spaces:beds)
university/college 1:10 to 1:2 (spaces:students)
university/college 4:5 (spaces:staff persons)
hotel 1:5 to 3:2 (spaces:rooms)
restaurant 5:1000 to 25:1000 (spaces:Gross Leasable Area)
residential 1:5 to 2:1 (spaces:units)

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS

• GIS -
a term that encompasses the entire field of computerized mapping which performs each of the following:
• answers what exists at a specific location (e.g., ZIP code or census tract)
• finds locations satisfying specified conditions (e.g., 6 or more acres of land zoned heavy industrial with
soils that have good drainage and slopes less than 30%)
• spots changes in an area over a certain period of time
• finds patterns (e.g., census tracts in which 25% of the population are female-headed households with chil-
dren under the age of 18 years)
• could model various scenarios (e.g., if 12 inches of rain fell in a certain watershed, at what hour would
flooding likely occur and in which locations would it occur)
• Attribute -
a description of a map feature. It may describe the size of an object, its position, or other object-specific info.
• Cadastral map -
a map set used to geographically define the land ownership in a given area (e.g., a tax map)
• Latitude -
the horizontal lines on a map that increase from 0 degrees at the Equator to 90 degrees at both the North and
South poles.
• Longitude -
the vertical lines on a map that run from the North to South poles. A position is reported as the number of
degrees east or west of the Prime Meridian.
• Polygon -
a simple bounded region (e.g., census tracts, ZIP codes, zoning areas)
• Raster image -
a type of computerized picture consisting of row after row of tiny pixels (e.g., grayscale tiff)
• TIGER map -
acronym for Topographically Integrated Geographical Encoding and Referencing map used for Census data. A
TIGER map includes streets, railroads, zip codes, landmarks, etc.

OTHER INFORMATION
• In what phase of the planning process does citizen participation fit?
• Beginning is most important...but keeping the citizen base informed through out a project is key too.
• What is the Delphi method?
• Where the views of individuals and various interest groups, the local government, and the planning staff are
presented in successive rounds of argument and counter-argument working towards consensus (debate?).
• What is an Alinsky organization?
• When a neighborhood (for example) hires a “paid” organizer to identify problems, develop citizen aware-
ness, and generate action.
• The basic Alinksy philosophy is that power is the basis for successfully negotiating for political gains.
Neighborhoods have the power to disrupt normal activity and bring attention to “their cause.”
• What is Arnstein’s ladder of participation?
• The amount of control citizens have over policy decisions. Without the “distribution” of power, citizen
participation is an empty ritual.
• Non-participation (no control; manipulation; therapy)
• Degrees of tokenism (informing; consultation; placation)
• Degrees of citizen power (partnership; delegated power; citizen control)
• Conflict resolution techniques?
• What are the typical colors assigned for land uses?
• What criteria are used for determining a “regional” from a “neighborhood” shopping center?
• How much parking would there be for a given size shopping center?
• Store area vs. parking area.
• Distance people generally walk for goods and services.
• There are 43,560 square feet in an acre.
• Drive-in restaurants generate the most average weekday trips per 1,000 sq. ft. of GFA
• The first national park which was created in 1872, was Yellowstone.
• The Scottis-American explorer who was a strong environmental advocate was John Muir.
• A regional shopping mall between 750,000 and 2,000,000 square feet would require a service area population of
approximately 150,000.
• George Perkins Marsh wrote Man and Nature in 1867.
• The initial development patterns in Atlanta, Georgia, were not based on a plan.
• Chi-Square is a nonparametric statistic.