Precipitation Another important form of precipitation.

Snow consists of ice crystals which usually

Precipitation is water released from clouds in the form of rain, freezing rain, sleet,
snow, or hail. It is the primary connection in the water cycle that provides for the
delivery of atmospheric water to the Earth. Most precipitation falls as rain.
combine to form flakes. When new snow has an initial density varying from 0.06 to
0.15 g/cmᵌ and it is usual to assume an average density of 0.1 g/cmᵌ.
DRIZZLE
A fine sprinkle of numerous water droplets of size less than 0.5mm and intensity less
than 1mm/h. In this the drops are so small that they appear to float in the air.

GLAZE
Precipitation will be formed:
when rain or drizzle comes in contact with cold ground at around 0°C, the water drops
*The atmosphere must have moisture freeze to form an ice coating called glaze of freezing rain.
*There must be sufficient nuclei present to aid condensation SLEET
*Weather conditions must be good for condensation of water vapor to take place It is frozen raindrops of transparent grains which form when rain falls through air at
subfreezing temperature.
*The products of condensation must reach the earth.

Types of Precipitation

HAIL
RAIN
It is a showery precipitation in the form of irregular pellets or lumps of ice of size more
The term “rain” is used to describe precipitations in the form of water drops of sizes
than 8mm. Hails occur in violent thunderstorms in which vertical currents are very
larger than 0.5mm. The maximum size of raindrop is about 6mm. Any drop larger in
strong.
size than this tends to break up into drops of smaller sizes during its fall from the
clouds.

On the basis of its intensity rainfall is classified as: WEATHER SYSTEM FOR PRECIPITATION
TYPE INTENSITY

LIGHT RAIN TRACE to 2.5 mm/h

FRONT

The interface between two distinct air masses. Under certain of favorable
MODERATE R 2.5 mm/h to 7.5 mm/h
AIN conditions when warm air mass and cold air mass meet, the warmer air mass is lifted
over the colder one with the formation of a front. The ascending warmer air cools
HEAVY RAIN >7.5 mm/h
adiabatically with the consequent formation of clouds and precipitation.

CYCLONE
SNOW
A cyclone is a large low pressure region with circular wind motion.
TROPICAL CYCLONE

 a tropical cyclone, also called cyclone in India, hurricane in USA and typhoon in
South-East Asia, is a wind system with an intensity strong depression with MSL
pressures sometimes below 915mbars.
 The normal areal extent of a cyclone is about 100-200km in diameter.
 The isobars are closely spaced and the winds are anticlockwise in the northern
hemisphere.
 The center of the storm, called the eye, which may extend to about 10-50km in
diameter, will be relatively quiet.
CONVECTIVE PRECIPITATION
In this type of precipitation a packet of air which is warmer than the surrounding
air due to localized heating rises because of its lesser density. Air from cooler
surroundings flows to take up its place thus setting up a convective cell. The warm air
continues to rise, undergoes cooling and results in precipitation. Depending upon the
moisture, thermal and other conditions light showers to thunderstorms can be
expected in convective precipitation. Usually the areal extent of such rains is small,
being limited to a diameter of about 10km.

 However, right outside the eye, very strong winds/reaching to as much as

OROGRAPHIC PRECIPITATION
200kmph exist.
The moist air masses may get lifted-up to higher altitudes due to the presence of
 The wind speed gradually decreases towards the outer edge.
mountain barriers and consequently undergo cooling, condensation and precipitation.
 The pressure also increases outwards.

 The rainfall will normally be heavy in the entire area occupied by the cyclone.
MEASUREMENT

Precipitation is expressed in terms of the depth to which rainfall water would stand on
EXTRATROPICAL CYCLONE an area if all the rain were collected on it.

 These are cyclones formed in locations outside the tropical zone.

 Associated with a frontal system, they posses a strong counter-clockwise wind
circulation in the northern hemisphere.
 The magnitude of precipitation and wind velocities are relatively lower than those
of a tropical cyclone.
The precipitation is collected and measured in rain gauge. Terms such as
pluviometer, ombrometer and hyetometer are also sometimes used to designate a
rain gauge.

 However, the duration of precipitation is usually longer and the areal extent also A rain gauge essentially consists of a cylindrical vessel assembly kept in the open
is larger. to collect rain. The rainfall catch of the rain gauge is affected by its exposure conditions.

ANTICYCLONES RAINGAUGE

These are regions of high pressure, usually of large areal extent. The weather is
usually calm at the center. Anticyclones cause clockwise wind circulations in the
northern hemisphere. Winds are of moderate speed, and at the outer edges, cloudy
and precipitations exist.
To enable the catch of raingauge to accurately represent the rainfall in an area
surrounding the raingauge, standard settings are adopted.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR SETTING UP A RAINGAUGE
 The ground must be level and in the open and the instrument must present a  Radar Measurement of Rainfall
horizontal catch surface

 The gauge must be set as near the ground as possible to reduce wind effects but it
must be sufficiently high to prevent splashing, flooding, etc.
SNOWFALL
 The instrument must be surrounded by an open fenced area of at least 5.5m by
5.5m. No object should be nearer to the instrument than 30m or twice the height  A form of precipitation differs from rainfall in that it may accumulate over a
of the obstruction surface for sometime before it melts and causes runoff.
COMMONLY USED RECORDING GAUGES  Evaporation from the surface of accumulated snow surface is a factor to be
considered in analysis dealing with snow.
 Tipping-Bucket Type
 Water equivalent of snowfall is included in the total precipitation amounts of a
 Weighing-Bucket Type
situation to prepare seasonal and annual precipitation records.
 Natural-Syphon Type

 TELEMETERING GAUGES
EVAPORATION PROCESS

Evaporation Process

 The process in which a liquid changes to the gaseous state at the free surface,
below the boiling point through the transfer of heat energy

CATEGORIES OF RAINGAUGE  It is a cooling process in that the latent heat of vaporization must be provided by
the water body
 Non Recording Raingauges

Simons’ Gauge
EVAPORATION IS DEPENDENT ON:
 It essentially consists of a circular collecting area of
12.7cm(5inches) diameter connected to a funnel

 Recording Raingauges  Vapor Pressure

 Produce a continuous plot of rainfall against time and provide valuable data  Temperature
of intensity and duration of rainfall for hydrological analysis of storms
 Wind
 Tipping-Bucket Type
 Atmospheric Pressure
 Weighing-Bucket Type
 Soluble Salts
 Natural-Syphon Type (Float-Type Gauge)
 Heat Storage in Water Bodies
VAPOUR PRESSURE  Colorado Sunken Pan

The rate of evaporation is proportional to the difference between the saturation  US Geological Survey Floating Pan
vapour pressure at the water temperature and the actual vapour pressure in the air

EVAPORATION STATIONS
TEMPERATURE
The WMO recommends the minimum network of evaporimeter stations as follow:
Evaporation rate increases with an increase in water temperature

WIND
ARID ZONE – 1 station for every 30 000km^2
Winds aid in removing the evaporated water vapour from the zone of evaporation and
consequently creates greater scopes for evaporation HUMID TEMPERATE CLIMATE – 1 station for every 50 000km^2

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE COLD REGIONS – 1 station for every 100 000km^2

A decrease in the barometric pressure, as in high altitudes, increases evaporation

SOLUBLE SALTS METHODS TO REDUCE EVAPORATION LOSSES

When a solute is dissolved in water, the vapour pressure of the solution is less than  Reduction of Surface Area
that of pure water and hence causes reduction in the rate of evaporation  Mechanical Covers
HEAT STORAGE IN WATER BODIES  Chemical Films
Deep water bodies have more heat storage than shallow ones. A deep lake may store
radiation and energy received in summer and release it in winter causing less
evaporation in summer and more evaporation in winter compared to a shallow lake REDUCTION OF SURFACE AREA
exposed to a similar situation
Since the volume of water lost by evaporation is directly proportional to the surface
area of the water body, the reduction of surface area wherever feasible reduces
evaporation losses.
EVAPORIMETERS

 A water-containing pans which are exposed to the atmosphere and the loss of
water by evaporation is measured in them at regular intervals MECHANICAL COVERS

 Meteorological data, such as, humidity, wind movement, air and water Permanent roofs over the reservoir, temporary roofs and floating roofs such as rafts
temperatures, precipitation are also noted along with evaporation measurement and lightweight floating particles can be adopted wherever feasible.

TYPES OF EVAPORIMETERS CHEMICAL FILMS

 Class A Evaporation Pan  This method consists of applying a thin chemical film on the water surface to
reduce evaporation
 ISI Standard Pan
 Certain chemicals such as cetyl alcohol (hexadecanol) and stearyl alcohol  For a given set of atmospheric conditions, evapotranspiration obviously depends
(octadecanol) form monomolecular layers on a water surface on the availability of water.

TRANSPIRATION POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

 For a given set of atmospheric conditions, evapotranspiration obviously depends

on the availability of water.
TRANSPIRATION PROCESS
 If sufficient moisture is always available to completely meet the needs of
 The process by which water leaves the body of a living plant and reaches the vegetation fully covering the area, the resulting evapotranspiration is called
atmosphere as water vapour. “Potential Evapotranspiration”
 The water is taken up by the plant-root system and escapes through the leaves

ACTUAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION The real evapotranspiration occurring in a specific situation
 Atmospheric Vapour Pressure

 Temperature FIELD CAPACITY

 Wind The maximum quantity of water that the soil can retain against the force of gravity
 Light Intensity PERMANENT WILTING POINT
 Characteristics of Plants  The moisture content of a soil at which the moisture is no longer available in
sufficient quantity to sustain the plants.

TRANSPIRATION vs EVAPORATION  At this stage, even though the soil contains some moisture, it will be so held by
the soil grains that the roots of plant are not able to exract it in sufficient
Transpiration essentially confined to daylight hours and rate of transpiration depends quantities to sustain the plants and consequently the plants wilt
upon the growth periods of plants
AVAILABLE WATER
Evaporation on the other hand, continuous all through the day and night although the
rates are different  The difference between the field capacity and permanent wilting point

 The moisture available for plants

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

 Evaporation from water bodies and soil masses together with transpiration from MEASUREMENT OF EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
vegetation LYSIMETERS
 The term “Consumptive Used” is also used to denote this loss by  A special watertight tank containing a block of soil and set in the field of growing
evapotranspiration plants.
 Evapotranspiration is estimated in terms of the amount of water required to
maintain constant moisture conditions within the tank measured either
Infiltration Capacity
volumetrically or gravimetrically through an arrangement made in the lysimeter
The maximum rate at which the ground can absorb water,
FIELD PLOTS
Field Capacity
 In s special plots all the elements of the water budget in a known interval of time
are measured and the evapotranspiration determined as The volume of water that ground can hold
 Evapotranspiration = [Precipitation + Irrigation Input – Run off – Increase in Soil
Storage – Groundwater Loss]
INFILTRATION CAPACITY

 The maximum rate at which a given soil at a given time can absorb water
INFILTRATION
 It is designated as fp and is expressed in units of cm/h.

 The actual rate of infiltration f can be expressed as

INFILTRATION
f = fp when i ≥ fp
The flow of water into the ground through the soil surface
f = iwhen i ≤ fp

where i = intensity of rainfall

The infiltration capacity of an area is dependent on a large number of factors such as:

 Characteristics of the soil (Texture, porosity and hydraulic conductivity)

 Condition of the soil surface

 Current Moisture Content

 Vegetative Cover

 Soil Temperature
INFILTRATION

ZONE 1 : At the top, a thin layer of ”Saturated Zone” is created FLOODING – TYPE INFILTROMETER
ZONE 2 : Beneath zone 1, there is a “Transition Zone” Are experimental devices used to obtain data relating to variation of infiltration
Zone 3 : The next lower zone is the “Transmission Zone” where downward motion of capacity with time.
the moisture takes place

Zone 4 : The last zone is the “Wetting Zone” The soil moisture in this zone will be at Simple (Tube Type) Infiltrometer – Simple instrument consisting essentially of a metal
or near field capacity and the moisture content decreases with the depth. cylinder, 30cm diameter and 60cm long, open at both ends
Double – ring Infiltrometer – Most commonly used infiltrometer and designed to
overcome the basic objection of the tube infiltrometer. Two sets of concentrating
rings with diameters of 30cm and 60cm and a minimum length of 25cm.
INITIAL LOSS
INITIAL LOSS
In the precipitation reaching the surface of a catchment, the major abstraction is from
the infiltration process. However, two other processes, though small in magnitude,
operate to reduce the water volume available for run off and thus act as abstractions.
Interception Process
Depression Storage
Together, they are called “Initial Loss”
This abstraction represents the quantity of storage that must be satisfied before
overland run off begins
INTERCEPTION
When it rains over a catchment, not all the precipitation falls directly onto the ground.
Before it reaches the ground, a part of it may be caught by the vegetation and
subsequently evaporated. The volume of water so caught is called “Interception”
The intercepted precipitation may follow one of the three possible routes:
1. It may be retained by the vegetation as surface storage and returned to the
atmosphere by evaporation; a process termed “INTERCEPTION LOSS”
2. It can drip off the plant leaves to join the ground surface or the surface flow; this is
known as “THROUGHFALL”
3. The rainwater may run along the leaves and branches and down the stem to reach
the ground surface. This part is called “STEMFLOW”
▪ Interception loss is solely due to evaporation and does not include transpiration,
throughfall or stemflow
▪ It is estimated that of the total rainfall in an area during a plant-growing season
the interception loss is about 10%– 20%.
DEPRESSION STORAGE
 When the precipitation of a storm reaches the ground, it must first fill up all
depressions before it can flow over the surface. The volume of water trapped in
these depressions is called “Depression Storage.”
 The amount is eventually lost to runoff through processes of infiltration and
evaporation and thus form a part of the initial loss.
Depression storage depends on a vast number f factors, the chief of which are:
 The type of soil
 The condition of the surface reflecting the amount and nature of depression
 The slope of the catchment
 The antecedent precipitation, as a measure of soil moisture
RUNOFF
Runoff is often defined as the portion of rainfall, snowmelt, and/or irrigation water
that runs over the soil surface toward the stream rather than infiltrating into the soil. It
is sometimes called SURFACE RUNOFF
The definition of runoff also includes water which makes its way relatively quickly
to the stream channel just below the surface. This is sometimes called
INTERFLOW OR SUBSURFACE STORM FLOW
And together with surface runoff makes up the volume of water that hydrologists
generally refer to as RUNOFF
▪ The main reason for studying the runoff process is to get an estimate of the
amount of water that makes its way quickly to the stream channel.
ENTRY also known as infiltration, occurs at the water-ground surface boundary.

TRANSMISSION is the vertical and horizontal percolation that can occur

▪ Runoff is the most important component of flood prediction and can consist throughout the entire depth of the soil layer.
of either rainwater or water from melting ice and snow
STORAGE can occur throughout the soil profile and is manifested as increased soil
moisture.

METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS AFFECTING RUNOFF:

- Type of precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, etc.) ▪ Environmental conditions that affect these three processes are broadly broken
down into two major categories:
- Rainfall intensity
NATURAL PROCESSES can have a variety of influences, but HUMAN ACTIVITY
- Rainfall amount
typically results in less water entering the soil profile and thus more runoff at the
- Rainfall duration ground surface.

- Distribution of rainfall over the drainage basin

- Direction of storm movement Runoff Processes

- Precipitation that occurred earlier and resulting soil moisture  PRECIPITATION may be in the form of rain or snow

- Other meteorological and climatic conditions that affect evapotranspiration,  Vegetation may INTERCEPT some fraction of precipitation
such as temperature, wind, relative humidity, and season
 Precipitation that penetrates the vegetation is referred to TROUGHFALL

 Intercepted water is commonly EVAPORATED back to the atmosphere

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING RUNOFF:
 there is also flux of water to the atmosphere through the TRANSPIRATION of
- Land use vegetation and evaporation from soil and water bodies

- Vegetation  this surface water input may accumulate on the surface in DEPRESSION STORAGE,

- Soil type  or flow overland towards the streams as OVERLAND FLOW,

- Drainage area  or INFILTRATE into the soil,

- Elevation  where it may flow laterally towards the stream contributing to INTERFLOW

- Topography, especially the slope of the land  infiltrated water may also PERCOLATE through deeper soil,

- Ponds, lakes, reservoirs, sinks, etc. in the basin, which prevent or delay runoff from  the WATER TABLE is the surface is saturated and at the pressure
continuing downstream
 greater than atmospheric

 water added to the ground water is referred to as GROUNDWATER RECHARGE

There are THREE PHYSICAL PROCESSES for the movement of soil water:
 a region of soil that is close to saturation is referred to as the CAPILLARY FRINGE
 lateral drainage of the ground water into streams is referred to as BASE FLOW
 subsurface water may flow back across the land surface to add to overland flow
this is referred to as RETURN FLOW
For example, if our rainfall rate increases to 25 millimetres per hour but the
infiltration capacity remains at 15 millimetres per hour, then the rainfall rate is 10
millimetres per hour greater than the infiltration capacity. The 10 millimetres per hour
that does not infiltrate becomes surface runoff.

INFILTRATION EXCESS OVERLAND FLOW occurs with soil that is not saturated. In fact,
the soil can be quite dry, but soil properties or land cover do not allow for infiltration to
keep up with high rainfall or snowmelt rates.

INFILTRATION EXCESS OVERLAND FLOW

(also called HORTON OVERLAND FLOW)- There is a maximum limiting rate at which a
soil in a

given condition can absorb surface water input.

SATURATION EXCESS OVERLAND FLOW occurs when the soil becomes saturated and
RUNOFF GENERATION MECHANISMS
there is no longer any space for water to infiltrate. This can occur even with soil that
would typically allow for large amounts of infiltration in sub-saturated conditions.

INFILTRATION RATE is the amount of water able to enter the soil in a specified time
period. It is expressed as depth per time; for example, 10 millimetres per hour.
SATURATION EXCESS OVERLAND FLOW- Overland flow can occur due to

surface water input on areas that are already saturated

INFILTRATION CAPACITY is the upper limit of infiltration rate. It includes surface
infiltration and percolation and is expressed in depth per time; for example, 15
millimetres per hour.

▪ If precipitation rate is less than or equal to infiltration capacity, no surface runoff

occurs.

▪ If precipitation rate is greater than infiltration capacity, surface runoff occurs.

▪ Surface runoff equals rainfall or snowmelt rate minus infiltration capacity.