TOPIC 3: PRECIPITATION

Precipitation is a form of water in solid or liquid state that falls from a cloud or atmosphere to a
surface.

Precipitation Mechanisms
Three mechanisms are needed for formation of precipitation. 1. Lifting and Cooling - Lifting of
air mass to higher altitudes causes cooling of air. 2. Condensation - conversion of water vapor
into liquid droplets. 3. Droplet Formation - Growth of droplets is required if the liquid water
present in a cloud is to reach ground against the lifting mechanism of air. Air can move vertically
for several reasons covered below. The upward motion of air can lead to the formation of clouds
and precipitation if there is sufficient moisture to reach condensation as the air cools while
moving up.

Types of Precipitation
Depending upon the way in which the air is lifted and cooled so as to cause precipitation, there
are three types of precipitation, given as; Cyclonic, Convective, and Orographic Precipitation

Cyclonic Precipitation:
Cyclonic precipitation is caused by lifting of an air mass due to the pressure difference. Cyclonic
precipitation may be either frontal or non-frontal cyclonic precipitation.
1. Frontal precipitation: It results from the lifting of warm and moist air on one side of a frontal
surface over colder, denser air on the other side. A front may be warm front or cold front
depending upon whether there is active or passive accent of warm air mass over cold air mass.2.
2. non-frontal precipitation: If low pressure occurs in an area (called cyclone), air will flow
horizontally from the surrounding area (high pressure), causing the air in the low-pressure area to
lift. When the lifted warm-air cools down at higher attitude, non-frontal cyclonic precipitation
will occur.

In the case of a cold front, a colder, denser air mass lifts the warm, moist air ahead of it. As the
air rises, it cools and its moisture condenses to produce clouds and precipitation. Due to the steep
slope of a cold front, forceful rising motion is often produced, leading to the development of
showers and occasionally severe thunderstorms.

In the case of a warm front, the warm, less dense air rises up and over the colder air ahead of the
front. Again, the air cools as it rises and its moisture condenses to produce clouds and
precipitation. Warm fronts have a gentler slope and generally move more slowly than cold fronts,
so the rising motion along warm fronts is much more gradual. Precipitation that develops in
advance of a surface warm front is typically steady and more widespread than precipitation
associated with a cold front. Warm front precipitation is generally light to moderate.
Convective Precipitation
Convective precipitation is caused by natural rising of warmer, lighter air in colder, denser
surroundings. Generally, this kind of precipitation occurs in tropics, where on a hot day, the
ground surface gets heated unequally, causing the warmer air to lift up as the colder air comes to
take its place. The vertical air currents develop tremendous velocities. Convective precipitation
occurs in the form of showers of high intensity and short duration.

Orographic Precipitation
Orographic precipitation is caused by air masses which strike some natural topographic barriers
like mountains, and cannot move forward and hence rise up, causing condensation and
precipitation. All the precipitation we have in Himalayan region is because of this nature. It is
rich in moisture because of their long travel over oceans.

Forms of Precipitation
Classification is made according to size of the droplets.

Rain
Rain is precipitation arriving at the surface in the form of liquid drops with a diameter range
from 0.5-5 mm. Rain is in the form of liquid water. Rain is liquid precipitation that reaches the
surface in the form of drops that are greater than 0.5 millimeters in diameter.

Snow
Snow is frozen crystalline precipitation that remains in the ice stage throughout descent. Takes
different shapes depending on temperature & moisture. 2 to 5 mm. These are the white stuff
falling from the sky. Snow forms via sublimation. In other words, snow forms when water vapor
turns directly into a solid state (ice) without first becoming a liquid.

Graupel
Graupel is snowflakes that collect supercooled water droplets on its surface.

Sleet
Sleet is a form of precipitation that occurs when rain or melted snow hits a cool pocket of air
above the ground. These are the ice pellets resulting when raindrops freeze before reaching the
surface. Sleet is formed when raindrops travel through a cold region of the atmosphere that is
below 0oC and freezes on their way down to Earth before the ground.

Hail
Hail is dense precipitation ice that is that least 5-50 mm in diameter. It forms due to ice crystals
and super cooled water that freeze in the form of small balls or other pieces of ice falling
separately or frozen together in irregular lumps. Hail sizes of 1 inch (2.5 cm) or more are
indicative of severe thunderstorms.

Drizzle
Drizzle is liquid precipitation that reaches the surface in the form of drops that are less than
0.5mm in diameter. Drizzle is composed exclusively of fine drops very close together. Drizzle
appears to float while following air currents, but unlike fog droplets, it falls to the ground. Quite
often fog and drizzle occur together.

Dew
Dew is the smallest water drop formed during condensation on the Earth’s surface, most
frequently on grass during the warm period of a year. Dew arises mostly with clear and calm
weather in the evening hours and at night when there is no fog. Dew develops when soil and
vegetation (grass and leaves) cool to the temperature typical of the dew point. Dew can produce
a large amount of precipitation. For example, in southern Africa dew produce 40 millimeter a
year. In warm, humid tropical regions, dew is so abundant that it can drip from roofs of buildings
and tree leaves.

Characteristics of Precipitation
The characteristics of rainfall are the amount, the intensity, the duration, the frequency or
return period, and the seasonal distribution.

Rainfall amount refers to the total yield of water from the atmosphere to the surface

Duration refers to the length of time rainfall occurs. A high intensity rainfall for a short duration
may affect tender seedlings, but it will not likely have much effect on soil erosion and runoff.
Rainfall of longer duration can significantly affect infiltration, runoff, and soil erosion processes.

Rainfall intensity is the amount of rainfall accumulating at any given time (mm/hr). Higher
rainfall intensity produces larger size raindrops which have more impact energy

The frequency, or more specifically, the return period refers to how often rainfall occurs at a
particular amount or intensity and duration. For example, rainfall return periods are referred to as
100 year-1 hour rainfall or 100 year-24-hour rainfall to define the probability that a given
amount will fall within a given time period.

The seasonal distribution of rainfall refers to the time of year when various rainfall amounts
occur. The seasonal distribution determines when surface runoff or deep percolation are most
likely to occur or if irrigation is needed. Since the seasonal distribution of rainfall varies in
different parts of the country, practices used or recommended in one part of the country may not
necessarily be appropriate in another.
Factors affecting distribution of rainfall

There are significant variations of rainfall across regions. Some regions receive high rainfall
more frequently while other regions receive low rainfall. The variations are caused by the
following factor;
 Distance from the equator,
 Ocean currents
 Altitude
 Prevailing winds
 Presence of water bodies
 Nature and shape of the continent

Measuring Precipitation
Measuring precipitation covers rain, hail, snow, frost, and fog, and is traditionally measured
using various types of rain gages such as the non-recording cylindrical container type or the
recording weighing type, float type and tipping-bucket type.

A weather radar is a type of radar used to locate precipitation, calculate its motion, estimate its
type (rain, snow, hail, etc.), and forecast its future position and intensity.

A weather satellite is a type of satellite that is primarily used to monitor the weather and climate
of the Earth.

A disdrometer is an instrument used to measure the drop size distribution and velocity of falling
hydrometeors.

Location of the Weather Station (Site Selection)

1. It is essential to place the anemometer at an open level area with least obstacles. Researchers
should place their weather stations in open, unobstructed locations. Buildings and trees can
affect temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, wind speed, and wind direction.
2. For open and clear areas, the windshield can be used to decrease the impact of the wind.
3. You should maintain a good distance between the weather station and any other tall object.
4. Never install your weather station under a tree or overhang, as this can make the rainfall data
measured by your system incorrect.
5. Don’t place your weather station at the alley, between two houses, as it can affect the
anemometer resulting in wrong wind data.
6. The surface color beneath the weather station can also profoundly influence the data
measured by it. Black surfaces can make the temperature measurement warmer than that on
grey lighter surfaces.
7. On height it should be noted that the weather station must be placed at least 5 ft above the
ground, including grass or other shrubs.
8. Temperature sensor should be placed in a shield and must not be exposed to direct sunlight.
9. Both the thermometer and hygrometer should be placed at least 50 ft away from any paved
surfaces.