Precipitation

Lecturer: Awang Nasrizal Bin Awang Ali

Room: G321
Ext: 7436
E-mail: awang295@sarawak.uitm.edu.my

1
 Previous Lessons
- Hydrological cycle process
- Hydrological cycle main components
- Water budget equation
- Apply the unit measurement

2 ANAA/UiTMKS/EC/ECW311
 Learning outcomes
 By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

 List and explain the forms & types of precipitation

 Identify and explain the measurement of
precipitation
 Able to analyze precipitation using Isohyetal,
Thiessen and Arithmetic Mean method

3
 Introduction
 Precipitation describes all forms of water that reach the earth
from the atmosphere.
 The magnitude and the forms of precipitation depends on
temperature & location – different country, different season.
 E.g. rainfall, snowfall, hail, frost, dew etc

4
 Introduction
 Main source of precipitation is the water vapour derived by
the evaporation at the ocean.
 Evaporation takes place from the oceans and water vapour is
absorbed in the air streams moving across the sea’s surface.
 The moist air keeps the water vapour absorbed until it cools
to below dew-point temperature when the vapour is
precipitated as rain, or if the temperature is sufficiently low,
as hails and snow.

5
 Introduction
 Tropical climate like Malaysia , rainfall is important
 Design need arise - rainfall occurs at extreme rates
 High rainfall rates can cause flooding in urban areas
 Absence of rain over long periods also reduce the stream
flow and causing lake levels to decline sharply
 Requirement of rainfall data helps the hydrological planning
and design works
 Significance of the study of precipitation form:
 Important aspects of rainfall
 Collection and analysis of rainfall data

6
 Forms of precipitation
 Depending on the prevailing meteorological conditions in a
particular area, precipitation may occur mainly in two forms:
 Liquid precipitation – rain & drizzle
 Frozen precipitation – snow, glaze, sleet, hail and freezing rain.

7
 Rain
 Major form of precipitation.
 The term rainfall is used to describe precipitations in the form of
water drops of sizes larger than 0.5 mm.
 The maximum size is about 6 mm. Any drops larger than this size
will tend to break up into smaller sizes during its fall from the
clouds.
 Rainfall intensity :

Type Intensity
Light rain Trace to 2.5 mm/h
Moderate rain 2.5 mm/h to 7.5 mm/h
Heavy rain > 7.5 mm/h
8
 Rainfall

9
 Snow
Snow consists of ice crystals which usually combine to form
snow flakes.
10
 Drizzle
A fine sprinkle of numerous water droplets of size less than 0.5
mm and intensity less than 1 mm/h is known as drizzle. Because
the drops are so small, they appear to float in the air.
11
 Sleet
Sleet falls as small balls of ice. Sleet is often mixed with snow or
freezing rain, so can leave an icy, slushy covering on roads.
12
 Hail
It is showery precipitation in the form of irregular pellets or
lumps of ice of size more than 8 mm.
13
 Frost

14
Glaze
Freezing rain, falls as liquid, and then forms a coating of ice on exposed surfaces.
Often, the icing only occurs on elevated surfaces, such as trees and power lines.
The greatest threat from this would be power outages. However, if the ground is
15
cold enough, the roads may become icy and dangerous.
 Freezing rain

16
 Types of precipitation
 Precipitation is classified according to the type of mechanism
that produces it.
 3 types of precipitation based on the mechanism are:
 Orographic precipitation
 Convective precipitation
 Frontal precipitation
 Cyclonic precipitation

17
 Orographic precipitation
 Occurs due to mechanical lifting.
 The process begins when winds carry moist air from a water
surface (usually the ocean) to a land surface.
 If a mountain range blocks the path of the wind, the moist air
must rise to pass over them.
 The increase in altitude causes the air to expand and its
pressure to decrease, resulting in lower temperature.

18
 Orographic precipitation
The mechanical lifting of moist air over mountain barriers,
causes heavy precipitation on the windward side
19
 Orographic precipitation

20
 Convective precipitation
 Most common in Malaysia.
 Caused by heating of air at the interface with the ground.
 The heated air expands with a resultant reduction in weight.
 During this period, increasing quantities of water vapour are
taken up; the warm moisture-laden air becomes unstable;
and pronounced vertical currents are developed.

21
 Convective precipitation
 Dynamic cooling takes place which then causes condensation
and precipitation.
 May be in the form of light showers or storms of extremely
high intensity.
 Typical for tropical regions.

22
 Convective precipitation

23
 Convective precipitation

24
 Frontal precipitation
 A front is the interface between two distinct air masses.
 Under certain favourable conditions when a warm air mass
and cold air mass meet, the warmer air mass is lifted over
the colder one with the formation of a front.
 The ascending warmer air cools adiabatically with the
consequent formation of clouds and precipitation.

25
 Warm Front
Warm air overtakes a region of colder air, it will rise up on top of the cold
air because of lesser density. To observer on ground, initially he would feel
26
relatively cold and clouds would form overhead
 Warm front

27
 Warm front

28
 Cold front
Cold air overtakes warm air, it pushes in under it and again
warm air is forced to rise.
29
 Cold front

30
 Cold front

31
 Cyclonic precipitation
 This type of precipitation is due to lifting of moist air
converging into a low pressure belt, i.e., due to pressure differences
created by the unequal heating of the earth’s surface.
 Here the winds blow spirally inward counterclockwise in the
northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere.
 There are two main types of cyclones:
 tropical cyclone (also called hurricane or typhoon) of
comparatively small diameter of 300-1500 km causing high
wind velocity and heavy precipitation
 extra-tropical cyclone of large diameter up to 3000 km
causing wide spread frontal type precipitation.

32
 Cyclone

33
 Tropical cyclone formation areas

34
 Hurricane Katrina

35
 Hurricane Katrina

36
 Typhoon Utor, Dec 2006, my

37
 Typhoon Utor path

38
 Measurement of precipitation
 Precipitation is expressed in terms of the depth to which
rainfall water would stand on an area if all the rain were
collected on it.
 E.g. 1 cm of rainfall over a catchment area of 1 km2
represents a volume of water equal to 104 m3.
 Precipitation is collected and measured in a rain gauge.
 Method used to measure rainfall:
 Non-recording gauges
 Recording gauge
 Weather radar

39
 Measurement of precipitation
 For placement of a rain gauge the following
considerations are important:
 The ground must be level and in the open, and the
instrument must present a horizontal catch surface.
 The gauge must be set as near the ground as possible to
reduce wind effects but it must be sufficiently high to prevent
splashing, flooding etc.
 The instrument must be surrounded by an open fenced area
of at least 5.5 m x 5.5 m. No object should be nearer to the
instrument than 30 m or twice the height of the obstruction.

40
 Non-recording gauges
 Only gives the total rainfall between readings which are
usually taken once a day.
 Usually consists of a 12.7 cm diameter funnel that
directs the rainfall into a smaller diameter tube (bottle).
 The rim of the collector is set in a horizontal plane at a
height of 30.5 cm above the GL.
 Water collected in the bottle is measured using a
suitably graduated measuring jar with 0.1mm accuracy.

41
 Non-recording gauges
 Rainfall is measured in mm or cm of water depth
 Rainfall is measured everyday at a particular time and is
recorded as the rainfall of that day.
 The receiving bottle cannot hold more than 10 cm of
rain. Hence on days of heavy rainfall, measurements are
taken more frequently and the last reading is taken at the
normal time. The sum of the rainfall measurements over
the past 24h is entered as the total rainfall of that day.

42
 Non-recording gauges

43
 Non-recording gauges

44
 Non-recording gauges

45
 Non-recording gauges

46
 Non-recording gauges

47
 Recording gauges
 Produce a continuous plot of rainfall against time and provide
valuable data of intensity and duration of rainfall.
 Common recording raingauges:
 Tipping-bucket
 Weighing-bucket

48
 Tipping bucket
 The catch from the funnel falls onto one of a pair of small
buckets. These buckets are so balanced that when 0.25mm
of rain falls into one bucket, it tips bringing the other
bucket in position.
 The water from the tipped bucket is collected in a can.
 Tipping actuates an electrically driven pen to trace a
record on the graph paper mounted on a clock work
driven drum.

49
 Tipping bucket
 Water collected in the can is measured at regular intervals to
check the total rainfall recorded.
 The record from this raingauge gives the intensity of rainfall.
 These can be installed in stations located in hilly and
inaccessible areas.

50
 Tipping bucket

51
 Tipping bucket

52
 Tipping bucket

53
 Weighing bucket
 The catch empties into a bucket mounted on a weighing
scale.
 The weight of the bucket and its contents are recorded
on a clock work driven chart.
 The instrument gives a plot of cumulative rainfall
against time (mass curve of rainfall).
 In some of the instruments, the recording unit is so
devised that the pen reverses its direction at a preset
value.

54
 Weighing bucket

55
 Weighing Bucket

56
 Weather radar
 Used to estimate rainfall.
 Based on the principle of echo sounding.
 High frequency electromagnetic waves are sent out which
travel at the speed of light.
 Extremely small portion of this energy is reflected by
objects in the sky and detected by radar.
 By calibration of echo intensity with rainfall - can measure
the rainfall density.
 Use of weather radar together with the rain gauge data
provide useful estimates of rainfall for areas not covered by
rain gauges.
57
 Weather radar

58
 Presentation of rainfall data
 Rainfall data can be presented in two graphical forms:
 Rainfall hyetograph
 Rainfall mass curve

59
 Rainfall hyetograph
 It is a graph of rainfall intensity plotted against the time.
 It is a simple presentation and practical especially to show
the development of design storms to predict extreme
floods.
 The area under a hyetograph represents the total rainfall
received in a certain time.

60
 Rainfall hyetograph

61
 Rainfall mass curve
 Accumulated precipitation graph plotted against time.
 Rainfall mass curve used to extract information regarding
rainfall magnitudes and durations.
 Rainfall intensities at various time interval in a particular
storm can also be obtained

62
 Rainfall mass curve

63
 Determination of missing data
 Missing data may be encountered due to inoperative
gauges.
 Missing data can be estimated using the data from the
neighbouring stations.
 Two methods used to determine missing data:
 data:
 Arithmetic mean method – vary < 10%
 Normal ratio method – vary > 10%

64
 Aritmetic ratio method
 Averages the rainfall values of the surrounding gauges are
calculated.
 Applied to missing gauge provided the normal annual precipitation
of the surrounding gauges is within 10% of the missing gauges.
 Let P1, P2, P3, … PM are the annual rainfall / precipitation values
at neighbouring M stations of station 1, 2, 3, …, M respectively,
the missing annual rainfall data, PX, at station X not included in the
M stations(still operating) calculated using the following equation:

PX 
 P1  P2  P3  ....  PM 
M

65
 Normal ratio method
 If surrounding gauges have normal annual precipitation of
more than 10% of the normal annual precipitation at
station X, then PX is estimated by weighing the
precipitation at various stations by the ratio of normal
annual precipitation.
P P P 
N X  1  2  ....  M 
PX   N1 N 2 NM 
M

 Where N1, N2, N3, .. NM are the normal annual

precipitation at the surrounding M stations(still working)
and NX is the normal precipitation at station X.

66
 Example 2.1
 The normal annual precipitation at stations P, Q, R and S
are 80.97cm, 67.59cm, 76.28cm and 92.01cm. In a
certain year, the data at station S was missing due to a
faulty gauge. Stations P, Q and R recorded annual
precipitations of 91.11cm, 72.23cm and 79.89cm
respectively. Determine the missing data at station S.

67
 Solution for Example 2.1
 The normal annual rainfall values vary more than 10% Therefore
use the normal ratio method to determine the missing data at
station S

N P  80.79cm  PP PQ PR 
N Q  67.59cm NS    
 P
N N N R

PX 
Q

N R  76.28cm 3
N S  92.01cm  91.11 72.23 79.89 
92.01  
 80.79 67 .59 76.28 
PP  91.11cm 
3
PQ  72.23cm  99.41cm
PR  79.89cm
68
 Analysis of rainfall data
 Rain gauges represent only point sampling of the areal distribution of
a storm. In practice however, hydrological analysis requires a
knowledge of the rainfall over an area, such as over a catchment.
 To convert the point rainfall values at various stations into an average
value over a catchment , three methods to determine the mean areal
rainfall:
 The Arithmetic Mean method
 The Thiessen Polygon method
 The Isohyetal method

69
 Arithmetic mean method
 Assumes that each rain gauge represents the average
rainfall that falls around the gauge within the catchment
area.
 P1, P2, … PN are the rainfall data in N stations within
the catchment, mean precipitation, P over the
catchment calculated using arithmetic mean method

P1  P2  ....  PN
P
N

70
 Example 2.2
 Compute the mean areal precipitation for the following
data using the arithmetic mean method.

Station No Precipitation Area of Thiessen

(mm) Polygon
(km2)
1 30.8 45
2 34.6 40
3 32.0 30
4 24.6 38
71
 Solution Example 2.2
 Using arithmetic mean method

P1  P2  ....  PN
P
N
30.8  34.6  32.0  24.6

4
 30.5mm

72
 Thiessen polygon method
 Rainfall recorded at each station is given a weightage on the
basis of an area closest to the station.

73
 Thiessen polygon method procedure
 Consider the catchment area
in the Figure given.
 There are 3 rain gauge
stations located within the
catchment and another 3
more stations located outside
of the catchment.
 Note: The catchment area is
drawn to scale and the
positions of the 6 stations are
marked on it.

74
 Thiessen polygon method procedures
 Stations 1 to 6 are joined to
form a network of triangles.
 Draw the perpendicular
bisectors for each of the sides
of the triangle
 These bisectors form a
polygon around each station
 If the boundary of the
catchment cuts the bisectors,
it will be taken as the outer
limit of the polygon

75
 Thiessen polygon method procedures
 Station 1: bounding polygon
is abcd
 Station 2: bounding polygon
is kade
 The bounding polygons are
called Thiessen polygons.
 Areas of the 6 Thiessen
polygons are determined
either by planimeter or by
using overlay grid.

76
 Thiessen polygon method procedures

Average rainfall over the catchment,

P1 A1  P2 A2  ...  P6 A6
P
 A1  A2  ...  A6 
77
 Thiessen polygon method procedures
 Thus in general for M number of stations,


M
P Ai Ai
 i 1 Pi
M
P i 1 i

A A
 Where the weightage factor for each station is, Ai
A

78
 Example 2.2
 Compute the mean areal precipitation for the following
data using the Thiessen polygon method.
Statio Precipit Area of Weightage
n No ation Thiessen
(mm) Polygon
(km2)
1 30.8
2 34.6
3 32.0
4 24.6
Total
79
 Solution Example 2.2
 Using Thiessen Polygon method

P1 A1  P2 A2  P3 A3  P4 A4
P
A1  A2  A3  A4
30.8  45.0  34.6  40.0  32.0  30  24.6  38

153
 30.49mm

80
 Example 2.3
 The location of six rain gauging stations in or near the
catchment is shown in the figure. The observed rainfall
measured at these stations are given in the table below
together with the Thiessen weighing factors. Determine
the mean areal precipitation of the catchment using the
Thiessen polygon method.

Rain gauge 1 2 3 4 5 6
Rainfall (mm) 45 39 32 34 27 48
Thiessen weight factor 0.28 0.135 0.275 0.19 0.025 0.095

81
 Solution for example 2.3

82
 Solution for example 2.3

83
 Solution for example 2.3

84
 Solution for example 2.3

85
 Solution for example 2.3

86
 Solution for example 2.3

87
 Solution for example 2.3
Rain Rainfall, Polygon area Theissen P xW
gauge P (km2) Weight (mm)
(mm) W
1 45 Should be 0.280 12.6
2 39 determined 0.135 5.3
from the
3 32 0.275 8.8
drawn
4 34 diagram 0.190 6.5
5 27 0.025 0.7
6 48 0.095 4.6
Total 38.5
Mean areal precipitation using Thiessen polygon method is 38.5 mm
88
 Isohyetal method
 An isohyet is a line joining points of equal rainfall
magnitude.
 Catchment area is drawn to scale and the raingauge
stations are marked.
 The recorded values for which areal average P is to be
determined are then marked on the plot at appropriate
stations.
 Neighbouring stations are also considered.

89
 Isohyetal method
 Isohyets values are then drawn by considering point
rainfalls as guide and interpolating between them by the
eye.
 Area between the adjacent isohyets is determined by
planimeter.
 If the isohyets go out of catchment, catchment boundary is
used as the boundary line.

P P  P P  P P 
a1  1 2   a2  2 3   ...  an 1  n 1 n 
P 
2   2   2 
A

90
 Isohyetal method

91
 Example 2.4
 The isohyets due to the storm in a catchment is shown in
the figure and the area bounded by the isohyets are given in
the table below. Determine the mean and areal
precipitation of the catchment using Isohyetal Method.

Station A B C D E

Isohyets
(cm)

92
93
 Solution for Example 2.4
Isohyets Average Area Fraction of Weighted
precipitation (km2) total area precipitatio
(cm) n
(cm)
12.0 12.0 30 0.0667 0.800
12.0 – 10.0 11.0 140 0.3111 0.422

10.0-8.0 9.0 80 0.1778 1.600

8.0-6.0 7.0 180 0.40001 2.800
6.0-4.0 5.0 20 0.0444 0.222
Total 450 1.000 8.844

94 Mean areal precipitation using Thiessen polygon method is 8.844 mm

 Example 2.5
 Estimate the total volume of rainfall over a catchment area
based on the following observation carried out in the field.

Station A B C D E
Observed rainfall (mm) 265 198 145 114 81
Polygon area (ha) 518 770 906 1500 748

95
 Solution for Example 2.5
Station Rainfall Polygon Area P xA
P (m) A (ha) (ha – m)
A 0.265 518 317.27
B 0.198 770 152.46
C 0.145 906 131.37
D 0.114 1500 171.00
E 0.081 748 60.59
Total 4442 832.69

96
 Example 2.6
 The isohyets of a particular catchment area together with
the area between two isohyets are given in the table below.
Compute the mean areal precipitation using the Isohyetal
method.
Isohyets 127.0- 139.7- 152.4- 165.1- 177.8- 190.5-
(cm) 139.7 152.4 165.1 177.8 190.54 203.2
Area 181 388 337 311 104 26
(km2)

97
 Solution for Example 2.6
Mean Precipitation, P Area, A P xA
(cm) (km2)
133.35 181 24 136
146.05 388 56 667
168.75 337 53 499
: : :
: : :
Total 1347 211 893

Mean areal precipitation = 211 893/1347

=157.3 cm

98
 End

99