Precipitation

CHAPTER 2
Learning Outcomes

 Define precipitation.
 Know the different types of precipitation.
 Understand the formation of precipitation.
 Introduce the important characteristics of
rainfall.
 Know the different types of rain gauges.
 Provide computational methods for estimating
missing rainfall data.
 Hydrologic Cycle
 A conceptual model that describes the STORAGE
and MOVEMENT of water.
 How often is the water cycled?
Definition

 1In meteorology, the term precipitation is any product of the

condensation of atmospheric water vapour that falls under
gravity.
 3Itincludes all forms of water coming from the atmosphere of the
earth.
 6Precipitation is the basic input to hydrology.
 7Precipitation can fall either in liquid or solid phases, or
transition between them at the freezing level.
 8A common unit for precipitation is mm per time unit (e.g.
mm/hour, mm/day, mm/month, mm/year). The unit indicates
that the height of water is assumed to be evenly distributed over
an area (usually a catchment).
 Factors determining precipitation
or the amount of atmospheric
moisture over a region:
Climate
Geography
 Ocean surfaces is the chief source
of moisture for precipitation.
 Radiation Fog: This fog forms when all solar energy exits
the earth and allows the temperature to meet up with the
dew point.
 Advection Fog: This type of fog forms from surface
contact of horizontal winds. This fog can occur with windy
conditions. Warm air, moist air blows in from the south
and if there is snow or cool moisture on the ground it will
come in contact with the warm, moist winds.
 Upslope Fog: This fog forms adiabatically. Adiabatically is
the process that causes sinking air to warm and rising air
to cool. As moist winds blow toward a mountain, it up
glides and this causes the air to rise and cool.
 Evaporation Fog: This type of fog forms when sufficient
water vapor is added to the air by evaporation and the
moist air mixes with cooler, relatively drier air. The two
common types are steam fog and frontal fog. Steam fog
forms when cold air moves over warm water.
Graupel

 Graupel, also called soft hail,

hominy snow, or snow pellets, is
precipitation that forms when
supercooled water droplets in
air are collected and freeze on
falling snowflakes, forming 2–5
mm balls of crisp, opaque rime.
Graupel is distinct from hail and
ice pellets in both formation
and appearance.
Formation of Precipitation
 1 Collision and Coalescence: cloud droplets of varying sizes
bump into each other, forming large droplets. The larger they
grow, the heavier they get, and the faster they fall. Eventually
they may get big and heavy enough where the cloud can no
longer hold the droplet, and it falls as a rain.
Water droplets, if small enough, can stay as a liquid
in clouds to temperatures as cold as -400C!

 2Ice-Crystal Process: also known as

Bergeron process. This occurs when
both ice crystals and water droplets
are in the cloud. Water vapour from
the droplets deposit directly on the
ice crystals. Eventually the ice
crystals become big enough to fall,
and can collide with other ice crystals
and water drops to become even
larger. If its cold at the surface, the
precipitation will fall as snow. It its
warm enough, it will melt and fall as
rain.
Mechanisms of Precipitation Formation

 A moisture source must be available,

 Lifting mechanism to cool the air
 Formation of cloud elements (droplets/ice
crystals)
 Growth of cloud elements
Lifting Mechanism to Cool the Air

 Cyclonic Precipitation (Frontal/Non-

Frontal)
 Convective Precipitation
 Orographic Presentation
 Cyclonic Precipitation

 Cyclonic precipitation is caused by the

lifting of an air mass because of the
pressure difference.
 The cyclonic precipitation may be
divided into two part:
1. Frontal Precipitation – when two air
masses, because of contrasting
densities and temperatures, clash
with each other, precipitation and
condensation occurs in the surface
of contact. The surface of contact is
called Front or Frontal Surface.
Cyclonic Precipitation

 The cyclonic precipitation may be divided into two part:

1. Non-Frontal Precipitation – the moist warm air mass is stationary
and the moving cold air mass meets it. When the lifted warm air
cools down at higher altitude, precipitation occurs.
Convective Precipitation
 Convectional precipitation results
from the heating of the earth’s
surface that causes air to rise
rapidly. As the air rises, it cools and
moisture condenses into clouds and
precipitation.
Orographic Precipitation
 It results when warm moist air of the ocean is forced to
rise by large mountains. As the air rises it cools, moisture
in the air condenses and clouds and precipitation result on
the windward side of the mountain while the leeward side
receives very little.
Measurement Methods

 Measurement of precipitation can be done by various

devices. The measuring devices and techniques are:
1. Rain Gauges
2. Snow Gauges
3. Radars
4. Satellites
5. Scratching of snow packs
6. Water equivalent in snow packs
Rain Gauge

 Rain gauge is an instrument used by meteorologists to

measure the amount of rainfall over a period of time.
 Rainfall is generally measured in millimeters or inches.
 There are two main types of rain gauges:
1. Non-Recording rain gauges
2. Recording rain gauges
A. Non-Recording Rain Gauges

 2Symon’s rain gauge – consist of a circular area

of 12.7 cm diameter connected to the funnel
and the rim of the collector is set in a
horizontal plane at a height of 30.5 cm above
the ground level.
B. Recording Rain Gauges
 1These rain gauges are also called integrating rain gauges
since they record cumulative rainfall. It is also called
accumulation rain gagues. In this type of rain gauge, no
man is required to measure or read the amount of rainfall
from the rain gauge.

 Three main types of recording rain gauges:

1. Tipping bucket rain gauge
2. Weighing type rain gauge
3. Float type rain gauges
Rain Gauge Inconsistency

 Have been installed at different sites in the past.

 The rainfall depth is being recorded continuously between the previous and
the current sites.
 The entire data is not homogenous.
 Change of exposure conditions of the gage due to growth of trees or the
construction of tall buildings in the proximity of the gage site
 Change in the instrument, or the rain gage may have been faulty for a part of
the period of record.