Lecture-4 Hydrology

Hydrology and Water Management
Lecture No. # 04
Precipitation
Afed Ullah Khan, PhD

Lecturer
CED, UET Bannu
Learning objectives
o Sources of water
o Precipitation types
o Precipitation formation
o Rainfall
1. Sources of Water
2. Precipitation
 Precipitation
 Cooling of air masses and condensation

of water vapour happens when they are
lifted to a higher altitudes in the
atmosphere (troposphere).
 Precipitation may occur in various
forms:
 Drizzle – water droplet < 0.5 mm
 Rain - water droplet > 0.5 mm
 Snow – composed of ice crystals
 Hail – composed solid ice stones
2. Precipitation
 Amount of precipitable water
 Consider a column of air having a square base of 1 cm.

 The total water mass contained in the column between
elevation “0” to “z” would be:
 W= z
Absolute humidity Depth of precipitable water in “cm” 1c

m m
1c
 Divide the atmosphere into layers of approx. uniform

specific humidity and then sum up.
2. Precipitation
 Phase/state change
 Water is available on the Earth in three different forms: vapor; liquid; and solid.
 The process where water change its form from one to another is called a phase or
state change. In the atmosphere, three processes act to create water droplets or ice
crystals.
 Condensation – water change form from vapor to a liquid state.
 Freezing - water change form from liquid to solid state.
 Deposition - water change form from vapor to solid state.
 For a phase change to occur heat energy must be added to or removed from water
molecules.
2. Precipitation
 Water droplets and ice crystals
 The formation of water droplets and ice crystals takes place when the water in the
atmosphere is cooled.
 As air containing water vapor cools, the relative humidity of the air parcel increases
until the dew is reached. At dew point (relative humidity = 100 %) water begins to
condense into droplets.
 If 100 % relative humidity is reached below 0oC deposition occurs and ice crystals
form.
 Formation of water droplets and ice crystals also requires a surface for condensation,
freezing, or deposition. In the atmosphere, these surfaces are microscopic particles of
dust, smoke, and salt commonly called condensation nuclei or aerosol.
2. Precipitation
 Formation of Precipitation
 Three mechanisms are needed for the formation of precipitation.
 Lifting and Cooling - Lifting of air mass to higher altitudes causes cooling of air.
 Condensation - Conversion of water vapor into liquid droplets and ice crystals.
Condensation nuclei are required.
 Growth of Droplets and Ice-crystals - Growth of droplets is required if the liquid water
present in a cloud is to reach ground against the lifting mechanism of air.
2. Precipitation
 Two processes support the growth of droplets to overcome the air resistance and fall
on the earth surface
 Coalescence process
 Ice crystal process

2. Precipitation
 Coalescence process
 Coalescence is the process by which two or more droplets, bubbles or particles

merge during contact to form a single daughter droplet, bubble or particle.
 The collision coalescence process is the process of cloud droplets increasing in size by
colliding and coalescing. When droplets bump into each other, it is called collision,
and when they stick together, it is called coalescence.
 Droplets can only coalesce or combine if they have an opposite electrical charge;
otherwise, they simply bounce off one another.
 As the droplets grow larger and heavier, they begin to fall through the cloud. Larger
drops fall faster and collect the smaller drops as they fall, causing the droplets to grow
even larger.
2. Precipitation
 Coalescence process
2. Precipitation
 Ice crystal process
 The Bergeron process or ice-crystal process

requires mixed clouds and the right ratio
between ice crystals and cloud droplets
(1:100000 to 1:1000000) to be able to
happen.
 The ice crystal process involves the presence

of ice crystals in a super cooled water cloud
(cooled to below freezing, –15OC).
2. Precipitation
 Ice crystal process
 The ice crystals grow larger at the expense

of the surrounding water droplets during
the ice-crystal process and leads to the
formation of large precipitation-sized
particles.
2. Precipitation
2. Precipitation
 Snow or rain
air temperature at
the ground is
greater than 32 F
O
2. Precipitation
 Snow or rain
air temperature at
the ground is less
than 32OF
2. Precipitation
 Snow or rain
a very thin layer of

warm air is found
near the surface
3. Precipitation categories
 Precipitation
 Cooling of air masses and condensation of water vapour happens when they are lifted
to a higher altitudes in the atmosphere.
 Main forms
– a) Frontal precipitation
– b) Cyclonic precipitation
– c) Convective precipitation
– d) Orographic precipitation
 Frontal Precipitation
 warm air mass, moved by wind currents and atmospheric pressure gradients,
overtakes and rises above a cooler air mass.
(Source : rst.gsfc.nasa.gov)
 Cyclonic Precipitation
 Air masses converge on the low pressure area, the incoming mass of air must be
balanced by an outgoing one. Because air is entering from all directions horizontally,
the outgoing air move vertically upward
(Source - aerospaceweb.com)
 Convective Precipitation
 Convective precipitation is caused by different heating of an air mass. Heated air

masses rise with respect to the cooler surrounding air.
(Source - ww.metoffice.gov.uk)
 Orographic Precipitation
 Orographic precipitation occurs when an air mass is forced by topographic barriers to

higher altitude. Common in mountainous regions
Source - krygier.owu.edu
4. Consistency of Precipitation
 Consistency of Precipitation
 Some of the common causes for inconsistency (data of different nature within the
same record) are:
 Shifting of a rain gauge station to a new location,
 Change of the instrument (gauge),
 Change of observational procedure.

 Double Mass Analysis/Correction
 “A technique used to check the consistency of the precipitation data for a particular
station” and corrected, if the data is not consistent.
 Consistency of the record at a station is tested by comparing its accumulated annual

or seasonal precipitation with the concurrent accumulated values of mean
precipitation for a group of surrounding stations.
 The Data may be Tabulated as

 Test for Consistency of Record – use : DMC

5. Point & Areal Precipitation
 Point Precipitation
 Precipitation events are recorded by rain gauges at a specific location. The recorded
data is used to assess:
 The frequency and characteristics of precipitation in the vicinity of monitoring station
 The areal variability of snow and rain
 Design storm characteristics for small urban or other watersheds
 Used to derive Intensity-duration-frequency(IDF) curves which is used in the rational

method for the urban storm drainage design
 Areal Precipitation
 For most hydrologic analysis, it is important to know the areal distribution of

precipitation.
 Usually, average depth for the representative portions of the watershed are
determined and used.
 Arithmetic Mean Method
 Theissen Method
 Isohetal Method
 Simplest method to obtain the average depth of precipitation over an area.
 Average depth is obtained by taking the average arithmetically the gauge reading.
 Yields good estimates in flat country
 Gauges must be uniformly distributed.
 Individual gauge reading do not vary widely from the mean

 Example
 Theissen Method
 Used for Non-uniform distribution of gauges.
 Gives better results than arithmetic mean method.
 Stations are plotted on a map & connecting lines are drawn.
 Perpendicular bisector of these connecting lines form polygons around each station.
 Theissen Method
 Theissen Method
 Theissen Method
 The area of each polygon is determined by planimeter and is expressed as a

percentage of the total area.
 Weighing average rainfall for the total area is computed by multiplying the
precipitation at each station by its assigned %age area and totaling.
 Theissen Method
 Limitations
 A new Theissen diagram being required every time, when there is a change in the
gauge network.
 Simply assumes linear variation of precipitation between stations.

 Theissen Method
 Example
 Isohyetal Method
 Most accurate method of averaging precipitation over an area.
 Station Location and amount are plotted on a suitable map.
 Contours of equal precipitation are drawn.
 The average precipitation for an area is computed by weighing the average

precipitation between successive isohyets.
 Multiplying the average precipitation for an area by the area between isohyets.
Totaling there product and dividing by the total area.
 Method permits the use and interpretation of all available Data

 Example
6. Missing data
 Missing Data
 Conditions for computing missing data
 Topographically station are not much different
 Range in altitude
 Missing data for a station may be estimated if data of surrounding stations (at least
three) is available
 Methods of Estimation
 Normal Ratio Method

6. Missing data
 Missing Data
 The arithmetic mean of the index stations data is the

missing data of the main station.
 PA, PB, PC = index Stations
 P = main Station
 Limitations
 Difference of index stations data & main station data <

10%
 At least the three index station around the main station.
 Area must be flat.
 Stations are evenly distributed

6. Missing data
 Missing Data
 Problem
 10% of the annual precipitation at gauge P is 4.1cm and the average annual
precipitation at each of the three regional gauges is within + or – 4.1 cm.; therefore,
the station-average method can be used.
 The estimated catch at the gauge with the missing monthly precipitation total is
 𝑃 = 1/3(2.6+3.1+2.3) =2.66 cm
6. Missing data
 Missing Data
 More accurate Method
 Used when:
 i) Difference of data for main station and index station is more than 10%.
 ii) Area is not flat (i.e irregular topography)
 Where n = number of gauge stations
 Px = precipitation at station x (main Station)
 PA,PB & PC = precipitation at index stations
 NA, NB, NC & Nx = Normal annual precipitation of stations A,B,C & x respectively, based
on last 30 years
6. Missing data
 Missing Data
 Problem
 A rainfall gauging station (P) was not functioning when rainstorm occurred over the
area, having three gauging stations A,B & C around (P). Determine the precipitation at
station (P) using Normal ratio method. Also compare it with the result obtained by
using Arithmetic method.
Stations Observed Rainfall (cm) Normal PPT (cm)
A 4.8 51.8
B 3.7 38.2
C 6.6 72.6
P - 65.6
6. Missing data
 Missing Data
 Problem
7. PMP, PMF & Net Precipitation
 Probable Maximum Precipitation
 PMP is the greatest depth of precipitation for a given duration meteorologically

possible for a given size storm area at a particular location at a particular time of year,
with no allowance made for long‐term climatic trends' (WMO, 1986).
 PMP is the key parameter used to estimate the probable maximum flood (PMF), both
of which are important for dam safety and civil engineering purposes.
 PMP =
 are the mean of the annual maximum rainfall series, a frequency factor
(that depends on the statistical distribution of the series, number of years of record,
and the return period) and the standard deviation of the series respectively
 Probable Maximum Flood (PMF)
 Probable Maximum Flood (PMF) is the theoretically largest flood resulting from a
combination of the most severe meteorological and hydrologic conditions that could
possibly occur in a given area.
 Gross and Net Precipitation
 The net (excess) precipitation that contributes directly to surface runoff is equivalent
to the gross precipitation minus abstraction losses
 Pe = P - ∑ losses
8. Rainfall
 Hydrologic description of rainfall
 Rainfall – the amount of liquid precipitating in the form of rain.

 Rainfall duration – the time elapsed from the start to end of rainfall event.
 Total depth of rainfall – the depth to which rainwater would accumulate if it stayed
where it fell on the ground.
 Rainfall intensity – the time rate of rainfall
 Average rainfall intensity – total depth of rainfall divided by the storm duration.
8. Rainfall
 Hydrologic description of rainfall
 Hyetograph – the plot of rain fall intensity versus time.

 A hyetograph may be continuous curve or discrete histogram
8. Rainfall
 Probabilistic description of rainfall
 Rainfall occurrence is uncertain, and the rainfall duration and depth are highly
variable in time and space.
 Treat rainfall events as random events and use probabilistic methods to determine
the likelihood of their occurrence
8. Rainfall
 Recurrence interval
 The number of years between occurrences of a hydrologic event with a specified

magnitude or greater.
Recurrence interval
Return period
8. Rainfall
 Return period (Tr) and hydrologic risk

 The average number of years between occurrences of a hydrologic event with a
specified magnitude or greater.
 In case of rainfall, both depth and duration must be specified.
 Example
 If the rainfall events at a specified location are expected to produce a depth of 3 in or
more over a 24 hr period 4 times during the next 100 years
 Return period = 100/4 = 25 years
8. Rainfall

8. Rainfall
 Exceedence probability (P)
 The probability that a rainfall event with a specified duration and depth will be
equaled or exceeded in any one year.
 This is equal to the inverse of return period
 P = 1/Tr
 Example
 If the 25-year, 24 hr rainfall is 3 in., then there is a
 1/25 = 0.04 = 4% probability that a depth of 3 in or higher will be produced over a 24-
hour period in any given year.
8. Rainfall
 Exceedence probability (P)
 P = Probability or plotting position (%)
 m = rank number (after arranging in descending order)
 n = total number of events
 There are many formulas to calculate P (Gumbel, Hazen, Blom etc.)

8. Rainfall
 Hydrologic risk
 The probability that the design event will be exceeded one time or more during the
service life of the structure.
 J = 1 – (1 - 1/Tr)N
 J = hydrologic risk
 Tr = design period of the event used as a basis for the design
 N = service life of the stormwater structure
8. Rainfall
 Hydrologic risk
8. Rainfall
 Hydrologic risk
8. Rainfall
 Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curves
 Estimated Limiting Value (ELV)

 The largest magnitude possible for a hydrologic event at a given location based on the
best available hydrologic information.
8. Rainfall

9. IDF
 Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curves

– IDF curves presents rainfall characteristics at location by statistical analysis.
– IDF curves provide average rainfall intensities corresponding to a particular return period for different
durations.
9. IDF

9. IDF
 Rank the observations in descending order

 Compute the exceedence probability associated with each rainfall volume using he
following expression
 Where m is the number of observations, p is the exceedence probability and T is the

corresponding return period
 Transform the volume data into rainfall intensity by dividing volume by the
corresponding duration
9. IDF

 the value of the random variable XT associated with a given return period, T, may be
obtained from the following expression
 The frequency factor depends upon the probability distribution being used, the
return period and the length of the annual maximum series.
 Compute the frequency factors associated with the desired return periods (e.g., 2, 5,
10, 25, 50, 100, 1000)
10. Snow
 Snow Accumulation
 The ration of station precipitation to basin precipitation is approximately constant for

a storm or storms.
 It can be computed as:

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Hydrology and Water Management

Afed Ullah Khan, PhD

 Cooling of air masses and condensation

 Amount of precipitable water

 Consider a column of air having a square base of 1 cm.

Absolute humidity Depth of precipitable water in “cm” 1c

 Divide the atmosphere into layers of approx. uniform

 Condensation – water change form from vapor to a liquid state.

 Freezing - water change form from liquid to solid state.

 Deposition - water change form from vapor to solid state.

 Water droplets and ice crystals

 Three mechanisms are needed for the formation of precipitation.

 Ice crystal process

 Coalescence is the process by which two or more droplets, bubbles or particles

 Ice crystal process

 The Bergeron process or ice-crystal process

 The ice crystal process involves the presence

 Ice crystal process

 The ice crystals grow larger at the expense

a very thin layer of

 Convective precipitation is caused by different heating of an air mass. Heated air

 Orographic precipitation occurs when an air mass is forced by topographic barriers to

 Shifting of a rain gauge station to a new location,

 Change of the instrument (gauge),

 Change of observational procedure.

 Double Mass Analysis/Correction

 Consistency of the record at a station is tested by comparing its accumulated annual

 Double Mass Analysis/Correction

 The Data may be Tabulated as

 Double Mass Analysis/Correction

 Test for Consistency of Record – use : DMC

 The frequency and characteristics of precipitation in the vicinity of monitoring station

 The areal variability of snow and rain

 Design storm characteristics for small urban or other watersheds

 Used to derive Intensity-duration-frequency(IDF) curves which is used in the rational

 For most hydrologic analysis, it is important to know the areal distribution of

 Arithmetic Mean Method

 Arithmetic Mean Method

 Simplest method to obtain the average depth of precipitation over an area.

 Yields good estimates in flat country

 Gauges must be uniformly distributed.

 Individual gauge reading do not vary widely from the mean

 Arithmetic Mean Method

 Used for Non-uniform distribution of gauges.

 Gives better results than arithmetic mean method.

 Stations are plotted on a map & connecting lines are drawn.

 The area of each polygon is determined by planimeter and is expressed as a

 Simply assumes linear variation of precipitation between stations.

 Most accurate method of averaging precipitation over an area.

 Station Location and amount are plotted on a suitable map.

 Contours of equal precipitation are drawn.

 The average precipitation for an area is computed by weighing the average

 Method permits the use and interpretation of all available Data

 Conditions for computing missing data

 Topographically station are not much different

 Arithmetic Mean Method

 Normal Ratio Method

 The arithmetic mean of the index stations data is the

 PA, PB, PC = index Stations

 Difference of index stations data & main station data <

 At least the three index station around the main station.

 Area must be flat.

 Stations are evenly distributed