WATER INSTITUTE

Department of WSIE
HYU07103 -Hydrological Processes

By;
Eng. Nancy P. Mduma
mdumapnancy@yahoo.com
 REFERENCES
1. Linsley, R K et al (1988): Hydrology for Engineers: McGraw Hill
2. Wilson, E M (1990): Engineering hydrology: Macmillan
3. Chow, V T et al (1988): Applied hydrology: McGraw Hill
4. Shaw, E M (1988):Hydrology in practice: Chapman & Hall
5. Tilrem, Ø A (1979): Manual on procedures in operational hydrology, Volume I to V: Norwegian
Agency for International Development/ Ministry of Water, Energy and Minerals, United Republic
of Tanzania
6. Herschy, R W (Editor) (1978): Hydrometry: John Wiley & Sons
7. Van der Made, J W (Rapporteur) (1986): Design aspects of hydrological networks: TNO
Committee on Hydrological Research, The Hague
8. Chow, V T (Editor-in-Chief)(1964): Handbook of applied hydrology: McGraw Hill
9. R.C Ward and M Robinson (2000); Principle of Hydrology: McGraw-Hill
10. Raghunath H M (2006) Hydrology: Principles Analysis Design, New Age International (P)
limited publisher, New Delhi, Bangalore 3rd edition.
 Hydrology as a Science
• “Hydrology is the science that treats the waters of the earth, their occurrence,
circulation and distribution, their chemical and physical properties, and their
reaction with their environment, including their relation to living things.

• The domain of hydrology embraces the full life history of water on the earth”

• What hydrologists do:

– Water use – water withdrawal and instream uses
– Water Control – flood and drought mitigation
– Pollution Control – point and nonpoint sources
Introduction to Hydrological Processes

• Hydrological Processes is the natural circulation of water

near the surface of the earth

• Hydrologic information – for planning and management of

water resources

• Hydrologic cycle – processes & pathways in circulation of

water from land & water bodies to atmosphere & back
again – Land use effects

• Balances between water of the earth & moisture in

atmosphere
Hydrological Processes
Components of Hydrological Processes

• Components of Hydrological Processes includes:

(i) Precipitation
(ii) Evaporation
(iii) Infiltration
(iv) Percolation
(v) Surface Runoff
(vi) Groundwater Outflow
 Precipitation

• Precipitation is the deposition of water from the atmosphere on the surface.

• Responsible for replenishing surface water bodies, recharging aquifers, renewal of

soil moisture for plants with its principal forms being rain and snow.

• Precipitation is the process by which water droplets or ice crystals in the

atmosphere come together and fall to the Earth's surface.
Basic Conditions necessary for Precipitation to occur:

1. Saturation of Air:
For precipitation to occur, the air must be saturated with water vapor. Saturation refers to the
point at which the air cannot hold any more water vapor at a given temperature and pressure.
This can be achieved by adding moisture, cooling of air, or combining both.

2. Condensation Nuclei:
Water vapor needs a surface to condense upon in order to form droplets or ice crystals. Tiny
particles known as condensation nuclei or cloud condensation nuclei provide these surfaces.
These particles can be dust, salt, or other aerosols in the atmosphere.

3. Stability of the Atmosphere:

The atmosphere must be conditionally unstable to allow for vertical motion and the
formation of clouds.
 Basic Conditions necessary for Precipitation to occur:
4. Cooling of Air:
As air rises in the atmosphere, it expands and cools. Cooling causes the air to reach its dew
point temperature, which is the temperature at which air becomes saturated and water vapor
begins to condense into liquid water droplets or ice crystals.

5. Lifting Mechanism:
The air needs to be lifted for precipitation to occur. Various mechanisms can lift the air,
including orographic lifting (air forced to rise over mountains), frontal lifting (convergence
of air masses with different temperatures), and convective lifting (rising air due to heating at
the surface).

6. Presence of Moisture:
There must be sufficient moisture in the air to support the formation of water droplets or ice
crystals. This moisture can come from various sources, such as bodies of water, evaporation,
or transpiration from plants.
Types of Precipitation according the factors of uplifting and cooling
Cyclonic precipitation
• Occurs when air mass rise up due to
pressure difference.
• As warm air is lighter in
comparison to colder ones it rises
above the colder air.
• Then the warmer air starts cooling
beyond saturation point which
results in heavy rain.
• Such rainfall is called Cyclonic
Rainfall
• Pressure differences are created by
the unequal heating of the earth’s
surface.
Types of Precipitation according the factors of uplifting and cooling
Convective precipitation
• Result from heating of the earth’s
surface that causes the air to rise
rapidly
• As the air rises it cools and
moisture condenses into clouds and
precipitation
• Mainly caused by the upward and
downward transfer of air masses of
different temperatures
• If the rising air mass has moisture
content that equals the
condensation level, then the
moisture condenses and the result is
a thunderstorm
Types of Precipitation according the factors of uplifting and cooling
Orographic precipitation
• Occurs when a warm air mass rises
over a high geographic feature such
as a mountain range.
• Moisture in the air mass condenses
with precipitation resulting.
• As the air rises and cools,
orographic clouds form and serve
as the source of the precipitation,
most of which falls upwind of the
mountain ridge.
• Normally mountain slopes facing
prevailing winds get more rain than
leeward slopes.
Types of Precipitation according the factors of uplifting and cooling
Frontal precipitation
• Air masses of widely differing
properties exist together on the earth’s
surface and move under forces initiated
by uneven heating.
• The boundary between dissimilar air
masses is known as a frontal surface.
• Results of lifting of lighter warm moist
air over more dense cold air.
• Typically, on a hot day the ground
surface becomes heated, as does the air
in contact with it.
• causes the air to rise, expand, and cool
dynamically, causing condensation and
precipitation.
 The general forms of precipitation
i) Rain is precipitation of liquid water drops that ranges 0.5mm-7mm in diameter.
Drizzle consists of water droplets less than 0.5mm in diameter with settling velocity
and an intensity of less than 1 mm/hour.
ii) Hailstones is precipitation of ice balls whose diameter range 5mm - 125mm and
specific gravity of about 0.7 to 0.9. Hailstones are of significance as they cause
damage to crops and property.
iii)Snow is precipitation of complex ice crystals. Snowflakes are made up of ice
crystals..
iv)Sleet is precipitation of freezing raindrops and usually in combination with snow.
 Factors affecting precipitation

1. Moisture Content: The availability of water vapor in the atmosphere is a fundamental

factor. High moisture content increases the likelihood of precipitation. Sources of moisture
include oceans, lakes, rivers, and evaporation from the Earth's surface.

2. Uplifting Mechanisms: Different mechanisms lift air, causing it to cool and leading to the
condensation of water vapor into precipitation. Common uplifting mechanisms include
orographic lifting (air forced over mountains), frontal lifting (air masses collide), convectional
lifting (rising warm air), and cyclonic or non-frontal lifting (associated with low-pressure
systems).

3. Wind Patterns: Global wind patterns, such as the trade winds and westerlies, influence the
movement of air masses and play a role in transporting moisture to different regions. Winds
also contribute to the convergence of air masses, a factor in frontal lifting.
 Factors affecting precipitation
4. Topography: The physical features of the landscape, such as mountains and valleys, can
significantly impact precipitation. Mountains act as barriers to air flow, leading to
orographic lifting and enhanced precipitation on the windward side. The leeward side, or
rain shadow, may experience reduced precipitation.

5. Temperature: Temperature affects the ability of air to hold moisture. Warm air can hold
more water vapor than cold air. Cooling of air through processes like adiabatic cooling,
which occurs during ascent, can lead to saturation and precipitation.

6. Humidity: Humidity is a measure of the moisture content in the air. Higher humidity
levels increase the likelihood of saturation and precipitation. Relative humidity compares
the actual moisture content to the maximum amount the air could hold at a given
temperature.
 Factors affecting precipitation
7. Atmospheric Stability:
The stability of the atmosphere influences the vertical movement of air. Unstable conditions, where
warm air near the surface can easily rise, are conducive to convective lifting and precipitation. Stable
conditions may inhibit vertical motion and limit precipitation.

8. Air Masses:
Different air masses have distinct temperature and moisture characteristics. When contrasting air
masses meet, such as a warm, moist air mass colliding with a cold, dry air mass, it can result in frontal
lifting and precipitation.

9. Fronts:
Fronts are boundaries between air masses with different characteristics. Warm fronts and cold fronts
often play a role in frontal lifting, leading to the development of clouds and precipitation.

10. Cyclonic Activity:

Low-pressure systems or cyclones can lead to widespread precipitation. As air converges towards the
low-pressure center, it is lifted, cools, and releases moisture as precipitation.
END OF LECTURE 1
 Evaporation
• Evaporation: process where liquid water is transformed into a gaseous state at a
temperature less than the boiling point through the process of transfer of heat
energy.
• Evaporation of water occurs when the surface of the liquid is exposed, allowing
molecules to escape and form water vapor.
• The net escape of water molecules from the liquid state to the gaseous state
constitutes evaporation.
• This vapor can then rise up and form clouds
• A cooling process in that the water body must provide the latent heat of
vaporisation (2.45 x 106 joule/kg).

• Factors affecting evaporation: (i) Solar radiation (ii) temperature (iii) wind speed
(iv) relative humidity (v) soil cover (vi) crop resistance (vii) heat storage capacity.
 Factors affecting Evaporation
• Solar Radiation: The transfer of water in the liquid state into water vapour requires
energy, which is known as the latent heat of evaporation.
• Temperature: temperature of the air and ground is high, evaporation will proceed
more rapidly than if they are cool
• Wind: water vaporizes into the atmosphere the boundary layer between the earth
surface and the air becomes saturated and it must be removed
• Relative Humidity: air’s humidity rises, its ability to absorb more water vapour
decreases and the rate of evaporation slows.
• Soil cover: The fraction of the soil that is covered by the crop directly affects the
transpiration of the considered area.
• Crop Resistance: Transpiration of a cropped surface is usually less than the
evaporation of an open water surface
• Heat storage capacity: Deep-water bodies have more heat storage than shallow
ones.
• Consumptive use refers to the portion of water withdrawn or diverted for a
particular purpose that is consumed by the plants or evaporated and does not
return to the water source. In agriculture, it represents the amount of water
taken up by crops and transpired into the atmosphere or used in the process of
photosynthesis.

• Consumptive use can be calculated by determining the difference between the

water applied to a crop (irrigation or precipitation) and the water that is
returned to the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration.

• Potential evapotranspiration: represents the maximum amount of water that

could evaporate and transpire under optimal conditions, assuming a well-
watered surface with an ample supply of moisture. It is a theoretical measure
and does not account for water limitations such as soil moisture deficit or other
factors that may constrain actual evapotranspiration.
 Factors affecting Evapotranspiration
a) Temperature:
 Higher temperatures generally lead to increased evapotranspiration. Warmer air can
hold more moisture, promoting the evaporation of water from surfaces and the
transpiration from plants.
b) Humidity:
 Humidity represents the amount of moisture already present in the air. Higher humidity
levels can limit evaporation, as the air is already saturated with water vapor.
c) Wind Speed:
 Increased wind speed enhances evaporation by removing the water vapor near the
surface. It also helps to disperse the water vapor released during transpiration from
plants.
d) Solar Radiation:
 Solar energy is a driving force behind evapotranspiration. More sunlight stimulates the
process by providing the energy required for water to change from liquid to vapor.
 e. Vegetation Type and Density:
The presence and characteristics of vegetation significantly impact transpiration. Dense vegetation tends to
increase transpiration rates, as more water is drawn up through plants and released into the atmosphere.

f. Soil Moisture:
The moisture content of the soil affects evapotranspiration. Dry soil allows for quicker evaporation, while wet
soil contributes to increased transpiration by supporting plant water uptake.

g. Land Cover Changes:

Changes in land use and land cover, such as deforestation or urbanization, can alter evapotranspiration patterns.
For example, the removal of vegetation may reduce transpiration rates.

h. Altitude:
Higher altitudes often experience lower air pressure and lower temperatures, which can affect evapotranspiration
rates. However, the impact may vary depending on regional climatic conditions.
i. Atmospheric Pressure:
Atmospheric pressure influences the rate of evaporation. Lower pressure at higher altitudes generally results in
lower evaporation rates compared to areas at lower altitudes.

j. Agricultural Practices:
Irrigation, cultivation methods, and the type of crops grown can affect the amount of water used for transpiration
in agricultural areas
 Factors affecting Transpiration
a) Relative Humidity:
 Higher humidity levels in the surrounding air can reduce transpiration rates since the air is already saturated
with moisture, making it more difficult for water to evaporate from the leaf surfaces.
b) Temperature:
 Increased temperatures generally lead to higher transpiration rates. Warmer temperatures cause water
molecules to move more rapidly, facilitating their release from the stomata.
c) Wind Speed:
 Wind can enhance transpiration by removing the water vapor that accumulates around leaves. Increased
airflow helps maintain a lower concentration of water vapor in the leaf boundary layer, promoting the
movement of water out of the plant.
d) Light Intensity:
 Light stimulates the opening of stomata during photosynthesis. Therefore, plants transpire more when
exposed to higher light levels. However, extreme light conditions may cause stomatal closure to prevent
excessive water loss.
e) Soil Moisture:
 The availability of water in the soil affects the rate of transpiration. Plants draw water from the soil through
their roots, and insufficient soil moisture can lead to reduced transpiration rates.
 f. Leaf Surface Area:
 Plants with larger leaf surfaces generally have higher transpiration rates because they offer more
stomata for water vapor to escape. Leaf size and structure influence the overall transpiring surface.
g. Plant Type and Species:
 Different plant species exhibit variations in transpiration rates based on their adaptations to specific
environmental conditions. For example, succulent plants are adapted to arid environments and may
have lower transpiration rates.
h. Leaf Structure:
 The structure of leaves, including the presence of a waxy cuticle or the density of stomata, can
impact transpiration rates. A thicker cuticle may reduce water loss, while more stomata can increase
transpiration.
i. Atmospheric Pressure:
 Changes in atmospheric pressure can influence transpiration. However, this factor is often secondary
to other environmental conditions.
j. Agricultural Practices:
 Human activities, such as irrigation, can directly affect soil moisture levels and, consequently,
transpiration rates in agricultural settings.
 Infiltration
• Infiltration: process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil/surface
of the earth thereby replenishing soil moisture, recharging aquifers and ultimately
supporting dry season stream flows from groundwater sources.
• Infiltration capacity of soil determines – amount & time distribution of rainfall
excess for runoff from a storm.
• Controlling factors: Soil type (size of particles, degree of aggregation between
particles, arrangement of particles); vegetative cover; surface crusting; season of
the year; antecedent moisture; rainfall hyetograph; subsurface moisture conditions
etc.
• Infiltration capacity (fp) is the maximum rate at which a soil in any given
condition is capable of absorbing water. It varies with time and space.
• water supply rate, i.e., rainfall intensity is equal or less the infiltration capacity,
then the infiltration rate is equal to the supply rate.
• if the supply rate is greater than the infiltration capacity, then the infiltration rate is
equal to the infiltration capacity.
 Infiltration
Infiltration rate is the velocity or speed at which water enters into the soil.
Measured by the depth (in mm) of the water layer that can enter the soil
in one hour. e.g. I.R of 15mm/hr
Determined from the expression by The Horton equation:

Where;
f = infiltration capacity at any time t (mm/hr)
fc = infiltration capacity at large value of t (mm/hr)
fo = initial infiltration capacity at t = 0 (mm/hr)
t = time from the beginning of rainfall (minutes)
k = constant for a particular soil and surface (min -1)
 Factors affecting Infiltration
• Soil Porosity: Porosity of the soil determines the storage available for infiltrated water and also
affects resistance to flow. Infiltration increases with porosity.
• Vegetation Cover: influence infiltration rate than the soil type and texture. Grass, trees, etc. increase
infiltration into the soil compared to barren land.
• Tillage of the soil: intensive tillage may enhance soil aggregation and thus improves the infiltration
• Initial soil moisture: Infiltration capacity at the beginning of a storm is relatively high or low
depending on whether the soil is initially dry or wet.
• Compaction due to traffic: Compaction of the soil surface due to the traffic of men (play grounds)
and animals (grazing areas) results in reducing infiltration rate.
• Freezing of soil surface: forms an impermeable layer of ice resulting in greatly reduced infiltration
capacity.
• Inwash of fine material: Fines at the top surface move with the flowing surface water to fill the
pores in the strata below thereby forming a relatively impervious seal resulting in low infiltration.
• Compaction of soil due to rain: Raindrops on bare soil breaks the soil aggregates tending to
compact it thereby reducing the infiltration rate.
• Entrapping of air: trapping of air in the soil pores when it starts to rain causes reduction in
infiltration rate
Surface Runoff
• Runoff is that water that flows on the surface of the earth
• Precipitation is the primary factor which determines runoff
processes
• As soon as rainfall begins, there is an initial period of
interception and infiltration losses before any measurable
runoff processes. During the period of rainfall these losses
continue in a reduced form.
• The part of the rain that does not contribute to the direct
runoff can be considered as a “loss”. This loss consist of:
(i) Interception
(ii) Depression
(iii) Infiltration
(iv) Evapotranpiration
Infiltration
Components of Runoff
• The route followed by a water particle before it enters a stream channel
can be visualized in three main routes namely: Overland flow,
Interflow and groundwater
• Overland flow (surface flow)
Comprise the water which travels over the surface, either as sheet flow
or as channel flow in small streams into the main stream course
• Interflow
In certain conditions, part of the rainfall may infiltrate into the soil and
then , on meeting a relatively impermeable layer, may spread out and
flow laterally , a few cm below the surface, towards the streams, This
component is known as Interflow. It moves more slowly than surface
runoff
• Groundwater (base flow)
Most of the rainfall which percolates through the soil layer to the
underlying groundwater storage will eventually reach the mainstream
channels as groundwater flow or base flow
 Factors Affecting Runoff

The main factors that influence runoff are:

i. Climatic factors
ii. Physical characteristics of drainage basin
 Climatic Factors Affecting Runoff
The influence of climate on runoff is due to the
following characteristics/factors:
i. Precipitation
ii. Rainfall Intensity
iii. Duration of rainfall
iv. Distribution of rainfall on the basin
v. Direction of storm movement
vi. Infiltration
Influence of climatic factors on runoff

i) Precipitation

Rainfall and snow which are one of the forms of precipitation that
affect runoff differently. Rainfall affects runoff hydrograph
immediately and produces peak hydrographs depending on the size
of the basin. While snow does not produce runoff immediately and
there is a time lag between snow fall and runoff in the streams and this
could be in months.

ii) Rainfall intensity

The peak of a runoff hydrograph is a function of increasing rainfall

intensity.
Flash floods are usually caused by high intense rain storms of short
Influence of climatic factors on runoff

iii) Duration of rainfall

Rains of long duration may produce considerable surface runoff though

the rainfall intensity might be relatively mild. High intense rainfall
storms of long duration produce serious flood hazard.

iv) Areal distribution of rainfall on basin

For drainage basins of appreciable size, large flood producing storms

are seldom uniformly distributed. For small drainage basins high peak
flows are the result of intense rainfall storms that cover only small
areas. For large basins the highest peak flows are usually produced by
general storms of less intensity, long duration and covering much
larger areas.
Influence of climatic factors on runoff
v) Direction of storm movement
The direction in which the storm travels across the basin with respect to the
direction of flow of the drainage system has a great influence upon the
resulting peak flow and also upon the duration of the surface runoff. A rain
storm traveling in the downstream direction causes a high peaked discharge
hydrograph. This happens due to the water congestion at the outlet. While a
rain storm traveling in the upstream direction produces a flat runoff
hydrograph.

vi) Infiltration
Infiltration is the phenomenon of water penetrating from the surface of the
ground into the soil. As water penetrates the soil, its distribution in space and
time varies. The description of the evolution of the water content in the soil,
resulting from the occurrence of a rain or of a pond of water at the surface, is
also sometimes thought to be a part of the phenomenon of infiltration. Mostly,
however, infiltration is thought of as the phenomenon of water crossing from
the air side to the soil side of the air-soil interface.
Influence of Physical characteristics of the
drainage basin on runoff
Physical characteristics influencing runoff include:
i) Land use
ii) Type of soil
iii) Area of basin
iv) Shape of basin
v) Elevation
vi) Slope
vii) Orientation
viii)Drainage net
ix) Order of streams
x) Length of tributaries
xi) Stream density
Influence of Physical characteristics on runoff
i) Land Use

Of all the many physical factors that affect the runoff of any
area, one of the most important is land use. The land use
which affects the vegetation has an influence on the rate of
infiltration and therefore on the resulting runoff in the stream.

ii) Type of soil

In any drainage basin the runoff characteristics are greatly

influenced by the soil type because of the varying infiltration
capacities of different soils. Soils with high infiltration
capacity would produce less runoff and vice versa.
Influence of Physical characteristics on runoff
iii) Area of basin
The larger the basin the longer it takes for the total runoff to
pass a given station. The peak flow decreases with an increase
in the drainage area. Actually for any locality the maximum
intensity of rain that is likely to occur with any given
frequency varies inversely with the area covered by the storm.
Consequently, the larger the basin the less will be the intensity
of the storm and therefore the lower will be the flood peak.

iv) Shape
The shape of the basin mainly governs the rate at which water
is supplied to the main stream as it proceeds along its course
from the source to the mouth
Influence of Physical characteristics on runoff
v) Elevation
The variation in elevation and also the mean elevation of a
drainage basin are important factors in relation to temperature
and to precipitation, particularly as to the fraction of the total
amount which falls as snow.
vi) Slope
In practice a catchment with a steep slope produces a high
peaked hydrograph and vise versa.
Steep
Mild
 Percolation
• Percolation is an important
process where rainwater soaks
into (infiltrates) the ground, into
the soil and underlying rock
layers.
• Some of this water ultimately
returns to the surface at springs
or in low spots downhill.
Percolation (Infiltration) & Surface Runoff

Some of the water percolates

underground and is called
groundwater
 Groundwater Outflow
• Groundwater is the portion of water beneath the earth’s surface that can be
collected by wells in usable quantities or that flows naturally to the surface via
springs.
• The subsurface occurrence of groundwater is divided into zones of aeration and
saturation. The zone of aeration consists of interstices occupied partially by water
and partially by air.
• Zone of saturation all interstices are filled with water under hydrostatic pressure.
On most of the land masses of the earth, a single zone of aeration overlies a single
zone of saturation and extends upward to ground surface
• In the zone of aeration, vadose water occurs.
Division of subsurface water
Discussed on the previous slides on
hydrological processes
Additional factors are: (Temperature,
Humidity, Pressure, soil type, type of
rock, rainfall)
• Type of rock: Determine the ability
of water to flow into the groundwater
system
• Soil type: soil particles and capillary
action, which describes how water
moves through a porous media,
moves water from wet soil to dry
areas.
• Humidity
• Rainfall
• Vegetation cover
 Types of Precipitation
Precipitation is classified according to the factor responsible for the lifting
mechanism which induces condensation.
The four main types of precipitation are:

1. Cyclonic precipitation
2. Convective precipitation
3. Orographic precipitation
4. Frontal precipitation
Surface Runoff HydrographA surface runoff hydrograph is a graphical representation
of the variation in streamflow over time in response to precipitation events.

Stream density refers to the number of streams within a given area of a catchment. It
is influenced by factors such as topography, geology, and land use.

Example
In a watershed, the total length of all streams is 50 kilometers, and the total area of the
watershed is 200 square kilometers. Calculate the drainage density and stream density
for this watershed.
To calculate drainage density, use the formula:
Solution
i) Drainage Density=
Substitute the given values:
Drainage Density= =0.25 km/km2
Next, to determine stream density, use the formula:
ii) Stream Density=
Substitute the given values:
Stream Density= =0.25 km/km2
Therefore, the drainage density and stream density for this watershed are both 0.25 km/km².
These values indicate that, on average, there is 0.25 kilometers of stream length per square
kilometer of watershed area.