AIRMASSES & FRONTS

Introduction

1. Weather even before the aviation concept was perceived by human

beings and has been a source of concern mostly in the form of a hazard. Same is
true from the present day aviator’s point of view. Knowledge of meteorology is
nothing but prediction and forecast as defined by some one and I quote” Take a
ball filled with 1/3rd earth and 2/3rd water, mix it and rotate it for indefinite time and
indefinite number and expect to predict what would be the ratio and behavior of
the mixture at a particular time and place. We can never predict what the weather
would do at a particular place and time even with the more advanced equipment.
Here is a clip showing the unpredictable nature of the weather although it is on a
small scale.
Planet Earth is unique in a way that its atmosphere sustains life. Weather, the
state of the atmosphere, at any given time and place strongly influences our daily
routine as well as our general life patterns. Virtually all of our activities are
affected by weather, but nothing is influenced more intimately by weather than
aviation.
All flying takes place in the atmosphere and weather is perpetual in the
atmosphere. So flying and weather are Inseparable. Therefore, as each pilot
should have the knowledge of his own aircraft and flight capabilities, It is also a
must for every pilot to learn to appreciate good weather, to recognize and respect
marginal or hazardous weather, and to avoid violent weather when the
atmosphere is on its most unrelenting behavior. For our safety and the safety of
those with us, we should learn to recognize potential troubles and make sound
flight decisions before it is too late. Today I will endeavor to enlighten this house
about a very important aspect of weather and related system in order to plan our
missions in a better way.
The topic of my today’s presentation is AIR MASSES AND FRONTS.

EARLY DISCOVERY

2. The role of air masses and fronts in the development of weather systems
was first appreciated by the Norwegian father and son team of Vilhelm and Jacob
Bjerknes in the 1920s. Today, these two phenomena are still studied intensively
as predictors of future weather patterns.

AIR MASSES

Formation of air mass

3. When a body of air comes to rest or moves slowly over an extensive area
having fairly uniform properties of temperature and moisture, the air takes on

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those properties. Thus, the air over the area becomes somewhat of an entity and
has fairly uniform horizontal distribution of its properties.

Definition

4. An AIR MASS is an extensive body of air that has a relatively

homogeneous temperature and moisture content over a significant altitude.

Source Regions

5. Having known the air mass, question come into mind that how is it formed.
The area over which the air mass acquires its identifying distribution of moisture
and temperature is its "source region."
When air remains over a uniform surface for a long period its temperature and
moisture tends to reach equilibrium with the surface. The air will gain the
properties of the surface. If the surface is cold air will get cold and if the surface
is moist air will gain moisture and vice versa.
This can take few days or may be weeks to form a homogenized air mass.
Subtropics & Interior of large continents are Good regions for airmasses to be
formed. The main source regions are the high pressure belts in the subtropics,
which produce tropical air masses, and around the poles, that are the source of
polar air masses.

The longer air remains stagnant over its source region, the more likely it will
acquire properties of the surface below.

Air Mass Classification

6. Air masses are classified by reference to their source regions and

subsequent track. They are known to be either polar or tropical according to their
source region and are sub divided into maritime if the air has passed over the
oceans or continental if over land. The four major air mass classifications are: -

(a) Polar Continental (Pc). Originated over Siberia, this is extremely

cold & dry air mass. In association with polar front cyclones, this air mass
picks up moisture from Mediterranean and black sea and gives rain in
Northern parts of Pakistan in winters (Western Disturbances).

(b) Polar Maritime (Pm). This is a cold & moist air mass formed
over oceans at higher latitudes, Pakistan remains unaffected by it.

(c) Tropical Continental (Tc). These are very hot and very dry
air masses originated from great deserts like Sahara.

(d) Tropical Maritime (Tm). These are hot and very humid air
masses. Monsoon is a typical Tm air mass.

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Air Mass Modification

7. Just as an air mass takes on the properties of its source region, it will also
tend to take on properties of the underlying surface when it moves away from its
source region, thus becoming modified. The degree of modification depends on
the speed with which the air mass moves, the nature of the region over which it
moves, and the temperature difference between the new surface and the air
mass. Some ways in which air masses are modified are

Cool air

8. Cool air moving over a warm surface is heated from below, generating
instability and increasing the possibility of showers.

Warm air

9. Warm air moving over a cool surface is cooled from below, increasing
stability. If air is cooled to its dew point, stratus clouds can also form and
sometimes fog.

Evaporation

10. Warm air from water surfaces and falling precipitation adds water vapor to
the air. When the water is warmer than the air, evaporation can raise the dew
point sufficiently to saturate the air and form stratus or fog.

Dry land

11. Air mass will remain dry if it was already dry or will lose some moisture if it
had some already present.

Temperature changes

12. Tropical air is cooled from below because of movement over cold surface
while polar air is heated from below when it moves over warm surface. Where
the air is heated from below the effect is spread to a greater depth of the
atmosphere

Identifying Air Masses

13. When first presented with the wide variations of air masses, clearly
identifying them can appear difficult. However, by logically applying some of the
rules of physics, the characteristic of air masses which affect us can be
determined.

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14. The first step is to determine the stability of an air mass when it reaches
us by asking the following questions. Is warm air passing over a cold surface or
cold air passing over warm surface? It is important to remember that warm and
cold are relative terms in this context. The degree of stability or instability will be
determined by:

(a) Temperature of the air mass at source.

(b) Temperature of the surface over which it passes.

(c) Time spent over the relevant surface. (Along track implies a long
time spent over the surface).

Remember that land masses are cold in winter and warm in summer while seas
are relatively warm in winter and cool in summer.

15. The second step is to determine the likely moisture content of the air when
it reaches us. Passage over the sea results in more evaporation and the dew
point increases, especially in warm air masses which can hold much water.
Passage over a large land mass will result in only limited evaporation. In
general, long land tracks maintain "dry" air masses whilst long sea tracks provide
much water vapor.

Air mass and Tropopause

16. It should be remembered that an air mass’s vertical height is till

tropopause. So each air mass carries its own tropopause with it. The height of
the tropopause will be higher in a warm air mass and lower in a colder air mass,
that’s why some times when two different air masses lie side by side the gap is
developed in the tropopause. It is through this gap that some times moisture
escapes in to stratosphere to make mother of pearl clouds.

Movement Of Air Mass

17. As we studied that an air mass is formed due to stagnant air, but what
makes these masses move. The main reason behind it is the pressure gradient
force. A heated air will form a low pressure and a cold air will constitute a high
pressure. So due to this difference in pressure the air mass will start to move.
Another reason for the air mass to move could be geostrophic force.

FRONTS

History
1. In 1919, at the age of 22, Vilhelm's son, Jacob Bjerknes, published an
eight-page paper, which introduced the concept of warm, cold and occluded

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fronts. The term front was suggested by Jacob because the collisions of two air
masses reminded them of a battlefront during a military operation. That collision
often results in warlike weather phenomena between the two air masses.
By 1926, in collaboration with others at the institute (known collectively as the
Bergen School), Bjerknes described the structure and life cycle of fronts.

Formation of Front

2. As air masses move out of their source regions, they come in contact with
other air masses of different properties. The zone between two different air
masses is a frontal zone or front. Across this zone, temperature, humidity and
wind often change rapidly over short distances.

Definition

3. Two air masses develop a sharp boundary or interface, where the

temperature difference between them becomes intensified. Such an area of
intensification is called a frontal zone or frontal surface and where they meet on
ground is called a front

Types Of Fronts

4. The three principal types of fronts are the cold front, the warm front, and
the stationary front. Fourth one is the occluded front, which is not a type of front
but is formed by joining two fronts.

Depiction Of Fronts

5. Different types of fronts are depicted on the pressure chart with help of
following symbols.

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Cold Front

6. The symbol given above for a cold front is generally in blue color on
colored charts. The leading edge of an advancing cold air mass is a cold front. At
the surface, cold air is overtaking and replacing warmer air. Cold fronts move at
about the speed of the wind component perpendicular to the front just above the
frictional layer. Figure shows the vertical cross section of a cold front and its
associated clouds.

Warm Front

8. When warm air replaces cold air at the surface it is called as warm front.
Simply we can say that warm air is pushing cold air ahead and also rising over
the cold air.
The edge of an advancing warm air mass is a warm front—warmer air is
overtaking and replacing colder air. Since the cold air is denser than the warm
air, the cold air hugs the ground. The warm air slides up and over the cold air and
lacks direct push on the cold air. Thus, the cold air is slow to retreat in advance
of the warm air. This slowness of the cold air to retreat produces a frontal slope

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that is more gradual than the cold frontal slope as shown in figure. Consequently,
warm fronts on the surface are seldom as well marked as cold fronts, and they
usually move about half as fast when the general wind flow is the same in each
case.

Slope & Associated Weather

9. Differing densities between the two air masses result in a sloping frontal
surface. The characteristics of individual slopes of cold and warm fronts are
given below.

(a) Cold front. Due to gravity, the cold air mass always undercuts
the less dense warmer air mass and that’s why cold front always has a steeper
slope which is inclined backward. There is normally a sharp contrast between air
mass characteristics across the frontal surface and the mixing zone is not more
then 1 Km deep between the two air masses. The steepness of the slope is
directly proportional to the speed of the cold front. A faster moving cold front will
have a steeper slope. Generally the average CF slope has a ratio of 1:50 (which
means a travel of 50 Km on ground will raise the slope to 1 Km height). The
friction between the air and the earth's surface results in a curved slope (the slow
moving surface air lags behind the faster upper air). This sometimes is called the
nose of the CF but this is ignored in most diagrams.

(b) Warm front. The warm front has a much shallower slope which is
always inclined forward. The mixing zone across the Warm frontal surface is
much wider then CF. The average slope of warm front has a ratio of 1: 150.

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Movement of Fronts

10. Movement of a front is defined as the movement of front normal to itself

and it is determined by the winds blowing across a front.

(a) Warm Front. The air moving in contact with the ground is slowed down by
the friction so its speed is slower. Over land where the friction is maximum, the
warm front moves at a speed 1/2 to 2/3 of the speed of the 2000 feet wind.

(b) Cold Front. The slope of a cold front is inclined backward. In this case
the friction causes the cold air at 2000 feet to move faster and go ahead which
forms nose of the cold front. This results in an unstable situation where cold
dense air is riding over warm air. The cold air sinks down causing the nose to
collapse and the front moves in jerks. Due to this reason the speed of cold front
is faster and rarely less than 2/3 of the speed of 2000 feet wind.

Temperature
11. In a cold front cold air is replacing warm air at the surface so when a
cold front passes the temperature would drop. In a warm front warm air is
replacing cold air at the surface so the temperature would increase on the
passage of a warm front.

Pressure

(a) Warm Front. When a warm front is approaching, the cold air is being
replaced by warm air. If we consider the column of air we would find that with the
approach of front the amount of cold air is reducing and that of warm air is
increasing. As the cold air is denser and has more weight so the pressure would
start to reduce as the front approaches.

(b) Cold Front. When a cold front passes the column of air which was
previously completely filled with warm air would start to have cold air. With
the same argument given above the pressure would start to increase
.

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From the above we deduce that the isobars bend towards a low when a front
passes. The isobars are similar to that of a trough.

Winds

12. We have studied earlier that the winds blow along the isobars. In this case
also the winds would blow along the isobars and change direction when a front
passes. From the figure below, we can see that:

(a) If we are moving in the direction same as that of the front the wind is
backing i.e. it changes from 300 deg to 270 deg on passing the cold front and to
240 deg on passing the warm front.

(b) If we move in a direction opposite to that of the front then the reverse
sequence would take place and wind would veer. (From figure it can be seen that
direction varies from 240 to 270 to 300 deg.)

(c) Whenever crossing a front the aircraft would always drift to the left and a
correction to the right should be given.

Fig 15.14

Clouds

13. Clouds are formed due to ascent of air above the condensation level. In
fronts the lifting of warm air by the cold air provides the trigger action. The slope
of a warm front is shallower and inclined
forward because of which the clouds
associated with warm front appear
hundreds of miles ahead of the surface
front. In case of a cold front, the slope is
steeper and inclined backwards due to
which clouds are concentrated in a narrow
band and appear along with the surface
front. The clouds associated with fronts are
discussed below:-

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 (a) Warm Front. The approach of warm front is marked by appearance of
cirrus clouds that are formed 200 – 300 miles ahead of the front. These are
followed by cirrostratus which gradually thickens into altostratus. The altostratus
thickens to form nimbostratus and rain starts about 50 miles ahead of warm front.
The falling precipitation saturates the air below and results in formation of stratus
clouds. Occasionally when the rising air is unstable, Cb may develop but the
thunderstorms of warm front are not severe.

(b) Cold Front. Due to a steeper slope and a higher speed the cold front
rapidly throws warm air up resulting in vertically developed clouds in a narrow
band. With the approach of a cold front the medium and high clouds rapidly
thicken into nimbostratus and a Cb may develop. The thunderstorm would be
severe and may be embedded in clouds, making visual detection difficult. On
average the rain associated with cold front extends only till 50 miles after which
they thin out to form high clouds that appear in reverse order to that of warm
front.

COLD FRONT WEATHER CONDITIONS

Prior to the
Weather Contact with theAfter the Passing
Passing of the
Phenomenon Front of the Front
Front
Cold and getting
Temperature Warm Cooling suddenly
colder
Atmospheric Decreasing Leveling off thenIncreasing
Pressure steadily increasing steadily
South toVariable andWest to
Winds
southeast gusty northwest
Heavy rain or
Showers then
Precipitation Showers snow, hail
clearing
sometimes
Cirrus and
cirrostratus
Cumulus and
Clouds changing later to Cumulus
cumulonimbus
cumulus and
cumulonimbus

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WARM FRONT WEATHER CONDITIONS

Prior to the
Weather Contact with theAfter the Passing
Passing of the
Phenomenon Front of the Front
Front
Warming Warmer then
Temperature Cool
suddenly leveling off
Slight rise
Atmospheric Decreasing
Leveling off followed by a
Pressure steadily
decrease
South to South to
Winds Variable
southeast southwest
Showers, snow,
Precipitation Light drizzle None
sleet or drizzle
Cirrus, Clearing with
cirrostratus, Stratus, scattered stratus,
Clouds altostratus, sometimes sometimes
nimbostratus, andcumulonimbus scattered
then stratus cumulonimbus

Stationary Fronts

14. When neither air mass is replacing the other, the front is stationary. The
opposing forces exerted by adjacent air masses of different densities are such
that the frontal surface between them shows little or no movement. In such
cases, the surface winds tend to blow parallel to the frontal zone. Slope of a
stationary front is normally shallow, although it may be steep depending on wind
distribution and density difference. Figure shows a cross section of a stationary
front and its symbol on a surface chart.

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Polar front

15. North Pole is capped by very cold Pc air mass till 70 N with easterly winds
blowing in it. This Pc air mass forms a stationary front with very warm and humid
Tm air mass, which is lying side by side just below 70 N with westerly winds in it.
Thus the boundary between Pc and Tm air masses is known as polar front and

its position varies between 40-70 deg N in our hemisphere.

FRONTAL OCCLUSION

16. There are two types of occluded fronts: cold occlusions and warm
occlusions. A cold occlusion occurs when the air behind the front is colder than
the air ahead of the front. A cold occlusion is very similar to a cold front. A warm
occlusion occurs when the air behind the front is warmer than the air ahead of
the front. Occluded fronts are usually very instrumental weather makers.

Occlusion

17. The fronts are moving at different speeds so there could be occasions
where two fronts meet. In such situation there would be three air masses and
their movement would be governed by their densities. The coldest air mass
would lift the warmer air mass which in turn would lift the warmest air mass. Such
a condition in which two fronts meet and as a result one starts to rise over the
other is called as occlusion. The point where the two fronts meet is called as the
triple point.

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 Triple Point in An Occlusion
Fig 15.8

18. The cold front has a higher speed so it is normally the cold front which
catches up with warm front. There are primarily two types of occlusions:-

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 (a) Cold occlusion. If the air behind of a cold front is colder than

Fig 15.10

the air ahead of ahead of a warm front it is called as a cold occlusion. In

this case the warm front would rise over the cold front and at the surface
comparatively cold air would replace warm air.

(b) Warm Occlusion. If the air behind a cold front is warmer than the
air ahead of the warm front then it is called as a warm occlusion. In this
case the cold front would rise over the warm front and on the surface
comparatively warm air would replace cold air.

Fig 15.11

SQUALL LINE

19. Squall lines generally form along or ahead of cold front can produce
severe weather in the form of heavy rainfall, strong winds, large hail, and
frequent lightning. Squall lines can extend to hundreds of miles in length,
simultaneously affecting several states at a time. They also can travel quickly --
at speeds up to 60 mph

20. Squall lines typically form in unstable atmospheric environments in which

low-level air can rise unaided after being initially lifted (e.g., by a front) to the
point where condensation of water vapor occurs. Heat is released during
condensation, resulting in the rising air becoming lighter than nearby air at the
same height. This leads to an increase in the speed of the rising air, which
sometimes reaches speeds above 30 mph.

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PROPERTIES OF LINE SQUALL

21. Following are few properties of squall line

•The thunderstorm area is located well in advance of the cold front.

•Temperature begins to fade at first then shifts rapidly and Earth becomes cool.
•The wind shift is sharply in clockwise direction.
•Thick dark clouds occur.
•Sudden rise of wind velocity and sudden rise of pressure occurs.
•Heavy thunderstorm, hail and rain takes place.
•CB height is more than normal CB’s.
•It may develop a series of thunderstorms.
•In a line squall, thunderstorms and roll clouds are ahead of it.
Most of all the squall line helps us in predicting the weather of the area which it’s
going to effect as it’s moving in the frontal line.

CONCLUSION

22. Weather is an important phenomena and must be dealt with respect. This
implies more on us as we are in the aviation business and our survival is greatly
attached to it. In your preflight preparation, be aware of and stay alert for
phenomena that may produce IFR or marginal flight conditions. Current charts
and special analyses along with forecast and prognostic charts are your best
sources of information. A sound weather briefing can very well be the difference
between staying alive and becoming a figure in the graph of the weather victims.

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