VERTICAL MOTION WITHIN THE ATMOSPHERE

Introduction

1. Where as the horizontal motion of the air effects the track and ground
speed of the a/c, the motion of the air in vertical direction causes two major
problems for aviators.
(SLIDE-4)

(a) Clouds Any rising air cools down progressively and eventually
condenses into clouds. Clouds and precipitation are then cause of many
flying hazards.
(b) Turbulence Rising currents of the air are a major cause of
turbulence in the air.
(SLIDE-5 TO 13)

Trigger action which cause the vertical motion of air

2. Although there can be more reasons also which can force the air to move
in vertical direction but we will restrict our selves to four major common trigger
Action causing vertical motion of air.

(a) Mechanical up lifting. Wind blowing horizontally is tossed up

by small barriers like buildings, trees hangers etc. vertical motion in this
case is not very strong and the effect of vertical currents generated by
mechanical uplifting is felt till max 3000ft.
(b) Convection A parcel of air is forced up by surface heating
and once vertical currents are generated by convection their effect can be
felt as high as tropopause. This vertical motion is only restricted to the
parcel of air which has been heated up.
(c) Orographic up Lift Large Mountains and their slopes force the
horizontal blowing winds to move in vertical direction. It is similar as
mechanical up lifting but on a much larger scale. Convective currents
supported by orographic effect can generate very strong vertical currents.
(d) Mass ascent and Descend This is a relatively slow but very wide
spread vertical motion. Air is always rising up in center of low pressure
area and descending down in the center of high pressure area. Other than
that light warm air is always lifted up by heavy cold air during the
movements of fronts In this process the vertical velocities are generally
too small to be detected on aircraft instruments.

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. Mass Ascent
When a large mass of air of considerable depth is lifted, by a mountain
range, a frontal barrier or at the center of a depression the extensive areas
of thick cloud and precipitation may be created.

Mass Descent
Air descends in the middle of anticyclone and because descending air
becomes warmer, clouds tend to disperse by evaporation. In anticyclones
an inversion often results from cooling from below (by conduction and
turbulent mixing); therefore, mass descent may stop above the surface.
This leads to poor visibility at low level or a layer of Stratocumulus.

(SLIDE-14)

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3. Adiabatic Process According to this process temperature of a parcel of
gas will increase whenever it is compressed, and for this temperature increase
no heat energy is required from the surroundings. This is the reason that a
bicycle pump gets heated up after some pumping. Similarly the same gas parcel
will cool down if expanded and in this temperature drop no heat energy will be
passed to surroundings. Thus the process of temperature change in air, caused
by either compression or expansion is known as adiabatic change.
4. In the atmosphere as any parcel of the air starts to rise due to some
trigger action pressure over it starts to reduce progressively. Because of this
reduction in pressure the parcel of air expands and as a result its temperature
drops converse happens to a descending parcel of air.
5. It has been assumed so far that rising parcel of air neither mixes with its
surroundings nor losses or receives heat by radiation or conduction. Although
this assumption is not strictly true in the atmosphere, but the amount of mixing is
relatively small and the gain or loss of heat in these circumstances can be
ignored.
(SLIDE-15)

6. Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) Now to exactly calculate how much any
parcel of air is going to cool down or warm up with few feet of height gained or
lost requires very lengthy calculation which are not required here, however we
can estimate it very closely. Because the expansion / compression of the parcel
are related to height change, the temperature change can also be related to
height change. It has been found when ever a dry air ascends or descends; it
cools or warms at 3 deg C/1000 ft. This is called DALR and this fig almost
remains constant.

(SLIDE-16, 17)

7. Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR) If the dry air continues to rise it
will eventually cool down to the its dew point temperature and thus turns into
saturated air. Now as the air (which has just turned in to saturated air) continues
its up ward flight two things happen in it

(a) It keeps cooling down with a rate of 3 deg/1000 ft.

(b) It also warms up. (Because cooling the air below dew point will
cause condensation and as result latent heat will be released into the
rising parcel of air, thus raising its temperature)

8. So the net cooling in saturated parcel of air is going to be

Net cooling = Adiabatic cooling – Warming up (due to latent heat released)

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Therefore over all cooling in a saturated air is always going to be less then the
cooling taking place in dry air with same increase in height. However unlike
DALR, SALR is not constant. SALR depends upon the temperature of saturated
air. A warm saturated air carries more water in it, so it will release more latent
heat once cooled below its dew pt. temperature then a cold saturated air.
However, in temperate latitudes a saturated air cools at 1.5 C /1000 ft at low
levels. This is called SATURATED ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE.

(SLIDE-18)

9. GAP BETWEEN DALR AND SALR We have learnt now that DALR remains
constant at 3deg C/1000 ft where as SALR is dependent upon amount of
moisture in a saturated air. At higher attitudes SALR becomes almost equal to
DALR because there is very less moisture carried by the saturated air due to its
very low temperatures, as a result very little amount of latent heat is released in
condensation. Thus over all adiabatic cooling becomes almost equal to DALR.

(SLIDE-19)

10. ELR ELR can be defined as the rate of change of temperature with
height actually observed at a given place and time. . In standard atmosphere it is
taken as 1.98/1000 ft. However this is an average value (used in ISA), in actual
case it can be more or less then this value. ELR becomes 0 while passing
through an isothermal layer and its value becomes negative while in inversion
layer.
(SLIDE-20, 21)

STABILITY / INSTABLITY

11. One would like to known that once a parcel of air has been thrown up by
some trigger action then what will happen to it once the force of the upward kick
finishes, whether it will continue its upward travel or will it start to come back
towards the ground. This subsequent behavior will be determined by level of
stability existing in the atmosphere. If the parcel again start to come back
towards the ground then environment is said to stable and if it continue to move
up then environment is unstable. An unstable environment is ideal for cloud
making as continuously rising currents eventually cools down to their dew point
temperature and condense into clouds, where as in stable environment force of
upward kick finishes quickly and air does not rise sufficiently to cool down in to a
cloud. Before learning different types of stabilities in atmosphere, understand the
following facts.

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 (a) The behavior of the rising parcel of air will entirely depend upon its
density (in other words its temperature) at the new level. It will continue to
rise if it is warmer then surroundings or it will starts to descend down if it is
cooler then its new surroundings.

(b) The stability of the environment is determined by relationship of

DALR, SALR & ELR. In one air mass DALR & SALR are constant figures
but ELR can vary a great deal each day. So stability state entirely
depends how environment is cooling with height (ELR) on that day.

(c ) Any rising parcel of air does not cool because it is going away from
earth but it cools because of its expansion because air always maintains
its characteristics (temp, humidity etc) and doesn’t readily mixes with its
new environment. If somehow it is not allowed to expand while rising up
then it can maintain its surface temperature for very long time before
acquiring the temperature of new level.

(d) It should be clear that cooling taking place in ELR is a different

process then cooling taking place in DALR& SALR both. Environment
cools with increasing height entirely because of increasing distance from
the hot earth but the cooling taking place in a rising parcel of air is entirely
a function of it expansion and not the distance from the earth.

(SLIDE-22 TO 25)

12. Unstable Environment

Once the ELR is more then
DALR, environment is always
unstable. Imagine a parcel of air
drifting along the wind, striking an
obstruction and bouncing up ward. It
will cool with DALR i.e. 3 deg C/1000
ft as shown by line AC. Where as the
environment is cooling with higher rate
as shown by line AB so as result a
rising parcel is always going to be
warmer then environment and it will
continue to rise. This is known as unstable environment.

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 (a) Conditional Instability
The average value of ELR in
standard atmosphere is Approx. 2
degree C/1000 ft. This rate is higher
then SALR but less then DALR
which means that dry is air stable
and only saturated air is unstable
such a situation is known as
conditional instability . In this case
dry air will be reluctant to rise, but if
it is forced up enough to cool down
to its dew point then this newly
turned saturated air will become
unstable and it will continue rising at its own.

(b) Absolute Instability Once ELR

is more then DALR then it is obviously
more then SALR also so this is called
absolute instability.

(SLIDE-26 TO 30) STABLE

13. Stable Environment If the ELR

is less then DALR then environment is
known as stable. In this case a rising
parcel of air is always going to be
cooler then its environment so it will
sink.

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 (a) Absolute Stability If
ELR is less the SALR then it is
obviously less then DALR also so this
situation is known as absolute
stability.

(b) Neutral Stability If ELR is same as DALR then environment is

known as neutrally stable. In this case a rising parcel will maintain its new
position after the force of trigger action has finished.

(SLIDE-31 TO 34)

14. Effect of Stability on Weather Degree of stability in the atmosphere

plays a major role in determining the weather at any place. Some features of
stable and unstable environment are given below.

(a) Stable Weather In stable air vertical currents are damped,

therefore flight conditions are comparatively smooth. If the air is forced up
due to some trigger action (mostly mass ascent taking place in fronts) then
clouds are of layered type. Precipitation if any, is continuous or intermittent
but not as heavy as associated with vertically developed heap clouds, and
often it is in the form of drizzle. Visibility is generally moderate to poor
(because of absence of vertical motion all solid particles are settled close
to ground). Standing waves may from in the lee of hills.
(b) Unstable Environment In unstable air vertical currents, once
started is self sustaining; therefore, flight conditions are often very bumpy.
Clouds are of heaped, (cumuli from) type. Precipitation is showery, and
possibly with thunder. Visibility is usually good (impurities are dispersed
through a deeper layer).

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 (SLIDE-35, 36)

15. Effect of isothermal and Inversion layer on Stability An

Isothermal or inversion layer leads to a very stable environment. A continuously
cooling rising parcel of air immediately becomes cooler then its surroundings as it
enters an Isothermal or inversion layer (where the temp remains constant or
increase with height respectively), so it does not rise any further. This is the
reason that all rising vertical currents are damped by tropopause (Isothermal
layer) and they do not go above it. The main features of interest to aviation due
to temperature inversions are:
(a) Inversions some times limit vertical development of clouds
(b) Because inversions mean warm air over lying cold air, noticeable
changes in lift some times occur on flying through them.
(c) They provide a lid to haze and smoke layers so that descent
through the inversion is coincident with markedly reduced visibility.

(SLIDE- 37 TO 40)

16. Formation of inversion layer Three situations commonly produce

temperature inversions in the lower atmosphere.

(a) Surface radiation inversions These forms on clear, light wind nights
and are strongest around sunrise. They are due to strong radiational cooling
at the earth's surface which in turn cools the lowest layers of air but the
layers above remain warm. Because air is a poor conductor, cooling does not
extend through a deep layer. Strong surface inversions are usually a few
hundred feet thick (though more in some cases) and may have a
temperature increase with height of 10 deg C through the layer. This
condition of warm air overlying cold air may produce changes in lift within a
short vertical distance, noticeable for light aircraft in particular. Another
aspect of surface inversions is that the very stable surface layer causes a
difference of winds between itself and upper warmer layer. An aircraft
climbing through the inversion top may experience suddenly increased wind
and more turbulence.

(b) Inversion in a High pressure system Subsidence is sinking of air

and characteristic of anticyclones. It causes adiabatic warming due to com-
pression. Usually the top of the layer subsides more than, and hence warms
more rapidly then the bottom of the layer. So when the top reaches a higher
temperature, an inversion has formed. A typical subsidence inversion occurs
at an altitude of 4000 to 6000 feet in mid-Latitudes, and is not as strong as a
well-developed surface inversion. Subsidence inversions are strongest and

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 lowest near the center of a high.

(c) Frontal or sea breeze inversions These form when a wedge of

cooler air forms under the warm air. When a cold front advances, an
inversion occurs, formed at the frontal surface at the upper atmosphere.
The same thing happens on a more local scale with a sea breeze. The
inversion itself is not as significant to aviation as the wind sheer that may
occur at the interface zone between cooler and warmer air.

(SLIDE- 41 TO 45)
Turbulence

17. Turbulence is caused mainly by two reasons

(a) Vertical Gusts Small-scale vertical motion of the air along the
path of the aircraft (up drafts) will increase the angle of attack, causing an
increase in the lift generated at that particular speed and therefore an
increased load factor which results in to an upward jerk. The down draught
will have an opposite reaction, resulting in to an downward jerk. Of course
if the angle of attack is increased beyond the critical value the wing can
stall at a speed well above the published 1g stalling speed.

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 (SLIDE- 46 TO 49)
Types of turbulence

18. Mechanical Turbulence Mechanical turbulence is the term used to

denote random currents induced by friction and obstruction of the airflow by
buildings, trees etc. A strong wind and a rough surface increases turbulence and
if the air is unstable the turbulence will be vigorous. The depth of the turbulent
layer is between 1000 ft and 3000 ft and vertical velocities are usually less than
50 ft/min. Mechanical turbulence is at its maximum in mid-afternoon (at maximum
temperature), and at its minimum around dawn (at minimum temperature).

19. Thermal or Convective Turbulence Heating of the air at the surface ( e.g.
daytime overland or over warm sea during night) causes convection currents;
these tend to occur in cells at irregular intervals. In stable air the currents will be
shallow, but in unstable air the depth will be considerable and may, in extreme
cases, extend to the tropopause. The scale of the cells varies from a few
hundred yards apart to a few miles apart; vertical velocities vary from 500 to
4000 ft' min. The up draught in cells is often marked by Cumulus clouds.

20. Clear Air Turbulence Clear air turbulence (CAT) is the term used to
denote the turbulence that is occasionally encountered in clear air at high levels.
The cause is usually sharp changes of wind direction and speed.

(SLIDE-50 TO 54)

21. REPORTING TURBULENCE:

CAT remains an important operational factor at
all levels of flying but particularly above flight level 150. Pilots may report the
time, location, level, intensity and aircraft type to the ATS unit they are operating
with. This is done as a special observation report. The criteria required are.
 INCIDENCE
 Occasional: Less than 1/3 of the time
 Intermittent: 1/3 to 2/3 of the time
 Continuous: more than 2/3 of the time
 INTENSITY
 Light
IAS fluctuates 5 – 15 knots. Turbulence momentarily cause slight erratic
changes in attitude and or altitude.
 Moderate
IAS fluctuates 15 – 25 knots. Turbulence is similar to light turbulence but of
greater intensity and changes in attitude and or altitude can occur but the
aircraft remains in positive control at all times.
 Severe

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 IAS fluctuates more than 25 knots. Turbulence causes large abrupt changes
in attitude and or altitude and the aircraft may be momentarily out of control.

(SLIDE-55)

22. Wind sheer Wind sheer is the sudden variation in wind speed and
direction from place to place. It not only affects the flight path and speed of the
a/c but it can also create hazardous turbulence in air. The wind sheer is created
by many reasons and it is generally found near the thunderstorms, large cumulus
clouds, in the lee side of hills (rotor clouds are one indication), along with
mountain waves, close to jet streams, across the frontal surfaces and while
crossing through strong inversion layers.

(SLIDE-56)

23. EFFECT OF WIND SHEAR ON AN AIR CRAFT IN FLIGHT

Wind shear will affect the air craft in many
different ways and during an encounter the situation will be constantly
changing. Particular types of aircraft will vary in their reaction to a given
shear. In a wind shear encounter it is not only the magnitude of the change of
the wind vector that counts but the rate at which it happens.
EXAMPLE: An aircraft at 1000 ft AGL may have a headwind component of 30
knots but the surface win d reported is only of 10 knots that 20 knot difference
may taper off evenly and effect will be that of reasonable gradient as it may
be noticed that 20 knots differential exist at 300 ft and it will be obvious that
the change when it comes is going to be far more sudden and its effect more
marked. Wind shear implies a narrow border line and 20 knots of wind speed
will be lost over a vertical distance of 100 ft as the aircraft descends from 300
ft to 200 ft. If the pilot wanted a stabilized approach of 130 knots he would
have set his power according to the conditions to give him his required
airspeed and rod. On passing through the shear line the loss of air speed will
be sudden but the inertia of the aircraft will at first maintain its original ground
speed of 100 knots. Power will be needed to accelerate the aircraft back to its
original airspeed. This will take time. Meanwhile the aircraft having loss 20
knots of airspeed will be sinking faster. The headwind was a form of energy
and when it dropped 20 knots and equal amount of energy loss has occurred.
The source available to balance that loss would be the engine power which
would arrest the increased rod and start the process accelerating back to the
approach speed.

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 (SLIDE-57, 58)
24. TECHNIQUES TO COUNTER THE EFFECT OF WIND SHEAR

 Briskly increase power (full go around power if necessary)

 Raise the nose to check descend
 Coordinate power and pitch
 Be prepared to carry out a missed approach

25. CONCLUSION
we have discussed the vertical motion in the atmosphere, the trigger
actions causing this motion. Its effects on the stability of the atmosphere
and the hazards it can cause to the flight of the aircraft. It is therefore
important to follow the techniques to avoid these hazards thus ensuring
the safety of valuable aircraft and human lives.

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