Introduction to Meteorology Final Exam

Chapter 1 – The Atmosphere

Atmosphere Layers:
Troposphere – Is the lowest layer of the atmosphere, the average temperature decreases
with altitude. The majority of the clouds and weather occurs in the troposphere.
Tropopause – The top of troposphere and it is associated with jet streams. (8km – 18km)
Stratosphere – Is the layer of the atmosphere above the tropopause, the average
temperature tends to change slowly at first and then increase with altitude.
Stratopause – The top of the stratosphere where the temperature reaches its maximum
temperature. (160,000 ft)
Mesosphere – Immediately above the stratopause, the average temperature decreases with
altitude.
Mesopause – The top of the mesosphere where temperature is the coldest. (280,000 ft)
Thermosphere – The highest layer in the model atmosphere, the average temperature
increases with altitude in this layer.
Ozone Layer – known as the ozonosphere is found in the lower stratosphere The O 3 with
maximum concentration near 80,000 ft.
Chapter 2 – Atmospheric Energy & Temperature
Sun-Earth Geometry:
Equinoxes - At noon on the first days of spring and fall, the sun’s rays are perpendicular to
the earth’s surface at the equator.
Solstices - On the first day of summer and the first day of winter (the solstices), the
noonday sun reaches its highest and lowest latitudes, respectively.
Radiation Process:
Absolute Zero – Temperature where all molecular motion stops.
Solar Declination – The latitude where the noon sun is directly Overhead.
Speed of light – Light is one of many types of electromagnetic radiation. (3 ×108 m/s )
Infrared (IR) – Frequencies lower than red.
Ultraviolet (UV) – Frequencies higher than blue.
Wavelength – Is the distance between two successive, identical wave features, such as two
wave crests.
Amplitude – Is half the distance between the lowest and highest points of the wave.
Frequency – Is the number of waves that pass some fixed point in a given time interval
units of frequency are cycles per second (cps) or Hertz (Hz).
Albedo – there is a loss of approximately 30% of the incoming solar radiation due to
reflection and scattering by clouds and other particulates and reflection from the earth’s
surface.
Calculations of Solar Elevation Angle (e):
e = 90−( L−Lp) in summer
e = 90−( L+ Lp) in winter
Example 1:
On the first day of Northern Hemisphere summer, the noon is overhead at 23.5° N. On that
date, find the noontime solar elevation angle at Denver (40° N).
e = 90−( L−Lp)
e = 90−( 40−23.5)=73.5°
Example 2:
On the first day of Northern Hemisphere winter, the noon is overhead at 23.5° N. On that
date, find the noontime solar elevation angle at Denver (40° N).
e = 90−( L+ Lp)
e = 90−( 40+23.5)=26.5 °
Chapter 3 – Pressure, Altitude & Density
Isobars – Lines of constant pressure.
Pressure Measurements:
Mercurial Barometer – Mercury in a glass tube with a sealed top is balanced against that
of the atmosphere pressing on an exposed cistern of mercury at the base of the mercury
column, the height of the column varying with atmospheric pressure.
Aneroid Barometer – Measures pressure as a method that does not involve liquid. It works
on the concept of the difference in pressure.
The Pressure Altimeter – The altimeter is essentially an aneroid barometer that reads in
units of altitude rather than pressure.

There are three specific altimeter errors caused by nonstandard atmospheric conditions:
1. Sea level pressure different from 29.92 inches of mercury.
2. Temperature warmer or colder than standard temperature.
3. Strong vertical gusts.

How to read the altimeter setting:

 The Orange reads in 100ft.
 The Green reads in 1,000ft.
 The Red reads in 10,000ft.
The answer is 10,000 + 100 + 0 = 10,100ft
Calculations of Density & Pressure Altitudes:
Temperature Deviation = ActualTemperature ± ISA Temperature
Pressure Altitude = Elevation ±((1013.25−QNH )× 30) or
= Elevation ±((29.92−QNH )× 30)
Density Altitude = Pressure Altitude ±(120 ×Temperature Deviation)

Example 3:
Calculate the density altitude of an airport located 2,000 ft MSL with an altimeter setting
of 29.92 inches of Hg and a temperature of 95°F.
Actual Temperature = 95°F
5
Actual Temperature = (95−32)=35 ° C
9
Elevation = 2,000 ft
QNH = 29.92 inches of Hg
Step 1: Find the Temperature Deviation
Temperature Deviation = ActualTemperature ± ISA Temperature
Temperature Deviation = 35−15=20 ° C
Step 2: Find the Pressure Altitude
Pressure Altitude = Elevation ±((29.92−QNH )× 30)
Pressure Altitude = 2,000 ± ( ( 29.92−29.92 ) × 30 )=2,000 ft
Step 3: Find Density Altitude
Density Altitude = Pressure Altitude ±(120 ×Temperature Deviation)
Density Altitude = 2,000+ ( 120 ×20 )=4,400 ft
Chapter 4 – Wind
Wind – Horizontal movement of air.
Wind Speed – The magnitude of the wind velocity expressed in Knots.
Wind Direction – The direction from which the wind is blowing from.

Causes of Wind:
 Pressure Gradient Force - It is the force accelerating the air mass particles towards
the low pressure. It is always perpendicular to the isobars.
 Coriolis Force – Due to the earth’s rotation.
 Friction Force – resistance force created by other objects.

Thermal Circulation – The movement of air which results from different heating of the
earth. Hot air rises towards the poles then it cools down and sinks.

Geostrophic Winds – Are winds come about because pressure gradient force and Coriolis
force come into balance after the air begins to move. The wind is considered geostrophic if:

 It is above the friction layer.

 Has a latitude greater than 15.
 The pressure situation is not changing rapidly.
 The isobars are straight and parallel.

As the distance between isobars decrease, wind speed increases.

Winds do not blow directly from large-scale high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas
because of Coriolis force.
Friction:
Skin friction – It occurs within fluids, such as the atmosphere and at the interface between
fluids and solids.
Form Drag – It is caused by turbulence induced by the shape of the aircraft.
Surface Friction – It is the combination of skin friction and turbulence near the earth’s
surface.

The friction layer or the boundary layer extends to 3,000ft AGL.

The wind changes direction on earth surface:
– Calm Water – low effect, air is not much diverted.
– Water Surface – Deviation of 10o, speed reduction up to 30%.
– Obstacles – Deviation up to 45o.
– Land – Deviation of 30, and speed reduction up to 50%.

In the Northern Hemisphere, the wind turns clockwise.

In the Southern Hemisphere, it turns anti-clockwise.
Chapter 5 – Vertical Motion & Stability

Vertical Motion – Is when an air parcel moves from one location to another, it typically has
a horizontal component (wind) and a vertical component (vertical motion).

Causes of Vertical Motion:

 Convergence - A net inflow of air into a given area. It may occur when wind speed
slows down in the direction of flow and/or when opposing airstreams meet.
 Divergence - A net outflow from a given area. Winds may diverge when the wind
speed increases in the direction of the flow.
 Orography – When air can be forced upward or downward when it encounters a
barrier. For example: wind blowing towards a mountain, it simply moves upward.
 Convection - As bubbles of warm air rise in the convective lifting process, the
surrounding air sinks. This occurs under unstable atmospheric conditions.

Stability:
 Stable System - If displaced or distorted, it tends to return to its original location or
configuration.
 Unstable System – It tends to move away from its original position, once it has been
displaced or distorted.
 Neutral System - remains in its new position if displaced or distorted.

Stability is determined by:

 Dry Adiabatic Process – Is cooling by expansion and warming by compression.
  Atmospheric Surrounding.
 Lapse Rates.

Atmospheric Stability – A condition that makes it difficult for air parcels to move upward
or downward. So, atmospheric instability is a condition that promotes vertical motions.

Calculation of lapse rates:

Temperature=Elevation × Lapse Rate
Temperature=Temperature ( Bottom )−Temperature (Top)
3℃
Compression=
1,000 ft
2℃
Expansion=
1,000 ft
Example 4:
A balloon (air parcel) of classroom air is 22C. If the balloon is brought to the top of
Khalifa Mountains in RAK, and through compression, the values changes, what will the
temperature of the air parcel inside the balloon be? Assume adiabatic cooling (6,400ft).
Elevation=6,400 ft
3℃
Lapse Rate (compression)=
1,000 ft
Temperature=Elevation × Lapse Rate
3
Temperature=6,400 × =19.2 ℃
1,000
Temperature=Temperature ( Bottom )−Temperature (Top)
Temperature(Top)=Temperature ( Bottom )−Temperature
Temperature (6,400 ft )=22−19.2=2.8 ℃

Example 5:
A parcel of air is rising and expanding within the clouds at the bottom, the temperature of
the parcel of air is 12.77 C. The parcel rises 4,000ft to its new location. What is the new
temperature of this parcel?
Elevation=4,000 ft
2℃
Lapse Rate (expansion)=
1,000 ft
Temperature=Elevation × Lapse Rate
2
Temperature=4,000× =8℃
1,000
Temperature=Temperature ( Bottom )−Temperature (Top)
Temperature (Top)=Temperature ( Bottom )−Temperature
Temperature (6,400 ft )=12.77−8=4.77 ℃
Chapter 6 – Atmospheric Moisture

Change of State – refers to the transition from one form of H2O to another.
 Melting – Ice to Water.
 Evaporation – Water to Water vapor.
 Condensation – Water vapor to Water.
 Freezing – Water to Ice
 Sublimation – Ice directly to Water vapor without water as an intermediate state.
 Deposition – Water vapor directly to Ice without water as an intermediate state.

Latent Heat – The amount of heat energy absorbed or released when H2O changes from
one state to another.
Sensible Heat – Heat that can be felt and measured when the molecules pass to lower
energy states.
Vapor Pressure:
 Partial Pressure – In the atmosphere, each gas exerts a partial pressure.
o Nitrogen (N2) – 78.1%
o Oxygen (O2) – 20.9%
o Other gases – 1%
 Vapor Pressure (VP) – The partial pressure exerted by water vapor (H2O in gaseous
form).
 Saturation – When the number of molecules leaving a water surface is equal to the
number of molecules returning.
 Saturation Vapor Pressure (SVP) - The pressure of a vapor when it is in equilibrium
with the liquid phase. This dependents on the temperature, as temperature rises the
saturation vapor pressure rises as well.
o Boiling occurs when saturation Vapor Pressure = Total Pressure.
Relative Humidity – Is mainly to determine how close the atmosphere is to saturation.
 The information can help in expecting the formation of clouds or fog.
Absolute Humidity - Is the amount of water vapor divided by the amount of dry air in a
certain volume of air at a specific temperature.

Dewpoint – The temperature at which the air can no longer "hold" all of the vapor which
is mixed with it, and some of the water vapor must condense into liquid water.
 Dewpoint temperature is always < air temperature, except:
o When relative humidity = 100%, then dewpoint temperature and air
temperature are equal. In this case, fog or clouds begin to form.
o When the difference between the temperature and dewpoint is small; the
relative humidity is high, and a larger difference means a low relative
humidity.
  Dew – Dew forms when a surface cools through loss of infrared radiation down to a
temperature which is colder than the dewpoint of the air next to that surface. 
 White Dew – Present dew that freezes after the temperature falls below 0.
 Frost – It is water vapor that becomes solid and forms ice crystals on objects like:
cars. (Google a Picture)

Condensation Nuclei – Microscopic particles (like salt & dust) that provides surfaces on
which water vapor undergoes condensation to form water droplets or deposition to form
ice crystals. (Google a Picture)
 Fog is more prevalent in industrial areas because of richness of condensation nuclei
from combustion.
o Advection Fog often forms in coastal areas.
o Both Advection Fog & Upslope Fog depends on wind.
o Radiation Fog only forms over a land surface with clear skies, little or no
wind, and a small difference between temperature and dewpoint.

Vertical Visibility (VV) – The visibility distance that can be seen into a low cloud.
Formation of Clouds:
Clouds form when moist, warm rising airmasses cools and expands in the atmosphere.
The water vapor in the air condenses to form tiny water droplets which are the basis
of clouds.

Chapter 7 – Scales of Atmospheric Circulations

Scales of Circulation – The size and lifetime of individual circulations.
 Macroscale – Largest circulations, have the longest lifetime and horizontal
dimensions of 1,000nm to 10,000nm.
o Monsoon Circulation
 Mesoscale – has a horizontal dimension of 1nm to 1,000nm.
 Microscale – Smaller circulations, have shortest lifetime.
 Embedded Circulations – Hidden circulations and often driven by larger scale
circulations.
 The General Circulation – Refers to the wind system around the whole globe.

Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) – It is a belt of low pressure which circles the
Earth generally near the equator where the trade winds of the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres come together.
Circulation Cells – 3 Cell Circulations:
 Hadley Cells – At the surface between the equator to 30 North and the equator 30
South. The trade winds blow towards the equator, then ascend near the equator as a
broken line of thunderstorms and rain due to precipitation, which forms the Inter-
Tropical-Convergence Zone (ITCZ). 
 Ferrel Cells – At the latitude between 30 North to 60 North and 30 South to 60
South.  Air converges at low altitudes to ascend along the boundaries between cool
polar air and the warm subtropical air that generally occurs between 60 North and
South.
 Polar Cells – Higher than 60 North and South. Air in these polar cells sinks over
the highest latitudes and flows out towards the lower latitudes at the surface.

Trade Winds – Winds blowing in the Hadley cells towards the equator then deflected by
Coriolis effect.
  Northeasterly Trade Winds – In the northern Hadley cell blowing towards the
equator then deflected to the east by Coriolis effect.
 Southeasterly Trade Winds – In the southern Hadley cell blowing towards the
equator then deflected to the east by Coriolis effect.
Horse Latitudes – A region at 30 North and 30 South, which is a high-pressure
subtropical area. Winds diverge and either flown towards the poles (prevailing westerlies)
or towards the equator (trade winds).
Polar Front – A region at 60 North and 60 South, which is a low-pressure area. It is the
line separating the warm airmasses from tropical regions and cold airmasses from polar
region. It is an area of clouds and precipitation.

Jet Streams – A narrow band of high-speed winds that reaches its greatest speed near the
tropopause (at 8km – 18km).
 The Polar Front Jet Streams – It is found near the latitude of the polar front. It is
stronger and farther south in the winter and weaker and further north in summer.
 The Subtropical Jet Streams – It is found near 25 North to 30 North (near North
America). It is strongest in winter and disappears in summer.

Chapter 8 – Airmasses, Fronts & Cyclones

Eddies - An eddy is a circulation that develops when the wind flows over or adjacent
to rough terrain, buildings, mountains or other obstructions.
Extratropical Cyclones – Also known as Frontal lows or Frontal Cyclones, it is a
macroscale low-pressure disturbance that develops outside the tropics. The cyclones get
their energy from temperature difference across the polar front.
Tropical Cyclones – A mesoscale cyclonic circulation that develops in the tropical
easterlies, which is not branded by fronts, airmass temperature contrast. Instead, it is
associated with low-pressure, high winds and heavy rain. Tropical Cyclones draw their
energy from warm oceans and die over cold waters and land.
 Tropical Disturbance < 20 knots
 Tropical Depression – 20 knots to 34 knots
 Tropical Storm – 35 knots to 64 knots
 Hurricanes > 64 knots
 o Hurricane Eye – Center of the storm which is nearly cloud-free, low-pressure
region of 10nm to 20nm.
o Eye Wall – A cloudy region with embedded thunderstorms next to the
hurricane eye.
Storm Surge – Abnormal rise of water due to tropical cyclones.

Cyclone Formation:
 Wave forms on a frontal surface separating warm airmasses from cold airmasses.
 Cold airmasses overtakes warm airmasses resulting in a low-pressure center.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the cyclonic rotation is always counterclockwise, while in the
Southern Hemisphere it is always clockwise because of Coriolis effect.

4 Types of Fronts are:

 Cold Front – A rapid front where cold air replaces warm air at the surface.
Associated with Cumulonimbus clouds, strong thunderstorms and has a big slope.
 Warm Front – A slow front where warm air replaces cold air at the surface.
Associated with Stratiform clouds and induced fog.
 Stationary Front – A front that barely moves.
 Occluded Front – A front with the worst weather conditions.

Inversion - Is one which cold air close to the ground is trapped by a layer of warmer air. As
the inversion continues, air becomes stationery near the ground. Therefore, inversions
often cause the formation of smog.
Chapter 9 – Thunderstorms
Dry Convection – air in the cumulus clouds or cumulonimbus clouds originally comes from
the boundary layer.
 Boundary layer – from ground to 3,000ft.
Thunderstorm - Is a local storm produced by a cumulonimbus clouds and always
accompanied by lightning and thunder.
 Single-cell airmass thunderstorm – Lasts less than one hour.
 Supercell severe thunderstorm – May last two hours or longer.
 Multicell thunderstorm – A multicell storm is a compact group of thunderstorms.
Cumulus Stage of Thunderstorm – Is when atmospheric moisture and instability are
sufficient the development of the airmass thunderstorm begins due to convection.
Towering Cumulus (TCU) – During the cumulus stage, the convective circulation grows
rapidly into a Towering Cumulus clouds which typically grows to 20,000ft in height and
three to five miles in diameter. It takes 15 minutes to reach the next stage of development.
  A continuous updraft is normally associated with the cumulus stage of a
thunderstorm.
 An indication that downdrafts have developed, and that the thunderstorm cell has
entered the mature stage (greatest development) is when precipitation begins to fall
from the cloud base.
Embedded Thunderstorms - are thunderstorms that are obscured by massive cloud layers
and cannot be seen.
Squall line – Also known as instability line, is a broken or continuous line of thunderstorms
not necessarily associated with a front.
 The most severe weather conditions, such as destructive winds, heavy hail, and
tornadoes are generally associated with squall lines.

Chapter 10 – Local Winds

Local winds – Are winds that move short distances and can blow from any direction; can
be produced by the temperature changes due to local geographic features.
 Thermally Driven Local Winds – are caused by local differences in radiational
heating or cooling.
 Externally Driven Local Winds –are produced when strong winds interact with the
local landscapes.
Sea Breeze – It occurs during the day when cooler air over the ocean flows toward warmer
air over land.
Land Breeze – It occurs at night when cooler air over land flows toward warmer air over
the ocean.
Valley Breeze – It occurs during the day as warm air rises from the valley up the mountain
slope.
Mountain Breeze – It occurs at night as the cool air sinks down the mountain into the
valley.
Upslope Wind - The hillside deflects the air producing upslope wind.

Downslope winds – the pressure gradient reverses and downslope winds develop along the
hillsides.

Clouds associated with Lee wave system:

 Cap Clouds - clouds immediately over the mountaintops.
 Roll Clouds – clouds associated with the rotor circulation.
  Altocumulus Standing Lenticular clouds (ACSL) – Are formed in the crest of the lee
wave.
 Cirrocumulus Standing Lenticular clouds (CCSL) – Are Lenticular clouds at a
higher altitude.

Chapter 11 – Wind Shear

Wind Shear – Also known as wind gradient, is the difference between wind speed and
direction over a relatively short distance in the atmosphere.
 Strong wind shear is a hazard to aviation because it can cause turbulence and large
airspeed fluctuations and, therefore, serious control problems.
Low-Level Wind Shears -
Horizontal Wind Shear - A change in wind over a horizontal distance.
Vertical Wind Shear – A change in wind over a vertical distance.
Causes of Wind Shear – Wind shears below 2,000ft AGL along final approach path or
takeoff path. It is associated with mostly warm fronts.
 Thunderstorms
 Low-level temperature inversion
 Jet streams
 Frontal zone
Downburst - A strong downdraft of air that causes an outflow of damaging, straight-line
winds at or just above the ground.
Microburst - Is an intense small-scale downdraft produced by a thunderstorm or rain
shower under Towering Cumulus that can last longer than 15 minutes. There are two types
of microbursts:
 Wet Microburst –are accompanied by significant precipitation.
 Dry Microburst – the precipitation evaporates within the downdraft.
Air Mass Wind Shear - occurs at night under fair weather conditions in the absence of
strong fronts. It develops when the ground becomes cooler than the overlying air mass as a
result of radiational cooling.
Frontal Wind Shear - Is a zone between two different airmasses (cold and warm); it is
concentrated in that zone.

Chapter 12 – Turbulence
Aviation Turbulence (pilots, crew & passengers’ definition) – Bumpiness in flight.
Levels of Turbulence:
 Light
 Moderate
 Severe
 Extreme
Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) – A sudden severe turbulence occurring in cloudless regions
that causes violent buffeting of aircraft. Associated with high altitudes and jet streams.
Low Level Turbulence (LLT) – Is a turbulence that occurs primarily within the
atmospheric boundary layer, where surface heating and friction are significant. When
improves with altitude away from the boundary layer.
Mechanical Turbulence - It occurs when the air near the surface of the Earth flows over
obstacles.
Thermal Turbulence – It occurs during day time over land under fair weather conditions.
It is Low Level Turbulence produced by dry convection in the boundary layer.
Human-Made Turbulence - Also known as Wake Turbulence, is a disturbance in the
atmosphere that forms behind an aircraft as it passes through the air. It includes various
components, the most important of which are wingtip vortices.

Funnelling Effect - Like the increase in the speed of the current of a river where it narrows
(Venturi), strong local winds with substantial LLT and wind shear are created when a
broad air stream is forced to flow through a narrow mountain pass.
  Unstable cold airmasses moving over warm airmasses result in Cumuliform clouds,
turbulence, and good visibility.
Turbulence in and near Thunderstorms (TNT) – It occurs within developing Towering
Cumulus and thunderstorms, in the vicinity of the thunderstorm tops and wakes, in
downbursts, and in gust fronts.
Turbulence below thunderstorms – The downdrafts, downbursts and micro bursts are the
primary turbulent areas below the thunderstorm.
Mountain Wave Turbulence - Fluctuations to the downside of high ground resulting from
the disturbance in the horizontal air flow caused by the high ground.

Chapter 15 – Additional Weather Hazards

Lightning – All forms of visible electric discharge produced by thunderstorms.
Effects of Lightning:
 Minor strikes mostly, but the damage can be severe enough to result in an accident.
 Flash can be extremely bright and can cause temporary blindness.

Static Electricity – Is the spark or point discharges that occur when the electric charge
difference between the aircraft and the surrounding is large.
St. Elmo’s Fire – A corona discharge that appears as a bushy halo around some prominent
edges on the aircraft structure and around windscreens.
Stratospheric Ozone – A prominent feature in the lower stratosphere.
 Good Qualities – Absorption of damaging UV radiation.
 Bad Qualities – creates toxic environment.
Volcanic Ash – Made of gases, dust and ash from volcanic eruption and can spread around
the globe.
 Its Hazards – When an aircraft approaches an ash cloud some distance from a
volcano, the cloud is not easy to distinguish from normal water or ice crystals.
 Its Behaviour – Volcanic ash clouds are most dangerous close to the volcano when a
recent eruption occurs because of the particle large size.
 Reports & Warnings:
o VAAC – Volcanic Ash Advisory Centres.
o VAFTAD – Volcanic Ash Forecast Transport and Dispersion charts