BASIC WEATHER THEORIES

ATMOSPHERE
- Composed about 78% of nitrogen and 21% oxygen

LAYERS:

TROPOSPHERE
- Layer extending from the surface to an average altitude of about 36,000 feet.
- BOUNDARY LAYER [boundary layer of troposphere and stratosphere]: TROPOPAUSE

STRATOSPHERE
- which has much the same composition as the troposphere and extends to a height of
approximately 160,000 feet.

MESOSPHERE
- lies between the thermosphere and the stratosphere
- “Meso” means middle, and this is the highest layer of the atmosphere in which the gases are all
mixed up rather than being layered by their mass. The mesosphere is 22 miles (35 kilometers) thick.

THERMOSPHERE
- has little practical influence over weather

TEMPERATURE UNITS FORMULA:

(°C)= (Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) - 32) * 5/9.
(°F) = (Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) * 9/5) + 32.

ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
The unequal heating of the earth’s surface is the reason why this circulation exists.
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION HAPPENS BECAUSE OF HEAT EXPANSION
FACTORS AFFECTING HEAT:
1. ANGLE OF SUN’S RAYS
2. TYPES OF CLOUD COVER
3. THE SURFACE BEING HEATED [ALBEDO]
• albedo is a measure of the reflectivity of the earth’s surface
• high albedo = cool surface
• Lower albedo = warmer surface because it’s going to absorb most of the heat
Solid - absorbs heat fast; releases heat fast
Liquid - absorbs heat slowly; releases heat fast
Gas - absorbs heat neutrally; releases heat neutrally
4. THE SEASON

HOW IS HEAT TRANSFERRED?

1. CONDUCTION transfer of heat energy via direct contact
2. CONVECTION transfer of heat energy in vertical motion
3. RADIATION transfer of heat energy using electromagnetic energy e.g. Microwave
4. ADVECTION transfer of heat energy in horizontal motion

HOW DOES THIS CIRCULATION HAPPEN?

CONVECTION
is the process where cold dense air moves downward and replaces the warm less dense air that’s
moving upward.
THREE-CELL CIRCULATION PATTERN OF CONVECTION:
- HADLEY
- FERREL
- POLAR CELL
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
The unequal heating of the surface not only modifies air density and creates circulation patterns, it
also causes changes in pressure.
ISOBARS
connect points of equal pressure. Isobars also help to identify pressure systems, which are
classified as highs, lows, ridges, troughs, and cols.
ISA [INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE]
hypothetical standard atmosphere defined by ICAO
- MSL [mean sea level] PRESSURE:
29.92 in Hg [inches of mercury]
1013.2 [milibars] or hPa [hectopascals]
14.7 psi [pounds per square inch]

- MSL [mean sea level] TEMPERATURE:

15°C / 59 °F
1225g/m3 air density

- LAPSE RATE
pressure lapse rate: 1 in Hg/1000ft
temperature lapse rate: 2°C [or -3.5°F] / 1000ft
The closer the Isobars the greater the pressure. Conversely, the farther the Isobars are, the weaker
the pressure is.

high is a center of high pressure surrounded on all sides by lower pressure.

low is an area of low pressure surrounded by higher pressure.
ridge is an elongated area of high pressure
trough is an elongated area of low pressure
col can designate either a neutral area
Since differences in Atmospheric Pressure exist, now we have the movement of air.

PRESSURE GRADIENT
or change in pressure over distance.
Air generally flows from the cool, dense air of highs into the warm, less dense air of lows. The speed
of the resulting wind depends on the strength of the pressure gradient. A strong gradient tends to
produce strong wind, while a weak gradient results in lighter winds.
If pressure gradient force were the only force affecting the movement of air, wind would always
blow directly from the higher pressure area to the lower pressure area. However, as soon as the air
begins to move, it is deflected by a phenomenon known as Coriolis force.

LOW is area of lower pressure at the surface

HIGH is an area of high

pressure at the surface

TROUGH elongated area of low pressure

RIDGE elongated area of high pressure

COL
- Neutral area
- Light winds

CORIOLIS FORCE a resulting force that is caused due to the earth rotation.
In the Northern Hemisphere the force deflects everything to the right.
While in the Southern Hemisphere, the forces deflected everything to the left.

Remember that High Pressure system has the movement of Inward – DOWNWARD – outward

Low pressure system is the opposite, it has the movement of Inward – UPWARD – outward.

The moment the air goes OUTWARD; it will still be deflected to its right
Pressure gradient and Coriolis forces work in combination to create wind. Pressure gradient force
causes air to move from high pressure areas to low pressure areas. As the air begins to move,
Coriolis force deflects it to the right in the northern hemisphere. This results in a clockwise flow
around a high pressure area. The deflection continues until pressure gradient force and Coriolis
force are in balance, and the wind flows roughly parallel to the isobars which we call Geostrophic
Winds
However within about 2,000 feet of the ground, friction caused by the earth's surface slows the
moving air. This frictional force reduces the Coriolis force.

At high altitudes, wind blows in uniform motion, parallel to Isobars, but closer to the ground, they
don’t due to frictional force.
WIND PATTERNS

GLOBAL WIND PATTERNS this is true at high altitudes. This is why we have the North East trade
winds or Amihan, and South east trade winds which is Habagat.

LOCAL WIND PATTERNS at lower altitudes, the earth radiates heat and this causes the differences
in pressure in a rather smaller scale.

sea breeze (day) - land is usually warmer than water during the day. a wind that blows from cool
water to warmer land. As afternoon heating increases, the sea breeze can reach speeds of 10 to 20
knots
land breeze (night) At night, land cools faster than water, blows from the cooler land to the warmer
water.

Valley breeze (day) As mountain slopes are warmed by the sun during the day, the adjacent air also
is Heated. Cold air from the bottom of the valley pushes winds upwards to the top.

Mountain breeze (night) At night, the high terrain cools off and eventually becomes cooler than the
air over the valley. Prior to sunrise, speeds of 5 to 15 knots are common with greater speeds at the
mouth of the valley, sometimes exceeding 25 knots.
KATABATIC WINDS any downslope wind

Cold downslope winds When large ice and snow fields accumulate in mountainous terrain, the
overlying air becomes extremely cold and a shallow dome of high pressure forms. This pressure
gradient force pushes the cold air through gaps in the mountains.

Warm downslope winds When a warm airmass moves across a mountain range at high levels, it
often forms a trough of low pressure on the downwind, or lee, side which causes a downslope wind
to develop.
WEATHER PATTERNS

To understand weather patterns, we must understand what is stability and humidity.

Stability is the atmosphere's resistance to vertical motion.

A stable atmosphere does not necessarily prevent air from moving vertically, but it does make that
movement more difficult.

Characteristics of stable air is stratiform clouds, continuous precipitation, smooth air, poor
visibility.

In an unstable atmosphere, convection is the rule. The air rises because it is warmer than its
surroundings then dense cold air replaces it.

Air that moves upward expands due to lower atmospheric pressure. When air moves downward, it is
compressed by the increased pressure at lower altitudes. When air expands and contracts, it’s
temperature changes too.

This is called adiabatic heating or adiabatic cooling – change in temperature due to changes in
pressure. A good example for this is our aircon.

Remember when we talked about different moisture content in the air? The amount of moisture
directly affects it’s cooling rate since water “cools” at a much slower pace. That is why we have Dry
Adiabatic Lapse Rate, Saturated

ADIABATIC COOLING - decrease in pressure to decrease temperature

ADIABATIC HEATING - increase in pressure to increase temperature

Adiabatic Lapse Rate, and Environmental Lapse Rate.

• Standard Temperature Lapse Rate = 2°C / 1000FT
• DALR (Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate) = 3°C / 1000FT
• SALR (Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate) = 1.1 to 2.8°C / 1000FT [air with moisture]
• ELR (Environmental Lapse Rate) - The lapse rate of non-rising air

Normally, Temperature decreases with an increase in altitudes but sometimes Temperature can
increase with an increase in altitude when this happens, we can say that we are experiencing
Temperature Inversion.
Warm less dense air is above while cold dense air is already below. Because of that it acts as lid for
the pollutants which is why you have poor visibility. Temperature inversions occur in stable air with
little or no wind and turbulence.

One of the most familiar types of inversions is the one that forms near the ground on cool, clear
nights when the wind is calm. As the ground cools, it lowers the temperature of the adjacent air. If
this process of terrestrial radiation continues, the air within a few hundred feet of the surface may
become cooler than the air above it.

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Before talking about Humidity we must discuss about moisture and how it changes. Here’s a
diagram that you can use to review:
Humidity simply refers to moisture in the air.

Relative humidity is the actual amount of moisture in the air compared to the total amount that
could be present at
that temperature.

Absolute Humidity is how much moisture the air can hold

Dew point will never be higher than temperature

The cold temperature has no space because it has reached it’s dew point
The hotter the temperature is, the more water vapor it can hold because hot temperature
expands.

When air is at 100% relative humidity, it is said to be Saturated.

Dewpoint is the temperature at which air reaches a state where it can hold no more water. When
the dewpoint is reached, the air contains 100% of the moisture it can hold at that temperature.

Dew and Frost

On cool, still nights, surface features and objects may cool to a temperature below the dewpoint of
the surrounding air. Water vapor then condenses out of the air in the form of dew, which explains
why grass is often moist in the early morning.

Frost forms when water vapor changes directly to ice on a surface that is below freezing.

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CLOUDS

As air cools to its saturation point, condensation changes invisible water vapor into a visible state.

The droplets condense on very small particles of solid matter in the air called condensation nuclei
it can be dust, smoke, and salt.

We need to lift the air in order for clouds to form. Lifting can be achieved in 3 different ways which
is orographic lift [oro means land], convective lift, and convergent lift.

Clouds are classified according to their height: Low, Middle, High, and clouds with vertical
development. And also according to shape: stratus, cumulus, cirrus, nimbus.
• Stratus sheet-like, layered
• Cumulus heap, puffy
• Cirrus ringlet, wispy
• Nimbus rain-bearing
Low clouds extend from near the surface to about 6,500 feet AGL.
Types of low clouds include stratus, stratocumulus, and nimbostratus

Middle clouds have bases that range from about 6,500 to 20,000 feet AGL. They are composed of
water, ice crystals, or supercooled water, and may contain moderate turbulence and potentially
severe icing. Altostratus and altocumulus are classified as middle clouds.

High clouds have bases beginning above 20,000 feet AGL. They are composed mainly of ice
crystals and seldom pose a serious turbulence or icing hazard. The three basic types of high clouds
are called cirrus, cirrostratus, and cirrocumulus.

Clouds with Vertical Development are Cumulus Nimbus clouds. [usually found in unstable air]

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Fog is also classified as a type of low clouds. They extend from the ground up to 50ft.

Types of fog:
• Ground fog - if radiation fog is less than 20 feet thick

• Radiation fog - The cooling of land overnight by thermal radiation cools the air close to the
surface. This reduces the ability of the air to hold moisture, allowing condensation and fog to occur.
Radiation fog usually dissipates soon after sunrise as the ground warms.
• Upslope fog - generally forms at the higher elevations and builds downward into valleys. This fog
can maintain itself at higher wind speeds because of increased lift and adiabatic cooling.

• Advection fog - forms as warmer, moist air moves over a cold ground.

• Steam fog (sea smoke) - occurs when evaporation takes place into cold air lying over warmer
water

• frontal/ precipitation-induced fog - fog that forms when rain is falling through cold air

Condensation Trails or Contrails are “human-induced” clouds that occur at 25,000 to 40,000 ft.
When cold air goes inside the engine it heats up, the moment it is released through the exhaust
vents it cools down to dewpoint point because of the cold temperature at high altitudes.

There are 3 types: short lived contrails, persistent non-spreading contrails [stable], and persistent
spreading contrails [non-stable]

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Precipitation can be defined as any form of particles, whether liquid or solid, that fall from the
atmosphere.

Types of precipitation:
• Drizzle (liquid) - less than 0.02in (0.5mm) in diameter
• Rain (liquid) - 0.02in (0.5mm) diameter or greater
• Ice Pallets (solid) - less than 5mm
• Hail (solid) - greater than 5mm
• Snow

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An airmass is a large body of air with fairly uniform temperature and moisture content. Source
Region is the area where air masses are formed.

Air Mass Name = Moisture + Temperature

Moisture
• c = continental (Dry)
• m = maritime (Moist)

Temperature
• P = Polar
• T = tropical
• E = Equatorial
The boundary between air masses is called a front
• Warm front [warm air taking over cold air]
• Cold front

• Stationary front
• Occluded front: Warm front occlusion or Cold front occlusion

Cold front occlusion develops when the fast-moving cold front is colder than the air ahead of the
slow-moving warm front.
Warm front occlusion takes place when the air ahead of the slow-moving warm front is colder than
the air within the fast-moving cold front

EMBEDDED THUNDERSTORM - found in warm occluded front

WEATHER HAZARDS

Thunderstorms are arguably the single greatest threat to aircraft operations. They may contain
strong wind gusts, icing, hail, driving rain, lightning, and sometimes tornadoes.

Three conditions must be present — weather instability, some type of lifting action, and relatively
high moisture content

types of thunderstorms:
• Single cell-thunderstorm lasts less than one hour
• Super cell-severe thunderstorm may last two hours [typhoons]
• Multi cell-storm is a compact cluster of thunderstorms. It is usually composed of airmass
thunderstorms in
different stages of development.

Squall line thunderstorms are thunderstorms that forms in a line. Usually in front of fast-moving
cold fronts.

LIFE CYCLE OF A THUNDERSTORM

Cumulus stage-a lifting action initiates the vertical movement of air. Air rises to its dewpoint then
condenses.
Mature stage- the beginning of downdraft with continuous updrafts (rising air)

Dissipating stage - all downdrafts.

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Thunderstorm Hazards- you must be at least 20nm to clear yourself from these hazards such as:
• Turbulence • Lightning
• Hail
• Tornadoes

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