Meteorology

Cause of Weather
The primary cause of all changes in the Earth's weather is the variation in solar energy
received in different regions. This variation causes differences in temperature, pressure
and moisture content that bring about all the weather daily phenomena.

Standard Day Conditions

In the United States, both English and Metric units are used to express temperature and
pressure. The formula used to convert from Celsius (C) to Fahrenheit (F) is:
F = 9/5 C +32

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has established standard

conditions for temperature and pressure. The standard temperature at sea level is
+15C (+59F). The temperature decreases with altitude at a rate of 2C (3.5F) per
1,000 feet of altitude increase. This means that each altitude has its own standard
temperature. For example, the standard temperature at 5,000 feet is +5C (+41.5F).
This standard temperature lapse rate continues to an altitude of 38,000 feet on a
standard day. See FAA Figure 6.
FAA Figure 6 shows the standard day conditions for altitudes from sea level to
60,000 feet. The standard day temperature for each altitude is sometimes referred to
with the term "ISA" (International Standard Atmosphere). Deviations from standard day
conditions are expressed with reference to ISA. For example, ISA at 8,000 feet is -0.8C
(30.5F); ISA +34C at 8,000 feet is 33.2C (91.76F).
The standard metric measure for sea level pressure is 1,013.2 millibars. The English
equivalent is 29.92" Hg (Hg is the symbol for mercury). The standard pressure also
decreases with altitude, but not at a linear rate as with temperature.
The term hectopascals is replacing "millibars." Millibars is the term used throughout
the current flight engineer test.

Altitudes
Pressure Altitude -- the height above the standard datum plane. To obtain the pressure
altitude in flight, adjust the altimeter to 29.92" Hg and read it directly from the
altimeter.
Indicated Altitude -- the height the altimeter displays when set to the current local
altimeter setting. Indicated altitude is greater than pressure altitude when the
altimeter setting is greater than 29.92" Hg. It is less than pressure altitude when the
altimeter setting is less than 29.92 inches Hg. Indicated altitude is a close
approximation of the actual height above sea level.
True Altitude -- the actual height above sea level. Non-standard temperatures affect
the pressure lapse rate. When the temperature is warmer than standard, the true
altitude is higher than the indicated altitude. In cold temperatures, the true altitude is
below the indicated altitude.
Density Altitude -- pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperatures. Density
altitude equals pressure altitude at standard temperature, is higher in warm
temperatures and lower than pressure altitude in cold temperatures.

Air Density
Air density is the air's thickness determined by pressure, temperature and humidity. Air
density increases when the temperature or humidity is lowered or the pressure is
increased. Also, air density decreases when the temperature or humidity is raised or the
pressure is lowered.
Engine output is directly related to air density. Greater density means more oxygen
available for combustion and an increase in engine performance.

Layers of the Atmosphere

The two layers of the atmosphere in which turbojet aircraft operate are the troposphere
and the stratosphere. The boundary between these two layers is the tropopause. The
troposphere is thicker over the equator than it is over the poles. Its thickness also varies
with the seasons, with the tropopause being higher in the summer than in the winter.
A primary attribute of the troposphere is the decrease in temperature with increasing
altitude (lapse rate) from sea level to the tropopause. At the tropopause there is an
abrupt change in the lapse rate to near zero. The stratosphere has relatively small
changes in temperature with increasing altitude.

Temperature Inversions
The normal temperature lapse rate is reversed in temperature inversions. Instead of the
temperature decreasing with increases in altitude, it becomes warmer. Inversions can
occur at any level in the atmosphere and have a number of different causes.
One common type of ground based or surface inversion is caused by ground
radiation on clear, cool nights when the wind is calm. The ground cools after sunset,
and in turn, cools the air near the surface. The temperature of the air at higher altitudes
remains almost the same, and an inversion forms. If the temperature/dewpoint spread
was small before the start of cooling, fog or low clouds can develop in this type of
inversion.

Icing
Ice can form on an aircraft in flight when the temperature is below freezing and visible
moisture is present. The moisture must be in the form of supercooled water droplets.
The temperature of these droplets is below freezing, but they have not yet undergone
the change of state from liquid water to ice. When these droplets strike an airplane, they
freeze almost instantly forming a layer of ice on the wings, fuselage and engine intakes.
The moisture can be in the form of clouds, fog or rain, but the highest rate of ice
accumulation is associated with freezing rain.
The optimum temperature for inflight icing is between 0C to about -15C (32F to
5F). Water cannot exist in a liquid state below about -40C (also -40F) and so there is
almost no icing hazard at or below that temperature.
Frost is a type of icing that forms through the process of sublimation. In this
situation, water goes directly from its vapor state to ice without ever being liquid. This
occurs when a collecting surface (such as an airplane) has a temperature at or below
the dewpoint of the surrounding air and the dewpoint is below freezing.
Ice and frost are a hazard to flight because they disrupt the airflow over the aircraft's
wing resulting in a loss of lift. This can cause an early airflow separation, which means
the aircraft will stall at a lower angle of attack and higher airspeed.

Rain
Rain is not normally the hazard to flight that icing is, but when it is very heavy it can
cause a deterioration in performance. The rain forms a film of water over the wing. This
film is then roughened by the impact of raindrops and that causes a loss of lift.

Weather Information
Many airports have ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information Service) broadcasts to
inform flight crews of the latest weather conditions. These broadcasts are updated upon
the receipt of any official weather information, regardless of whether or not it changes.
This normally takes place every hour, but can happen much more frequently in rapidly
changing conditions.
ATIS broadcasts normally include sky conditions, visibility, temperature, wind and
altimeter settings. When the sky condition and visibility are not transmitted it means the
ceiling is above 5,000 feet and the visibility is more than 5 miles.