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 ATMOSPHERIC EQUILIBRIUM :
STABILITY AND INSTABILITY
INTRODUCTION
The atmosphere has got a layered structure.
Layers of the atmosphere differ from one another in
respect of temperature, density and humidity of the
air. Ver cal mo ons are produced due to these dif-
ferent physical proper es of the atmospheric layers.
Undoubtedly these mo ons are far more important
meteorologically than the horizontal movements of
air. This is so because various weather phenomena,
different forms of precipita on, thunderstorms, hail-
storms, etc. are directly associated with the upward
movement of air masses.
Different processes of the heat exchange oper-
a ng in the atmosphere are: radia on, conduc on,
advec on, and adiaba c cooling while in former three
sharing of heat takes place outside the system in adia-
ba c cooling no exchange of heat takes place outside
the system, system is a conceptual model which refers
here to the air mass undergoing changes.
Adiabatic process
You must have observed that while filling air into
bicycle it gets heated up because air while going inside
tube experiences high pressure, Similarly while spray-
ing deodrant you must have felt the cold sensa on this
is because deodorant coming outside bo le faces low
pressure as compared to inside bo le causing decrease
in its density and consequently cooling .This is adiaba c
process where temperature changes takes place due to
change in the density of the gases. Rate at which this
change in temperature takes place is called adiaba c
lapse rate. Different qualifiers are associated with lapse
rate according to proper es of the air mass undergoing
temperature change like,normal lapse rate,dry adia-
ba c lapse rate wet adiaba c lapse rate.
The following example makes the adiaba c pro-
cess of temperature change more clear. Suppose a dry
air parcel ascends upto a height of 5250 meters above
the mean sea level (air pressure 1016 millibars). At this
height the atmospheric pressure to which the rising air
is subjected is just half of the sea-level pressure so that
its volume is doubled. In other words, if the volume of
the ascending air parcel is one cubic cen meter at the
sea level, then at the afore men oned height it will
become two cubic cen meters. Similarly, the volume
of a descending air parcel is decreased. Therefore
the changes brought about in the temperature of an
ascending or descending air parcel only because of its
expansion or contrac on are called adiaba c tempera-
ture changes.
Adiaba c processes are important because of
its relevance to the weather phenomena because air
mass is in constant mo on. While air mass is in ver -
cal mo on adiaba c processes starts opera ng on it.
Adiaba c cooling take place due to expansion of air.
When air moves upward it feels lesser atmospheric
pressure due to this it expands and cooling of air mass
takes place. Similarly in case of descending air it shrinks
and heats up.
Of all the factors of precipita on, ver cal mo-
ons in the atmosphere plays the most dominant role.
Therefore the atmospheric condi ons which are favour-
able or antagonis c to such ver cal mo ons in the
atmosphere merit special a en on. This is the reason
why concept of atmospheric stability and instability is
important because it determines whether air mass will
be in equilibrium or ver cal mo on.
Adiabatic Process of Temperature
Change
The noteworthy aspect of these temperature
changes is the fact that irrespec ve of the temperature
of air, the rate of adiaba c hea ng and cooling of the
unsaturated or dry air through ver cal movement is
constant. It is always 10° Celsius per 1000 meters and
rate of decrease of temperature beyond condensa-
on point is 6° Celsius. It may be pointed out that the
rate of cooling of an ascending air mass is much more
rapid than the normal lapse rate, i.e. 6.5° Celsius per
kilometer. Rate of cooling of wet air mass may vary with
varying ini al temperature of the air mass.
Adiabatic Lapse Rates
Dry adiaba c lapse rate :The dry adiaba c lapse
rate is defined as the rate of decrease in temperature
with height experienced by an air parcel being li ed
adiaba cally through an atmosphere in hydrosta c
equilibrium ( a fluid is said to be in hydrosta c equi-
librium or hydrosta c balance when it is at rest, or
when the flow velocity at each point is constant over
me. This occurs when external forces such as gravity
are balanced by a pressure gradient force.). While the
environmental lapse rate is characterized by temporal
as well as spa al varia ons, the dry adiaba c lapse rate
always remains constant.
63
 Condensa on level—The height at which a
rising parcel or layer of air would become saturated if
li ed adiaba cally is called condensa on level.
As unsaturated air rises, its temperature drops
at the dry adiaba c rate. The dew point also drops (as
a result of decreasing air pressure) but much more
slowly, typically about 2 C° per 1,000 m. If unsaturated
air rises far enough, eventually its temperature will
reach its dew point, and condensa on will begin to
form. This al tude is known as the li ing condensa on
level (LCL) when mechanical li is present and the con-
vec ve condensa on level (CCL) when mechanical li
is absent, in which case, the parcel must be heated
from below to its convec ve temperature. The cloud
base will be somewhere within the layer bounded by
these parameters.
Wet (moist) adiaba c lapse rate : When in an
ascending air mass the process of condensa on starts
a er the temperature has come down to satura on
point, the latent heat of condensation is released
leading to warming of the rising air. Since latent heat
is returned to the ascending parcel of air during the
process of condensa on, the rate of cooling of rising
air is reduced. Thus, the reduced rate of temperature
change caused by the addi on of latent heat of con-
densa on is called the wet/moist adiaba c lapse rate
or retarded adiaba c rate.
The amount of latent heat liberated by the
process of condensa on depends upon the moisture
content of an ascending air mass. The rate of cooling in
a saturated air mass is, therefore, not always the same.
The wet adiaba c lapse rate varies from 0.5° to 0.9°
Celsius per 100 meters. Higher moisture content in a
rising air lowers down the rate of temperature change,
whereas in rela vely drier air mass there is higher rate
of temperature change. Wet adiaba c lapse rate also
varies with the ini al temperature of the wet air mass.
This varia on should not be confused with the varia on
observed in normal lapse rate because this varia on is
due to internal physical proper es of the air mass and
for air mass with similar physical proper es this will
remain same irrespec ve of any other external factor
like la tude, al tude, longitude or other territorial fac-
tor which causes changes in the normal lapse rate.
Further, it is also made clear that depending on
the temperatures of the ascending air masses in the
ini al state, the wet adiaba c lapse rates may be steep,
moderate or low. Thus, higher the temperature of the
rising air, slower will be the rate of its cooling from the
condensa on level1 upward .
Moreover, the wet adiaba c lapse rate depends
on such other factors as the pressure of air, the amount
of condensed moisture in the rising air, and its tempera-
ture. However, beyond the condensa on level there are
two opposing forces that work together : (a) adiaba c
cooling by expansion, and (b) warming of the rising air
by the addi on of latent heat of condensa on. The net
effect of these processes working simultaneously is to
reduce the rate of decrease of temperature.
Relation between wet and dr y
adiabatic lapse rate
The difference between dry and wet adiaba c
lapse rates at higher temperature is much greater. On
the contrary, when the temperature of the ascending
air is low, the difference between the two adiaba c
lapse rates is substan ally reduced. There are occa-
sions when the air parcel ascending through layers of
the atmosphere is so cold and dry that both the dry
and wet adiaba c lapse rates are almost the same. In
excep onal cases when the rate of cooling in an ascend-
ing air mass is more than the dry adiaba c rate, it is
called the super-adiaba c lapse rate.
The Concept of Equilibrium
A correct understanding of the concept of atmo-
spheric equilibrium is the most important pre-requisite
to appreciate different atmospheric processes associ-
ated with various kinds of weather phenomena.It may
be pointed out that in meteorology the term ‘stability’
is used to indicate a condi on of equilibrium in the
atmosphere.
There are three types of equilibrium which must
be made clear to a student of climatology, because it
is only then that he can understand the implica ons of
different forms of atmospheric equilibrium.
(1) Stable equilibrium. If an object a er be-
ing slightly disturbed or displaced from
its original posi on tends to return to the
same, it is said to be in stable equilibrium.
This property of an object is also referred
to as its stability.
(2) Unstable equilibrium. An object is said to
be in unstable equilibrium if it tends to
con nue in the direc on of displacement.
In this state of equilibrium the object a er
being displaced or pushed occupies an
en rely new posi on
64
 (3) Neutral equilibrium. If an object tends to
stay wherever it is pushed, it is said to be
in neutral equilibrium. In this intermediary
state of equilibrium, the displaced object
neither returns to its original posi on, nor
takes a new posi on.
Rather it tends to remain in whatever posi on it
has been displaced.
Application of the concept of rate in a certain layer of the atmosphere is found to
equilibrium in case of atmosphere be about 4.6°C per 1000 meters. Under this situa on,
Like solid objects the concept of equilibrium
is equally applicable to the atmosphere as well. But
the following characteris cs render the discussion of
atmospheric equilibrium complicated :
(1) The atmosphere being compressible,
the density of air undergoes progressive
change as it descends or ascends.
(2) When a saturated air mass rises, the latent
heat of evaporation is released which
warms up the air. The warming of rising
air in this way affects its density.
The changes brought about in the density of an
air mass affects the atmospheric equilibrium.
To test the stability or instability of the atmo-
sphere, it is to be seen as to what happens to any
parcel of air which is displaced through a small ver cal
distance from its ini al height. If in its new posi on it
is subjected to forces which tend to restore it to its
original posi on, the atmosphere is considered to be in
stable equilibrium. Contrary to it, if in its new posi on
it is subjected to no forces tending either to restore it
to its original level, or to displace it s ll further from
its original posi on, the atmosphere is said to be in
neutral equilibrium. However, the equilibrium is said
to be unstable when in its new posi on, it is subjected
to forces tending it to displace s ll further from its
original posi on.
When the distribu on of temperature and density
is such as to resist ver cal movements, the atmosphere
is said to be in stable equilibrium. Under these con-
di ons, an element of air, even if displaced, tends to
return to its original posi on a er some me. Thus,
when the atmosphere is in the state of stable equilib-
rium there is complete absence of convec ve ac vi es
and the weather remains clear. Such a condi on is not
conducive to precipita on. On the contrary, when there
exists a tendency in the air to move s ll further a er
being displaced, it is said to be in unstable equilibrium.
Under these circumstances, the atmospheric condi ons
are favourable for convec ve ac vi es which result in
cloud forma on and abundant precipita on.
Atmospheric Stability and Lapse Rate
To examine whether an air mass is stable or
unstable a comparison should be made among its
lapse rate, the dry-adiaba c rate of cooling and cold-
adiaba c rate.
Stability: There are occasions when the lapse
when the lapse rate is less than even the wet adiaba c
rate, even at the point of condensa on no ver cal mo-
ons develop in the atmosphere. In this case the air is
said to be absolutely stable. Temperature inversion is
the typical example of absolute stability. The inversion
layer present in the atmosphere acts as a lid to the
ascending currents of air. Just beneath the base of the
inversion layer the upward rising smoke is forced to
spread out in horizontal plane because cold air stops
it from rising further. In winter, it is a common sight
at about sunset near human se lements where rising
columns of smoke from domes c chimneys are not
allowed to move upward beyond a certain level. This
level is provided by the base of the inversion layer.
Absolute instability : When the distribu on
of temperature is such that at every level the envi-
ronmental lapse rate is greater than the dry adiaba c
lapse rate, the displaced parcel of air has a tendency
to con nuously move upward ll its temperature is
equal to that of the surrounding air. Such a state of
ver cal movement of the ascending air is called insta-
bility. If Normal lapse rate is greater than even the wet
adiaba c lapse rate air keep rising further such state
of con nued upward movement is called absolute in-
stability. Under the condi ons of absolute instability,
the displaced air mass con nues its ascent ll a level
is reached where the temperature difference between
it and the surrounding air is reduced to zero.Here it
a ains neutral equilibrium.
Mechanical instability : At mes, there are
abnormal situa ons when the normal lapse rate is too
steep (35°C per 1000 meters), and the upper layers
of the atmosphere become far more cold and denser
than the underlying layers. Under these special circum-
stances there is an automa c overturning or downward
movement of colder and denser air without any ini al
impulse being applied to it. Such a situa on is known
as mechanical instability. This state of the atmospheric
equilibrium helps in the forma on of tornadoes, the
most violent revolving storms of very small size.
65
 Condi onal instability : The term ‘condi onal
instability’ refers to the state of a column of air when
its ver cal distribu on of temperature is such that the
layer is stable for dry air but unstable for saturated air.
This occurs when surrounding air has a lapse rate be-
tween the dry and wet adiaba c lapse rates (between
0.5°C and 1°C per 100 meters). In Figure 13.3, for the
first 1750 meters the ascending air parcel is cooler than
the surrounding air and it is, therefore, considered
stable. Since above the condensa on level the latent
heat of condensa on is returned to the rising air, fur-
ther cooling takes place at the wet-adiaba c rate which
is less than the environmental lapse rate. However, the
lapse rate being greater than the wet adiaba c rate,
from the level of free convec on upward the rising
parcel of air is warmer than the surrounding air. From
this level along its ascent the parcel would con nue to
rise without any impulse and is considered unstable.
Thus, the air that was ini ally stable is made unstable
by forced ascent a er which latent heat of condensa-
on is added to it which makes it unstable. The word
‘condi onal’ is prefixed because only if the air is forced
upward ini ally can it become further unstable. Condi-
onal instability is said to be the most common type of
instability.This type of instability is seen in mountainous
region in winter where cold air in the upper part of the
valley forces the warm air in lower side of valley.This is
also an example of temperature inversion.
Other Pre-requisite for condi onal instability
(a) The ascending air parcel should be moist
or saturated, and
(b) The air parcel should get a very strong
initial uplift, so that it would reach the con-
densation level under the impulse.
Convec ve instability : Our previous discussion
of instability condi ons was related to a parcel of air
ascending or descending through a layer of surrounding
air that was at rest along the ver cal. But some mes
there are situa ons when a layer of air, several hun-
dreds of meters thick and thousands of kilometers in
areal extent, is forced to rise. Such an extensive and
thick layer of air may be moist in its lower part and
dry in the upper part. Thus, an anomaly is produced
in the ver cal distribu on of humidity. Such a type of
upli causes the air, which may be ini ally stable, to
become unstable from the adiaba c effect on internal
temperature-humidity condi ons.
Hence, it may be concluded that, in general,
satura on li ing decreases the stability even more
than does the unsaturated li ing. The mechanism of
convec ve instability is significant in the dynamics of
weather condi ons. When convec vely or condi on-
ally unstable air masses, in which the surface layers are
humid and the moisture content decreases with height,
are li ed, there is heavy precipita on from cumulonim-
bus type of clouds. Besides, convec ve instability in the
layers of the atmosphere is a contributory factor in the
forma on of violent storms like tornadoes, thunder-
storms ,squalls etc.
Relation between Stability, Lapse
Rates, and Altitude
(1) The column of air is said to be stable when
its prevailing lapse rate is less than the dry-
adiaba c lapse rate, i.e. when y < yd.
(2) The column of air is said to be unstable when
its prevailing lapse rate is greater than the dry-
adiaba c lapse rate, i.e. when y > yd.
(3) The column of air is said to be in neutral equi-
librium when its prevailing lapse rate has the
same value as the dry-adiaba c lapse rate,
(4) The column of air has condi onal instability
when its prevailing lapse rate lies between
the values for the dry-adiaba c and satura on
adiaba c (wet- adiaba c) lapse rates, i.e. when
yd>y>ym.
where y = prevailing lapse rate
yd = dry-adiaba c lapse rate, and ym = satura on-
adiaba c lapse rate.
Atmospheric Equilibrium in Saturated
Air
While discussing the stability and instability con-
di ons in dry air, it was pointed out that a rising air
parcel cools at the dry-adiaba c lapse rate, which is
always the same (10°C for every kilometer of ascent).
On the contrary, when an ascending air parcel is satu-
rated, its rate of cooling is wet-adiaba c. The wet or
moist adiaba c lapse rate is highly variable. Thus, the
stability or instability of a saturated air mass depends
on the rela onship between the prevailing lapse rate
and the moist-adiaba c lapse rate.
According to Pe erssen, there are the following
two types of lapse rates at which the moist air cools
while ascending:—
(1) Pseudo-adiabaƟc lapse rate. It is found
in such an air parcel which moves up in
saturated state. The condensed moisture is
immediately removed from the ascending
air mass.
66
 (2) Retarded or moist adiabaƟc lapse rate. It
is found in such a parcel of saturated air
which contains the condensed moisture.
Impact of atmospheric stability on
cloud formation
Stability or instability prevailing in the atmosphere
largely controls the daily weather. If there is stability in
the atmosphere, it would resist ver cal mo ons. Thus,
stable air does not favour cloud forma on. However,
when there are certain processes that force the stable
air alo , the clouds that form do not have great ver cal
thickness, rather they are fairly widespread. Precipita-
on from such cloud types is invariably light. On the
contrary, if the atmosphere is in the state of unstable
equilibrium, the ascending air currents generally pro-
duce clouds with great ver cal thickness. There is
greater convec ve ac vity and the resultant precipita-
on is in the form of heavy showers. Thus, the nature
of precipita on itself is a sure indicator of the type of
stability prevailing in the atmosphere. Light drizzle and
overcast sky suggest the upli or forced ascent of the
stable air. By contrast, cumulonimbus clouds are sug-
ges ve of the ascent of unstable air.
On hot summer a ernoons, when the earth’s
surface is intensely heated, the lapse rate becomes
steeper leading to instability in the atmosphere. Sur-
face irregularity o en causes pockets of air to be heated
more than the free air in the atmosphere. The convec-
onal currents are set up, and if they can reach above
the condensa on level, clouds form to yield occasional
mid-a ernoon showers. However, in such cases the
clouds do not grow to great heights. The reason is that
the ‘instability caused by surface hea ng does not ex-
tend to more than a few kilometers from the surface.
Precipita on occurring in this way is generally of very
short dura on, because it cools the surface.
A temperature inversion produces the most stable
condi ons in the atmosphere. Because of the impact of
an inversion layer in the atmosphere the air lying close
to the earth’s surface is cooler and heavier than the
air in the upper layers. Therefore there is li le ver cal
mixing between the layers of the atmosphere. This
results in a greater concentra on of pollutants in the
lowermost layers. Similarly, an extensive fog is a sure
indicator of atmospheric stability. The development of
clouds and the nature of precipita on occurring there
from are all determined by the air stability or lack of
it. Hence the state of equilibrium prevailing in the
atmosphere determines to a large degree the type of
weather we are going to have.
Various factors affecting the stability
of the atmosphere
The movement of air and daily temperature
changes are the two important factors that bring about
a change in atmospheric stability. It may be pointed out
that the steep lapse rate renders the air more unstable,
while a smaller lapse rate promotes stability. It is, there-
fore, natural that any factor that causes the warming
of air near the surface of earth promotes instability.
Contrary to it, the chilling of surface air makes the air
more stable. The cooling of the earth’s surface a er
sunset by nocturnal radia on is one such factor that
increases the stability of air.
Horizontally moving wind streams play an impor-
tant role in determining the stability of air. When warm
air from lower la tudes moves northward over the
colder land surfaces in higher la tudes, the air masses
are cooled from below and become more stable. The
cooling of lower layers of the atmosphere reduces the
prevailing lapse rate which in turn leads to stability. On
the other hand, advec on of cold air over warm sur-
faces leads to warming of the lower layers. It steepens
the lapse rate. Thus, the air becomes unstable.
Besides, ver cal mo ons produced in the at-
mosphere influence its stability. Subsidence of an air
column increases stability, while its upward move-
ment usually enhances instability. While discussing
convec ve instability, we have seen that if a deep and
extensive layer of air is rising with a higher moisture
content in its lower por on, then the ul mate result of
this li ing is an enhancement in atmospheric instabil-
ity. It has also been discussed earlier that condi onal
instability refers to the air that becomes unstable pro-
vided it is li ed to a certain level. Similarly, upward
movement of air associated with general convergence
enhances instability. That is why the convergence and
associated upli aided by the intense day me hea ng
of the surface produce mid-a ernoon thunderstorms
in a certain favoured locality.
At mes, radia on cooling from cloud tops at
about sunset enhances their instability. This is so be-
cause it steepens the lapse rate, so that warm air from
below starts flowing upward adding to the growth of
clouds. Nocturnal thunderstorms are produced in this
way.
67
 HUMIDITY
INTRODUCTION
Humidity is a general term referring to the water
vapour content of air at any one me and place. This
term is not used to describe liquid droplets of fog,
cloud, or rain. Since water vapour is dry like any other
gas, it has nothing to do with dryness or wetness of the
atmosphere. Although there is spa al as well as tem-
poral varia on in the quan ty of water vapour present
in the atmosphere, the total amount of atmospheric
water remains nearly constant.
Of the various components of atmosphere, water
vapour cons tutes only a small frac on varying from
nearly zero per cent to about 4 per cent by volume.
However, the meteorological significance of even this
very small percentage of water in the air cannot be
over-emphasized. In fact, in the heat budget as well
as in day- to-day weather changes that we observe,
atmospheric moisture plays a very important role.
The Hydrological Cycle
The hydrologic cycle is a conceptual model that
describes the storage and movement of water between
the biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and the hydro-
sphere. Water on our planet can be stored in any one
of the following major reservoirs: atmosphere, oceans,
lakes, rivers, soils, glaciers, snowfields, and groundwa-
ter. Water moves from one reservoir to another by way
of processes likeevapora on, condensa on, precipita-
on, deposi on, runoff, infiltra on, sublima on, tran-
spira on, mel ng, and groundwater flow.
The circula on of water from one part of the
general earth subsystem to another through differ-
ent pathways like surface and subsurface pathways is
known as the hydrological cycle. Water is cycled end-
lessly between the atmosphere, the soil, surface stor-
age, lakes and streams, plants and animals, glacial ice,
and the principal reservoir-the oceans through differ-
ent pathways. Even though the water-vapour content
of atmosphere is, on the average, constant, there are
local changes because of seasonal and weather varia-
ons. Whatever moisture is lost by precipita on, it is
made good by con nuous evapora on from large and
small water bodies like oceans, lakes, rivers, moist soil
and vegeta on etc. The en re process of maintaining
constant water vapour content of the atmosphere can
also be said to be the hydrologic cycle. Moisture loss
from vegeta on is known as transpira on. The com-
bined effects of evapora on and transpira on from
vegeta on-covered land areas are called evapotranspi-
ra on. Thus, the hydrologic cycle involves evapora on,
condensa on, and precipita on.
Exchange of humidity
There are two important aspects of the transfer
of humidity : (1) Land-sea moisture exchange, and (2)
Meridional moisture exchange.
(1) Land-sea moistre exchange. There is a con-
nuous exchange of moisture taking place between the
con nents and oceans. The amount of moisture gained
through precipita on on the con nents is more than
that lost through evapora on. Oceans, on the contrary,
lose more moisture through evapora on than what
they receive through precipita on. Winds carry a part
of atmospheric moisture from over the oceans to the
con nents where water vapour condenses and falls as
rain or snow. However, part of this precipita on returns
to the oceans through surface run-off or ground water
seepage. The remaining part also is brought back to the
oceans by off-shore winds laden with land-evaporated
moisture.
As a matter of fact, direct precipitation over
oceans brings back a larger part of the moisture evapo-
rated to the atmosphere.
(2) Meridional moisture exchange. Meridional
moisture exchange involves the transfer of moisture
between different la tude belts on the earth. This
also involves a transfer of energy. In certain la tude
zones there is a marked excess of precipita on over
evapora on. On the contrary, there are certain zones
where evapora on exceeds precipita on. The la tu-
dinal imbalance thus produced requires a meridional
exchange of moisture as well as energy between the
dry and wet-zones.
In each hemisphere the surplus of precipita on
over evaporation is found in equatorial as well as
middle-la tude zones extending from 40 to 70 degrees
north and south la tude. On the other hand, in la tu-
dinal zones extending from 10 to 40 degrees la tude in
each hemisphere evapora on exceeds precipita on.
Humidity and Temperature
There exists a close balance between atmospheric
humidity and air temperature. At any given point of
68
 me the capacity of air for water vapour depends upon require more moisture for satura on.
its temperature. The moisture holding capacity of air At any point of me, the difference between the
increases with increasing temperature. It is also to be moisture holding capacity of air and its actual humidity
noted that at higher temperatures the capacity to hold is referred to as the satura on deficit. The temperature
moisture increases at a much faster rate. The moisture to which air has to be cooled in order to reach satura-
holding capacity increases slowly at low temperatures, on is called the dew point. There are occasions when
and more and more rapidly at higher temperatures. in the absence of condensa on nuclei condensa on
It is true that the amount of water vapour in the does not start at the dew point. The air in which the
atmosphere undergoes large fluctua ons. However, process of condensa on starts at much lower tem-
there is an upper limit which the moisture content of perature than the dew point is called super-saturated.
atmosphere does not exceed. The amount of water If the air were cooled below this temperature, then
vapour that a given parcel of air can hold at a given the excess vapour would condense. The dew point
temperature is referred to as its capacity. When the of ascending parcel of air decreases with al tude at
air at a par cular temperature has water vapour to the rate of about 2°C per kilometer.1 Since the water
its capacity, it is said to be saturated. The concept of vapour holding capacity of air increases with rising
satura on may be further explained with reference to temperature, the air in the equatorial belt has a higher
vapour pressure. dew point than that in the higher la tude.
Vapour pressure. Vapour pressure is that part of Humidity Measurements
total atmospheric pressure which is a ributable to its
water vapour content. Like other gases, water vapour The moisture content of the atmosphere in any lo-
exerts a pressure. As water molecules evaporate from cality can be measured in a number of ways. The follow-
the water surface, there is a small increase in pressure ing expressions are used to denote the actual moisture
in the air above. This increase is the result of the mo- content of the atmosphere : absolute humidity, specific
on of water vapour molecules supplied to air through humidity, rela ve humidity and mixing ra o.
evapora on. Because of increasing vapour pressure in Absolute humidity : The weight of water vapour
the air above, more and more of these escaping mol- per volume of air (usually expressed as grams of water
ecules are forced to return to the liquid. At last, the vapour per cubic meter of air) is referred to as the ab-
number of water molecules leaving and returning to solute humidity. The measure of atmospheric humidity
the evapora ng surface becomes equal. Under such a is seldom used by meteorologists, because absolute
condi on the air is said to be saturated, and the vapour humidity varies with the expansion or contrac on of air,
pressure is then called satura on vapour pressure. even though the amount of water vapour is constant.
However, any increase in the temperature of air would
Absolute humidity values for saturated air.
Temperature °C Water vapour (grams per cubic meter)
0 4.85
10 9.41
20 17.31
30 30.4
40 51.2
50 83.0

Specific humidity : It is the weight of water
vapour per weight of a given mass of air including the
water vapour (usually expressed as grams of water
vapour per kilogram of air). Specific humidity is a
more constant property of air, and therefore it is more
frequently used in meteorology. Specific humidity of
air changes only when the quan ty of water vapour
undergoes a change. Since it istmeasured in units of
weight, specific humidity is not affected by changes in
pressure or temperature of the air. Specific humidity is
directly propor onal to the vapour pressure of air and
inversely propor onal to the air-pressure.
The maximum amount of specific humidity is
found in the equatorial zone and the minimum at the
poles. Since capacity of the air depends on its tem-
perature, the amount of water vapour present in the

69
air near the equator is much more than what it is in
the polar region. Similarly, because of the control of
temperature, specific humidity in a par cular region
is much higher in summer than in winter. Another
salient feature of the zonal distribu on of specific
humidity is that it is higher on the oceans than on the
con nents.
Absolute humidity tends to change with the ver-
cal mo on of the air mass due to which this is not
the exact measure of amount of water available for
precipita on because of this Meteorologist are not
much interested in absolute humidity.
While, Specific humidity remains constant it
doesn’t change with the ascent or descent of air mass
because it is measured against the weight of the air
mass so this is effec ve measure of amount of water
that could be extracted from the air mass through pre-
cipita on.Due to this it is used by Meteorologist.
Rela ve humidity : Rela ve humidity is defined
as the ra o of the amount of water vapour in the air
to the amount the air can hold at that temperature (or
its capacity). Since amount of vapour present is also
directly propor onal to the vapour pressure it can be
also indirectly defined as the ra o of vapour pressure
present to the vapour pressure of the given air mass at
satura on. Stated briefly, rela ve humidity is the ra o
of the air’s water vapour content to its water vapour
capacity. This ra o is always expressed as a percent-
age. If the air at 15°C temperature contains 5 grams of
water vapur per kilogram, the rela ve humidity will be
expressed as 5/10 or 50 percent. In case air is saturated,
the rela ve humidity is 100 per cent. Under such a
condi on the rate of evapora on will be very slow.
Rela ve humidity being dependent on the air’s
water vapour content as well as on its capacity, it must
change whenever the amount of water vapour in the
air changes or whenever the capacity of air changes.
With any addi on of moisture by evapora on, the
rela ve humidity will increase. Since vapour pressure
is directly propor onal to the amount of water vapour
present in air, rela ve humidity may be defined as the
ra o of the observed vapour pressure to that required
for satura on at the same temperature.
f=e/es
The maximum rela ve humidity is recorded at
the equator where the air has been depicted as very
moist. From the equator towards the sub-tropical high
pressure belt there is a gradual decrease in rela ve
humidity. In fact, this zone of subsiding and diverging
air masses is marked by the lowest value of rela ve hu-
midity. However, because of decreasing temperatures
in higher la tudes from about 30° poleward the rela ve
humidity registers a gradual increase. Since rela ve
humidity is less on land than on water, it is lower in
the higher la tudes in the northern hemisphere where
from 60° poleward it decreases. Another characteris c
feature of the distribu on of rela ve humidity is north-
ward shi ing of the belts of highest and lowest rela ve
humidity in July and southward shi ing in January fol-
lowing the apparent movement of the sun.
Seasonal and diurnal variation in
relative humidity
There is latitudinal variation in the seasonal
distribu on of rela ve humidity in both the hemis-
pheres. Within the tropical regions bounded by 30°N
and S la tude the average rela ve humidity is higher
in summer than in winter. This is so because summers
are generally wet and winters dry. But in the higher
la tudes, humid winters record the highest percentage
of rela ve humidity. Here it is to be remembered that
on the con nents rela ve humidity is controlled more
by temperature than by air’s water vapour content.
That is why, with the excep on of monsoon regions
where rela ve humidity is higher in wet summers than
in drier winters, on land masses winter is the period
of maximum rela ve humidity, and the minimum is
recorded in summer.
Diurnal varia on in rela ve humidity is also well-
marked. Mornings record the minimum temperature
and, therefore, rela ve humidity is high. On the other
hand, around mid-a ernoon the maximum tempera-
tures are recorded which result in the minimum of
rela ve humidity.
Rela ve humidity being directly related to the
rate of evapora on, it affects man’s comfort. As noted
earlier, evapora on is a cooling process. Perspira on
from the skin of our body evaporates at a faster rate
in dry air or in air with a lower rela ve humidity. On
the contrary, when rela ve humidity is high, the rate
of evapora on of perspira on is a very slow process.
Faster the rate of evapora on from our skin, the more
comfortable we feel because of the cooling effects.
Mixing ra o : The mixing ra o is defined as the
weight of water vapour per unit weight of dry air, ex-
pressed in grams of water vapour per kilogram of dry
air and not the moist air (dry air + water vapour).
70
 Evaporation and various factor
affecting it
Evapora on is a process by which a liquid is trans-
formed into gas or vapour. The atmosphere receives
its supply of moisture from the earth’s surface through
evapora on from the oceans, lakes, rivers, etc. and
through transpira on from plants. It takes about 600
calories of energy to convert 1 gram of water to water
vapour. During evapora on water molecules absorb
energy which gives them the mo on required to escape
from the surface of liquid and become a gas. This ener-
gy is subsequently released as heat when condensa on
takes place and water vapour changes back to the liquid
state. The heat absorbed in the process of evapora on
is referred to as the latent heat of vaporisa on. Latent
heat means hidden or stored heat.
Since a certain amount of energy is consumed
in the process of evapora on, the remaining liquid
is cooled by an equivalent amount. Evapora on is a
cooling process and its has cooling effect on evaporat-
ing bodies. When the rain drops fall through the dry
layers of atmosphere the process of evapora on chills
the air. This is so because most of the energy needed
for evapora ng water is provided by the air itself. “The
reservoir of energy required to maintain the earth’s
surface temperature against evapora on cooling is sup-
plied by part of the excess of solar radia on absorbed
by the ground (mainly the oceans) over longwave
radia on emi ed to space”.
Factor s Af fecting Rate of
Evaporation
(1) Amount of water available. Rate of evapo-
ra on is greater over the oceans than over
the con nents.
2. Temperature: It is also affected by tem-
perature. As the temperature of air is in-
creased, its capacity to hold moisture also
increases. Any increase in airtemperature
raises the temperature of water at the
evapora on source whichmeans that more
energy is available to the water molecules
for escaping from liquid to a gaseous state.
Hence evapora on is directly propor onal
to the temperature of evapora ng surface.
Warmer the evapora ng surface, higher
the rate of evapora on.
(3) RelaƟve humidity: The rate of evapora on
is closely related with the rela ve humidity
of air. Since the moisture holding capacity
of air at a given temperature is limited,
drier air evaporates more water than moist
air. In other words, higher the vapour pres-
sure, lower the rate of evapora on. It is a
common experience that evapora on is
greater in summer and at mid-day than in
winter and at night.
(4) Wind-speed: Evaporation depends on
the wind speed as well. When the winds
are light, a thin layer of air just above the
surface gets nearly saturated under the
circumstances the difference between
the vapour pressure between ground and
air is very small. This results in very low
evapora on. On the other hand, when the
wind velocity is high, turbulence is set up
in the air.
Moisture evaporated from the ground is
mixed upward and the vapour-pressure
difference between the atmosphere and
the surface remains large. Thus, the rate
of evapora on is accelerated. Wherever
there is a combina on of high tempera-
ture, very low rela ve humidity and
strong wind, the rate of evapora on is
excep onally high. This leads to dehydra-
on of soil to a depth of several inches.
(5) Area of the evapora ng surface: The rate
of evapora on is determined by the area
of the exposed surface of water. Larger
areas of evapora ng surface increase the
rate of evapora on.
(6) Air-pressure: Evapora on is also affected
by the atmospheric pressure exerted on
the evapora ng surface. Lower pressure
on open surface of the liquid results in the
higher rate of evapora on.
(7) Composition of water: Evaporation is
inversely propor onal to the salinity of wa-
ter. Rate of evapora on is always greater
over fresh water than over salt water.
Under similar condi ons, the ocean water
evaporates about 5 per cent more slowly
than the fresh water.
Potential Evapotranspiration
The term ‘poten al evapotranspira on’ refers- to
amount of evapora on that would occur if sufficient
water resources are available idealized conditions
in which there would be enough rainfall to provide
sufficient moisture for all possible evapotranspira-
71
 on in an area. Thorthwaite in his modified scheme
of climatic classification of 1948 used potential
evapotranspira on(PE) which is in fact an index of
thermal efficiency and water loss . It represents the
amount of transfer of both moisture and heat to the
atmoshphere from soils and vegeta on (evapora on
and transpira on) In order to determine the poten-
al evapotranspira on for any Place or area, several
factors like temperature, la tude vegeta on, perme-
ability and water reten on capacity of soil are taken
into considera on. Such places as which have surplus
of precipita on over evapotranspira on are marked by
surplus of water for underground storage. Even large
or small water bodies may have surplus water in them
which may be used for canal construc on or other
purposes. But in areas where evapotranspira on is in
excess of precipita on, no water is available for stor-
Zonal distribu on of actual mean annual evapora on (inches).
60-50° 50-40°
Northern Hemisphere
Con nents 14.2 13.0
Oceans 15.7 27.6
Mean 15.0 20.1
Southern Hemisphere
Con nents 7.9 19.7
Oceans 9.1 22.8
Mean 8.8 22.8
The distribu on of actual mean annual evapora-
on in clearly illustrates two characteris c features
: (1) Generally actual evapora on is greater over the
oceans than over con nents. This is simply because
of the unlimited supply of water at the ocean surface,
while over land areas available water is scarce. How-
ever, the equatorial regions are an excep on to this
general rule. Land areas in very low la tudes between
10°N and S of the equator lose more moisture through
evapotranspira on than do the oceans and other water
bodies. (2) North-south distribu on of actual evapo-
ra on is largely controlled by air temperature, since
temperature decreases from the equator towards the
poles. According to Trewartha, about 60 per cent of
the earth’s evapora on occurs in the la tudinal belt
extending from 20°N to 20°S and 80 per cent occurs in
the zone extending from 35°N to 35°S la tude.
Condensation
A er taking bath water droplets gets deposited
on the mirror,this is because air mass get saturated
age. Even if certain amount of water is stored during
the rainy season, it is quickly evaporated into the dry
and warm air. Under such condi ons soils become dry
and the vegeta on gets parched up.
Distribution of Evaporation
Since temperature is the primary control of evap-
ora on, poten al evapora on (evapora ng power)
will naturally decrease from the equator towards the
poles, given an unlimited supply of water. However,
actual evapora on is different from poten al evapo-
ra on. Besides temperature, wind speed and rela ve
humidity, it also depends on the available water to be
evaporated. On land surfaces, in fact, the evapora ng
power of air is many mes greater than the available
water supply.
50-40° 30-20° 20-10° 10-0°
15.0 19.7 3.1.1 45.3
37.8 45.3 47.2 39.4
28.0 35.8 42.9 40.6
20.1 16.1 35.4 48.0
35.0 44.1 47.2 44.9
35.5 39.0 44.5 45.7
and excess water vapour gets discarded in the form of
condensed liquid. This is an example of condensa on
which takes place when air reaches its capacity to hold
moistre or in other words get saturated.
Satura on and dew point: When air mass con-
tains all the water vapour it can hold it is said to have
reached its capacity alterna vely air mass can be cooled
at lower temperature its capacity to retain water va-
pour decreases and it reaches it satura on point, this
temperature at which it tends to reach satura on point
is called dew point.
Condensa on is the process of water vapour
changing to the liquid state. If air is cooled below its
dew point, some of the air’s water vapour becomes
liquid. Thus, any further cooling of the saturated air
starts the process of condensa on. Whenever the dew
point temperature falls below the freezing point (0°C),
water vapour may convert directly into ice by the pro-
cess of sublima on. However, Byers prefers the term
‘crystalliza on.’ He applies the term ‘sublima on’ to ice
72
directly conver ng into water vapour without passing
through the intermediary liquid state.
Condensa on depends upon two factors
: relative humidity of air, and degree of cooling. ic processes include cooling by radiation, con-
Therefore in arid lands a larger degree of cooling is
necessary before the dew point is reached, while in
humid climates a lesser degree of cooling will start the
process of condensa on.
Under normal condi ons, no sooner than the
dew point is passed, condensa on begins around the
hygroscopic nuclei. But there are occasions when con-
densa on starts only a er air has cooled much below
its dew point. In such a condi on, the air is said to be su-
persaturated. This happens only when air contains very
small number of dust par cles because condensa on
can take place only around the hygroscopic nuclei be-
cause otherwise water droplets requires to overcome
the surface tension to form water droplets in such cases
air needs to be cooled much below the dew point. Un-
der abnormal condi ons condensa on may start even
before the dew point is reached.
Various Processes of Condensation
Condensa on by cooling is produced by four dif-
ferent processes :
(a) cooling by expansion,
(b) conduc on of heat from the air to a cold
surface,
(c) direct radia on-cooling of the air, and
(d) mixing of warm and cold masses of saturated
air.
Generally these processes work in combina on.
These processes may be classified into two broad
categories :
(1) Adiaba c processes and
(2) Non-adiaba c processes.
Adiaba c processes : Cooling by expansion is
far more important than any other process so far as
condensa on in free air is concerned. This type of cool-
ing is due to li ing of the air. Unsaturated air cools at
the dry adiaba c rate of 10°C per km. However, a er
passing beyond the condensa on level, the latent heat
of condensa on lowers the rate of cooling. This modi-
fied rate of cooling is called the wet or moist adiaba c
rate. The average rate of this cooling is about 6°C per
km, but the actual values varies with pressure. Adia-
ba c cooling may be accomplished due to convec on,
convergence of different air masses as along the fronts,
or orographic upli ing.
Non-adiabatic processes : Non-adiabat-
duction ,convection(movement of whole
mass),advec on(movement of only suspended mass
n the fluid). The air may be cooled due to loss of heat
by radia on. In case there is direct radia on from the
moist air, the cooling produces fog or clouds provided
hygroscopic nuclei(to overcome surface tension as hy-
groscopic nuclei are more colder than water par cle)
are present in the air. Cooling may also be produced
by conduc on or advec on of warm air across a cold
surface. Cooling by contact with a cold surface produces
dew, frost or fog depending on other atmospheric con-
di ons. Some mes the air is cooled due to its mixing
with colder air.
It is noteworthy that the effect of cooling pro-
duced by radia on, conduc on and mixing is confined
to a thin layer of the atmosphere. The non-adiaba c
processes of cooling produce only dew, fog or frost.
They are incapable of producing a substan al amount
of precipita on. The only process capable of reducing
the temperature of deep and extensive air masses, so
that cloud forma on and appreciable precipita on may
be possible, is the expansion associated with rising air
currents or the adiaba c cooling.
Necessary Conditions for
Condensation
As noted earlier, condensa on takes place when
water vapour is converted into liquid form. This process
may produce dew, fog or clouds. Howsoever different
these forms of condensa on may be, they have two
things in common. First, for condensa on to occur,
satura on of air is an essen al pre-requisite. Satura on
can be brought about either by reducing the air tem-
perature or by adding water vapour to the air; secondly,
water vapour needs some kind of a surface on which
it may condense. For dew or frost, solid objects at the
ground do this job. But when condensa on occurs at
some distance away from the earth’s surface, the most
needed surfaces for condensa on of water vapour are
provided by the dust par cles or aerosols, as they are
called, which are referred to as condensa on nuclei. In
the absence of these ny dust par cles, clouds may not
possibly form unless a rela ve humidity of nearly 400
per cent is reached. Fortunately there is an abundance
of condensa on nuclei such as salt par cles supplied by
the oceans, microscopic dust par cles and smoke etc. in
the lower atmosphere. Since these ny par cles have
73
affinity for water, they are termed hygroscopic nuclei.
Because of the presence of an abundant quan ty of
such water-seeking dust par cles, rela ve humidity
hardly exceeds 101 percent.1
Condensa on is said to be a con nuous process,
since some of the more powerful hygroscopic nuclei
begin to a ract water vapour around them at rela ve
humidity as low as 75 per cent. As the rela ve humidjty
reaches 100 per cent mark, the condensed water par-
cles grow larger in size very quickly. Thus, the clouds
start appearing in the sky.
Condensa on and hygroscopic nuclei : In order
to get the process of condensa on started, it is es-
sen al that there should be an abundant supply of
microscopic dust par cles in the air. Earlier the weather
scien sts held the view that the ny par cles of dust,
of whatever type they may be, were sufficient for the
process of condensa on, but of late, it was discovered
that condensa on does not occur on ordinary dust par-
cles. For this purpose only such par cles are necessary
as are capable of a rac ng or absorbing water. These
condensation nuclei are called hygroscopic nuclei.
Various types of hygroscopic nuclei ordinarily present
in the atmosphere are the following :
1. Sea salts which include sodium chloride
and magnesium chloride, etc.
2. Sulphur dioxide (SO2), which oxidizes to
sulphur trioxide (SOj) which becomes
sulphuric acid when mixed with water.
3. Oxides of nitrogen, specially nitric ox-
ides.
Ac ve volcanoes, ocean spray, forest fires, and
meteors which burn out in the atmosphere are the
sources of a large number of such hygroscopic nuclei.
Salt par cles carried over the con nents from the
oceans by winds are supposed to be the most powerful
condensa on nuclei. Besides, such products of com-
bus on as have sulfurous and nitrous acids are also the
most effec ve and ac ve condensa on nuclei.
Forms of Condensation
Condensed moisture occurs in various forms. This
is due to varia ons in the amount of humidity in the
air, in its movements and turbulence, and in its tem-
perature and rate of cooling. Condensa on occurs on
solid surfaces on the earth’s surface as well as in free
air above it. The common forms of condensed moisture
include dew, frost, fog and clouds.
Dew : Dew consists of ny droplets of water
produced by condensa on on surface objects rather
than on nuclei in the air above the surface. Any nature
observer will find in the morning shining beads of water
droplets deposited on leaves and blades of grass. In
fact, dew refers to “water drops deposited by direct
condensa on of water vapour from the adjacent clear
air mainly on horizontal surfaces cooled by nocturnal
radia on”. Cole defines dew as “the condensed mois-
ture that forms in place as a consequence of contact
cooling”.
Clear skies and calm air are necessary condi ons
for the forma on of dew. Clouds act as blankets which
greatly reduce the radia on by reflec ng the radia on
back to the earth resul ng in less cooling during night.
Movement and turbulence in the lower stratum of
atmosphere cause mixing and thereby prohibit the air
from reaching its dew point. That is why windy nights
do not favour the forma on of dew. In brief, the neces-
sary condi ons for dew forma on are : cloudless sky,
calm weather, and appreciable quan ty of moisture
in the air.
Frost: Frost should not be mistaken to be frozen
dew. Frost occurs when the dew point of air falls below
the freezing point (°C). When condensa on starts with
temperature below 0°C, the water vapour in the air
passes directly from gaseous to solid state. Some mes
condensa on under such condi ons results in the for-
ma on of ice-crystals commonly called ‘white frost’.
Low places such as valley floor without any
outlet are the ideal loca ons for the occurrence of
frosts. This happens due to temperature inversion.
In mountainous valleys due to radia on and ver cal
movement of air valley inversion occur. The tempera-
ture of the upper parts of the valleys in mountainous
areas becomes exceedingly low during winter nights
because of rapid rate of loss of heat from the surface
through terrestrial radia on. Due to this air mass com-
ing in contact with the surface also becomes cool.
This causes descend of cold and dense air to the lower
part of valley causing displacement of warm air from
surface of the lower valley to the upper part of the
valley. This situa on is called temperature inversion
where warm air lies over the cold air. This causes severe
frost in the lower part of the valley causing damage to
fruit orchads and crops.
However, the condi ons necessary for the forma-
on of frost are same as for dew except that conden-
sa on taking place below the freezing point produces
74
frost. Rime is another unimportant form of condensa-
on which develops at or near the ground. It consists
of ice crystals deposited chiefly on ver cal surfaces,
especially on points and edges of objects, generally in
super-cooled fog or mist due to rapid freezing of the
water par cles.
Protec on against frost is a great challenge to
the fruit-growers in some of the cold countries of the
world. Various measures have been adopted to protect
the orchards from injury caused by frost. A empts are
made at reducing the heat loss during night or add-
ing heat to the layer of air touching the ground. Heat
conserva on methods are also adopted. This includes
covering plants with materials having low thermal con-
duc vity, such as paper or cloth. Sprinklers, air mixing
giant-size fans and orchard heaters are frequently used
for warming the air.
75
 PRECIPITATION
INTRODUCTION
Precipita on has been defined as water in liquid
or solid forms falling to the earth. Atmospheric mois-
ture may be precipitated either in solid or liquid states.
Rain, snow, hail and sleet, etc. are the common forms of
precipita on. However, ‘precipita on’ does not include
some other forms of condensed moisture, namely, fog,
dew and frost.
The first step in precipita on is condensa on. The
process of condensa on involves a change from water
vapour to liquid, while the process of precipita on
involves the falling out of that water as rain, snow, hail
or some other hydrometer.’ The most interes ng and
intriguing aspect is the fact that there are more periods
of cloudiness without the occurrence of precipita on
than with it. Some mes raindrops or snowflakes are
formed from cloud droplets or ice crystals and, at other
mes, they are not; this is s ll one of the great myster-
ies in meteorology.
Precipitation Process
It may be noted that the only process capable of
bringing about cloudy condensa on and the resultant
precipita on from extensive air masses is the adiaba c
cooling. But at the same me it is equally true that not
all condensa on, even in the ascending currents of air,
is followed immediately by precipita on. Even though
all clouds contain water, some produce precipita on
while others do not. In certain cases precipitated mois-
ture does fall from the clouds, but it gets evaporated
in the atmosphere before actually reaching the earth’s
surface. Only when the cloud droplets, ice pellets or
ice crystals grow to such a large size as to overcome
the normal buoyancy and updra s in the atmosphere
does precipita on occur. It means that some special
processes must operate in a cloud from which pre-
cipita on falls.
Cloud droplets and Rain drops : Various rain-
making experiments and researches have brought
about many interes ng facts. Droplets produced by
the condensa on process are indeed very small in
size, averaging less than 10 micrometers in diameter.
To get a s ll be er idea of their size, compare them
with a human hair which is about 75 micrometers
in diameter. According to Taylor, the condensa on
process can produce droplets upto 50-200 microns,
but generally it does not produce them much over 10
microns. Drizzle par cles, which have an upper limit of
500 microns, seem to float in the air. Thus, because of
their small size, the cloud droplets fall at a very slow
rate. A er the process of cooling through dry adiaba c
lapse rate condensa on first start around hygroscopic
nuclei such ny droplets of water are cloud droplets.
If a cloud were at an al tude of 1000 meters, then an
average cloud drop would take approximately 48 hours
to reach the earth. In fact, such a ny droplet of water
fails to reach the ground, because it is likely to evapo-
rate before it fell a few meters below the cloud base.
Moreover, since clouds are made of a large number of
these droplets all compe ng for available water, their
con nued growth through the process of condensa on
is extremely slow.
Rain drops, on the other hand, have diameters
ranging from about 200 microns upto 7000 microns.
Drops larger than this upper limit have a fall velocity
larger than 10 m/sec. At such high veloci es, the drop
breaks into a few smaller drops, such as rain drops
and drizzle. It is obvious that there is a limit to the
growth of the size of cloud drops or rain drops in the
atmosphere.
If we make a comparison between cloud drop-
lets and rain drops, it becomes clear that millions of
ny cloud droplets are required to make one single
rain drop. To get a really good sized rain drop, say 3
millimeters in diameter, it would take 27 millions of
the 10 micron-droplets. A rain drop large enough to
reach the ground without evapora ng contains roughly
a million mes water of a cloud droplet. For precipita-
on to occur, these cloud droplets must somehow join
together to grow to sizes which can no longer be kept
in suspension by the air.
There are two possible processes of change of
cloud droplets into raindrops.
1)If warm and moist air ascends to such a height
that condensa on begins below freezing point, then
both, water droplets and ice droplets, are formed. The
water droplets are evaporated because of difference
of vapour pressure beween them and ice droplets and
there is condensa on of evaporated water around ice
crystals which go on increasing in size. If they become
sufficiently large in size, they cannot be held in suspen-
sion by the air and consequently they began to fall
76
down. If the temperature above the ground is high
they fall in the form of raindrops.
2)The suspended cloud droplets in the clouds are
of different sizes. These cloud droplets collide among
themselves at varying rates due to difference in their
sizes and thus form large droplets. In the process sev-
eral cloud droplets are coalesced to form raindrops.
When they become so large in size that ascending
air becomes unable to hold them, they fall down as
rainfall.
THEORIES OF RAINFALL
Early theories of Rainfall
i) The raindrops are differently electrically
charged and thus they are coalesced by
electrical a rac on and grow large in size.
This theory is opposed on the ground that
the distances between the raindrops are
so large and difference between electri-
cal charges is so small that coalescence of
raindrop s due to this mechanisms is not
possible.
ii) The large raindrops capture the small rain-
drops and thus become further large in size
this theory is opposed on the ground that
observa ons have revealed that generally
most of the drops are more or less uniform
in size.
iii) There is variation in saturation vapour
pressure with varying temperature. In such
condition the atmospheric turbulence
brings warm and cold cloud droplets in
close conjunc on, with the result there
is supersatura on of air with reference
to the surface of the cold cloud droplets
and undersatura on with respect to the
surface of the warm cloud droplets and
growth of cold droplets at the expense
of warm droplets. This situa on causes
evapora on of warm droplets.This theory
is opposed on the ground that the differ-
ence of temperature of cloud droplets is
not so great that this differen al mecha-
nism may operate.
iv) Raindrops grow around very large con-
densation (hygroscopic) nuclei but it
is argued that no doubt the process of
condensa on around excep onally large
hygroscopic nuclei is very rapid but their
further growth cannot be explained merely
on this ground.
The theories of precipita on and rainfall fall in
mainly two categories: rapid growth of raindrops due
to growth of ice crystals at the cost of water droplets
and , rapid growth of raindrops due to coalescence of
small water droplets by the sweeping acƟons of fall-
ing drops.
The exact process or the processes which cause
the cloud droplets to join together to form large rain
drops capable of falling to the earth as precipita on
are not fully understood. However, two mechanisms
have been proposed to explain these processes,
namely, Bergeron Process and Collision-Coalescence
Process.
Cloud stability : Before discussing the above
men oned mechanisms or theories of precipita on,
cloud stability should be thoroughly understood. In
certain types of clouds the water droplets do not tend
to coalesce and all the me they are kept floa ng in the
air. Colloidal stability is said to exist in such clouds. No
precipita on is released from them. On the contrary,
in certain cloud forms the droplets have a tendency to
join together as a result of which the big-size rain drops
develop. There is colloidal instability in such clouds, and
they are producers of precipita on. Thus, any process
which brings about an element of colloidal instability
in a cloud may be said to be responsible for causing
the clouds to release precipita on.
Ice-crystal Theory or cloud instability
theory of Bergeron:
The ice-crystal theory to explain precipita on was
propounded by Tor Bergeron, an eminent meteorolo-
gist from Norway, in 1933. It is also called the Bergeron
Process a er the name of its discoverer. It is based on
two special meteorological proper es of water.
Assumption of burgeron process
First, the water droplets in a cloud do not freeze
at 0°C. Hence water droplets and ice crystals are found
together in unstable cloud In the atmosphere super-
cooled water has been observed down to below -40°C.
When water remains in liquid state below 0°C it is
referred to as supercooled.
Other fact is that “the rela ve humidity of air is
greater with respect to an ice surface than with respect
to water surface”.
77
 The super-cooled water tends to freeze,
if it is disturbed. Icing of aircra s which fly through a
cloud consis ng of supercooled droplets offer a typical
example of this phenomenon. Besides, supercooled
droplets also freeze when they come into contact with
a ny solid nucleus, about 1 micro-meter in diameter.
This is called a freezing nucleus. Most of the nuclei
become ac ve at -20° to -25°C. However, freezing
nuclei are sparse in the atmosphere. Thus, when the
ascending air currents rise well above the freezing
level, some of the water droplets will be changed into
ice, and through sublima on water vapour will enter
into solid state.
Temperature (0°C) Rela ve Humidity-Water (%)
0 100
-5 100
-10 100
-15 100
-20 100
ComparaƟve RelaƟve Humidity (with respect to water and ice)
From table it is clear that at -15°C, when the rela-
ve humidity is 100 per cent with respect to water, it
is about 115 percent with respect to ice. In this case,
vapour diffuses rapidly from air to ice crystals so that
the ice crystals begin to grow at the expense of water
droplets. The growth of ice crystals is rapid enough to
generate crystals large enough to fall. While falling from
the cloud, the ice crystals grow by intercep ng cloud
droplets that freeze upon them. Some mes these falling
ice crystals are broken up into fragments which again
become freezing nuclei for other water droplets. A chain
reac on takes place. These ice crystals by accre on grow
further in size to become snowflakes before leaving the
cloud. Snowflakes generally melt before reaching the
ground and fall as rain. Because of the glacia on of the
upper part of the cloud, its cauliflower like top becomes
anvil-shaped, so typical of a cumulonimbus.
Mechanism of rainfall as per cloud
instability theory
With the fall of air temperature below 0 C the
atmospheric vapour pressure decreases more rapidly
over ice surface than over water surface with the result
satura on vapour pressure becomes greater over water
surface than than ice surface when the air tempera-
ture ranges between -5 C and -25 C and the difference
According to Taylor, if a single ice-crystal is intro-
duced into a cloud of supercooled water droplets, the
en re cloud rapidly changes over to an all-ice cloud.
This abrupt change from a water to an ice cloud is
caused by different vapour pressures exis ng over
super-cooled water droplets and ice crystals at the
same temperature.
Now, we have to consider the second special pro-
perty of water. Over ice, the satura on vapour pres-
sure is lower than what it is over water. In other words,
when air is saturated (100 per cent rela ve humidity)
with respect to water, it is supersaturated (rela ve hu-
midity greater than 100 per cent) with respect to ice.
with respect to Ice (%)
100
105
110
115
121
between satura on vapour pressure and ice surfaces
exceeds 0.2mb. In such condi on, when air tempera-
ture ranges between -5 C and -25 C, water droplets
become super-saturated. In such case super cooled
water droplets gets evaporated and resultant vapour
gets deposited on the surface of ice crystals.
It may be pointed that the forma on of ice par-
cles requires freezing nuclei (e.g. fin soil par cles,
meteoric dust etc. because for pure water to freeze
temperature needed would be -40 C.) in the same
manner as the forma on of water droplets requires
the presence of hygroscopic nuclei. This is the reason
why only some of the water droplets are able to convert
in to ice crystals other remains as super cooled water
droplets only. This creates difference of vapour pres-
sure w.r.t ice crystals surface and super cooled water
droplets. Slowly and slowly ice crystals grow in size as
the deposi on of vapour derived through evapora-
on of super-cooled water droplets on their surface
con nues. Ice crystals then aggregate due to their
mutual collision and thus they form large snow flakes.
When the ice crystals becomes large and their falling
velocity exceeds the velocity of rising air currents,
they fall downward. When the falling velocity exceeds
the velocity of rising air currents, they fall downward.
When the falling crystals pass through a thick layer of
78
air with temperature more than 0 c, they are changed
into raindrops and thus begins rainfall.
Collision-Coalescence Theory
The Coalescence process of rain making was
discovered by E. G. Boven of Australia. This process is
applicable only to those clouds which do not extend
beyond the freezing level.
Un l 1940s, it was the common belief that all
precipita on originated through the Bergeron process.
Only light drizzle was supposed to come from clouds
located well below the freezing point. If it were true,
then substan al precipita on could only be generated
from such clouds as extended to such heights where
temperatures would be much below the freezing point.
But this is not true. In the tropics, cumulus clouds with
only 2000 m thickness start giving precipita on over
the oceans. The temperature in the uppermost part
of these clouds seldom falls below 5°C. It is, there-
fore, true that ice par cles contribute li le in the
development of rain drops of sufficient size in such
warm clouds. According to some meteorologist occur-
rence of precipita on from such clouds involves the
collision,coalescence and sweeping of cloud droplets of
different sizes. Some meteorologist believe that atmo-
spheric turbulence causes collision of cloud droplets.
Due to collision they coalesce and grow in size. But this
theory suffers from two shortcomings
(I) collision may cause spli ng and sca er-
ing of clouds droplets rather than their
aggrega on due to coalescence, and
(ii) there is li le or o en no precipita on from
turbulent clouds.
Longmuir suggested modifica ons in the above
general coalescence theory. According to him the ter-
minal veloci es of falling drops are directly related to
their diameters. In other words, larger drops fall with
greater velocity than smaller drops. Thus, large drops
absorb smaller droplets. Smaller droplets are also
swept by larger droplets. All these lead to increase in
size of larger droplets which become raindrops which
fall as rains because they can’t be held in suspension
by rising air currents.
Since the rate of fall of these unequal par cles
is different, they collide with each other within the
cloud, and the larger drops grow at the expense of
the smaller ones. In fact, the rate of growth of falling
water droplets depends on variables like the size and
size distribu on of the drops, and their concentra on
in the cloud.
In clouds with great ver cal thickness and abun-
dant moisture, cloud droplets are repeatedly carried
upward and downward by ascending and descending
air currents. Hence these drops quickly reach the re-
quired size. According to Riehl, the following condi ons
are helpful for the growth of droplets to the required
raindrop size:
(a) Ini ally few condensa on nuclei should
be present so that there are not too
many compe ng for the available water
vapour,
(b) Size of the nuclei should cover a good
range so that different fall veloci es will
develop.
If a cloud contains only very small droplets of
uniform size, there will be colloidal stability in it and it
cannot yield precipita on. This is so because in such a
case all the droplets will descend slowly at a uniform
rate. Hence there shall exist li le chance of collision
among the drops.
Forms of Precipitation:
Precipitated moisture falling on the ground takes
various forms which depend on the following condi-
ons : (
a) the temperature at which condensa on
takes place,
(b) the condi ons encountered as the par-
cles pass through the air,
(c) the type of clouds and their heights from
the ground, and
(d) the processes genera ng precipita on.
All forms of precipita on regardless of
appearance are collec vely termed ‘hy-
drometeors’.
Rain : It is “precipita on of liquid water par cles,
either in the form of drops of more than 0.5 mm diam-
eter or in the form of smaller widely sca ered drops”
Thus, rain is precipita on of water in liquid state. The
drops of rain are generally larger than those of drizzle.
Some mes rain drops may be of drizzle size, but in that
case they are sparse and less in number. Whenever
the rain drops fall from high-al tude clouds, some of
them evaporate while passing through a layer of dry air.
On occasions, falling rain drops completely evaporate
before reaching the ground. Such streaks of rainfall are
called virgae, On the contrary, when the precipita on
process is very ac ve, the lower air is moist and the
clouds are very deep, rainfall is in the form of heavy
79
downpours. In this type of heavy rains, the raindrops
are larger and more numerous.
Drizzle : It is “fairly uniform precipita on com-
posed exclusively of fine drops of water (diameter
less than 0.5 mm), very close to one another.” The
microscopic water par cles are affected by the slightest
irregulari es in air movements. Besides being small in
size, the drops are numerous. They are formed in very
low stratus-type clouds with a high water content but
not subject to much li ing. Rela ve humidity in the in-
tervening layers of air between the cloud base and the
ground is o en nearly 100 per cent, so that the small
drops never evaporate in their journey. Drizzle is o en
associated with fog and poor visibility. In some places
drizzle is o en associated with fog and poor visibility.
In some places drizzle is called mist. If the droplets in
a drizzle completely evaporate before reaching the
ground, the condi on is referred to as mist. However,
in the Interna onal Codes for weather reports, the
term ‘mist’ is used when the hydrometeor-mist or fog-
reduces the horizontal visibility at the earth’s surface
to not less than 1 km.
Snow : It is “precipita on of white and opaque
grains of ice.” In fact, snow is precipita on of solid wa-
ter, mainly in the form of branched hexagonal crystals
or stars. Snow consists of a wide variety of crystal forms
of ice. It may fall from pure ice clouds or from such
clouds as are formed of supercooled water droplets.
Snow flakes result from gravita onal coalescence. The
Snowfall occurs when the freezing level is so close to
the ground surface (less than 300 m from the surface
) that aggrega ons of ice crystals reach the ground
without being melted in a solid form of precipita on as
snow. In winter, when temperatures are below freezing
in the whole atmosphere, the ice crystals falling from
the alto-stratus do not melt and reach the ground as
snow. Heaviest snowfall is reported to occur when the
temperature of air from which snow is falling is not
much below 0°C, because under such a condi on the
moisture content is fairly high. The most interes ng
feature of the shape and size of snow flakes is that they
reflect the processes by which they were formed.
Sleet : In English-speaking countries outside the
United States, sleet refers to precipita on in the form
of a mixture of rain and snow. But in American termi-
nology, sleet means a form of precipita on consis ng
of small pellets of transparent or translucent ice, 5 mm
or less in diameter. Thus, in America, the term ‘sleet’
refer to a frozen rain, which forms when rain, while
falling to the earth, passes through a layer or cold air
and freezes. These ice pellets rebound when they strike
the hard surfaces. Sleet is commonly associated with
showery condi ons in unstable air, and is formed when
ice par cles and supercooled water droplets are found
in close proximity. Some mes sleet may grow into
hailstorms when violent ver cal currents are produced
in the atmosphere.
Hail : It is “precipita on of small balls or pieces
of ice (hailstones) with a diameter ranging from 5 to
50 mm or some mes more, falling either separately
or agglomerated into irregular lumps.” Hail is the
most dreaded and destruc ve form of precipita on
produced in violent thunderstorms or cumulonimbus
clouds. Structure of a hailstone resembles that of an
onion. The hailstones consist of concentric layers of ice
alterna ng with layers of snow. The very structure of a
hailstone is an indica on of the complex process of its
forma on. The strong updra s of air in cumulonimbus
clouds carry rain drops to great heights where they get
frozen into ice crystals. These frozen raindrops have
to fall down through the layers of cloud to be carried
up again. While falling through the supercooled cloud
droplets, the frozen drops get a coa ng of ice. Since
these pellets are li ed up into the layer of cold air and
then dropped again and again, hailstones have concen-
tric layers of ice. They may also grow to sufficient size
by a single descent through an updra . The onion-like
structure is due to varia ons in the rate at which su-
percooled droplets accumulate and freeze. Thus, the
ul mate size of a hailstone depends upon (a) strength
of the updra s, (b) concentra on of supercooled water,
and (c) total length of its path through cloud.
As regards size, hailstones are usually of pea size
or even smaller, but in rare cases they a ain the size of
a baseball. Hailstones can have various kinds of shapes.
They have been found to be conical, ellipsoidal, or
amorphous. In each and every hailstone some parts
are made up of clear ice, while other parts are milky
ice. The opaqueness is due to the trapped air bubbles.
Large hailstones are characterized by alterna ng layers
of clear and opaque ice.
Even though hail is closely associated with
thunderstorms, the regions where maximum number
of hailstorms occur do not coincide with regions of
maximum thunderstorm ac vity. For example, thun-
derstorms occur most frequently in the southern
states of the United States, but the greatest number of
hailstorms occur in the Western Great Plains and over
the Great Basin area.
80
 Hail storms seldom occur in the tropics and in
the higher la tudes. Oceans are also almost free from
them. In both the hemispheres, areas lying between 30°
and 60° north and south la tudes have the maximum
number of these storms. Oceans are almost free from
strong ver cal convec ve ac vity, hence the absence of
hail storms there. Similarly, in polar regions too, there is
li le convec ve ac vity. In India, the period from March
to May offers the ideal condi ons for hail storms. In
mid-la tude spring and early summer are the periods
when maximum number of hailstorms occur.
The destruc ve effects of hail storms are well
known. Standing crops in the field can be devastated in
just a few minutes by severe hail storms which means
tremendous economic loss to the farmers. Besides, hail
is a definite hazard to flying because it causes dam-
age to aircra s. The most unfortunate aspect of the
hailstorm phenomena is that they are very difficult to
forecast, par cularly the me and place of their occur-
rence. All that can be done is to indicate that condi ons
are favourable for hail in a general area.
Types Of Precipitation
All precipita on occurs from clouds, and one of
the prerequisite of cloud forma on is the adiaba c
cooling resul ng from the upward movement of air.
Therefore precipita on is classified on the basis of the
condi ons under which large masses of moist air are
actually induced to rise to higher eleva ons. There are
three possible ways in which an air mass may be forced
to rise, and each of these produces its own characteris-
c type of precipita on. Thus, the following three types
of precipita on are based on the types of ascent and
the precipita on characteris cs :-
(1) Convec onal precipita on
(2) Orographic precipita on
(3) Cyclonic or Frontal precipita on
(1) Convec onal precipita on: In this type
of precipita on, the actua ng force is the thermal
convec on of warm and moist air masses. Therefore
in order to cause precipita on two condi ons are
necessary :
(1) the intense hea ng of the surface so as
to expand and raise the lower layer of the
atmosphere, and
(2) abundant supply of moisture in the air to
provide it with a high rela ve humidity.
Solar radia on is the main source of heat
to produce convec on currents in the air.
Since Convectional precipitation is a warm
weather phenomenon, it is generally accompanied
by thunder, lightning and local winds. Convec onal
precipita on is en rely in the form of rain. There may
be occasional hail associated with this type of precipi-
ta on.
Convec onal rainfall is a warm weather phenom-
ena and generally occurs in equatorial region of low
la tudes where daily hea ng of ground surface upto
noon cuses convec on currents. Under favourable
condi ons it can also occur in the low-la tudes and in
the temperate zones in summer. The doldrums invari-
ably gets this type of precipita on. In this belt of calms
lying between the north and south trade winds, the
mid-day witnesses the forma on of clouds, followed in
the a ernoon or evening by the occurrence of showery
rainfall. The clouds dissolve away late in the night, and
the morning sky is clear. According to W.M. Davis, the
large amount of equatorial precipita on is due not only
to the ac vity of the convec onal processes on which
it depends, but also and largely to the rapid decrease
of the capacity for water vapour when air cools at high
temperatures prevailing round the equator.
Since convec onal precipita on is largely due to
the hea ng of the earth’s surface, the most favourable
condi ons for its occurrence are always found in the
summer months and in the warmer parts of the day.
Though intense hea ng of land surfaces is of great im-
portance, it should not be taken to be the only factor.
Ver cal air currents and turbulence as well as surface
obstruc ons such as hills, mountains, etc. may provide
the ini al upward push for the air that already tends to
be unstable. This type of precipita on is of a very short
dura on and consists of heavy showers.
81
 Convec ve precipita on and its effect: In to rise and thereby cooled. The moisture, therefore, is
equatorial region there is daily rainfall because of this
even if much of the rainfall becomes surface runoff
and is drained off in the form of overland flow to the
streams but s ll there is sufficient moisture in the soils.
So, convec ve rainfall supports luxurious rainforests
in the equatorial regions. Outside equatorial regions
convec ve rainfall is of li le significance to crop growth
because most of the water is drained to the streams
through surface runoff which causes severe rill and
gully erosion resul ng in to enormous loss of loose sils.
But in case of temperate regions it is not in the form of
heavy showers rather it is slow and of longer dura on
so that most of the rainwater infiltrates into the soil. In
case of hot deserts it is regular and sudden.
(2) Orographic precipita on : When moun-
tains or highlands ac ng as barriers to the flow of air
force it to rise, the air cools adiaba cally and clouds
and precipita on may result. This precipita on thus
obtained is referred to as orographic (from Greek : oros
= a mountain). This type of precipita on is commonly
occur on the windward sides of mountain ranges lying
across the path of prevailing terrestrial winds where
those winds pass from the rela vely warmer ocean to
the land. A er striking the high land, the air is forced
condensed and precipitated as rain or snow. However,
the process of orographic precipita on is not that
simple .
Once the air has been ini ally pushed upward
and condensa on starts, the stage has been set for the
origin of convec on currents. Beyond the condensa-
on level, the latent heat of condensa on reduces the
adiaba c lapse rate and the ascending air becomes
unstable and con nues its ascent un l its temperature
equals that of the surrounding air. The mountain bar-
riers produce only the trigger effect.
Orographic precipita on occurs far inland also
where the elevated land masses rise above the sur-
rounding country in the path of moisture-bearing air
masses. It usually takes the form of either rain or snow.
Wherever the mountain ranges obstruct the path of
moisture-bearing winds and force them to ascend, the
maximum precipita on always occurs on the windward
slope. On the other side of these physical barriers, the
amount of precipita on abruptly decreases. Thus, on
the leeward slopes of these mountain ranges, there
always exists a rela vely dry area, which is known as
the rain shadow zone.
82
 There are many extensive regions that are found
in rain shadows. The cause of these rain shadows
may easily be found out. The moist air ascends on the
windward side and its moisture is precipitated, but on
crossing the peak of the range, no li ing occurs. Hence
there is only a li le rainfall, residual of the previous
condensa on. Another reason for the existence of rain-
shadow areas is that the descending wind is heated
by compression and becomes more unfavourable for
precipita on. In India the south-west monsoon gives
copious rainfall on the windward slope of the Western
Ghats, whereas on the leeward side there are extensive
rain shadow areas.
Another salient feature of orographic precipita-
on is the inversion of rainfall. An air stream approach-
ing the mountain ranges is given an upli by the air
masses lying close to them. Therefore the amount of
precipita on starts increasing some distance away from
the mountains. There is a con nuous increase in pre-
cipita on on the windward slope or onward slope upto
a certain height beyond which it starts diminishing.
This happens when height of the mountains exceeds
the inversion layer so region of the mountain above
this height is not accessible for cloud this makes even
upper region of windward slope dry. This is called the
‘inversion of rainfall.
In mountainous regions, precipitation is not
en rely due to the direct effect of upli , but there are
indirect effects as well. In day me, there are convec-
onal currents set up in the air because of the hea ng
of mountain slopes and valleys. Besides, the belt of
heaviest precipita on is determined by the la tude,
season and exposure. In the Himalayan ranges the
eleva on at which maximum condensa on takes place
is es mated to be about 1200 meters. Because of their
loca on in the higher la tudes, the maximum conden-
sa on in the Alps occurs at about 2000 meters. It may
also be noted that the effect of orographic upli is felt
some distance away from the physical barrier, such as
a mountain range or a steep escarpment of a plateau.
This is so because the mass of stagnant air in front of
the barrier has a blocking effect, and the rain-bearing
wind has to ascend the wind block.
CONDITIONS FOR THE OROGRAPHHIC RAINFALL
(i) There should be mountain barrier across
the wind direc on, so that the moist air is
forced nobstruc on to move upward. If the
mountain barriers are parallel to the wind
direc on, the air is not obstructed and
no rainfall occurs. For example, Aravalis
ranges running in southwest-northeast
direc on are parallel to the Arabian sea
Branch of south-west Indain monsoon
and hence Rajasthan receives very less
rainfall.
(ii) If the mountains are very close and parallel
to the sea coast they offer ideal condi on
for precipita on.
(iii) Height of mountain also affect the rainfall,
If the mountains are very close to the
coast even low height may be sufficient
but for inland mountains more height is
required.
Characterisics:
83
 (i) The windward slope,receives maximum
rainfall . For example, Mangalore situated
in the windward side receives annual rain-
fall of around 2000mm while Bangalore on
the leeward side receives only 500mm.
(ii) There is maximjum rainfall near the moun-
tain slopes and it decreases away from
the foothills. For example, the ci es and
towns located at the southern slopes of
the Himalayas receive more rainfall e.g.
Simla 1520mm, Nainital 2000mm, and
Darzeeling 3150mm whereas the places
(v) Orographic rainfall may occur in any sea-
son. Unlike other rainfall it is more wide-
spread and of long dura on.
(vi) It should be kept in mind that orographic
rainfall is not induced only by the li ing of
moist air due to mountain barrier but con-
vec ve and cyclonic mechanisms also help
in the process of orographic rainfall. For ex-
ample, in warm regions valleys are heated
during day me and hence winds are also
heated and ascend along the hillslopes in
the form of convec on currents and yield
rainfall a er being saturated. Some mes
forward moving cyclones are also forced to
ascend along the hillslope due to obstruc-
ons offered by mountain barriers.
(4) Cyclonic or frontal precipita on : Cy-
clonic or frontal precipita on occurs when deep and
extensive moist air masses converge and move upward
resul ng into adiaba c cooling. Whenever there is li -
away from from the Himalayan region
receive rela vely low rainfall e.g Patna
1000mm, Allahabad 1050mm and Delhi
650mm.
(iii) If the mountains are of moderate height,
the maximum rainfall does not occur at
their tops rather it occurs on the other
side.
(iv) The windward slopes of the mountains at
the me of rainfall are characterized by
cumulus clouds while leeward slopes have
stratus clouds.
ing of the air masses with en rely different physical
proper es, the atmosphere becomes unstable. When
this happens, the stage for large-scale condensa on
and precipita on has been set. If an addi onal process
is in opera on so that the rain drops of the required
size are formed, the precipita on results. There is two
types of cyclonic precipita on based on two different
mechanisms.
Cyclonic precipitaƟon in tropical regions.
When currents of air with differing temperature and
moisture content meet at an angle, the warm and moist
air will be forced to rise over the heavier air (which al-
ways remains in the lower posi on). In addi on, when
air masses from different direc ons converge toward
a centre, as is always the case in cyclonic circula on,
some of the air is forced up. In both these cases of
convergence, cloudiness and precipita on result.
In tropical regions, where there is no marked con-
trast in the temperature and humidity of the converging
air masses, the li ing is almost ver cal and is gener-
ally accompanied by convec on. In such a condi on,
84
convergence provides the ini al impetus to the upward
movement of convec vely unstable air masses and
causes cumulo-nimbus clouds and heavy showers.
Frontal precipitaƟon in temperate re-
gions. In temperate regions, the zones of contact
between rela vely warm and cold air masses are known
as fronts. Frontal precipita on occurs when the warm
and moist air gradually rises above the front created
by contact with the wedge of cold air. In stable air
convergence is generally a ended by stra form clouds
providing a gray overcast sky and steady long-con nued
precipita on. However, the principal cause of frontal
precipita on is the mixing of air along the fronts .
Frontal precipita on along the warm fronts is
usually in the form of drizzle. Another characteris c of
this type of precipita on is that it is widespread and
of long dura on. When associated with cold fronts, it
is always in the form of thunder-showers and is of a
very short dura on. Some em i may also occur in
the form of snowfall and hailstorm. This is because of
the fact that li ing of warm air along cold front occurs
rapidly with great force.
In Europe and North America, most of the winter
precipita on is frontal in origin. Winter precipita on
in the northern part of India is a typical example of
cyclonic precipita on.
Distribution Of Precipitation
The world pa ern of the distribu on of precipita-
on is undoubtedly complex. La tude, temperature,
available moisture, atmospheric disturbances, land-
form barriers, frontal ac vity, air mass movement, and
differen al hea ng are some of the factors involved in
causing precipita on. Before analysing the world distri-
bu on of mean annual precipita on, a brief discussion
of the principal factors affec ng the distribu on of
precipita on is necessary.
Factors Controlling Distribution
LaƟtude. La tudinal belts of atmospheric con-
vergence and divergence exercise maximum control
over the distribu on of precipita on. As noted earlier,
adiaba c cooling of air masses is the most important
causa ve factor of precipita on and condensa on.
Upward movement of air is possible in the zones of con-
vergence of air streams. That is why the convergence
zones are the belts of maximum precipita on. On the
contrary, in la tudes where subsidence and divergence
are pronounced, areas of minimum precipita on are
found. Since there are other factors besides horizontal
convergence which force the air masses to rise, the
zonal arrangement of the distribu on of precipita on
is disturbed. These addi onal factors include convec-
on, land form barriers, etc. Since the equatorial belt
of calm or the doldrums represents the convergence
zone of north and south trade winds, the la tudinal
belt of maximum precipita on is found near the equa-
tor. Along with the seasonal shi ing of doldrums, the
trade wind convergence zone moves north or south
of the equator.
In the subtropical high pressure belts, there is
subsidence of air which gives rise to an cyclonic con-
di ons on the surface of the earth. This is, therefore,
the zone of minimum rainfall. In these la tudes, the
atmospheric stability does not encourage the cloud
forma on, so that there is no precipita on.
From the subtropical high pressure belt poleward
there are belts of westerlies in both the hemispheres.
In these belts the cold polar winds meet the warm
moist tropical air masses along the polar fronts. These
fronts witness the forma on of a number of cyclones
and an cyclones. Annual average precipita on in the
mid-la tude convergence zone varies from 100 to 125
cen meters. In the belt of polar easterlies, because of
subsidence there is much less precipita on. Moreover,
low temperature diminishes the moisture holding capa-
city of air which also accounts for the lesser amount
of precipita on. From 75° north and south la tudes
poleward the mean annual precipita on decreases to
about 25 cen meters.
ConƟnents and oceans. The distribu on of
land and water imposes an important influence upon
precipita on in the middle and high la tudes. Though
situated in the same la tudes, the con nents receive
less precipita on than the oceans, for the con nental
air masses are drier than the mari me air masses.
Though 71 per cent of the earth’s surface is water and
only 29 per cent land, it has been es mated that 19
per cent of the earth’s total annual precipita on falls
on land surfaces and the remaining 81 percent on the
oceans.
Interior loca ons on the con nents, being far
away from the source of oceanic moisture, receive
rela vely less precipita on than coastal areas.
The coastal areas which lie directly in the path of
moisture- laden on-shore winds naturally get greater
rainfall. On the other hand, such coastal areas as have
off-shore winds are deprived of the oceanic moisture
and so get scanty rainfall.
Mountain barriers. Mountain barriers force
the moisture- bearing winds to ascend, so that con-
85
densa on and precipita on occur. The precipita on
is concentrated on the windward slopes, and a rain
shadow is produced on the leeward. All over the world,
wherever the prevailing winds blowing from the oceans
to the land are blocked by mountain ranges or plateaus,
copious rainfall results on the windward slopes. Even
in tropical regions, orographic li ing is one of the main
factors for record annual rainfalls. However, upper-air
subsidence, as in tradewind inversion, is not conducive
to precipita on at high al tudes.
The summer monsoon in India produces heavy
rainfall on the southern slopes of the Himalayas. The
areas to the north of the Himalayan ranges are deprived
of precipita on. Similarly, the western slopes of the
Western Ghats receive about 200 to 250 cen meters
of precipita on from the south-west monsoon, while
the state of Karnatak and other adjoining areas being
in the rain-shadow receive only a meagre rainfall and
remain prac cally dry. The Atlas mountains of Africa,
the Andes mountain ranges along the coasts of Chile
and Argen na, the Southern Alps of New Zealand and
the mountain ranges of Western North America offer
the best examples of the effects of mountain barriers
on precipita on distribu on. The ver cal distribu on
of precipita on is also controlled by the mountains,
which has already been discussed in connec on with
orographic precipita on.
Distribution of Mean Annual
Precipitation
The average annual precipita on over the whole
earth is about 80 cen meters (30 inches), but this is
distributed very unevenly. Equatorial regions and the
monsoon areas of Southeast Asia record the highest
rainfall. Temperate regions, on the other hand, receive
moderate amounts of precipita on. The dry regions of
subtropical high pressure belt and polar regions receive
li le precipita on.
If the earth’s surface were perfectly uniform, the
mean annual rainfall would be distributed in dis nct
la tudinal zones. But the pa ern of global circula on
of wind, the distribu on of land and water, and the
mountains make the distribu on pa ern of precipita-
on a li le more complicated. In subtropical regions,
the trade winds blowing from across the warm tropical
oceans bring abundant precipita on to the east coasts
of the con nents. On the contrary, the west coasts re-
main prac cally dry. In high la tudes, the west coasts
get more precipita on than the east coasts. But even
in these la tudes, precipita on tends to be high on
the windward slopes of mountain ranges and low on
the leeward slopes.
Equatorial and desert regions : The equato-
rial zone is generally an area of abundant precipita-
on (over 200 cen meters annually). This high level
of precipita on is due to the equatorial belt’s high
temperature, high humidity and highly unstable air.
The trade winds from both the hemispheres converge
and give rise to a general upward mo on of air. The
ascending air currents become intensified locally in the
tropical storms that produce abundant precipita on in
the Caribbean, the southwest Pacific Ocean, the Indian
Ocean and the China Sea. Over the land areas, most of
the precipita on occurs from the thunderstorms that
are very frequent and ac ve in the equatorial regions.
It is to be noted that a larger part of the precipita on
in this region falls as heavy intermi ent convec ve
showers accompanied by thunder and lightning.
During the course of a year, the doldrums is
displaced toward the summer hemisphere with the
result that outside a central region near the equator,
which gets abundant precipita on at all seasons, there
is a zone where summer is rainier than the winter. The
result is a rainy summer and a dry winter. The dry sea-
son towards the poleward side of the equatorial belt
becomes progressively longer and more severe. These
la tudinal contrasts are less prominent on the eastern
side of a con nent.
Reason for most desert found in western side of
con nent in subtropical high belt while eastern part
receive abundant rainfall:
It is in the subtropical high pressure belts that
the most notable breakdown in the zonal distribu on
of precipita on occurs. Here are found not only many
of the world’s largest hot deserts, but also the regions
of abundant rainfall. This is so because the eastern
and western parts of the semi-permanent subtropical
an cyclones have different characteris cs. Dry areas
of the subtropics, such as the desert regions of North
Africa, South Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, Australia
and Central South America owe their existence due
to these an cyclones in which the air subsides and is
adiaba cally warmed. On the eastern side of the sub-
tropical oceanic highs, subsidence is more pronounced
and a strong inversion exists very near the surface
which results in atmospheric stability.
Besides, the upwelling of cold water along the
west coasts of the con nents cools the air from be-
low and increases the stability on the eastern sides of
86
these an cyclones. Since these an cyclones are found
on the eastern side of an ocean, the western sides
of the con nents in the vicinity of these subtropical
Facts regarding Rainfall distribu on:
highs tend to become very arid. The Sahara Desert
(North Africa), the Atacama (South America), and
the Great Desert (Australia) are typical examples. On
the contrary, the eastern regions of the con nents in
the sub-tropical high pressure belt receive abundant
precipita on throughout the year. The reason is simple
; on the western side of these subtropical an cyclones,
subsidence is not so marked as on the eastern side, and
the convergence with associated ascending air is more
pronounced. In addi on to the above, the trade winds
blowing over a vast expanse of warm water pick up
more moisture from the ocean surface and this makes
them more unstable. The interiors of con nents in the
subtropics which are sheltered by mountain ranges are
also very dry.
Middle and high la tudes : In middle la tudes,
the weather and precipita on are largely controlled by
travelling extra- tropical cyclones and fronts. These give
plenty of rain in all seasons and in most places except
for the regions located in the far interiors of the Asian
and North American con nents. Generally summer is
the season of more abundant rainfall, but on the west
coasts of North America, Europe and North Africa, pre-
cipita on is higher during the winter. The midla tudes
receive a larger part of precipita on from the travelling
depressions. Since this region is the site of the polar
front, there is convergence of cold polar air and the
warm and moist westerlies. It is along the polar front
that temperate cyclones o en form. However, because
of the seasonal migra on
of wind belts, a narrow belt between 30 and
40 degree la tudes experiences a marked seasonal
variability in precipita on. During winter, this nar-
row zone is visited by a number of depressions as the
polar front moves equatorward, and these moving
depressions produce frontal precipita on. But during
summer, this belt is marked by subsiding air associated
with subtropical an cyclones and, hence, there is li le
precipita on .
At high la tudes and especially in the polar re-
gions the low precipita on is due partly to the subsid-
ence of air in the high pressure belts and partly to the
low temperatures of the air which holds li le moisture.
Throughout the year there is only meagre precipita on
in this region. Even in the summer, these snowbound
areas are dominated by the an cyclonic condi ons that
block the movement of poleward travelling depressions
that are few in number.
Zonal Distribution of Mean Annual
Precipitation
(1) Maximum precipita on occurs in a belt
about 10 to 20 degrees wide near the
equator. The average precipitation is
about 160 cen meters.
(2) At la tudes about 20 to 30° North and
South are found the belts of lower precipi-
ta on. The mean annual precipita on is
about 80 to 90 cen meters. In this belt of
subtropical an cyclones, the air subsides
and so it becomes warm and dry.
(3) In la tude zones extending from 40 to 55°
North and South the mean annual precipi-
ta on varies from 80 to 120 cen meters.
This is the secondary belt of maximum
precipita on in both the hemispheres. In
this belt mostly cyclonic ac vity accounts
for the heavy amount of precipita on.
(4) There is an abrupt diminution in the
amount of precipita on in both the hemi-
spheres from about 50 to 55° la tudes
reaching the primary zonal minima of less
than 15 cen meters in the polar regions.
(5) Total annual precipita on is the same
for both the hemispheres. However, there
are certain disimilari es in the zonal dis-
tribu on of precipita on in the northern
and southern hemispheres : (a) La tudes
0 to 10° North have more precipita on
than la tudes 0 to 10°S. This is because
of the fact that intertropical convergence
is more extensive in the north than in
the south of the equator. Besides, for a
greater part of the year, the ITC is located
to the north of the equator, (b) the belt
extending from 40 to 60° South la tude
receives much greater precipita on than
the corresponding belt in the northern
hemisphere. This is because of the larger
propor on of ocean in this la tudinal belt
in the southern hemisphere.
(6) Despite the preponderance of land
masses in the northern hemisphere,the
average annual precipita on for both the
hemispheres remains the same. Almost
50 per cent of the total precipita on falls
between 20° N and 20° S la tudes. In this
extensive belt the propor on of land in
87
 both the hemispheres is the same.
Seasonal Variation of Precipitation
or Rainfall Regime
Besides the mean annual precipita on, its sea-
sonal varia on is important for classifying the climate
of a par cular region. There are certain areas in the
equatorial regions where rainfall is heavy and occurs
throughout the year, and other areas within the tropics
with alternate wet and dry seasons. In the temperate
regions, the west coasts of the con nents receive
most of the their precipitation in winter, and the
summer is mainly dry. The interiors of the con nents
have a summer maximum of precipita on in the form
of thundershowers, but their winters are almost dry.
The eastern coasts of the con nents get a fairly even
distribu on of rainfall throughout the year with the
maximum usually in summer.
Seasonal varia on of precipita on is referred to
as precipitaƟon regime in climatological terminology.
There are six major precipita on regimes which are
described here briefly :
(1) Equatorial regime: This regime has two
precipita on maxima a er the vernal and
autumnal equinoxes. On the other hand,
there are two precipita on minima a er
the winter and summer sols ces. Equato-
rial rains are caused by the convergence
of trade winds in the doldrums which fol-
low the sun in its yearly shi on both the
sides of the equator. Therefore the zone
of maximum precipita on follows the sun
also. Besides, the maximum amount of
insola on is received from the sun at the
me of sols ce, which gives rise to strong
vertical convectional currents. These
currents contribute substan ally to the
equatorial rains.
This precipita on regime is found between
10° north and south of the equator. As the
distance from the equator increases, the
two precipita on maxima come closer and
ul mately at the extreme limit of this belt,
there is only one precipita on maximum.
Seasonal wind changes also play an impor-
tant role in this precipita on regime.
(2) Tropical regime: This precipita on re-
gime has only one rainfall maximum.
The maximum amount of precipita on is
recorded just a er the summer sols ce
in each hemisphere. At this time the
doldrums is located closest to the belt of
maximum insola on. This results in the
greatest convective activity and heavy
precipita on. In winter, when the sun is on
the opposite side of the equator, the dol-
drums moves far away. At this me, under
the influence of subtropical high- pressure
belt, the amount of precipita on recorded
is the least. In excep onal cases, there
may be areas where the mountain barriers
force the on-shore trade winds to rise and
produce heavy rainfall on their windward
sides. Since trade winds are stronger in
winter than in summer, such areas have
the maximum precipita on in the low-sun
period. Such areas lack dry season.
(3) Monsoon regime: The seasonal varia-
tion of precipitation in the monsoon
regions is more dis nct than anywhere
else. The moisture- laden prevailing winds
from the warm oceans produce the sum-
mer maximum of preci pita on. On the
contrary, in winter the cool and dry off
shore winds that are con nental in origin
give li le or no precipita on. In the nor
thern hemisphere, the rains fall from June
to September in India and along the east
coast of China and the South east Asia.
The distribu on of precipita on in the
monsoon region is largely controlled by
the mountain barriers .
(4) Mediterranean (subtropical) regime:
Because of the seasonal shi ing of the
permanent wind belts, the polar margins
of subtropical belts come under the influ-
ence of the prevailing westerlies in winter
and trade winds during summer. Therefore
this regime has winter precipita on. Sum-
mer is the dry season. However, owing to
the monsoon effect, the east coasts of the
con nents do not have this type of regime.
There summer is the wet season.
(5) ConƟnental regime: It has precipita on
in summer when the convec ve ac vity
due to surface hea ng is at its maximum.
This regime is found in the interior of the
con nents. In winter, the an cyclonic con-
di ons do not favour the release of pre-
cipita on. Another important factor is the
low temperature of the air which reduces
the air’s capacity to hold more moisture.
88
 The maximum of precipita on occurs in
the high sun period and the minimum in
winter. However, the dry period during
winter is not so pronounced over the con-
nental interiors in middle la tudes as in
the monsoon regions. Winter gets a li le
precipita on from the travelling depres-
sions.
(6) Maritime regime: Since winter is the
period of maximum cyclonic ac vity, the
temperate regions record the winter maxi-
mum of precipita on over the oceans and
the adjoining coastal regions. In winter, the
contrast between the temperature and
moisture content of different air masses is
greatest, therefore, the maximum number
of cyclones develop along the polar fronts.
Since the mari me air masses have higher
temperature and moisture content during
late autumn than the midwinter, so the au-
tumn is rainier than the winter. This type of
precipita on regime is found in the most
developed form along the west coasts of
the temperate zone. The east coasts in
the same la tudes get a larger propor on
of precipita on in summer. Prevailing
westerlies are the primary control of
mari me precipita on regime.
The above account of the seasonal distribu on
of precipita on presents an oversimplified and gen-
eralized picture. In fact, each precipita on type is lo-
cally modified in various ways and because of various
clima c factors.
Diurnal Variation of Precipitation
Even though the seasonal distribu on of pre-
cipita on is an important a ribute of the climate of
a region, its diurnal varia on is no less important a
clima c feature. It affects communica on, controls the
weather condi ons and many other outdoor ac vi es.
The diurnal cycle of precipita on influences the pre-
cipita on effec veness in agriculture, because a large
part of the rainfall during the warmer part of the day
is lost through the process of evapora on.
Two main types of diurnal varia on of precipita-
on can be recognised :
(a) con nental or inland type, and
(b) mari me or coastal type.
Like the annual varia on of precipita on, all sorts
of departures from these two types are observed.
There are many local factors, such as the form of coast-
line, the topography of coastal areas, the presence of
rivers, lakes and irrigated fields, etc. which influence
the diurnal cycle of precipita on.
The con nental type has its maximum of pre-
cipita on during the late morning or a ernoon. In this
type topography is the main cause of local differences
in diurnal varia on. The maximum amount of pre-
cipita on falling in the a ernoon is mainly due to the
convec ve ac vity which over land areas is strongest
in the early a ernoon. Thus, there is a tendency to
produce a precipita on maximum about the warmer
part of day. Since convec on is more vigorous during
summer than during winter, some inland loca ons have
mari me diurnal regime in winter and con nental re-
gime in summer. In the tropics, because of the intensity
of solar radia on and the greatest convec ve ac vity,
there occurs the most pronounced a ernoon maxima
of precipita on.
Convec onal showers over some areas are pro-
duced much earlier than over others. This is due to
the varia ons in slope and exposure to the prevailing
or local winds. Drainage condi ons, moisture of soil,
colour of the surface or types of vegeta on may also
cause varia ons in the diurnal precipita on regime.
That is why most of the inland sta ons have a dis nct
precipita on minimum in the morning and a maximum
in the a ernoon.
The maritime or coastal type shows a maxi-
mum of precipita on during the night or in the early
hours of morning. This type of varia on is caused by
nocturnal convec on. This is because of a steepened
lapse rate. During night, the upper troposphere cools
off by radia on losses, mainly from cloud tops, while
the surface layers of atmosphere lying in close contact
with the water surface remain warm. Thus, the ver -
cal temperature gradient is greater at night. On the
other hand, during day the lower layers of atmosphere
are warmed up by directly absorbing the solar radia-
on, while the water surface is heated slowly. Thus,
atmospheric stability is created at low levels which is
opposed to precipita on. As a result of this, convec ve
ac vity over the ocean is greater at night than during
the day.
However, the two types of diurnal precipita on
regime are seldom found in ideal form except only at a
few sta ons. Local factors strongly modify the diurnal
precipita on distribu on.
89
 Precipitation Variability
The reliability or dependability of precipita on is
closely related to its variability. The variability is defined
as the ra o of the mean of devia ons from the mean
(averaged without regard to sign) to the mean itself.
According to Trewartha “variability may be defined as
the devia on from the mean computed for 35 years
or more of observa ons”. A low ra o indicates a high
degree of dependability, and a high ra o indicates an
erra c behaviour.
Thus, variability of precipita on indicates the de-
via on of mean annual precipita on of a certain area
from its average amount calculated for a long period of
me. The average amount of precipita on in a certain
area or region differs from year to year, and it invari-
ably differs from its long- term mean. This difference
is called the variability of precipita on.
For various regions of the world, we find signi-
ficant varia ons in the amount of precipita on, re-
ceived both in a par cular year and between different
years. We have noted earlier in this chapter that in the
Mediterranean regions, there is more precipita on
during the low sun period than during the high sun
period. Similarly, areas lying between 10° and 20° la -
tude get more precipita on in summer than in winter.
Drier a place is on the average, the greater will be the
staƟsƟcal variability in its precipitaƟon. In dry areas,
there may be a year with very high amount of rainfall,
but for several years the amount of precipita on may
be much below the average.
The variability of precipitation is significant
in those semi-arid regions where the total annual
amounts of precipita on in normal years are just suf-
ficient for agricultural pursuits. In such areas of mar-
ginal rainfall, a slight decrease in the annual totals may
prove disastrous. While preparing plans for agricultural
development, this crucial aspect of the distribuƟon of
precipitaƟon merits special aƩenƟon.
Intensity of precipitation
Intensity of precipita on is yet another important
aspect of the total amount of precipita on, which
equally affects the farming opera ons. The intensity of
precipita on can be measured by the number of rainy
days (days on which 0.01 inch or more of precipita on
falls). For example, the mean annual precipita on of
65 cen meters in London is received in 164 days. This
indicates that the intensity of precipita on at that
locality is less. Cherrapunji (Mausinram), on the other
hand, receives its total precipita on of about 1100
cen meters in just 152 days-a fact which indicates
higher intensity.
Artificial Precipitation
Ar ficial precipita on does not mean precipita-
on from ar ficially created clouds. Science has not
developed to that state when it may be possible to
create ar ficial rain giving clouds at the desired me
and place. As a ma er of fact, ar ficial precipita on is a
process whereby precipita on is procured by ar ficially
satura ng a special type of cloud. Ar ficial precipita on
is, therefore, also called the ar ficial ‘seeding’ of the
clouds. It may also be referred to as ar ficial ‘modifica-
on’ of clouds.
Clouds consist of ny droplets of water which are
generally so light in weight and small in size that they
are withheld by the updra s of air in the atmosphere.
Such microscopically small cloud-droplets are not ca-
pable of falling on the surface of the earth. But when
these cloud par cles by various processes coalesce and
grow larger in size, they start falling on the ground in
the form of precipita on. Therefore ar ficial precipita-
on involves the joining together of microscopic cloud
par cles so that they may grow in size and ul mately
fall to the ground by their own weight.
TECHNIQUES OF CLOUD
SEEDING
Drooping dry ice on cloud. Many a me the dry-
ice technique succeeded in releasing precipita on from
certain special types of clouds.
Soon after the above discovery, B. Vonnegut
(1949), another American scien st, found out another
technique of ar ficial precipita on. His notable discov-
ery was that at temperatures below -5° Celsius silver
iodide could also be used for cloud seeding. The fine
powder of silver iodide acts as nuclei which produce ice
crystals. Silver iodide smoke is introduced into suitable
clouds by aeroplanes or by the use of explosive rockets
or balloons. Even from a series of burners placed on
the ground a con nuous silver iodide smoke screen can
be sent up to the clouds for their seeding. The special
characteris c of silver iodide is that when it is heated
to a very high temperature, it converts into vapour.
A er cooling the vapour produces ny crystals of 0.01
to 0.01 micron diameter. When such crystals are intro-
duced into the supercooled clouds, the en re cloud
is immediately converted into ice-clouds. Acetone, a
highly inflammable chemical is used for burning the
silver iodide solu on. However, it is to be noted that
90
its use for ar ficial precipita on is effec ve only in
such clouds as have poten al-li es for precipita on
in natural way.
Another technique of inducing ar ficial precipita-
on is based on Bowen’s Coalescence Theory, his pro-
cess relies upon Ludlam’s (1951) Double Sweep Theory,
and is applicable to warm clouds. By this method water
droplets of about 50 micron diameter are sprayed into
the lower layers of deep clouds so that they may grow
by sweeping up microscopic cloud par cles during their
upward and downward movements.
S ll another technique for ge ng the release
of precipita on from non-precipita ng clouds is the
injecƟon of finely ground salt. These par cles act as hy-
groscopic nuclei. Since these nuclei are always present
in adequate number, this technique simply a empts
to increase the propor on of large nuclei to s mulate
raindrop produc on in a cloud.
To summarize, the process of ar ficial rainmaking
through cloud seeding consists of introducing ar ficial
nuclea on agents into supercooled clouds. Whatever
the ul mate success with the above men oned tech-
niques, there are two fundamental considera ons
which must not be lost sight of:
(1) The clouds of great vertical extent must
pre-exist before any rainmaking device is applied to
them.
(2) According to Best and Mason, cloud seeding
cannot unlock the reserves of water vapour in the
atmosphere, since none of the seeding techniques
contains any mechanism for renewing the cloud.
91
 FOG AND CLOUD
FOG Byer’s classifica on : The following is the modi-
fied form of Wille ’s classifica on of fog:
Fog is defined as special type of thin cloud consist-
ing of microscopically small water droplets which are (A) Air-mass fogs :
kept in suspension in the air near the ground surface (1) Advec ve types;
and reduces horizontal visibility. Some mes a con nu- (a) Types due to the transport of warm air over
ous grada on exists from the thick fogs into low-lying a cold surface,
clouds. Byers Fog is also defined as almost microscopi-
cally small water drops suspended in air and reducing (i) Land-and Sea-breeze fog
the visibility to less than one kilometer’. For avia on (ii) Sea fog
purposes, the repor ng of fog is done only when the
visibility is less than 9km. (iii) Tropical-air fog

Fog occurs during the calm or light wind con- (b) Types due to the transport of cold air over
di ons. It is more common in the vicinity of ocean a warm surface Steam fogs (Arc c sea
where there is an abundant supply of moisture near smoke)
the earth’s surface than inland. In most locali es fog (2) Radia on types :
is more common during winter than summer. It is rela- (a) Ground fog
vely uncommon in the tropical lands.
(b) High-inversion fog
Essen al difference between clouds and Fog: (3) Advec on-radia on fog
Fog and cloud present very li le difference in respect (4) Upslope fog
of their appearance and structure, because both of
them are a visible aggregate of microscopically small (B) Frontal fogs:
water droplets floa ng in the atmosphere. The only (1) Pre-frontal (warm-front) fog
difference between them is that while the fog forms (2) Post-frontal (cold-front) fog
at or near the ground, clouds form at much higher al- (3) Front-passage fog
tudes. In fact, the essen al difference between these Trewartha’s classifica on : This classifica on is
two condensa on forms lies in the method and places mainly based on Wille ’s classifica on :—
of forma on rather than in structure and appearance.
Clouds are formed when air rises, expands and cools (A) Radiation fogs
adiaba cally. Fog, on the other hand, forms as a result (1) Ground-inversion fog
of radia on cooling or the movement of air over a cold (2) High-inversion fog
surface. Fog may also form through cooling of the air (B) Advection-radiation fog
by contact and mixing, or through satura on of the air
(1) Sea fog (warm moist air moves over colder
by increasing its water vapour content.
waters)
Classification of Fog (2) Moist tropical air-mass fog
(C) Frontal fog
Weather scien sts have given numerous classi-
fica ons of fog. Generally the following are the bases In the above classification upslope fogs have
of their classifica on : not been included. It has also not been clarified as to
which types of fog form in a single air mass and which
(1) Fog producing processes,
types occur along the fronts where two different air
(2) Atmospheric visibility, and masses meet.
(3) Appearance. Critchfield’s classification : Even though the
(1) Classification According to classifica on is also based on the physical processes
Processes leading to the origin of fogs, they have been placed in
two broad categories which indicate the evapora on
Willet classifica on fog into two major categories: and cooling processes.
(a) Air mass fog and (b)frontal fog.

92
 (1) Fogs resul ng from evapora on ;
(a) Steam fog
(b) Frontal fog
(2) Fogs resul ng from cooling :
(a) Radia on fog
(b) Advec on fog
(c) Upslope fog
(d) Mixing fog
(e) Barometric fog
George’s classifica on. George classified fog for
its prac cal applica on in weather forecas ng, though
he also had in mind the physical processes responsible
for the forma on of fog :
1. Prefrontal (warm front) fog
2. Pos rontal (cold front) fog
3. Advec on fog
4. Radia on fog
5. Radia on-advec on fog
Since this classifica on was made for the purpose
of weather-forecas ng, Different types and subtypes of
fog have not been discussed in detail. Therefore it Joes
not throw light on different fog producing processes.
1. Simplified Classification
Keeping in view the complexisi es of the above
classifica ons, an a empt has been made to classify
fog in such a way as to provide a clear understanding of
various fog producing processes. It also aims at remov-
ing confusion about types and subtypes of fog :
Air mass fog : This type of fog forms within air
masses and is not affected by the frontal ac vity. How-
ever, certain types of air mass fog may be related to
frontal ac vity. Three main types of air mass fogs may
be recognised according to the chief meteorological fog
forming processes. They are radia on fog, advec on
fog and upslope fog.
1.Radiation fog
It is also called the ground fog. It forms when calm
moist air cools near ground by nocturnal radia on.
If the air is completely calm, then instead of fog only
dew or frost is produced. A light wind is a necessary
condi on for the forma on of fog, because it produces
slight turbulence in the air near the ground. A certain
amount of mixing is necessary, which produces a thick
layer of fog. If the wind happens to be strong, it will
distribute the excess water vapour into upper warmer
layers and prevent fog forma on.
This type of fog requires long winter nights
and cloudless skies for maximum cooling of the
ground,adjacent air at night and ground inversion of
temperature. Rela ve humidity at sunset should be
high, so that even a small amount of cooling will lower
the temperature to the dew point. A light wind of 3 to
5 km per hour velocity is ideal, because it s rs the cold
air in contact with the ground and sca ers it sufficiently
so that a solid fog layer 10 to 30 m thick is produced.
Since cold air flows to the lowest point, the radia-
on fog is thickest in the low areas or valleys. As soon
as the sun comes up the horizon and has warmed the
earth’s surface, the radia on fog disappears. The fog is
then said to ‘li ’ or ‘burn off. Actually the fog par cles
consis ng of microscopic water droplets evaporate as
the temperature of the air is increased. Since a er sun-
rise the surface air warms first, so the fog evaporates
from the bo om up, giving the impression of li ing.
The remnant part of the fog may appear to be a low
white cloud layer.
It is to be noted that radia on fogs form only
over the land. On the oceans, the diurnal range of
temperature being negligible such fogs are always
absent. In the con nental interiors, when an cyclones
are formed, ideal condi ons exist for the forma on of
radia on fogs.
2.Advection fog
‘Advec on’ implies the horizontal movement of
wind. The advec on fogs form when warm, moist air
blows over a cool surface and is chilled below its dew
point. Mo on is implied in the forma on of this type
of fogs.
This type of fog may be produced by any of the
two processes given below : (a) Cold air may pass across
the warmer air prevailing over there, (b) Warm moist
air may pass over a cold surface and become chilled by
contact and by mixing with the cold air lying over the
cold surface beneath.
Horizontal contrast in temperature is the most
important factor in the forma on of advec on fog.
In summer, advec on fogs are more common over
large lakes or over the oceans because of the greater
horizontal temperature contrasts over these large
water bodies. Dense fogs near Newfoundland offer
the best example of this type. But over lands such fogs
are more common in winter, because the horizontal
temperature contrasts are greater over con nents in
this season. Such fogs form on the western sea coasts
93
in the temperate la tudes.
The necessary conditions which favour the
forma on of advec on fogs are the following : (a) A
greater contrast between the air temperature and the
temperature of the surface beneath it, (b) a moderate
wind velocity, (c) ini ally high rela ve humidity in the
air and (d) stable stra fica on in the atmosphere.
Advec on fogs are different from ground fogs,
although they are o en produced on the surface. In
advec on fogs the maximum density is found at the
top of the layer where cooling is the greatest. The dis-
sipa on of this type of fog is a slow process.
There are three sub-types of advec on fogs :
i) sea fog
ii) tropical air fog, and steam fog.
A brief discussion of these sub-types follows :
i) Sea fog is formed by the cooling of sea air
over a cold current. Sea fog is not confined to
coastal areas only, but can occur anywhere
over the ocean where there is contrast in
water temperatures. The difference between
water tempera ture and air temperature
determines the thickness and height of the sea
fog. Since most of the cold currents are found
near the coasts, sea fogs are fully developed
in the coastal areas. Light wind is necessary
for this type of fog as well.
When the wind velocities are high, the
mechanical turbulence transfers heat towards
the ground and the inversion is diminished.
Under such condi ons, a stratus cloud instead
of fog is formed at the ground.
Fogs of the Grand Banks off Newfoundland are
the typical example of sea fog. They originate
because here the warm Gulf Stream comes
into contact with the cold Labrador current.
There is a great contrast in the temperatures
of these currents and those of the overlying air
masses associated with them. The Grand Bank
region is covered with thick fog throughout
the year, the fog frequency being greater in
winter than in summer.
ii) Tropical-air fogs are different from sea fogs,
because here the cooling is produced by the
passage of air from low la tudes poleward
over the oceans. Such fogs are generally found
over the open seas in their poleward parts.
The advancing tropical air may produce this
type of fog over land also in winter. This is so
because the la tudinal temperature gradient
is greater over the con nents than over the
oceans. Because of the roughness of land
surface and greater atmospheric turbulence
produced over there, the forma on of surface
fog is rather difficult. On the contrary, rela vely
stronger winds over the oceans favour the fog
forma on. The tropical-air fogs, therefore, are
more common over the oceans.
iii) Steam fogs have the appearance of steam.
They are produced by evapora on from a
warm water surface into the cool air above.
This type of fog is also called evapora on
fog. When cool air moves over warm water
surface, a large quantity of moisture may
evaporate from the water surface to saturate
the overlying air. The rising water vapour,
after meeting the cold air, condenses and
rises with the air that is being warmed from
below. It commonly occurs over water bodies,
large or small, in the fall and early winter
when the water may s ll be warm and the
air is ge ng cold. Generally steam fogs are
very shallow. They may be 15 to 30 meters
thick. The shallowness of fog is due to the fact
that the rising steam gets evaporated in the
unsaturated air above.
ArcƟc sea-smoke is the name used to indicate a
dense and o en extensive steam fog that occurs over
the high la tude ocean areas in winter. This type of fog
is quite common in the Arc c region, specially where
both ice and open water are present. In such areas, the
air moving from the con nents into the open ocean
may be 20°C to 30° colder than water. Intense steam-
ing from the water surface saturates a large volume of
water. The fog thus produced may be dense.
3.Upslope fog
This type of fog is produced because of the cool-
ing of air by adiaba c expansion as it flows up the slope.
This is one of the few kinds of fog that becomes more
dense, or is maintained in the presence of rela vely
high wind veloci es. This is because of the fact that
the downward transport of heat by turbulence is off-
set by the rapid cooling accompanying the fast rise of
air up the slope. Fog of this type is a common feature
in the interior plains of the United States. It gener-
ally occurs when moisture-laden winds of the Gulf of
Mexico follow the slope of the rolling plains west of the
Mississippi. The Great Plains of the United State and
Canada have this type of fog. However, when there is
a high-velocity wind, a stratus cloud is formed instead.
94
Some mes, this type of fog is affected by several fac-
tors, viz. ascent of air, radia onal cooling and increase
in the rela ve humidity of air by the falling rains. This
type of fog is locally known as the ‘Cheynne fog’ in the
south- eastern part of Wyoming State in the United
States of America.
High-inversion fog is essen ally a winter phe-
nomenon. This fog is produced when a real tempera-
ture inversion exists at an al tude of 100 to 600 meters
above the ground. This fog does not form as a result
of a single night of radia on cooling, rather it forms
due to long-con nued cooling by radia on. The most
favourable loca ons for the high-inversion fogs are
provided by the con nental regions of high la tudes
where winter-radia on cooling takes place. However,
when polar-mari me air mass becomes sta onary over
a con nent, moisture and temperature condi ons are
most favourable for the forma on of radia on fog.
Autumn and winter are the most favourable
seasons for this type of fog. Similarly the centre of an
an cyclone, where winds are light and skies clear, is an
ideal place for it. During the winter season, it persists
for several days in the western part of Europe. A dense
fog of this type persists throughout the day in the San
Joaquin Valley of California. Even in some tropical in-
land valleys, radia on fogs are so thick that they may
not clear away un l midday. Coastal areas, because of
the high rela ve humidity, experience radia on fogs.
Frontal fog
Fogs produced along the front of two different air
masses are called the frontal fogs. They are caused by
satura on of the cold surface layer of air by rain falling
from the ascending warm air mass. Evapora on from
the falling warm rain saturates the cold air, if the tem-
perature of raindrops is higher than the dew point of
air. If the air is marked by stability and the wind is light,
the condensed moisture produces fog near the earth’s
surface. This type of fog is some mes dis nguished
as pre-frontal and post-frontal fogs. Frontal fogs may
form rather quickly, in one to three hours, and may
be widespread. When the wind velocity is rela vely
high, the base of the fog may li to form a low stratus
cloud. Cold front fogs form behind the slowly moving
cold fronts by the same process as in the case of warm
front fogs.
(2) Classification Accor ding to
Visibility
As pointed out earlier, the density of fog depends
chiefly on the number of hygroscopic nuclei besides
other factors. Some fogs appear very dense, while
others are light. The density of fogs is measured on
the basis of visibility.
On the basis of visibility fogs are classified into
five categories :
(a) Dense fog, in which buildings or trees situated
at a distance of 45 meters are not visible, (b) Thick fog,
in which the maximum visibility is 180 meters, (c) Fog in
which visibility is limited to 450 meters, (d) Moderate
fog, in which visibility is limited to 900 meters, (e) Thin
fog, in which visibility extends upto 1.8 kilometers.
(3) Classification on the Basis of
Appearance
Different terms are used to indicate fogs formed
under different condi ons. Some of the fog names are
described below :-
Smog : In the polluted air of large industrial
centres the air contains a large number of soot and
dust par cles, many of which are hygroscopic having
a high affinity to water vapour. The fogs produced in
these areas are dirty and mixed with smoke. Such a
type of fog is called smog (smoke + fog). The smog
or pea-soup fog of the industrial town of London has
gained notoriety as an environmental hazard. Because
of the presence of excessive smoke near the ground,
the warming of earth’s surface by the rays of sun is
retarded. Therefore such fogs persist for several days
making life difficult.
Smaze : This name is given to a fog which is an
admixture of smoke and haze.
Frost-smoke : In the Arctic region, when air
temperature falls much below the freezing point and
even then the water in sea and bays is not allowed to
freeze, a kind of fog consis ng of innumerable ice par-
cles and supercooled water droplets is formed by the
process of condensa on taking place on the surface of
those water bodies. Such a fog is called ‘frost-smoke’.
These fogs are carried over the land by winds. In the
mountain regions of North America, these fogs are
called ‘pogonip’.
Fog Dissipation Processes
There are certain processes in nature which are
capable of dissipa ng the exis ng fogs. Pe erssen has
classified them into three categories :
(a) condensa on and sublima on
(b) ver cal mixing
95
 (c) hea ng.
Whenever foggy air passes across a snow-covered
surface, the fog tends to disappear. In the arc c region
in summer, when fog is carried over ice-covered areas,
it dissipates. As the air temperature rises over 0°C, the
fogs begin to diffuse when the air temperature reaches
exactly 0°C, the process of diffusion almost comes at a
stands ll. Again, when the temperature comes down
below 0°C, the process of fog dissipa on is accelerated.
Highest diffusion takes place when air temperature
ranges between 10° to 15°C.
In a descending air current, the temperature in-
creases adiaba cally. This condi on also promotes fog
dissipa on. Solar radia on directly absorbed by the fog
par cles or the earth’s surface is also a contributory
factor in fog diffusion.
Atmospheric turbulence causes ver cal mixing in
the air which also results in the disappearance of fog.
The intensity of atmospheric turbulence depends on
the stability and the velocity of wind. When the wind
velocity crosses a certain limit, the fog is completely
destroyed. This is so because ver cal mixing carries
heat downward which raises the temperature of the
layer of air lying close to the earth’s surface. Because of
warming of the lowermost layer of air, the fog par cles
readily evaporate.
Ar ficial fog dissipa on : Dense fog is a severe
hindrance to uninterrupted traffic movement. Fog is a
common hazard at many airports. It delays the traffic
by land or sea. Fogs cause accidents and bring about
untold sufferings and economic loss. It is through their
effect on visibility that fogs become the most dreaded
environmental hazard.
Artificial fog dissipation was used during the
second World War. Fog dispersal methods that are
economically feasible are of two basic types : (a) Evapo-
ra on of fog par cles by hea ng the foggy air or by
injec ng a drying agent into it. (b) Physical removal of
the fog droplets by their precipita on. The Bri sh made
a successful use of hea ng methods for the dispersal of
fogs in order to clear their airports during World War II.
What will be the amount of heat required to dissipate
fog depends on the latent heat needed to evaporate
the water in a unit volume of fog and the volume of
foggy air to be cleared in a given me. For this purpose
certain special type of burners were used. But the cost
of installa on of the equipment as well as its operat-
ing costs were uneconomically high. But the heat of
jet-engine exhausts proved more economical. These
methods were suitable for water fogs at temperatures
above -39°C.
Seeding of fog with dry ice, silver iodide, carbon
black, water or calcium chloride spray has yielded most
promising results in the dispersal of supercooled fogs
at airports. Seeding with dry ice or silver iodide from
an aeroplane was found useful on fogs in the tempera-
ture range -5° to -25°C. But fogs seldom occur in this
temperature range. By applying this method the water
par cles are converted into ice-par cles which grow by
the process of sublima on and ul mately precipitate.
Unfortunately, most of the fogs are of the warm type
and are harder to combat. In fact, warm fog can be
cleared only by mechanical mixing of the fog with drier
and warmer air from above. In case of shallow fogs,
helicopters are made use of in fog dispersal.
It may be noted that the above methods of fog
dispersal are expensive, and are successfully used only
in clearing a very limited foggy area. It is yet to be seen
if fogs in extensive areas can be dissipated with the use
of limited amount of energy.
Distribution of Fog
The distribu on of fog is uneven. Over the earth
as a whole, by far the greater number of fogs occur over
the oceans which are mostly of the advec on type. The
distribu on of fogs over the oceans is closely related
with the ocean currents and ocean temperatures. These
ocean fogs occur wherever air moves from a warmer
region over a cold ocean current. In the tropical and
sub-tropical regions, cool ocean currents flow along the
west side of the con nents. These regions, therefore,
are among the foggiest regions of the world.
In the temperate zone, the advec on of warm
tropical air over the cool surface of oceans results in
the forma on of ocean fogs. Advec on fogs form over
land during the winter season in the middle la tudes.
Con nental interiors have more fogs in winter and
less in summer. On the contrary, coastal regions have
more fogs in summer and less in winter because of the
greater temperature ontrast in the warmer part of the
year. Unlike advec on fogs, radia on fogs are more
frequent over land areas in winter. The an cyclonic
condi ons prevailing over land areas in winter offer
the ideal condi ons for the occurrence of radia on or
ground fogs, because under such condi ons long win-
ter nights afford maximum radia onal cooling of the
lowermost layer of air. Radia on fogs are infer-quent
96
over oceans. Over the oceans as well as the con nental
loca ons the tropical areas have less fog than those of
the middle and high la tudes.
Fogs in Europe : In winter, the eastern Atlan c
and the western Europe are frequented by tropical-air
fogs. The mari me-polar air masses also produce fogs
in Europe during winter months. These air masses also
produce thick fogs in the industrial regions of Ruhr
Valley and Saar Basin. When the warm Gulf air passes
across the colder Bri sh Isles during winter months, it
produces some of the thickest fogs. The famous pea-
soup fog of England offers the typical example of this
fog. The Bal c Sea being the cold spot of Europe during
spring and summer has abundant fogs in these seasons.
Similarly, fogs also form over the Mediterranean and
the Black Sea. The Mediterranean has summer fog.
Fogs in the United States : Almost all types of
fogs are found in some parts or the other in the United
States and its adjacent seas.
Fogs in the Far East : Northeast of Japan where
the warm ocean current, Kuroshio, meets the cold
current from the Bering Sea and the Sea of Okhotsk,
summer fogs are prevalent. This region is more foggy
than the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. Here the sum-
mer months have more fogs than the winter months,
because in winter cold land air gets heated from below
over the water. In summer the en re coastal region
from the Bering Sea upto East China Sea has abundant
fogs. In winter whatever fog is present is of the steam
fog type. During the summer months the warm and
moist winds coming from the warm Japan Current
produce advec on- radia on fogs in Japan, specially
on the east coast. On the west coast of Japan, the fogs
formed over the Japan Sea enter into the interior of
this island.
Fogs of South America : Along the coastal areas
of Chile and Peru are found the foggiest regions of the
world. The cold Peru Current is the breeding ground
of fogs in this region. Ground fogs of a great thickness
form in the valleys and plains of the coastal areas. Along
the Atlan c coast of Argen na advec on-radia on
fogs occur. In the southern part of South America
sea fogs occur near the coast of Patagonia, Tierra del
Fuego and the Falkland Islands. Here the warm Brazil
current comes into contract with the cold west-wind
dri current.
Effects of Fogs: Fogs effec vely hinders sea
naviga on, land and air transport systems. Dense fogs
are naviga onal hazards in the seas as ships and huge
supertankers carrying oil some mes collide resul ng
into spilling of huge quan ty of oil causing enormous
oil slicks on sea water which causes ecological disaster.
When fogs are polluted through sulphur they become
poisonous and a health hazard
CLOUDS
Cloud has been defined as a visible aggrega on
of minute water droplets and/or ice par cles in the
air, usually above the general ground level. Clouds are
the most important form of suspended water droplets
caused by condensa on. Trewartha is of the opinion
that the one process that can reduce the temperature
of deep and extensive masses of air enough to bring
about cloud condensa on is the expansion associated
with the rising air currents, i.e., adiaba c cooling. As
more and more water vapour is condensed within an
air mass, water droplets mul ply, some of the sun’s
light is blocked, and the visible result is a cloud.
Clouds are meteorologically significant in various
ways. All precipita on occurs from clouds. We do not
get precipita on from all clouds, but there can be no
precipita on without clouds. Clouds also play an im-
portant role in the heat energy budget. This is because
clouds absorb a part of the incoming solar radia on.
They reflect some of the incoming solar radia on back
to space and also diffuse some of it. Clouds also absorb
a part of terrestrial radia on and then re-radiate it back
to the surface. Another important point about clouds
is that like a black body they radiate heat con nuously
in propor on to their temperatures. In the absence of
clouds, days would have been much warmer and nights
much colder. During summer months cloudy days are
cooler than the days without clouds. Similarly in winter
a deck of thick clouds makes the nights warmer and
less chilly.
As we all know, convec onal currents are limited
to the troposphere only, and so this part of the atmo-
sphere contains all clouds.
Clouds are of con nual interest to the meteorolo-
gist, since they tell him what is going on in the atmo-
sphere much above the earth’s surface.
They are deemed as useful indicators of various
meteorological processes. The importance of clouds in
avia on cannot be overemphasized. Low clouds may
make landings and take offs difficult.
Classification of Clouds
The main cloud genera or families can be listed
according to their heights as under :’
97
A. High (mean heights 5 to 13 km)
(1) Cirrus
(2) Cirro-cumulus
(3) Cirro-stratus
B. Middle (mean heights 2 to 7 km)
(4) Alto-cumulus
(5) Alto-stratus
(6) Nimbo-stratus
C. Low (mean heights 0 to 2 km)
(7) Strato-cumulus
(8) Stratus
(9) Cumulus
(10) Cumulo-nimbus.
Usually alto-stratus, nimbo-stratus, cumulus and
cumulo-nimbus clouds extend outside the above noted
heights, which are only approximate for the temperate
regions. Clouds of a given genus/family are generally
lower in the polar regions and higher in the tropics.
Defini ons of the following genera of clouds as
given by the W.M.O. are being given here. Other infor-
ma on’s have also been given for the readers.
(1) Cirrus. “Detached clouds in the form
of white, delicate filaments or white or
mostly white patches or narrow bands.
These clouds have a fibrous (hair-like) ap-
pearance or a silky sheen or both”.
The prefix cirro refers to cloud forms at the
same general level with different appear-
ance. All the cirrus or cirro-type clouds are
composed of ice crystals, they are all high
clouds. The sun or moon shining through
these clouds produces a halo. Cirrus clouds
have brilliant colours at sunset and sunrise.
These clouds do not give precipita on.
(2) Cirro-cumulus. “Thin, white patch, sheet
or layer of cloud without shading, com-
posed of very small elements in the
form of grains, ripples, etc. merged or
separate, and more or less regularly
arranged, most of the elements have an
apparent width of less than one degree”.
This type of cloud is not common, and
is o en connected with cirrus or cirro-
stratus. It looks like a patch of small flakes
or small globules arranged in small groups
or lines. When arranged uniformly, it forms
a ‘mackerel sky’.
(3) Cirro-stratus. “Transparent, whi sh cloud
veil of fibrous (hairlike) or smooth appear-
ance, totally or partly covering the sky, and
generally producing halo phenomena”.
This type of cloud is so thin that it gives the
sky a milky appearance. At mes, it may
form a definite sheet. Edge of the sheet
is rarely straight, and is o en marked by
patches of cirrus or cirro-cumulus. It pro-
duces halos around the sun or moon. This
type always occurs at great heights. Clouds
of this type are formed of ice crystals. The
sun is obscured so that objects on the
ground do not cast shadows.
(4) Alto-cumulus. White or gray, or both white
and gray, patch, sheet or layer of cloud,
generally with shading, composed of lami-
nate, rounded masses, rolls, etc., which are
some mes partly fibrous or diffuse and
which may or may not be merged, most of
the regularly arranged small elements usu-
ally have an apparent width of between
one and five degrees.
Alto-cumulus clouds do not produce halos.
They have dark shading on their under-
surfaces. There is complete absence of
large domes. High globular altocumulus
groups are sometimes referred to as
‘sheep clouds’ or ‘woolpack clouds’. They
are generally found in wavy or parallel
bands. They are o en composed of super
cooled liquid droplets. This type of cloud
may occur at various levels simultaneously
.
(5) Alto-stratus. Grayish or bluish cloud sheet
or layer of striated, fibrous or uniform
appearance, totally or partly covering
the sky, and having parts thin enough to
reveal the sun at least vaguely, as through
ground glass. Alto-stratus does not show
halo phenomena.
Alto-stratus clouds may cover all or large
por ons of the sky. The sun may be totally
obscured or is visible in hazy outline. Ha-
los are never seen. Under an alto-stratus
sheet shadows on the ground are never
cast. The sun or the moon may only appear
as a bright spot behind the cloud. Clouds
of this type also consist of water droplets,
98
 o en supercooled to temperatures well
below freezing. Precipita on may fall ei-
ther as fine drizzle or snow.
(6) Nimbo-stratus. Grey cloud layer, often
dark, the appearance of which is rendered
diffuse by more or less con nuously falling
rain or snow, which in most cases reaches
the ground. It is thick enough throughout
to blot out the sun.
Nimbo-stratus is generally a low cloud
form and may be thousands of feet thick.
It is a rain, snow, or sleet cloud. It is never
accompanied by lightning, thunder, or hail.
It can be dis nguished from the stratus
type in that it is darker. Streaks of rain or
snow falling from these clouds but not
reaching the ground are called ‘virga’.
(7) Strato-cumulus. Grey or whi sh, or both
gray and whi sh, patch, sheet or layer
of cloud which almost always has dark
parts, composed of tessella ons, rounded
masses, rolls, etc. which are non-fibrous
(except for virga) and which may or may
not be merged; most of the regularly ar-
ranged small elements have an apparent
width of more than five degrees.
Strato-cumulus is a low cloud layer consist-
ing of large lumpy masses or rolls of dull
gray colour with brighter inters ces.
(8) Stratus. Generally gray cloud layer with a
fairly uniform base, which may give drizzle,
ice prisms, or snow grains. When the sun
is visible through the cloud, its outline is
clearly discernible. Stratus does not pro-
duce halo phenomena except, possibly, at
very low temperatures. Some mes stratus
appears in the form of ragged patches.
Looked at from above, stratus has a uni-
form top, which indicates a temperature
inversion. Stratus clouds are without any
par cular form or structure. Sky may be
completely covered by this type of cloud.
They are frequently broken. It is difficult
to differen ate between a high fog and
stratus cloud. When stratus clouds are
overlain by the higher altostratus, they
become thicker and darker.
(9) Cumulus. Detached clouds, generally dense
and with sharp outlines, developing ver-
cally in the form of rising mounds, domes
or towers, of which the bulging upper parts
o en resemble a cauliflower. The sunlit
parts of these clouds are mostly brilliant
white; their base is rela vely dark and
nearl horizontal. Some mes cumulus is
ragged.
Cumulus clouds represent the tops of
strong con-vective currents. Irregular
patches of cumulus are called fractocu-
mulus. They may occur during any season.
Cumulus is generally found in the day me
over land areas. They dissipate at night.
They produce only light precipita on. They
o en represent a transi on to cumulo-
nimbus, which is the heavier shower cloud.
Air that is heated from below or cooled
from above produces cumulus clouds.
(10) Cumulo-nimbus. Heavy and dense
cloud, with a considerable vertical ex-
tent, in the form of a mountain or huge
towers. At least part of its upper por-
tion is usually smooth, or fibrous, or
striated, and nearly always fla ened; this
part o en spreads out in the shape of an
anvil or vast plume. Under the base of
this cloud which is o en very dark, there
are frequently low ragged clouds either
merged with it or not, and precipita on
some mes in the form of Virga.
Cumulo-nimbus is a towering cloud some mes
spreading out on top to form an ‘anvil head’. This type
of cloud is associated with heavy rainfall, thunder,
lightning, hail, and tornadoes. This cloud has a flat
top (anvil head) and a flat base. It appears darker as
condensa on within it increases, and it obstructs the
sun. It is the great thunderhead, which is the source
of the squally, gusty, shortlived thunderstorms. Such
thunderstorms are very common during summer a er-
noons in the middle and low la tudes. This type of
cloud is easily recognised by the fall of a real shower
and sudden darkening of the sky.
Reporting of Clouds
Besides the above classifica on of clouds, there
is another classifica on of 30 code numbers for the
condi ons of the sky in the three height groups, i.e.,
high, middle and low. This classifica on uses one of
10 numbers (0 to 9) for each height-group. It is based
on different combina ons of cloud forma ons in that
height-group observed at the same me. These code
99
numbers called CL, , CH represen ng low, middle and
high cloud forma ons are transmi ed as part of every
interna onal surface weather report. This report also
includes the amount of cloudiness at different levels,
the direc on of clouds and the height of their bases
(called ceiling). The term ceiling denotes the height
of the base of the lowest clouds present at any point
of me. Ceiling zero is reported when the ceiling is 15
meters or less. Ceiling unlimited is reported when the
base of the lowest reported broken or overcast layer is
higher than 3250 meters above the ground.
C l o u d s a s a n A i d t o We at h e r
Forecasting
Clouds are of an immense value in the task of
weather forecas ng. In the middle la tudes an ap-
proaching warm front of a depression is heralded by the
first appearance of cirro-stratus clouds which obscure
the sky. As the warm front draws nearer, the cirro-
stratus gradually thicken into alto-stratus. Precipita on
falls from this type of cloud. In summer, in the middle
and low la tudes cirrus clouds sca ered in the sky in-
dicate the clearing of weather. On hot and humid days
cumulus clouds developing into the cumulo-nimbus are
good indicators of an approaching thunderstorm. In the
temperate zone when the tops of cumulonimbus clouds
appear in a line, the weatherman expects the approach
of a cold front and the associated violent weather. High
cumulus clouds are indicators of a stable layer of air in
the upper atmosphere.
Cloud cover has a marked effect on the diurnal
range of temperature. An overcast sky reduces the
daily range, while a clear sky induces a higher range.
Similarly, if the morning sky is covered with stratocu-
mulus clouds and the wind is gusty, then the sky during
day me will certainly have clouds.
Distribution of Cloudiness
If we examine the distribu on of cloudiness The
propor on of the sky covered by clouds is indicated in
eighths or tenths as cloudiness, over the surface of the
earth by la tude zones, it is clear that cloudiness and
rainfall are closely related with each other. There are
two zones of maximum cloudiness in each hemisphere.
The primary maxima of cloudiness is found between
30° and 60° North and South la tudes. In these la -
tudes in the temperate zones there is preponderance
of cyclones and fronts. Precipita on in these regions
generally falls from the stratus type of clouds which
covers a larger part of, some mes, the whole of the sky.
However, since precipita on is only light or moderate,
these regions show the secondary maxima. Contrary
to our expecta on, in the equatorial belt there is only
secondary maximum of cloudiness. Here with the
minimum amount of cloudiness, maximum amount
of precipita on falls on earth. Most of the clouds in
equatorial regions have great ver cal developments
and are rather localized. So inspite of yielding heavy
showery precipita on, the clouds of cumulus or cumu-
lonimbus types do not cover the whole sky. This is the
belt of primary maximum of precipita on.
In each hemisphere, there is one belt of the
minimum amount of cloudiness. This coincides with the
la tudes of subtropical an cyclones and trade winds.
Within the subtropical high pressure belt the cloudiness
is less on the con nents than on the oceans. Because
of the descending air currents in the subtropical belt,
all the hot deserts of the world are located here. It is,
therefore, natural for cloudiness to reach its minimum
in these regions marked by clear skies.
Besides, there are annual as well as diurnal varia-
ons in the amount of cloudiness in a par cular region.
In the equatorial region, there is li le varia on in the
amount of cloudiness from one month to the other.
But between 10° and 20° North and South la tudes the
cloud maximum occurs during summer months. This is
the period of maximum rainfall also. The western sides
of con nents within the subtropical belt have the cool
season maxima of cloudiness as well as precipita on.
In the higher la tudes, the con nental interiors have
a summer maximum of cloudiness, since winters are
marked by an cyclonic condi ons there.
According to Trewartha, daily varia on in cloudi-
ness depends on the type of cloud present in the sky.
In case of cumulus or cumuliform clouds, a maximum
is reached in the early and middle a ernoon. Stratus
and other stra form clouds show their maximum in
the early morning.
100
 AIR MASSES
Air mass concept was developed during World
War I by two eminent Norwegian meteorologists, Vil-
helmBjerknes and Jacob Bjerknes (father and son). This
concept is now known as air mass analysis. Credit goes
to Tor Bergeron, J. Bjerknes and Solberg for introducing
the air mass concept to the field of meteorology and for
forecas ng the weather on the basis of air masses.
Defini on and characteris cs : Trewartha de-
fines air mass as “an immense body of air that moves
over the earth’s land-sea surface as a recognizable
en ty, with temperature and humidity characteris cs
which are rela vely uniform in a horizontal direc on
at different levels.” Since it may extend through 20
degrees or more of la tude and cover hundreds of
thousands to millions of square kilometers, the hori-
zontal homogeneity of an air mass is never complete.
Small differences in the physical proper es (especially
temperature and humidity) from one point to another
at the same level are bound to occur. But the internal
differences of an air mass are small in comparison
with the much more rapid rates of change that are
experienced across the boundaries between different
air masses. Since an air mass traverses an area in sev-
eral days, the region occupied by it will generally have
the same weather condi ons except some day-to-day
varia ons here and there. But the weather condi ons
in an adjacent air mass are altogether different. Along
the margins of the air masses the weather changes are
rather very sharp.
When air remains in contact with a large and
uniform surface for long period, its temperature and
moisture a ain equilibrium with the surface. If the
underlying surface is warm, the overlying air will be
warmed and the en re mass of air lying above it will be
heated gradually by conduc on. If the surface is cold,
the air above it will naturally be cooled and the heat will
be removed from the lower part of the air. Similarly, the
moist surface will impart its moisture to the air above
it, whereas the overlying air will lose moisture to the
underlying dry surface. Under any circumstances, the
air always tends to reach equilibrium with the surface.
The me taken to reach a state of equilibrium may vary
from two or three days to a week or two. It shows that
once equilibrium is reached, it will change only slowly
with me. Such an extensive por on of the atmosphere
that has acquired some sort of equilibrium with the
surface by remaining into its contact over a large area is
designated as an air mass. Such a large uniform surface
is called an air mass source region.
Air-masses retain their iden ty even a er they
have moved far from their source region. But the
original physical proper es are conserved only in the
upper parts of such air masses. This is so because the
process of conduc on is rather slow, convec on is
almost absent in stagnant and stable air and the pro-
cess of radia on is not effec ve in the free air except
at cloud surfaces.
The following two characteris cs of an air mass
control the weather associated with it:
(a) The ver cal distribu on of temperature in
an air mass, and
(b) The moisture content of the air. The ver -
cal distribu on of temperature is indica ve
of the stability of an air mass besides its
warmness or coldness. The ver cal distri-
bu on is closely related to the ascent or
descent of air currents within the body
of the air mass itself. The presence or
absence of condensa on forms is deter-
mined by the moisture content in the air.
According to Trewartha, air masses are an im-
portant and inseparable part of the planetary wind
system. Therefore every air mass is related with one or
the other permanent wind belt. Tropical mari me and
tropical con nental air masses are found in the trade
wind belts. However, some mes tropical as well as
polar air masses co-exist in the belt of westerlies. These
air masses may be either con nental or mari me. In
fact, when the air masses move out of their source re-
gions, they may be taken to be the streams of tropical
or polar air on a gigan c scale. Actually it is through
these extensive air streams that heat is transferred
from the tropical to the polar regions. Thus, the air
masses play an important role in removing la tudinal
imbalances in heat.
An air mass with temperature lower than that of
the underlying surface is designated as a cold air mass.
On the other hand, a mobile air mass which is warmer
than the underlying surface is labelled as a warm air
mass. The same air mass may be called warm or cold
with reference to the temperature of the surface over
which it moves. For example, if a warm air mass moves
from a cold land surface to warm oceanic surface, it
will be known as a cold air mass. Similarly, what is a
101
cold air mass during the day, becomes a warm air mass
during the night because of the rapid cooling of land
by nocturnal radia on. But the most important feature
of air masses is that they are independent in respect
of their temperature and humidity characteris cs. Air
masses with different densi es, even when they come
into contact with each other, do not merge together
but retain their iden ty.
The cold air masses are marked by instability
and atmospheric turbulence. Because of the hea ng
of the air lying close to the surface, convec onal cur-
rents are set up which make the air mass unstable.
On the contrary, the warm air masses are cooled from
below because of which ver cal movements in the
atmosphere are non-existent. Therefore such warm
air masses have marked stability in them.
Source regions
Areas where air masses form are known as source
regions. The nature of the source region largely deter-
mines the temperature and humidity characteris cs
of an air mass.
There are two essen al features which make an
ideal source region. First, it must be an extensive and
broadly uniform surface of the earth. If a region has
irregular topography or it has a surface consis ng of
both water and land, then it is not considered sa sfac-
tory. Secondly, the area should have a compara vely
gentle and divergent air flow so that air will stay over
the region for a considerably long period of me to
reach some measure of equilibrium with the surface.
Therefore the regions with high barometric pressure
and low barometric gradients are the ideal source
regions. In other words, the source regions are charac-
terized by sta onary or slow moving an cyclones with
their extensive areas of calms or light winds .
Cyclonic areas being characterized by converg-
ing surface winds do not favour the forma on of air
masses. Conditions which produce air masses are
well developed over the tropical seas and hot deserts
during much of the year and over the Arc c region,
par cularly in winter. These areas may be considered
as the primary source regions of air masses.
There are other extensive regions with uniform
surface over which air flow is generally not stagnant.
If the air that passes over such a region can be trans-
formed rapidly, it may acquire unique characteris cs.
Such regions are referred to as secondary source re-
gions. Primary source regions may be either warm or
cool because the air may be stagnant for longer periods
to establish equilibrium. But the secondary source
regions should either be rela vely warmer than the
overlying air, or otherwise extensive.
It is noteworthy that no major source regions are
found in the middle la tudes. They are generally con-
fined to tropical or polar loca ons. Since regions in the
middle la tudes are dominated by cyclones and other
types of storms, they do not possess the homogeneous
condi ons so essen al for a source region.
Examples of primary source regions are the
following : The tropical Atlan c Ocean around Ber-
muda, the tropical Pacific Ocean around Hawaii, the
Sahara Desert region, and the interior of Siberia.
Some of the secondary source regions are :
The North Pacific Ocean between Siberia and Canada,
North Atlan c Ocean between Canada and Northern
Europe, and arid south-west of the United States.
There are two principal types of air mass modi-
fica ons :
(a) thermodynamic modifica ons, and
(b) mechanical modifica ons.
The first are thermodynamic in origin, and the
second arise from mechanical causes. These modifica-
ons may occur either separately or in combina on.
Thermodynamic modifica on : Thermody-
namic processes include such effects as hea ng from
below which decreases the ver cal stability. Other
thermodynamic effects include evapora on of water
into the air mass from below or into the intermediate
layers by precipita on from the overlying moist air lay-
ers. According to Trewartha the extent to which an air
mass is modified depends upon (a) the ini al charac-
teris c of the air mass (its temperature and moisture
content), (b) the nature of the underlying surface, (c)
the path followed by the air mass, and (d) the me
taken to reach the point of observa on.
Cold air mass moving over a surface that is
warmer than the ground temperature is bound to be
heated from below with consequent steepened lapse
rate and instability. These changes create the chances
of condensa on and precipita on. On the other hand,
warm air mass moving over a colder surface is cooled
from below. This condi on favours the forma on of a
surface inversion which increases the stability of the
air mass. Under such condi ons, forma on of clouds
and precipita on is an impossibility. From the above
discussion it is obvious that as the polar air masses
102
move out of their source regions they tend to become
more and more unstable. The tropical air masses, on
the other hand, undergo the second type of modifica-
on and develop an increased stability.
Mechanical (dynamic) modifica ons : An air
mass may undergo changes because of any one or more
than one of the following mechanisms :-
(1) Turbulent mixing caused by eddies or con-
vec on.
(2) Large-scale dynamic effects on lapse rate
: divergence; convergence.
(3) Sinking : In subsidence and lateral spread-
ing ; movement down from above colder
air masses; descent from high eleva ons
to low lands.
(4) Li ing : Over colder air masses; to compen-
sate for horizontal conver gence because
air pressure increases a er such conver-
gence; over eleva ons of the land.
(5) Advec on of new proper es alo due to
shearing ac on of the wind.
Classification of Air Masses
All the physical proper es of air masses which
determine the weather characteris cs produced by
them are acquired from their source regions. When
the air masses move out from their source regions,
the temperature, humidity and the nature of the un-
derlying surface bring about certain changes in them.
Therefore, a sa sfactory classifica on of air masses
must encompass these transi ons. No classifica on
scheme should be based on the geographical loca on
of various air mass source regions alone.
Air masses are classified on the basis of (a) the
loca on of their source regions, and (b) the nature
of the surface over which they move towards other
regions.
Trewartha, on the basis of the geographical lo-
ca on of air masses, classifies them into the following
two broad categories :
(1) Polar air mass, for which a capital P is
used.
(2) Tropical air mass, for which a capital T is
used.
He is of the opinion that Arc c, Antarc c and
Equatorial air masses do not have individual iden ty
of their own. They are considered to be the modified
forms of polar and tropical air masses.
He further subdivides the polar as well as tropical
air masses into two types on the basis of the nature
of the surface of their source regions, i.e., land or
water:
(a) Con nental air mass indicated by a small
le er c.
(b) Mari me air mass indicated by a small
le er m.
On the basis of the source regions as well as the
nature of their surface the following four principal types
of air masses may be considered :
(1) Con nental Polar air masses (cP)
(2) Mari me Polar air masses (mP)
(3) Con nental Tropical air masses (cT)
(4) Mari me Tropical air masses (mT).
Besides the above classifica on, when various
thermodynamic and mechanical modifica ons of the
air masses are taken into considera on, a more elabo-
rate classifica on consis ng of the following 16 types
is obtained :
(1) Con nental polar air mass (cP)
(a) Continental polar cold stable air mass
(cPKs)
(b) Con nental polar cold Unstable air mass
(cPKu)
(c) Con nental polar warm Stable air mass
(cPWs)
(d) Con nental polar warm Unstable air mass
(cpWu)
(2) Mari me polar air mass (mP)
(a) Maritime Polar Cold Stable Air Mass
(mPKs)
(b) Mari me Polar Cold Unstable Air Mass
(mPKu)
(c) Maritime Polar Warm Stable Air Mass
(mPWs)
(d) Mari me Polar Warm Unstable Air Mass
(mPWu
(3) Con nental tropical air mass (cT)
(a) Con nental Tropical Cold Stable Air Mass
(cTKs)
(b) Continental Tropical Cold Unstable Air
Mass (cTKu)
103
 (c) Con nental Tropical Cold Stable Air Mass
(cTWs)
(d) Con nental Tropical Cold Stable Air Mass
(cTWu)
(4) Mari me Tropical Air Mass (mT)
(a) Mari me Tropical Cold Stable Air Mass
(mTKs)
(b) Mari me Tropical Cold Untable Air Mass
(mTKs)
(c) Mari me Tropical warm Stable Air Mass
(mTKs)
(d) Mari me Tropical warm Unstable Air Mass
(mTKs)
Air Masses of North America
The con nent of North America is triangular in
shape with it base towards the north in the higher la -
tudes, and apex towards the south in the low la tudes.
Thus, because of its peculiar shape and geographical
loca on, the con nent is considered to be ideal for the
forma on of air masses with different physical proper-
es. The following sec on a empts to examine in brief
the physical proper es of the principal air masses of
North America season-wise.
Winter Air Masses
(1) ConƟnental polar (cP) air masses. These
air masses originate over the snow-covered interior
regions of Canada and Alaska. Con nental arc c air
masses form over the Arc c basin and the Greenland
ice cap. They are extremely cold and dry. The cP air
masses are generally stable; in their source regions.
Because of the prolonged earth radia on the surface
temperature is very low. This results in a strong and
persistent temperature inversion in the atmosphere.
Clouds are almost non-existent.
These air masses enter the United States of Amer- masses. These air masses are essen ally hot, humid
ica between the Rocky Mountains and the Great Lakes
in the form of extremely cold polar an cyclones. The
onslaught of these rapidly moving air masses makes
the east-central United States abnormally cold . A er
entering the southern and eastern United States, the
winter cP gets modified by coming into contact with
the warm surface. Addi on of moisture along with
mechanical turbulence renders the con nental polar
air rather unstable in the lower-layers. By the me the
cP reaches the south and eastern shore of the Great
Lakes, the cPK becomes very moist and unstable which
results in abundant lake-effect snow. As the modified
cP air masses move towards the rugged terrain of the
Appalachians, they are forced to rise, so that the sky
becomes overcast and heavy snowfall occurs on the
western side of the mountains. On the other side of the
Appalachians, the descending air masses are warmed
adiaba cally. The latent heat released during condensa-
on evaporates the clouds, and the snowfall ends.
(2) MariƟme polar Pacific (mP) air masses.
Mari me polar air masses of the United States originate
over the North pacific and the northwestern Atlan c
from Newfoundland to Cape Cod. Because the general
circula on in the middle la tudes is from west to east,
the North pacific air masses have greater influence
on North America than the northwestern Atlan c air
masses. Some mes the cP air masses that originate in
Siberia invade this con nent. As these air masses move
toward the con nent, they pick up moisture from the
rela vely warm waters of the Pacific. In this way, the
cold, dry and stable air masses are modified into mild
and humid air masses near the surface. An element of
instability is introduced in their lower por ons. cPWs
air masses are thus modified into mPKu.
(3) Mari me Polar North Atlan c Air Mass
(mP). This air mass originates over the North Atlan c
Ocean mainly in the region between Greenland, New
foundland, and Labrador . Since the general air circula-
on in this region is from west to east and hence this
air mass has li le influence on North America.This air
mass is dry and stable in its upper layers while it is moist
and unstable in its lower parts. This air mass brings in
bad weather which is locally known as ‘north-eastern’
characterized by strong northeast cold winds, exceed-
ingly low temperature well below freezing point, high
moisture content in the air and possible precipita on
mainly in solid forms such as snowfall, sleet and hail-
storms.
(4) Maritime tropical Atlantic(mT) air
and unstable. They are also capable of releasing heavy
precipita on. During winter the south-eastern part of
the United States are dominated by them. They origi-
nate over the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea and
the tropical western Atlan c Ocean. The tropical Pacific
is another source region for mT air masses which affect
only a small area.
Tropical Maritime Pacific Air Masses
Pacific air mass originates over the sub-
tropical por ons of the east Pacific west of USA and
Mexico mainly over the high pressure area located
104
to the southwest of California. The air mass becomes
stable due to subsidence of air from above due to an-
cyclonic circula on.
Summer Air Masses
(1) Polar con nental air mass (cP). During
summer the con nental polar air masses originate in
the northern high la tude regions of the con nent.
The central part of Canada presents ideal condi ons
for their origin. In their source region they are cold, dry
and unstable. The summer air mass which originates on
the cold Arc c Ocean is ini ally cold and stable. When
the Arc c air mass moves southward over the warmer
land surface, it is heated from below as a result of which
the stability gradually disappears.
On the con nental surface this air mass is modi-
fied into cPK, which becomes cPW on reaching the
ocean. It then produces mist, fog and low-stratus
clouds. In their source region the weather remains
cloudless. During the day the surface hea ng causes
convec ve turbulence in the lower layer of these air
masses. But the condensa on level being high, cumu-
lous clouds are seen sca ered in the sky.
(2) Mari me polar (mP) Pacific air masses.
During the summer month the mP Pacific air masses
originate in the same source region as the winter mP
air, but they have different physical properties. In
the lower parts they are cool and humid, but are dry
alo . The change from moist lower parts to dry upper
part is very sharp which results in the forma on of an
inversion layer, since the water of the adjacent Pacific
Ocean is cooler than the con nental surfaces. Besides,
the Pacific an cyclone is located off the West Coast of
the United States, where there is almost con nuous
southward flow of air having moderate temperatures.
These air masses, even though marked by condi onal
instability near the surface, are stable alo because
ofsubsidence. Low stratus clouds and fogs are pro-
duced all along the West Coast. As the mP Pacific air
masses reach the con nental areas, they are heated
from below because of their contact with the warm
surface. This leads to greater turbulence in the lower
layer with consequent reduc on in the rela ve humid-
ity and hence the clouds disappear. A er crossing the
Rocky mountains the mP air masses resemble the cP
air in their physical characteris cs.
(3) Mari me polar (mP) Atan c air masses.
The air masses originate over the western part of North
Atlan c Ocean. Their source region lies between Cape
Cod and Newfoundland. They occur during the late
spring and early summer. The influence of these modi-
fied air masses is felt along the coastal regions from
New England to Cape Ha eras. They produce a very
pleasant and fine weather. The skies are clear, tempera-
tures low and visibility fine. Since the temperature of
these air masses is lower than that of the ground, they
are classified as mPKs. During the summer months the
temperature of the northern part of the con nent is
not allowed to rise because of the combined effect of
the mP and cP air masses.
(4) Maritime tropical (mT) Atlantic air
masses. The Bermuda High over the western Atlan c
Ocean is the source region of these air masses. They
control the weather in the eastern and most of the
southern parts of the United States during the sum-
mer. Thermally produced low over the warm con nent
draws these mari me air masses into Canada. However,
the polar front in the vicinity of the Great Lakes does
not allow them to move farther into north. These air
masses make the summer heat oppressive over most
of the central and eastern parts of the United States.
While leaving their source region they are only slightly
warmer and more humid than the winter mT, but on
entering into the con nental landmass an increase of
about 11° Celsius is recorded in their lower parts. In the
lower half they are hot and humid so that the surface
instability is increased. The upper level instability in
these air masses is a common characteris c, so they are
designated at mTu. Over the warm con nent they are
modified into mTKu. In the Gulf states the strong con-
vec ve ac vity produced in these air masses leads to
the forma on of cumulus and cumulo-nimbus clouds.
Warm-season thunderstorms produced locally in the
southeastern United States are essen ally associated
with these air masses.
The air masses from the Gulf-Caribbean-Atlan c
source region are the major source of much of the
precipita on received in the larger parts of the eastern
United States.
(5) Mari me tropical (mT) Pacific air masses.
The mT air masses from the Pacific source region do
not have the same impact on the North American
weather as their counterparts from the tropical Atlan-
c Ocean. However, in summer the Pacific air masses
move northward up the Gulf of California and into
the interior of the western United States which is, of
course, in response to the thermally maintained low
over the hot land areas. This invasion of the mT Pacific
air masses is believed to be monsoonal in character.
Contrary to the older belief, it is now widely held that
the real source of moisture for the area west of the
Con nental Divide lies in the tropical North Pacific west
105
of central Mexico.
(6) Con nental tropical (cT) air masses. Since
the con nent is V-shaped and narrows down towards
the south, there is no extensive source region for these
air masses in North America. During the summer only
northern Mexico and southeastern United States have
limited areas where these air masses originate. They
are ini ally hot and dry. The intense day me hea ng at
the surface produces a steep lapse rate and turbulence
which extend to considerable heights. Because of dry-
ness there is lack of precipita on. If these air masses
occupy certain regions for a long period, drought
condi ons are produced there. Some mes these air
masses move out to the Southern Great Plains of the
United States and produce hot and dry weather.
Air Masses of Asia
From the point of view of air masses, the largest
con nent of Asia is a land of extremes. The winter me
and the summer me con nental as well as mari me
air masses exhibit greater extremes of temperature
than is found in any of the other con nents. However,
in certain respects the air masses of Asia and North
America are similar.
(1) Con nental polar (cP) air masses. Dur-
ing the winter season the con nental polar air masses
originate in the cold source regions of central-eastern
Siberia and Outer Mongolia. They are very cold and dry
in their source regions. They may be compared with
their counterparts in North America which originate
over the snow and ice covered areas of north Canada.
A temperature of 40°.
Celsius is recorded in the lower por on of the
con nental polar air masses in Siberia. The tempera-
ture and humidity of the north Siberian air masses
are much lower than those of the south Siberian air
masses. There is an inversion layer found invariably
in the cold and compara vely drier air masses. When
the air masses move towards the Pacific, the mountain
barriers produce mechanical turbulence in them and
the inversion layer is broken. Far away from the source
regions, the temperature and the humidity in the lower
por on of air masses register a marked increase. During
the winter months the an cyclones produced in central
Asia make the influence of these polar con nental air
masses felt over a very large part of the con nent.
The high plateaus of Tibet and the lo y ranges of the
Himalayas do not allow the air masses to invade the
Indian sub-con nent.
The above air masses enter into China by land
and sea both. Those entering China by land have higher
temperatures-about 11°-19°C more than the source
regions. When the modified cP air masses enter the
Indian sub-con nent from the western end of the
mountain barrier, they produce winter precipita on in
associa on with the extra-tropical cyclones. The north-
ern and western parts of the sub-con nent receive
moderate to scanty rainfall. Modified cP air mass also
enters the North Vietnam from the eastern extremi es
of the highlands.
During the summer months, eastern and south-
ern Asia is under the influence of summer monsoon,
hence cP air masses are rather unimportant in the
above region. But Japan and the extreme north of
China experience the con nental polar air masses to
a certain degree in the summer season. Wherever the
cPs air masses pass over the cool ocean surface, they
become more humid in the lower parts.
(2) Mari me polar (mP) air masses. In winter,
because of the westerly circula on in eastern Asia,
the coastal regions south of Korea remain outside the
influence of mP air masses. Their influence is limited
to the coastal regions of Siberia, Manchuria and Korea.
The mainland of China remains completely free from
them. The mP air masses that originate over the Sea
of Okhotsk control the
weather of the east coast regions in summer.
Manchuria and eastern Siberia are also under their con-
trol in the summer months. According to the Japanese
meteorologists, in the early summer the mari me polar
air masses from the Sea of Okhotsk invade Japan and
some mes form a front with the overlying mT air
masses. The weather along this front is generally
cyclonic with overcast sky and light precipita on. Such
a weather is called Bai-u in Japan.
(3) Mari me tropical (mT) air masses. In
summer, en re Southeast Asia is dominated by sum-
mer monsoon. In fact, the air masses involved in the
summer monsoon circula on are mari me tropical.
They are hot and humid with correc ve instability in
them. Even a slight upli of these air masses causes
torren al rainfall. When the mT air masses move into
con nental land areas, they are heated from below
which produces convec onal currents in them. When-
ever they are forced to ascend a mountain barrier or are
dragged into a cyclonic circula on, heavy summer me
precipita on is the result.
106
 When the equatorial southwesterly air currents
con nue upto North China and Manchuria, they en-
counter the cP air masses and the result is the genera-
on of polar fronts. At the polar front, the upli of hot
and moist air produces heavy summer precipita on.
The weather of Japan and Korea is also affected by
these air currents. Another current of the summer
monsoon originates over the western margin of the
Pacific an cyclone which reaches Japan and eastern
China from a southern, southwestern or southeastern
direc on.
In winter, mari me tropical air masses don’t
effec vely influence the weather condi ons of the
easter Asia. They are warmer and humid than all of the
winter me Air Masses. South Asia during the winter
Season is dominated by the northeast trades which
have mari me tropical characteris cs in the coastal
regions, but develop cT characteris cs when they move
over the more extensive areas of the Southeastern and
Indian Peninsulas.
Air Masses Of Europe
All the physical proper es of air masses that
govern the weather and climate of Europe are deter-
mined by its shape and geographical loca on. Europe,
which forms the western part of the great Eurasian
con nent, is broader in the south and narrow in the
north. Because of the peculiarity of its shape the
mari me influence is observed in higher la tudes.
The winter me air masses origina ng in the north are
rela vely warmer, while the summer me air masses
produced there are rela vely colder than their coun-
terparts in North America. Another salient feature
of the con nent, which influences the air masses, is
the east-west alignment of the mountain chains. The
Alps, the Pyrenees and the Caucasus, all the mountain
chains extend from west to east and do not obstruct
the passage of westerlies which, therefore, enter the
con nent more readily and more deeply.
In many respects the mari me polar Atlan c
air masses in the westernEurope are similar to the
mari me polar Pacific air masses along the Pacific
coastal regions of North America. Similarly, the mari-
me tropical Atlan c air masses invading Portugal and
Spain resemble the mT Pacific air masses in California.
There is a lot of resemblance between the con nen-
tal polar air masses of the westernEurope and the
western United States of America. Mari me tropical
air masses of Great Britain and Bri sh Columbia have
similar characteris cs.
In Europe the trend of mountains is almost paral-
lel with the westerly circula on, while in North America
the highlands lie against the westerlies. That is why the
mari me air masses have free access to the interior of
the European landmass and retain their ini al charac-
teris cs much longer than their counterparts in North
America. Whereas the east-west mountain chains of
Europe do not allow the large sub-tropical bodies of
warm water to influence the air masses beyond the
great southern peninsulas, the Gulf of Mexico exerts a
marked influence on the North American weather.
Winter Air Masses
(1) Con nental polar (cP) air masses. The
winter source region of the con nental polar air masses
is located over the snow-covered regions of eastern
Europe and Asia from about 45° north la tude to the
North Pole. These air masses are characterized by low
humidi es, very low surface temperatures and stable
lapse rates in their source regions. These air masses af-
fect the weather of Russia and Central Europe. Because
of the general west-to-east atmospheric circula on, the
cP air masses rarely reach western Europe. Since the cP
air masses move into western Europe from Asia, they
pick up heat and moisture from the warmer underlying
surface, and yet they are rather cold. However,because
they absorb moisture and there is turbulent mixing in
their lower layers, stratocumulus clouds form.
(2) Mari me polar (mP) air masses. These
air masses are chiefly found in western Europe. They
originate in a source region located in the North Atlan-
c. Because of the oceanic influence they are rela vely
warmer. They are humid and unstable. When mPK air
masses invade the con nental land mass, they yield
light precipita on. However, because of their contact
with the cold surface, stability is produced in them. In
the absence of any physical barrier, the mari me polar
air masses freely enter upto the Alps.
(3) Mari me tropical (ml) air masses. They
originate from the sub-tropical high pressure cell in the
tropical part of Atlan c Ocean. They are cooler, drier
and more stable than their counterparts in North Amer-
ica. Because of their long trajectories, they undergo
substan al modifica on before invading Europe. When
compared with the polar air masses they are warmer
and more moist with a marked stability in the upper
layers. The lower layers are characterized by a dis nct
inversion layer. Since there is a con nual cooling from
below, these air masses develop stable layers in their
lower parts. Beneath the inversion layer widespread
107
sheets of stratus cloud develop from which there is
some drizzling. The amount of precipita on from these
air masses is only moderate in the plains. Moreover,
because of the upper layer stability, even the frontal
ac vity does not produce heavy rainfall. The cyclonic
storms visi ng western Europe have mari me tropical
air masses in their warm sectors. It is, therefore, natural
that these air masses are more important during the
winter months than during the warmer seasons in
Europe. Having originated in the tropical east Atlan c
these winter me mari me tropical air masses are not
convec vely unstable like their counterpart in eastern
America.
(4) Continental tropical (cT) air masses.
During the winter season they influence the weather
of only the Mediterranean region. These air masses
originate over the great desert of Sahara and over the
dry South-Western Asia. The cyclones moving over the
Mediterranean draw cool air masses from the north
which move southward toward Africa, and warm air
from over north Africa is transported northward across
the Mediterranean. The northwestern Mediterranean
region is invaded by the modified mP air masses which
are cold and dry. They are designated as mistral. Over
the warm Mediterranean, these air masses pick up
heat and moisture from below. Similarly, cold modified
cP air masses enter the eastern Mediterranean. They
are cold and dry. They are called bora. They come to
this region in the rear of extra-tropical cyclones. Being
heated from below, they become unstable in the lower
layers. On the contrary, the north African dry and hot
air is cooled from below while moving across the Medi-
terranean. These modified cool and moist air masses
affect the winter me weather of Italy and the Aegean
Sea. In view of the above three modified air masses, the
Mediterranean region may be called a transi on zone.
Thus, winter precipita on of the cyclonic origin in the
southern and central Europe is due to the con nental
tropical air masses that have been modified over the
Mediterranean Sea.
Summer Air Masses
(1) ConƟnental polar (cP) air masses. The
“con nental air masses during summer season origi-
nate over Central Europe, south of the Arc c front. In
summer they are more humid than their counterpart
in North America. Their temperatures are lower than
those of the west European cP air masses. But cP air
masses are decidedly warmer than the mP air. This ac-
counts for the less changeable weather in the con nent
during the summer season.
(2) Mari me polar (mP) air masses. The main
source region of mP air masses during the summer
season is the extensive region of the North Atlan c.
These air masses which move into the con nent
of Europe develop either in the northern or the south-
ern parts of the above source region and thus follow
different trajectories.
MariƟme tropical (mT) air masses. During
the summer season, the influence of mT air masses
over the weather of the con nent is limited. Since mT
air masses form in the northern and the eastern parts
of the Azores High, there is pronounced stability alo .
That is why very stable mTs air mass is found south of
40° north la tude along the west coast of Europe. As
these air masses come into contact with the cooler
waters of the underlying ocean surface, they become
all the more stable in their lower parts. They are,
therefore, not producers of precipita on. Whenever
there is a mountain barrier blocking their movement,
they are forced to rise which results in precipita on.
However, the mT air masses are cooler and more stable
over Europe than similar air masses over eastern North
America.
(3) Con nental tropical (cT) air masses. In
summer, the cT air masses originate over the extensive
lowlands of North Africa and Asia Minor. Since the con-
nental region south of 45° north la tude is a source
region for these air masses, and since there are many
seas there, the cT air masses differ from one region to
another in respect of their moisture content. However,
they do not spread widely beyond their source regions
and, therefore, they are rather unimportant except in
those loca ons. However, all the cT air masses are very
warm and dry. The con nental tropical air masses in
summer cross the Mediterranean Sea where they are
called sirocco.
108
 ATMOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES : CYCLONES AND
ANTICYCLONES
Earlier discussion of air masses and fronts will
serve as a background for a clear understanding of
atmospheric disturbances. Remember that the term
atmospheric disturbance is more general than storm.
The atmospheric disturbances include such varia-
ons in the secondary circula on of the atmosphere
that cannot be placed in the category of storms. The
thermal and dynamic effects of general circula on,
as represented by the zones and wind belts, give rise
to secondary circula ons which produce the most
no ceable changes in weather. Even though the term
‘secondary circula on’ includes such atmospheric
phenomena as monsoon circulations, air masses,
fronts and upper level vor ces, it is par cularly applied
to the travelling disturbances which originate in the
middle and high la tudes as well as within the trop-
ics. Extratropical cyclones, an cyclones and tropical
cyclones offer some of the best examples of such dis-
turbances. As a ma er of fact, the general circula on
pa ern may be regarded as a background upon which
atmospheric disturbances of varying magnitudes are
superimposed.
Besides the major features of secondary cir-
cula on, the day-to-day weather of a locality is also
controlled by such local phenomena as are included
in the category of third-order circula ons. They in-
clude gravity winds, fall winds, valley and mountain
breezes, land and sea breezes, thunderstorms, and
tornadoes etc.
The most interes ng aspect of the second-and
third-order circula ons is that some mes they mask
the general circula on. The general circula on is like
the flow of a stream, and various types of atmospheric
disturbances may be likened to the eddies and cross-
currents which characterize the same.
Climatic significance of atmospheric
disturbances
The atmospheric disturbances play a vital role in
the complex processes of exchange of heat between
different la tude zones. True, the maximum control
of these disturbances on the day-to-day weather
is seen in the middle la tude zone. The travelling
cyclones and an cyclones make the weather highly
variable, because there is an element of uncertainty
in their me of arrival as well as frequency. Various
wave cyclones and vor ces are superimposed on the
general circula on and pressure systems of the mid-
la tude zone.
Precipita on, an important clima c element, is
also controlled by various atmospheric disturbances
visi ng the temperate lands. The convergent wind-
system of the cyclones is helpful in the li ing and
cooling of extensive air masses which results in pre-
cipita on. Extratropical cyclones that travel from the
nearby oceans to the con nents make the atmosphere
humid. It is these cyclones which account for a major
part of rainfall in different parts of our globe. On the
contrary, the an cyclones with their divergent wind
system are producers of dry weather.
In maintaining the la tudinal heat balance and
in the transfer of heat across different la tudinal
zones the atmospheric disturbances contribute a lot.
Besides, in the transference of humidity from one part
of the earth to another, these disturbances have no
less important part to play.
An understanding of the atmospheric distur-
bances of various magnitudes enables the weather
scien st to make predic on as regards their me and
place of occurrence. In addi on to this, storm warn-
ings can be given well in advance, so that protec ve
measures are taken to save life and property. More-
over, environmental protec on as well as weather
modifica on are directly related to our capacity to
understand as completely as possible the natural
environmental processes involved in these weather
phenomena and to make use of this knowledge in a
posi ve and construc ve manner.
CYCLONES
The atmospheric disturbances which involve a
closed circula on about a low pressure centre, an -
clockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise
in the southern hemisphere, are called cyclones. They
fall into the following two broad categories :
(a) Extratropical cyclones (also called wave
cyclone), and
(b) Tropical cyclones.
Extratropical cyclones are the weather distur-
bances of temperate zone and high la tude regions.
In common usage, extratropical cyclones stand for the
wave cyclones that originate at the polar front. But
109
the extratropical regions have various types of such Dark nimbus clouds, showery rainfall or snowfall, and
weather disturbances, besides the wave cyclones, that high velocity winds are some of the characteris c fea-
are non-frontal in origin. tures of the weather associated with them.

Non-frontal Atmospheric Disturbances Polar-air depression.These storms are winter-

in Temperate Zone me phenomena produced by unstable mari me polar
air currents moving southward on the eastern side of a
Such disturbances fall into the following types ridge of high pressure generally in the rear of an occlud-
which have been briefly described below : tropical ing depression. Polar lows origina ng over the North
depressions, thermal lows, lee depressions, and polar Atlan c affect the weather of northwestern Europe in
air depressions. winter. Some mes they also acquire fronts. From the
foregoing discussion it is clear that not all depressions
Tropical depressions. On occasions tropical of the temperate zone originate on the polar fronts,
disturbances in the last stage of their movement enter
nor do they have all the characteris cs of a typical
into the west wind belt. As they move onward they
wave cyclone. However, it is true that all the weather
get involved into the extratropical cyclones (or wave
disturbances described above have low pressure at
cyclones) found in their vicinity and acquire fronts and
their centres, and all produce unse led weather.
contras ng air masses. However, some of the tropical
depressions soon a er entering into the west wind belt EXTRATROPICAL CYCLONES
disinter grate. On the contrary, a few of them may also
redevelop into strong extratropical storms.
(WAVE CYCLONES)
Much of the highly variable and cloudy weather
Thermal lows.These depressions originate ex-
we come across in the temperate zone is the direct
clusively in summer and are the result of intense day-
result of travelling cyclones. The terms extratropical
me hea ng of the con nental areas. These weather
cyclones, temperate cyclones, or depressions are in-
disturbances are also called heat lows. In summer, the
terchangeably used to denote these moving cyclones
intense hea ng of con nents, par cularly the desert
in the mid-la tude zone. Since the middle la tudes are
areas, produces shallow depressions which hardly
an area of convergence where contras ng air masses
move out of their source regions. The weather changes
generally meet, it is there that the cyclones and an -
produced by these storms are only short-lived. Strong
cyclones travel with varying regularity along with the
convec ve ac vity some mes produces cumulonimbus
prevailing westerly winds. As centres for converging
clouds which give thundershowers. Areas, where there
and rising air these moving cyclones produce cloudi-
is no polar front in summer in the temperate zone, may
ness and precipita on. They also bring about changes
experience thermal lows.
in temperature and air-pressure .
The summer me thermal lows in the vicinity
Extratropical cyclones develop in regions lying
of Persian Gulf are typical examples of this type of
between 30° and 65° north and south la tudes in both
weather disturbance. The weather produced by these
the hemispheres. It is in these la tude zones that the
storms does not exhibit the characteris cs of a true
polar and tropical air masses meet and form what is
extratropical frontal cyclone.
known as the polar fronts. Most of these cyclones form
Lee depressions.Such weather disturbances at a wavelike twist or perturba on on these fronts.
are produced on the lee side of the mountain barriers. Since a cyclone on a weather map is shown as a low
When the westerlies are blocked by the north-south pressure area enclosed by a number of isobars circular
mountain barrier, the air flow undergoes contrac on or ellip cal in shape, it is also referred to as a low or a
over the ridge and expansion on the lee side. Thus, depression. When the isobars take an elongated shape,
there is a convergence and cyclonic curvature in the lee the pressure system is called a trough.
of the barrier. Such depressions are common in winter
to the south of the Alps and the Atlas mountains. Other
Shape and size.There is a great degree of varia-
on in the shape and size of middle-la tude cyclonic
regions where such depressions originate in winter are
storm. No temperate cyclone is ever exactly like any
Colorado and Texas situated to the east of the Rockies.
other. Generally the isobars are almost circular or el-
When these depressions move out, they a ract polar
lip cal. However, in certain depressions, the isobars
air masses and acquire fronts. Therea er they develop
take the shape of the le er ‘V’. Such storms are called
all the characteris cs of an extratropical depression.
a V- shaped depression. At mes, the cyclones be-

110
come so broad and shallow that they are referred to
as troughs of low pressure. There are occasions when
these storms become greatly elongated and lose some
of the common characteris cs of an ordinary temper-
ate cyclone.
The diameter of the temperate cyclones may vary
from 160 km to 3,200 km. But most of the cyclones
have diameters measuring 300 to 1500 km. The ver -
cal extent of an average-sized cyclone is es mated to
be 10 to 12km.
Paths and movement of extratropical cy-
clones. The general direc on of movement of temper- the Norwegian meteorologists, V.Bjerknes, his son
ate cyclones is from west to east with frequent trends
towards the southeast to northeast. In other words,
the mid-la tude cyclones are subjected to the general
westerly flow of atmosphere in the temperate zone.
Even though there is no definite path which most of
the cyclones follow, it is at least true that there are
certain tracks which are most commonly followed. The
heavy concentra on of storm tracks in the vicinity of
the Aleu an and Icelandic lows is the most important
feature of the world distribution of the paths fol-
lowed by the middle-la tude cyclones. However, each
individual storm follows its independent path. These
storm tracks, as they are called, vary with the chang-
ing season. Like the la tudinal shi ing of the wind and
pressure belts, there is a definite seasonal shi ing of
the paths of cyclones.
During winter months the opposing air masses
have greater contrasts in their physical proper es, so
the winter cyclones that develop in the middle-la tude
zone are greater in number and are more intense. This
accounts for the greater changeability of weather in the
temperate zone during the winter months than dur-
ing the summer season, when the whole atmospheric
circula on becomes sluggish.
In con nental Europe the largest number of win-
ter cyclones form over the Bal c Sea. Heat given off by
the large expanse of warmer sea surface s mulates
the forma on of cyclones here. The sharp contrast
between the temperature of the Bal c Sea and the
adjoining land areas leads to the forma on of storms in
this region. Under similar condi ons numerous storms
form over the Mediterranean basin. They move north-
eastward reaching Soviet Russia or travel to the east as
far as northern India. Most of the winter rainfall of the
Middle East countries and northern India is produced
by the passage of these storms.
ORIGIN OF EXTRATROPICAL
CYCLONES
Fitzroy was pioneer in the field who in 1863
explained that most of the extratropical cyclones
originated because of the interac on of air masses
having differ-rent physical proper es. His inves ga-
ons revealed that the subtropical regions produced
warm and humid air currents, and the cold and dry
air streams had their source regions in the polar and
Arc c regions.
It was toward the end of World War I that
J.Bjerknes and associates, collected systema c syn-
op c observa ons to study the structure of a number
of cyclones over Europe. Their efforts brought about
major advances in the understanding of extratropical
cyclones. Their inves ga ons and researches resulted
in what is popularly known as the polar front theory
of cyclones, or simply as wave theory. It is also called
the Bergen theory of the origin of cyclone. Even though
this theory could provide an adequate explana on
of cyclone development, recently more theories for
cyclone development such as Baroclinic wave theory
have been formulated.
Polar front theory
This theory, as stated earlier, is also called the
frontal theory or the wave theory of the origin of ex-
tratropical cyclones. This theory recognizes that the
polar front, separa ng polar and tropical air masses,
gives rise to cyclonic disturbances that intensify and
move along the front and proceed through a somewhat
predictable life cycle. Cyclones, according to Bjerknes,
form along a front where polar and tropical air masses
with contras ng physical proper es (temperature and
density) are moving parallel to it in opposite direc-
ons.
Thus, it is evident that cyclogenesis (cyclone
forma on) occurs where a frontal surface is distorted
into a wave-shaped discon nuity.
There are several factors which may be said to
produce an unstable wave on an unperturbed front.
Mountains, temperature contrasts or some nearby
disturbances may affect the air flow in such a way as to
create a wave. Some mes, the flow alo is capable of
ini a ng a cyclonic system. Meandering streams of air
in the upper troposphere have been found to intensify
the surface cyclonic ac vity. Surface cyclones occur
invariably ahead of an upper-air trough.
111
 According to the polar front theory, as the cold
polar air is deflected equatorward and the warm
tropical air poleward, a cyclone-forming wave is formed
along the front. The wave thus formed is divided into
two parts. The eastern part of the wave where the
warm air advancing towards the east ascends over a
wedge of cold air mass is called the warm front. The
western por on of the discon nuity, where cold polar
air is replacing the warm air by under-running the warm
and lighter tropical air mass, is the cold front. Under
favourable circumstances, the curbing mo on added
by the Coriolis force increases the amplitude of the
frontal wave. The curvature is also increased. Now, the
depression enters into a fully developed stage and has
two dis nct sectors of warm and cold air.
As the wave develops, the ascent of warm air
along the warm front results in condensa on, cloud
forma on and precipita on. Since the cold front ad-
vances at a faster rate than the warm front, the sector
of warm air becomes progressively smaller. The process
con nues, and the cold front ul mately overtakes the
slow moving warm front. Now, the process of occlu-
sion starts. Whether it is warm-front or cold-front type
of occlusion, the warm-air sector is raised alo , and
cold air behind the cold front now meets the cold air
in advance of the warm front. It is at this cri cal point
that the cyclone is said to have reached maturity. With
the occlusion of the warm sector, the source of energy
for the cyclone is cut off from the centre. Centre of
occlusion becomes filled with cold air coming in from
all direc ons. The ver cal mo on stops and there is an
all round rise in the surface pressure. It is noteworthy
that when warm and cold fronts are combined into
one, a long backward-swinging front is formed. This
is called an occluded front. The onset of the process
of occlusion brings the storm close to its death. Thus,
con nued occlusion hastens the dissipa on of the
original depression. In the end, the cyclone is a feeble
vortex full of fairly uniform air.
Life cycle of an extra-tropical cy-
clone
The iniƟal Stage. In the ini al stage the polar and
the tropical air currents on the opposite sides of the
polar front blow parallel to the isobars and the front.
In the cold air mass to the north of the polar front the
flow of air is from east to west. In the warm air mass
to the south of the front the flow of air is from west to
east. Therefore the wave disturbance is produced, the
front is quasista onary and is in perfect equilibrium.
The wedge of cold air mass lies under the warm air.
There is complete absence of wind shi . The weather
is fine. However, along the slan ng surface of discon-
nuity where the opposing air currents meet, there is
a sudden change in the direc on of wind. This is called
wind-shear.
(1) The incipient stage. In the second stage a wave
has formed on the front. Cold air is turned in a
southerly direc on and warm air in a northerly
direc on. There is an encroachment of each
air mass into the domain of the other. This
results in the readjustment in the pressure
field as a result of which the isobars become
almost circular in shape.
A cyclonic circula on is ini ated around a low
centre at the apex of the wave. The whole
cyclonic vortex is carried along with the
winds prevailing in the warm-air region at
approximately the speed of the geostrophic
component of the wind. It may be pointed
out that the new depression developing at the
crest of the wave is called the nascent cyclone.
The process of the birth of a new cyclone is
commonly called cyclogenesis.
(2) The mature stage. In the third stage the
intensity of cyclone increases. The curvature
and amplitude of the wave also undergo a
marked increase. The air in the warm sector
starts flowing from the southwest towards
the colder air flowing from the southeast.
Now, the cyclone is fully developed. There
are well marked warm and cold sectors. The
warm air in this stage moves faster than
the cold air. The direc on of movement is
perpendicular to the warm front. In fact, the
warm air is moving into a region previously
occupied by the cold air. In the rear of the
cyclone cold polar air is under-running the
air of the warm sector, thus a cold front
is generated there. Each of these fronts is
convex in the direc on of its movement.
Since the posi on of the cold front advances
faster than the warm front, the warm sector
becomes progressively narrower. This is
the beginning of occlusion. This par cular
phenomenon marks the maturity of the
cyclone. This is obviously the period of
maximum intensity.
(3) The occlusion stage. In the final stage the
advancing cold front ul mately overtakes
the warm front which results in the
forma on of an occluded front. Occlusion
starts first near the apex of the wave where
warm front is closest to the cold front.
112
 Gradually the process of occlusion comes
down to the more open part of the two
fronts. Thus, the warm sector is slowly
pinched off and finally the two cold air
masses mix across the front. This eliminates
the occluded front. Now, the cyclone dies
out. The life span of a single frontal cyclone
is normally about five to seven days.
Baroclinic Wave Theory. The frontal theory
of cyclones has proved useful in the predic on of the
forma on and movement of cyclonic storms. But this
theory is not in conformity with a mathema cal model
for the origin and development of a wave cyclone on a
sloping frontal surface. In other words, it has no math-
ema cal founda on in explaining the ini al stages of
cyclone development.
Baroclinic Wave Theory is based on the fact that
cyclones of the extra-tropical regions may form even
without any pre-existing front between the polar
and the tropical air masses. Further, it considers the
cyclones and an cyclones as an integral part of the
general atmospheric circula on. The most important
feature of this theory is that it was evolved through the
use of mathema cal techniques and numerical analysis
of weather forecas ng.
Before discussing the salient features of the
baroclinic wave theory of cyclones, it is per nent to
clarify the concept of baroclinicity. Baroclinicity de-
notes the state of stra fica on in the atmosphere in
which surfaces of constant pressure intersect surfaces
of constant density (which depends mostly on tem-
perature). Barotrophy, on the other hand, is the state
of stra fica on in the atmosphere in which surfaces
of constant pressure and constant density are parallel.
These condi ons depict the atmospheric condi ons
which relate to stability or instability. ‘Hydrodynamic
stability’ is another term used to refer to this type of
overall stability of the atmosphere in so far as the for-
ma on of cyclones is concerned.
According to the baroclinic theory, cyclones and
an cyclones in the temperate region form as a result
of the baroclinic instability. The poten al energy in the
zonal flow is converted into kine c energy of the ed-
dies. Baroclinicity in the atmosphere is represented by
a frontal region. In the troposphere, there is a con nu-
ous decrease in temperature from the equator towards
the poles. The meridional temperature gradient goes
on increasing and it makes the zonal flow unstable. At
a certain stage the flow is broken down into a number
of cyclonic and an cyclonic circula ons.
It may be pointed out that the wind and tem-
perature gradients alo are different from those at
the surface. We also know that meandering jet stream
produces ridges and troughs in the upper air flow. A
ridge of high pressure draws warm air towards the pole.
A trough of low pressure, on the other hand, allows cold
air to move towards the equator. Thus, the wave flow
of the upper westerlies provides an important mecha-
nism for the growth of cyclonic storms which, in turn,
re-distribute energy. Transfer of heat that takes place
across the temperature zone is effected by the cyclones
and an cyclones. The existence of wave and eddies in
the general flow pa ern of the globe is essen al for
the maintenance of the la tudinal heat balance. The
wavy pa ern alo largely determines the pressure
pa erns at the surface.
According to the baroclinic theory, the north-
south perturba ons of wind velocity are accompanied
by ver cal veloci es in ascending air currents of the
warm and moist air, and descending air currents of the
cold and dense air.
Rising air currents give rise to inflowing currents
of air from the adjoining regions. The converging air
currents develop a cyclonic spin because of the ef-
fect of Coriolis force. As the air gets closer to the axis
of rota on its rota onal velocity increases. This is in
conformity with the principle of the conserva on of
angular momentum. In the northern hemisphere, there
is a counter-clockwise circula on around the centre. As
the cyclone develops in intensity, the ascent of air is
more vigorous. This results in more and more of con-
densa on and the release of latent heat. The con nued
intensifica on of the cyclone results in propor onate
fall of pressure in the cyclone.
To summarize, this theory was developed through
the use of mathema cal techniques. According to this
theory, the north- south temperature gradient makes
the middle-la tude upper air flow unstable. The air
flow assumes wavy flow which under special circum-
stances breaks into cyclones and an cyclones.
Through these atmospheric disturbances, the
greatest heat exchange in the mid-la tude region is
made possible. Cyclones and an cyclones, according
to this theory, are non-frontal in origin, and may be
taken to be a part and parcel of the general circula-
on pa ern.
Bjerknes’ Cyclone Model
Bjerknes’ model of an extratropical cyclone was
produced in 1918 a er inves ga ng the structure of a
113
large number of cyclones in north-western Europe. The
cyclone model helps in under-standing and predic ng
the sequence of weather of the temperate la tudes.
A temperate cyclone takes about 2 to 4 days to pass
over a region. During this short period of me abrupt
changes in weather condi ons are the rule rather than
excep on.
Sequence of weather in temperate
Cyclone
Different parts of temperate cyclones are
asso¬ciated with varying weather condi ons because
of different types of air masses and varying tempera-
ture condi ons. The observa on point of a moving
temper¬ate cyclone experiences different weather
condi ons at the me of arrival and passage of warm
front, warm sector, cold front and cold sector.
(i) Arrival of Cyclone-When the cyclone coming
from the western direc on draws nearer to
the obser¬va on point, wind velocity slows
down considerably, air pressure decreases and
the sun and the moon are encircled by halo
which is infact the reflec on of thin ‘veneers
of cirrus and cirrostratus clouds in the west
Temperature suddenly increases when the
cyclone comes very close to the observa on
point, wind direc¬ on changes from easterly
to south-easterly, the cloud cover thickens and
the sky becomes overcast with dark, thick and
low clouds.
(ii) Warm Frontal Precipita on-Clouds become
very thick and dark with the arrival of warm
front of the cyclone and heavy showers begin
with nimbostratus clouds. Since the warm
air rises slowly along the front, and hence
the precipita on is slow, gradual but of long
duration. The warm frontal precipitation
largely de¬pends on the amount of moisture
and instability of the rising warm air. If the
air is full of moisture and is unstable, there is
sufficient precipita on, the sky is overcast and
the sun is not visible for several hours.
(iii) Warm Sector-The warm sector comes over
the observa on point a er the passage of
warm front and there is sudden change in
the pre-exis ng weather condi ons. The wind
direc on becomes southerly. The sky becomes
cloudless and clear. There is sudden rise in
air temperature and increase in the specific
humidity of the air but air pressure decreases
remark¬ably. Though weather becomes ‘clear
but there may be some occasional drizzles. In
all, the weather is clear and pleasant.
(iv) Cold Front-Temperature registers marked
decrease with the arrival of cold front. Cold
increases considerably. The cold air pushes the
warm air upward andthere is change in wind
direction from outherly to south-westerly
and westerlwSky is again covered with clouds
which soon start precipita on.
(v) Cold Frontal Precipita on-Sky becomes
over cast with cumulonimbus clouds which
yield heavy showers. Since the warm air
is forcibly li ed upward hurriedly, the
cold frontal precipita on is in the form of
heavy downpour with cloud thunder and
lightning but the precipita on is of short
dura on and less widespread because the
cold sector is very close.(vi) Cold Sector-
Weather again changes remark¬ably with
the passage of cold front and arrival of cold
sector. Sky becomes cloudless and hence
clear. There is sharp fall in air temperature
and considerable rise in air pressure
but decrease in specific humidity. Wind
direc on changes from 45° to 180° and thus
it becomes true wester . A er the occlusion
of cyclone the weather condi ons of pre-
cyclone period again set in.
Secondary Cyclones and Cyclone
Families
When the cold front overtakes the slow moving
warm front, the warm air is forced upward. The meet-
ing of the two fronts creates an occluded front. Under
normal condi ons, in the later stages of occlusion the
cyclone weakens and ul mately dissipates. But some-
mes, during the late maturing stage of a cyclone, a
new low develops on the equatorward margin of the
original cyclone. This usually takes place in southeast-
ern or south-western part of the polar front. Thus, a
secondary cyclone is formed which passes through dif-
ferent stages of its life cycle and matures very rapidly. It
may follow the track of primary cyclone or may move
along a new path.
Extratropical Cyclones and Jet
Streams
When the Bjerknes’ model of the middle-la tude
depression was constructed in 1918, there was paucity
of observa onal data regarding the nature of airflow
in the middle and upper troposphere. Since then our
114
knowledge of the upper atmosphere has considerably
increased. Now the evidence indicates that there is
a close rela onship between the flow alo and the
cyclonic storm at the surface.
Studies of the upper-level wind charts have made
it clear that the upper-level westerlies follow meander-
ing and wavy paths having long wavelengths. It is to be
remembered that it was C.G.Rossby who first made a
detailed inves ga on into the nature of these waves,
called Rossby waves a er the name of the inves ga-
tor. According to him, the longest wave pa erns have
wavelengths of 4000 to 6000 km. There are, therefore,
three to six waves around the globe. Besides, shorter
waves are also generated in the middle and upper tro-
posphere. These shorter waves have a lot to do with
the cyclonic disturbances of the middle-la tudes at the
surface. Similar to the surface cyclones, these short
waves also travel eastward around the globe. Now it
is a well-known fact that the jet streams are part and
parcel of the upper-level westerlies.
The shi ing pa erns of upper westerlies exercise
a controlling influence on the winds and weather at
the surface. There is sufficient evidence to prove that
the weather condi ons at the surface have very close
rela on with the storms which develop in the upper
troposphere. There may be cold-core lows or the giant
tropical storms which never reach the surface. Recent
researches have revealed that each cyclone is a ached
to a jet stream which itself is affected by various stages
of the development of a cyclone.
The straight flow alo does not favour the cy-
clonic ac vity at the surface. Larger meanders produce
high amplitude waves with short wavelengths. Troughs
and ridges form alo . Large bodies of polar air are
transported to the lower la tudes and tropical air
masses are carried to the higher la tudes. This results
in the intensity of surface cyclonic ac vity. Besides, the
surface cyclones as a rule of thumb occur just ahead of
an upper-air trough. In view of the present-day knowl-
edge about the temperature gradients and wind speeds
alo , the close associa on of a wave cyclone and the
polar jet is an established fact. The flow alo is able to
provide the necessary convergence and divergence that
are so essen al to maintain cyclonic flow at the surface.
Thus, the air flow in the upper troposphere is the source
of energy for maintaining the surface cyclonic flow.
There are instances when extratropical cyclones
form without the prior existence of a polar front. These
depressions are actually ini ated by a trough in the
upper-air westerlies. Once such storms originate in the
lower atmosphere they a ract different air masses to-
gether. This naturally leads to the genera on of a front.
A er the front has formed, the further development
takes place along the line of an ordinary frontal depres-
sion. On the contrary, some mes a low pressure centre
formed in the upper troposphere produces a kink in the
polar front and thus ini ates a wave cyclone.
Anticyclones
An cyclones play much less important a role
in the weather-drama at the surface of the earth in
comparison with cyclones. Since an cyclones produce
clear condi ons and are almost weatherless, no seri-
ous study has been conducted on their development.
There is a common feeling that an cyclones are always
associated with fine weather. But this is not always
the case. Some mes, when an cyclones remain over
a region for a number of days and become stagnant,
they assume greater importance to man as he tries to
tackle the problem of air pollu on. Large an cyclones
quite o en block the eastward moving cyclones. The
middle-la tude an cyclones on several occasions bring
severe cold waves which are considered to be a seri-
ous clima c hazard to various human and economic
ac vi es.
It denotes an atmospheric system that is just op-
posite of the cyclonic system. In the context of general
circula on, the an cyclones are considered to be the
‘centres of ac on’. In all the la tudes, the loca on
and the energy. Of an cyclones form one of the most
important factors in weather forecas ng. However, all
the important an cyclones are found over the oceans in
the vicinity of 30° north and south la tudes in the form
of semi-permanent high pressure cells. But the cold-
core and warm-core migratory an cyclones have their
origins in different regions situated farther apart.
Origin and structure. An cyclones are high
pressure systems around which the wind blows clock-
wise in the northern hemisphere, and counterclockwise
in the southern hemisphere. There are various types
of an cyclones such as the cold-core an cyclones of
the high la tudes and the warm-core an cyclones of
lower la tudes. According to some other meteorolo-
gists there is a third category of an cyclones which
are described as the sluggish systems filling the spaces
between moving temperate cyclones.
Cold an cyclones of the middle la tudes are
also called ‘polar outbreak highs’. Some mes the last
member of a cyclone family draws cold air masses from
the sub-polar regions in its rear part. These rapidly
moving an cyclones move southward towards the
lower la tudes. This produces the cold waves so o en
115
experienced in the southern parts of the temperate
regions. When they enter into the subtropical regions,
they undergo a gradual transforma on and ul mately
become warm an cyclones.
Mechanism of anticyclone
formation
The exact mechanism of the forma on of an cy-
clones is s ll not clear. But the most probable cause of
their forma on seems to be the radia onal cooling of
the layers of atmosphere lying close to the snow-cov-
ered surface. According to Trewartha, the southward
surge of extremely cold and dense polar air is caused
by the combined effect of an upper-air long wave and
an expulsion of cold Arc c
Basin air alo . Since there is subsidence within
these an cyclones, there is subsidence inversion pro-
duced in the atmosphere which results in atmospheric
stability. Under certain conditions, an anticyclone
may undergo dis nct development and may become
intense. These developments are invariably associated
with intense cyclonic ac vity in the neighbouring areas.
Even then the an cyclones never develop such intensi-
es as are acquired by well-developed cyclones. How-
ever, it is to be remembered that the individual an cy-
clones are made up of different types of air masses at
different mes. Therefore the weather associated with
them always shows different characteris cs. But one
characteris c is always shared by all the an cyclones,
i.e. they are never affected by advec on from extrane-
ous sources. The weather produced by any an cyclone
is very much regional and diurnal in character.
Characteristics of anticyclone
An cyclone circula on is characterized by subsid-
ence and surface divergence. An cyclonic wind system
is not so well developed as is the case with a cyclonic
circula on. In the eastern part of a moving an cyclone,
there are north-westerly winds, while on the westward
side or on the rear the southeasterly winds prevail.
Pressure gradient is never so steep and the wind-ve-
loci es are never so high as in a cyclone. On the other
hand, an cyclones have always high winds.
Unlike cyclones, the an cyclones are always as-
sociated with scanty rainfall. Subsidence and divergent
wind system within an an cyclone do not favourcon-
densa on and cloud forma on. But in case the south-
easterly air is moist, there may be some precipita on
on the rear of an an cyclone. On occasions, the cold
northwesterly winds may produce snowfall. Whatever
uncertainty in weather is produced, it is because the
an cyclones are o en capped by cyclonic circula on
alo .
The surface temperature condi ons in an an -
cyclone depend upon temperature of the air masses
involved, humidity of air, and season of the year. In
winter, the cold an cyclones origina ng in the snow-
covered subpolarregions always bring with them very
low temperatures and blizzards which render the
winter chill unbearable. The middle-la tude an cy-
clones always produce the lowest temperatures of
the season.
In summer, the stagnant type of warm an cy-
clones associated with the air of subtropical or tropical
origin produce extremely high temperatures, called
‘heat waves’. Clear weather allows the maximum
receipts of solar radia on during the day. Tropical air
masses carry heat to the north as the high pressure
system moves into the sub-polar regions.
Since the an cyclonic condi ons favour clear
weather, the diurnal range of temperature is bound
to be large.
Distribution
The regions of origin and paths of movement of
the cold and warm an cyclones are different. Subpolar
regions give birth to cold an cyclones which always
move towards the south. The warm an cyclones gen-
erally move from west to east. However, the source
regions as well as the tracks followed by an cyclones
tend to shi towards the north in summer and south
in winter.
In winter, there are two regions of high frequency
of cold an cyclones : the extensive plateau of the Rocky
mountains in northwestern Canada and east central
Siberia. The states of Nevada, Utah, and Idaho have
the largest number of an cyclones. The area extend-
ing from Alaska to the Great Plains has high frequency
of high pressure systems. These an cyclones are cold
and shallow highs comprising the polar con nental
air (cP).
In summer, as stated earlier, the storm paths and
their centres of maximum frequency shi towards the
north. The Great Lake region has a maximum of an cy-
clone frequency in summer, whereas the cold an cy-
clones of the winter months avoid this region because
of intense cyclonic development there. In eastern Asia
too, the number of an cyclones is greatly reduced.
Some of the feeble an cyclones move across China in
116
summer. Now, the subtropical an cyclones follow a
more northerly route. Their frequency over the eastern
Pacific is high, and there are only a few high pressure
systems in the western part. This is so because in this
part of the Pacific the summer monsoon dominates
the weather drama. A number of warm subtropical
an cyclones pass over the Mediterranean Sea.
Types of Anticyclones
On the basis of structure, storm tracks, and gen-
eral characteris cs, an cyclones are divided into the
following four dis nct types :
(1) Subtropical highs. These an cyclones develop
in the subtropical regions. They are large in
area, elongated in shape and very deep in
ver cal extent. They are almost permanent
high- pressure systems positioned in the
subtropical high-pressure belts. They are most
o en stagnant. Whenever they move, they
move very sluggishly. These an cyclones are
well developed over the oceans, while there
is low pressure over the con nents.
(2) Polar ConƟnental highs. These cold an cyclones
form over con nental surfaces in winter. They
are produced by radia onal cooling of the
earth’s surface. At about 2500 metres above
sea- level they lose their iden ty. They are
made up of a very shallow layer of cold air.
(3) Highs embedded between cyclones. These
an cyclones are merely the sluggish systems
which are found between the more vigorous
individual cyclones. These wedges of high
pressure are inert, and produce clear and fine
weather a er the more turbulent cyclonic
weather.
(4) Polar-outbreak highs. Generally the last
member of a cyclone family is followed by a
great outbreak of cold and dense polar air,
which may move even into the tropical regions.
Some mes a well-developed depression in
the middle la tudes draws on its rear rapidly
moving masses of cold polar air. These
an cyclones while moving equatorward slow
down. These cold and dry polar air masses
pick up moisture from the warm subtropical
oceans and are transformed within a period
of two or three days into subtropical warm
an cyclones.
Blocking Highs
Such an cyclones occur at high levels, but they
are not limited in ver cal extent. They appear to be
connected with large an cyclones at the surface of
the earth. They o en block the passage of eastward
moving circula ons carried along by the westerlies.
They resemble warmcore anticyclones in general
characteris cs. They originate in the north-western
Europe and the adjacent Atlan c Ocean between 0°
and 30° West longitudes. The second area of their
origin lies on the middle and the western part of the
Pacific Ocean. This area extends from 140° to 170°W
longitude. Ver cally such an cyclones may extend
uptotropopause. Towards the west of the axis of these
massive an cyclones the tropical warm and moist air
masses predominate. There are clouds which produce
precipita on. The polar air masses towards the east of
their axis produce cold and dry weather.
Such an cyclones of the midla tudes are much
larger and may dominate the weather of an area for
more than a week. They are associated with clear skies
and light winds. It is to be noted that such weather
systems deflect the passage of midla tudes cyclones
around them to north and south. That is why they are
called “blocking an cyclones”. In summer such condi-
ons bring prolonged periods of sunshine intensifying
the CT air mass generally associated with these weather
systems at that season. High temperatures and drought
may result. During the winter months, the nocturnal
cooling through clear skies lowers the temperature of
the cP airmass to extreme levels. If the air happens to
be almost s ll, fog may result and pollu ng dust and
injurious gases may accumulate. With slightly stron-
ger winds, a combina on of low clouds and reduced
visibility at the ground level causes the bright skies to
produce what is called “an cyclonicgloom”. It may be
pointed out that the midla tude sequence of cyclones
and an cyclones are controlled by the polar front jet
and Rossby-wave cycle in the upper troposphere.
117
 TROPICAL DISTURBANCES
Geographically, the tropical atmosphere lies
between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Cap-
ricorn. But from meteorological point of view, the
boundaries of the tropical atmosphere are determined
by the high pressure cells of the subtropics in both the
hemispheres.
Earlier it was believed that weather in tropics is
monotonous, but now the evidences exist to prove that
various kinds of weather disturbances exist within the
tropics. A great deal of variability has been observed
in weather elements like temperature, precipita on,
pressure etc. However, there is no clear-cut dis nc on
between different types of atmospheric disturbances
that originate within the tropics.
Only the violent tropical storms like hurricanes
and typhoons have been seriously studied by the cli-
matologists. These severe storms are not only limited
in number, but they are also restricted to limited areas.
But it is the weaker and milder forms of tropical dis-
turbances which affect the weather to a considerable
extent and break the so-called monotony of the tropical
weather. Most of the extensive tropical disturbances
are the weak and shallow low-pressure systems domi-
na ng the weather of the humid tropics.
Characteristics of tropical cyclone
1. Size of tropical cyclones vary considerably.
Their diameters ranges between 80km and
300km but some me they become as small
as 50km.
2. They advance with varying veloci es. Weak
cyclones move at the speed of about 32km
while hurricanes a ain velocity of 180km per
hour.
3. Tropical cyclones become more vigorous and
move with very high velocity over the oceans
but become weak and feeble while moving
over land areas, because they depend upon
heat engine of condensa on. So such cyclones
affect coastal areas more.
4. Centre of cyclone has extremely low pressure,
winds hurridely rush up towards the centre
and a ain gale velocity.
5. Tropical cyclone doesn’t show temperature
varia ons like temperate cyclone because it
is not made by two different air masses.
6. Each part of the tropical cyclones yiels rain,
unlike temperate cyclone where it has cell of
rainfall.
7. tropical cyclone some mes become sta onary
causing flood deluge qnd disaster.
8. Tropical cycline normally move from east to
west under the influence of trade wind.
9. Tropical cyclones are generally confined to
summer month.
10. Tropical cyclone are also affected by oceanic
cold current near peru and african coast
they depend on heat engine powered by
the latent heat of condensa on which comes
from heat that is released when oceanic
water rises under the influence of sunrays and
a er a aining certain heights release heat of
condensa on.
11. Whenever a tropical cyclone moves on to
land, much of its severity is reduced simply
because its source of moisture is cut off.
In other words, no energy is available on
land to maintain a cyclone. The weakening
of the hurricanes over land is also the result
of increased fric on. Thus, it is clear that the
tropical cyclones originate over the oceans
and dissipate over the land.
Types of Tropical Disturbances
Tropical disturbances are classified into four cat-
egories : (1) Tropical disturbances or easterly waves,
(2) tropical depressions, (3) tropical storms, and (4)
Hurricanes or typhoons.
On the basis of intensity tropical cyclones are
divided into two principal types and 4 subtypes
(1) Weak cyclone
(i) Tropical disturbances
(ii) Tropical depressions
(2) Strong and furious cyclones
(iii) Hurricanes or typhoons
(iv) Tornadoes
(1) Tropical disturbances or Easterly waves.
These are the migratory wave like disturbances of the
tropical easterlies. The easterly waves represent a pat-
tern of wave perturba ons which move from east to
west with the current, but with a slower speed. The
source of their occurrence lies between 5° to 20° la -
118
tudes in both the hemispheres mostly in the northern
hemisphere in western part of the ocean. These waves
travel in a east-to-west direc on under the influence of
trade wind at the rate of 320-480 km per day. Ahead
of the trough line there is divergence of air currents.
Since in this part of the disturbance there is subsidence,
the weather tends to be dry and clear. On the contrary,
behind the waves, warm and moist air currents tend to
ascend which leads to the development of cumulonim-
bus clouds and thundershowers. Some mes easterly
waves are so greatly intensified that they develop into
hurricanes. Generally they develop in the Caribbean sea
and North Pacific Ocean during summer month.
When such a type, of transverse wave passes an
observer, the following weather sequence is generally
produced :
There is a ridge of high pressure ahead of the
trough. This is invariably associated with fine weather.
There are scattered fine-weather cumulus clouds
floa ng in the sky. The lower air may have some haze,
but close to the trough line there are well-developed
cumulus clouds with occasional showers. The visibility
near the ground gradually improves. Behind the trough,
veering of the wind is observed. Because of conver-
gence the heavy cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds
develop yielding moderate to heavy precipita on. This
part of the wave is also associated with thunderstorms.
There is a slight decrease in temperature.
As regards the regional distribu on of easterly
waves, they tend to develop in the Caribbean, when
during summer and autumn the trade wind inversion
happens to be weak or absent. The winter and spring
seasons do not favour the forma on of easterly waves.
Some mes easterly waves originate in the North Pa-
cific as well. During summer, in the Caribbean and the
Pacific easterly waves originate a er every three and
two days respec vely.
The easterly waves form in the equatorial troughs
which are elongated in shape and extend upto hun-
dreds of kilometers. They extend in the north-south
direc on lying across the trade wind circula on. They
travel long distances as distinct entities. Near the
surface of the earth these waves appear to be feeble,
but they are fully developed at a height of, say, 4000
meters.
(2) Tropical depressions. These depressions are
liable to occur anywhere in the warm humid air of the
tropics, but they are quite frequent in the vicinity
of inter-tropical convergence zone. Howeyer, they are
very rare in the trade wind belt. Many of
these weak depressions never grow into storms
of hurricane intensity, rather they die out as weak dis-
turbances. They affect the weather condi on in India
and North Australia during summer months.
(3) Tropical storms. These low pressures cen-
tres are surrounded by winds having their veloci es
in the range of 40 to 120 km per hour. Most favour-
able atmospheric condi ons for their occurrence exist
during the summer season. The Bay of Bengal and
the Arabian Sea offer ideal condi ons for the origin
and growth of these storms. Mostly they are associ-
ated with the storm surges ( dal waves) at the coast
of bengal because of many favourable condi on like
astronomical des, funneling coast configura on, low
and flat terrains of coastal areas and frequent occur-
ance of severe cyclonic storms. They are also present
in the West Indies and in the vicinity of the Philippines.
These storms produce heavy precipita on and bring
about a change in the exis ng weather. Many storms
of this type develop into more violent and destruc ve
type of tropical storms.
(4) Tropical-Cyclones (Hurricanes or Ty-
phoons). Hurricane is a severe tropical cyclone hav-
ing a maximum wind speed in excess of 119 km per
hour. The name ‘hurricane’ is given to the tropical
cyclones in the North Atlan c and the eastern North
Pacific oceans. The tropical cyclones of hurricane force
in the western North Pacific or China are known as
typhoons. In Australia this type of storm is given the
name willy-willy, whereas in the Indian Ocean they
are called cyclones.
Hurricanes represent the most violent, most
awesome, and most feared of all the atmospheric
disturbances. Since these storms cause widespread
damage over land areas, and are dangerous to ship-
ping, the weather scien sts have given considerable
a en on to them.
Difference between Hurricanes and
temperate cyclones
Hurricanes and temperate cyclones looks similar
in appearance but there are many differences
1. hurricanes are represented by more sym-
metrical and circular isobars. pressure
increases sharply from the centre towards
the outer margin resul ng into steep pres-
sure gradient.
2. Rainfall occuring from hurricanes is in
the form of heavy downpour and is wide-
119
 spread and uniformly distributed whereas
precipita on from temperate cyclone is
confined only to warm and cold fronts,
warm and cold sectors are devoid of pre-
cipita on.
3. There is no change in wind direc on in hur-
ricanes Wind blows from outer margin to-
wards the centre and then rises upward.
4. Hurricanes are not associated with an -
cyclones. Unlike temperate cyclones they
move from east to west.
Hurricanes
According to Trewartha,there is a spiralling in-
flow of air at lower levels, a rapid upward movement
at intermediate levels, and a spiralling outward flow
alo . It is the steep pressure gradient which causes the
rapid, spiralling winds of a tropical storm.
From the central low pressure core of the cy-
clone, winds converging from all direc ons are whirled
upward. As a result of the li ing of air, condensa on
starts producing cumulonimbus clouds which give the
inner structure of the storm a peculiar shape. Spiralling
bands of cumulonimbus clouds surround the core of
the hurricane. The top of the hurricane is marked by
divergent air flow which carries the ascending air away
from the storm centre. This phenomenon is essen al
to maintain the inward flow at the surface.
Structure.The innermost region of the storm
is a small circular area where the pressure is lowest.
This is called the hurricane-eye . Its diameter ranges
from 20 to 40 km. In this central zone the winds are
light and variable. The clouds are either absent or scat-
tered. There is a confused pa ern of waves crossing
each other in the sea. The temperature is abnormally
high and the weather is sultry. In this central calm
area, the sky is blue and there is intermi ent sunlight
against the background of spiralling clouds about 12
kilometers high. The high temperature of the eye can
be a ributed to the descending air currents which heat
up by compression. The hurricane-eye is undoubtedly
the warmest part of the storm. This central core of the
tropical storm is surrounded by walls of cumulonimbus
clouds. Maximum wind veloci es are always recorded
adjacent to the centre of the hurricane. Besides, heavi-
est precipita on is also recorded in the vicinity of this
region. The winds gradually slow down at uniform rate
from the eye wall to the centre where the rain prac -
cally ceases.
Weather sequence in hurricanes.The ap-
proach of tropical cyclones is heralded by falling air-
pressure which is slow at first, then more and more
rapid as the storm draws nearer. Wind velocities
gradually increase from a gentle breeze to hurricane
force. With the approach of the storm cirrus or cir-
rostratus clouds appear in the sky, and then they
gradually thicken into very dense cumulonimbus.
These thunder clouds are associated with thunder,
lightning and heavy rains. These destruc ve condi ons
may persist for a couple of hours. Then there is the
sudden arrival of the central calm area of the cyclone
with its fine and se led weather. The pressure now
remains constant at its lowest. This is the eye of the
storm. But this is a short-lived phase las ng hardly for
more than about half an hour. Then the fury of the
storm begins again. Now the direc on of the wind is
reversed and the pressure suddenly jumps up. Gradu-
ally the severity of the storm starts declining un l the
cyclone passes off. A er the storm has gone, the oceans
become calm. The violent weather associated with a
tropical cyclone may last from 12 to 24 hours .
Condi ons for the development of Hurricane:
(1) Large and conƟnuous supply of warm
and moist air. Tropical cyclones of the hur-
ricane intensity originate over the warm
tropical oceans where the surface tem-
perature is about 27°C, so that the lower
layers of air adjoining the ocean surface
are full of water vapour. Latent heat is
transported into the storms and released
in the process of cloud and rain forma on.
Tropical cyclones originate in the western
part of the oceans where temperatures
are rela vely higher than their eastern
parts. The cold currents lower the surface
temperatures of the eastern parts of the
tropical oceans making them unfit for the
breeding of such storms. Besides, warmer
part of the year offers ideal condi ons for
the development of tropical storms.
(2) Larger value of Coriolis force. The very
fact that tropical storms seldom originate
in a belt 5°-8° wide on both sides of the
equator proves that Coriolis force is an
important factor in causing the cyclonic cir-
cula on of air. Most of these cyclones are
limited to a belt extending from 5° to 20°
la tudes with their maximum frequency
in between la tudes 10° and 15°.
120
 (3) Existence of weak tropical disturbances.
It is the pre-exis ng mild tropical distur-
bances which, under favourable condi-
ons, intensify and develop as hurricanes
or violent tropical cyclones. Small local
differences in the temperature of water
and of air produce various low pressure
centres of small size. A weak cyclonic circu-
la on develops around these areas. Then,
because of the warm humid air and the
latent instability of the air column, a true
hurricane vortex may develop very rapidly.
However, it may be pointed out that only
a few of these disturbances develop into
hurricanes.
(4) Upper-level ouƞlow. At a height of 9000
to 15000 meters above the surface distur-
bance, there must be an an cyclonic circu-
la on, so that the ascending air currents
within the cyclone may con nue to be
pumped out in order to maintain the low
pressure at the centre of the cyclone..
(5) Weak vertical wind shear in the basic
current. Because of weak ver cal wind
shear, hurricane forma on processes are
limited to la tudes equatorward of the
subtropical jet stream.
(6) Small atmospheric vorƟces in the inter-
tropical convergence zone. These atmo-
spheric vortices initiate the hurricane
forming processes. It may be pointed
out that the trade winds from both the
hemispheres meet along a line called the
inter-tropical front. Temperature contrasts
between these air masses must exist
when the inter-tropical convergence zone
is farthest from the equator. Thus, the
convergence of these winds of different
temperatures and the resul ng instability
are the prerequisites for the origin and
growth of violent tropical storms.
Tornado
Tornadoes are funnel shaped storms which are
smallest but most violent and disastrous of all the
storms. They are violently rota ng column of air hav-
ing upper por on of funnel shape of cumulonimbus
cloud which is a ached to the ground by very narrow
column of air. It is of very dark colur because of domi-
nance of dus, sands, debris and condensed moisture.
The centre of tornado has extremely low pressure.
Because of steep pressure gradient winds rush up with
great force towards the centre having furious veloc-
ity of 600 to 800km per hour. Thus the swi ly inward
moving air is caught into the vortex of storm and is
rapidly li ed upward and cools adiaba cally and forms
thunderstorm.
Mechanism of tornadoes formation
It is formed by violent convec on of condi on-
ally and convec vely unstable column of ascending
air. It can also be related to fronts. The upthrus ng
of warm and moist tropical and subtropical air mass
by cold polar air mass along the cold fronts presents
ideal condi on for tornado development. Some me
intense hea ng of ground surface also induces ideal
condi on for trornadoes. It is common in southern
and eastern USA.
Regional Distribution
There are six regions of tropical cyclones all of
which are found on the tropical or subtropical seas :-
(1) Tropical North Atlan c-West Indies, Gulf
of Mexico and Caribbean Sea.
(2) Western part of the tropical North Pacific-
the Philippines, the China Sea and areas
around Japan.
(3) Eastern part of the tropical North Pacific-
the western coastal areas of Mexico and
Central America.
(4) The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.
(5) The South Indian Ocean - west of Tuamotu
Islands and the Coral Sea, in the region of
Samoa and Fiji Islands and the east coast
of Australia.
Tropical cyclones are completely absent in the
tropical areas of the south Atlan c and the eastern
South Pacific east of 140° West longitude.
Environmental Importance
Tropical cyclones are the most destruc ve and
violent type of storms. Fortunately, their fury and
destruc ve effects are limited to islands and coastal
se lements. The damages to life and property caused
by them fall into three categories : (a) damages caused
by high velocity winds, (b) damages caused by flooding,
and (c) damages caused by a storm surge.
A great deal of destruc on to man-made struc-
tures and vegeta on is done by strong winds in a
hurricane. Trees are uprooted and broken, and the
121
loose objects swept away. The worst affected areas
are invariably those near the coastlines. As the storm
moves over land, there is a rapid decrease in the wind
speed. On several occasions, coastal ci es and their
inhabitants have suffered tremendous losses of life
and property. When a terrible tropical cyclone strikes
a human habita on, the buildings are destroyed and
thousands of persons are killed.
Torren al rains that occur in a hurricane from its
towering cumulonimbus clouds inundate the low-lying
areas, cause floods and landslides resul ng in a great
loss of life and property damage. Besides, storm waves
of great heights, some mes about 5 meters, are a great
hazard to shipping. When these high sea-waves break
on the coastal land, they do great damage.
According to many weather scien sts, by far the
greatest damage and loss of life and property from
intense tropical cyclones are due to storm surge. The
rise in sea level because of the passage of a hurricane
is called the storm surge. Under certain condi ons
waves generated in different segments of the storm
cross each other and a ain abnormal heights ranging
from 15 to 20 meters. Such
waves are reported from the Atlan c and the
Pacific Oceans. Some mes a ship entering the eye of
a cyclone may experience calm or light and variable
winds, but the sea, on the contrary, will be very rough
because of the waves coming in from various sides. The
most violent storm of Pakistan in 1970 offers a typical
example of a storm surge. Similarly, Camile hurricane
of the Gulf of Mexico in 1969 has gained notoriety for
the havoc played by the storm surge produced by this
fierce storm.
At mes, a hurricane wave caused by the dam-
ming effect of the wind on the forward side of the
central region is superimposed on the dal wave. If
the hurricane wave combines with the spring de, the
result is disastrous.
Modification or Decay
A tropical cyclone begins to become weaker in
terms of its central low pressure, internal warm core
and extremely high winds as soon as the supply of
warm and moist air begins to dwindle or is abruptly cut
off. Remember that the weakening of a tropical cyclone
does not mean that the danger to life and property is
gone. Even a er the weakening of a cyclone, the danger
to life and property may con nue for many days. Where
a cyclone hits land, par cularly a mountainous area or
hill terrain, riverine and flash floods may con nue to
devastate the affected area for weeks.
122
 THUNDER STORMS, TORNADOES AND WATER
SPOUTS
Thunderstorms
Unlike hurricanes, thunderstorms, tornadoes and
water spouts are highly localized weather phenomena
and are randomly distributed. In fact, these violent
storms represent extreme events and atmospheric
hazards. In these storms a very large amount of energy
is discharged in an extremely short me called as ‘cloud
bursts’, the sudden impact of which is disastrous. These
are different from cyclone that while cyclone is almost
circular in shape thunderstorms is characterized by
strong updra of the air and is thought of as specialized
form of the convec ve mechanism.
The most alarming feature of these violent local
storms is the fact that they are so small and short-lived
as to make their predic on very difficult. Besides, they
strike with frightening speed so that within a few min-
utes they may destroy buildings rendering hundreds of
thousands homeless, damage the standing crops in the
fields, disrupt means of transport and communica on,
and may cause similar other natural calami es making
human life miserable.
Thunderstorms have been defined as storms
produced by a cumulonimbus cloud and always ac-
companied by lightning and thunder. They are usually
of short dura on, seldom over 2 hrs. They are also
accompanied by strong wind gusts, heavy rain and,
some mes, hail.
Origin and Structure
Thunderstorms originate from cumulonimbus
clouds. The only difference between an ordinary
shower cloud and these storms is that they are always
associated with thunder and lightning. According to
Trewartha, a thunderstorm is like a thermodynamic
machine in which the poten al energy of the latent
heat of condensa on is rapidly converted into the
kine c energy of ascending air currents.
Prerequisites
Presence of warm and humid air in the lower
layers of the atmosphere is an essen al pre-requisite
for the development of a thunderstorm. Atmospheric
instability and intense convec ve ac vity are other
important requirements for their origin and growth.
This becomes possible when normal lapse rate of tem-
perature is greater than adiaba c rate of temperature
change.
Factors Favouring Thunderstorm
Development
From the foregoing discussion, it is evident that
the following atmospheric condi ons are favourable
for the origin and growth of thunderstorms :
(1) Atmospheric instability. Atmospheric
instability is the most important factor in
thunderstorm development. Surface heat-
ing brings about an element of instability
in the warm and moist air lying close to the
surface. That is why warm and moist air
becomes unstable in spring and summer
when it is heated from below. Air mass
thunderstorms develop in this way.
In mountainous regions large number of
thunderstorms develop because of the
fact that air near the upper parts of the
mountains is heated more intensely than
the air over the adjoining lowlands. The
general upslope movement caused during
the day me generates thunderstorms.
(2) Lifting of potentially unstable air.
Frontal and orographic thunderstorms
result from the general upli of poten ally
unstable air. In the upli ed air mass large
amount of latent heat is released to main-
tain the thunderstorm. In the frontal li ing
poten ally unstable air is forced to rise
over a wedge of colder and denser air. That
is why rapidly advancing cold front pro-
duces a large number of thunderstorms.
At mes, a narrow band of thunderstorms
develops much ahead of a cold front. Such
thunderstorms are called squall lines.
(3) Large supply of warm and moist air.
Most favourable condi ons for the devel-
opment of thunderstorms are provided by
the warm and moist air in the lower layers
of the atmosphere. Besides, a very steep
lapse rate upto considerable heights in the
atmosphere helps in their forma on. Con-
di onal and convec ve instability intensify
the convec ve ac vity in the atmosphere.
The intensity of the storm also depends on
the magnitude of the atmospheric instabil-
ity.
123
 (4) Thickness of clouds. Thickness of clouds,
according to Trewartha, is an addi onal
factor in the development of thunder-
storms. Thickness of a cloud from the
condensa on level upto the freezing level
must be about 300 metres. In the middle-
latitude zones no thunderstorm would
develop unless the ascending air currents
reach the freezing level. According to
the Bergeron process of precipita on,
latent heat of fusion and ice crystals both
are essen al for the genera on of lightning
and copious rainfall in a thunderstorm. In
fact, cloud thickness is directly related to
the height of freezing level from the cloud
base.
The great thickness of clouds produces vigorous
convec onal current because of the latent heat of
condensa on. Because of greater thickness of clouds,
a much larger number of intense thunderstorms is ob-
served in the tropical regions. On the contrary, thunder-
storms in the temperate zone are not so numerous. The
warm and moist air along with intense surface hea ng
of the equatorial regions offers ideal condi ons for the
development of thunderstorms. The polar regions, on
the other hand, with their dry and cold air have very
few thunderstorms. In the middle-la tude zone they
develop only during the warmer part of the year when,
on occasions, humidity and temperatures are upto the
desired level. In temperate regions, whenever and
wherever air masses with different physical proper-
es converge, condi ons are produced to generate
thunderstorms.
Origin
Intense convec ve ac vity in warm and moist
air makes possible the lightning discharge in the at-
mosphere. So the thunderstorms have been called by
many meteorologists as the violent showers produced
by atmospheric instability. Thus, a thunderstorm rep-
resents the weather phenomenon which combines
strong wind gusts, thunder, lightning, torren al rains
and cumulonimbus clouds etc. all in one. That is why
thunderstorms are considered as a weather factory.
Structure
The ver cal extent of a thunderstorm depends on
the intensity of ascending air currents. The height of
thunderstorms ranges from 4 to 20 km. The rising air
cools at the dry adiaba c lapse rate upto the base of the
thunder cloud. Besides, there is a marked seasonal and
la tudinal varia on in the heights of thunderstorms.
The maximum height is attained during the warm
season in the tropical regions. If there is an upper- air
inversion, it acts as a barrier to stop convec ve ac v-
ity and thus the further growth of a thunderstorm is
checked. The top of the cumulonimbus cloud is anvil-
shaped and the forward-bulging crest points towards
the direc on of the storm movement. There is heavy
precipita on from the well-developed thunderstorms.
At mes, when the ver cally ascending air currents or
updra s are vigorous, hail may fall from the front part
of a thunder cloud. Lightning and thunder always ac-
company torren al rains.
Since intense hea ng of the earth’s surface sets
up convec onal currents in the atmosphere, it follows
that thunderstorms usually develop in summer in the
tropical and the middle la tude regions. That is why
these storms have a preference for the la er part of
the day when maximum temperature is recorded. Be-
sides, adequate supply of moisture is also needed, so
that the latent heat of condensa on may be available
to sustain the storm.
Virtually a thunderstorm is composed of several
convec ve cells with updra s and downdra s joined
together. These cells in a thunderstorm are several
kilometers in extent and go through a life cycle.
Stages of development
Generally a thunderstorm has 3 to 5 cells, each
of which goes through a life cycle. In the life cycle of a
cell there are three dis nct stages determined by the
magnitude and direc on of the ascending or descend-
ing air currents. These stages are as follows :-
1. Cumulus stage. In the cumulus stage
there is an updra throughout the cell. The
cloud contains precipita on par cles. As
the cloud grows larger in size, the updra s
become stronger and more widespread.
These updra s some mes acquire speeds
of 160 km per hour so that they are able
to uphold the large hailstones alo . In the
upper parts of the cloud, large quan es
of liquid water par cles and ice crystals
co-exist, a fact which ini ates the down-
dra .
2. Mature stage. The stage of maturity is
marked by strong updra s and downdra s
in the cloud. Heavy precipita on falls on
the ground. The fric onal drag exerted by
precipita on, according to Byers, changes
the updra into a downdra which con n-
124
 ues further on its own.
The falling of precipita on and the
beginning of downdrafts take place si-
multaneously. It is to be pointed out that
at maturity the upper parts of the cloud
are characterized by updrafts and the
lower parts, on the other hand, have more
pronounced downdra s. The severity of
thunderstorm is at its peak. Maximum of
lightning and thunder is seen in this stage.
Weather at the surface is characterized by
heavy rainfall and high velocity winds. The
most severe turbulence, o en a weather
Thunderstorm Electricity
In the mature stage of thunderstorms, the elec-
trical discharge centres are fully established. There is
a clustering of posi ve charges in the upper por on
and nega ve charges in the lower por on of the cloud.
Some mes a secondary posi ve discharge centre is
found near the base of the cloud. The value of these
discharges ranges from 20 to 30 coulombs. The dis-
tance between the above discharge centres is about
one kilometer. When the electrical poten al gradient
between the posi ve and nega ve charges becomes
very steep, discharges (lightning) may occur. Scien-
sts believe that the lightning strokes carry nega ve
discharges from the clouds to the ground. A series of
strokes produces the flash of lightning. It is because of
the effects of lightning discharge that it rains heavily
a er lightning flashes.
hazard to flying aeroplanes, marks the
weather alo .
3. DissipaƟng stage. The disappearance of
updra s marks the beginning of the dissi-
pa ng stage. This stage is characterized by
weak downdra s and light rain. Downdra
air spreads on the ground outward. The
out-flowing surface winds are o en very
gusty and wind velocity is nearly high.
Some mes the downndra which spreads
over the en re area of the cell produces
most welcome cooling effect on hot sum-
mer days.
According to another view lightning is produced
due to spli ng of large water drops. Each water drop
has posi ve and nega ve electrical charges which
remain in neutral state whe they are evenly balanced.
This balance is disturbed due to splitting of these
drops resul ng into difference in posi ve and nega-
ve charges.
Thunder : How it is produced.
The sound emi ed by rapidly expanding gases
along the channel of a lightning discharge is called thun-
der. A lightning stroke produces tremendous heat along
its path. The air is heated to 10,000°C which results in
rapid expansion of the air column. The tremendous
expansion of air sends vibra ng pressure wave outward
which moves at the speed of sound (3000 meters per
second). The noise produced by such a wave is known
as thunder.
125
 Precipitation in a Thunderstorm
Precipita on associated with a thunderstorm is
o en torren al and of a short dura on. The release
of precipita on is very sudden and the rain drops are
large-sized, so that it is called the thunder-shower.
Torren al rains from the cumulo-nimbus are produced
because of two factors : (1) vigorous convec onal
currents are produced in a thunderstorm, (2) specific
humidity is high because the thunderstorms develop
in summer when the temperatures are very high. The
cellular structure of a thunderstorm largely determines
the nature of rainfall. Maximum amount of precipita-
on is recorded at the centre of each cell from which
it decreases outward. In these convec ve cells the
dura on of rainfall varies from a few minutes to more
than an hour.
Hail in a thunderstorm
At mes, the cumulonimbus clouds in a very se-
vere thunderstorm produce hail also. Because of the
great ver cal extent of the cumulonimbus and the co-
existence of ice- crystals with the water par cles, the
necessary condi ons are present for hail forma on.
But not all cumulonimbus clouds produce hail. For hail
forma on, besides the high water content of clouds,
the temperature lapse rate should also be very steep
so that buoyancy of cumulous updra s is the largest
to provide an opportunity to hailstones to increase
their size. Maximum ground hea ng in the a ernoon
provides ideal condi ons for hail forma on. Topogra-
phy is an addi onal determining factor of the pa ern
of a hail. The size of a hail is determined by the rate of
upli within a cumulonimbus cloud and its high water
content. Even though there is a close rela onship be-
tween thunderstorms and hail forma on, there does
not appear to be a posi ve co-rela onship between the
two. For example, inspite of numerous thunderstorms
in the tropical regions the occurrence of hail is quite
uncommon. In regions where the occurrence of hail is
more frequent, the precipita on-ini a on level is char-
acteris cally higher than in the more humid regions.
Classification of Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms may be classified into the follow-
ing types on the basis of the mechanism which causes
the steepening of lapse rate and the ini al upli of
air.
Air mass thunderstorms :
They occur as a result of ver cal displacement
of air within an air mass and are not connected with
frontal effects. Included in this type are the local heat
thunderstorms, orographic thunderstorms and advec-
ve or upper- level thunderstorms.
1. Local heat thunderstorms.The local heat
thunderstorms form because of thermal
convec on produced by the intense sur-
face hea ng. Condi onally unstable air is
necessary for their occurrence. On the land
they tend to occur in late a ernoons in
summer. They mostly originate as isolated
convec on cells and are usually small in
size. The equatorial belt of calm with warm
and moist air provides the most favourable
condi ons for their development. Condi-
onal instability in the atmosphere is the
prime necessity.
In the temperate regions these thun-
derstorms develop only in the summer
season. But in the low-la tude regions
they may occur at any me of the year.
They are, however, more frequent during
the rainy season. Beyond 45° la tude they
are very rare.
2. Orographic thunderstorms.Orographic
thunderstorms originate as a result of
the forced upli of warm and moist air
over a mountain barrier. In this type also
condi onal or convec ve instability is a
necessary pre-requisite. These thunder-
storms are more frequent over plateaus
and mountains than over low lands. They
are larger and more intense than the heat
thunderstorms. Since these storms form
because of the li ing of local air, they are
sta onary. This characteris c makes their
predic on easier. Rainfall from this type
of thunderstorm is heavy and of a short
dura on.
3. AdvecƟve thunderstorms.They occur
from the advec on of warm air at low
levels or cold air at high levels. In both the
cases the lapse rate is increased. A high
lapse rate under favourable conditions
favours the thunderstorm development.
Ahead of the cold fronts in the middle and upper
parts of the troposphere there is an advec on of cold
air. Whenever lower layers of the atmosphere at the
earth’s surface get warmer because of surface heat-
ing, the lapse rate becomes very steep. This results in
the forma on of very violent and vigorous thunder-
storms.
126
 Frontal thunderstorms : Frontal thunderstorms
form in a layer of warm air forced to rise over a layer of
cold air. They are always associated with the interac on
of two different air masses at a warm or cold front.
1. Cold front thunderstorms. Frontal
thunderstorms of this type develop along
the advancing edge of cold fronts of the
extratropical cyclones. Here, the cooler
air mass forces a warmer air mass to rise.
Thunderstorms always form in the warm
air mass forced alo over the steep cold
front or under-running boundary of a
cold air mass. If the warm air is convec-
vely unstable, under the trigger effect
of atmospheric instability it may rise to
great heights resul ng in thunderstorm
development. Cold front thunderstorms
are usually very intense. They may form
any me during the day or night. But like
the heat thunderstorms, they also prefer
the warmer part of day. These storms are
most common in summer when intense
surface hea ng produces instability in the
warm air ahead of an advancing cold front.
They are more vigorous than warm front
thunderstorms. They are rapidly followed
by clear weather and lower temperature.
2. Warm front thunderstorms.At the warm
front the warm air mass gradually overruns
the wedge of cold air. Whenever the rising
warm air is warm, humid, and unstable
the thunderstorms form. Thunderstorms
of this class are less severe than the cold
front thunderstorms. Thunder-storms of
this class are less severe than the cold
front thunderstorms. They always form
at greater heights from the surface. The
advec on of cold air and the convergence
of air masses do not influence them to the
extent as they do in the case of cold front
thunderstorms.
Depending on the moisture content and instabil-
ity of the upli ed warm air, the occluded fronts also at
mes develop frontal thunderstorms.
Tornadoes
Tornado is defined as a violently rota ng column
of air a ended by a funnel-shaped or tubular cloud
extending downward from the base of a cumulonimbus
cloud. Tornadoes are the most violent of all the storms.
They are very small in size and of short dura on. These
atmospheric disturbances may be ranked high among
nature’s most destruc ve forces. Tornadoes are also
called ‘twisters’ or cyclones. They are intense centres of
low pressure having a whirlpool-like structure of winds
rota ng around a central cavity where a par al vacuum
is produced by the centrifugal forces. The velocity of
winds revolving ghtly around the core reaches more
than 300 km per hour. Because of the storm fury, no
direct measurement of the pressure and winds in a
tornado is possible. Hence most of the informa on is
obtained indirectly, i.e. from examining the a er effects
of the storm.
Excessive instability and steep lapse rate in the
atmosphere are necessary pre-requisites for the origin
and growth of a tornado. It is invariably associated with
severe thunderstorms. Its most destruc ve part is its
funnel which appears to be hanging from the base of a
large cumulonimbus cloud. Its lower end which touches
the ground may be 90 to 460 meters in diameter. When
looked at from the ground, the funnel appears dark
because of the presence of condensed moisture and
the dust and debris picked up from the ground by the
whirling tornado.
Pressures in the central part of tornadoes may
be 100 mb less than those immediately outside the
storm. Because of such a steep pressure gradient,
wind speeds of about 650 kilometers per hour have
been estimated. Air caught into the vortex of the
storm undergoes rapid upli and cools adiaba cally.
The resul ng condensed moisture lends a dark colour
to the cloud funnel. Because the outside pressure falls
rapidly with the passage of a tornado, the air under
normal pressure within a building explodes violently
destroying life and property.
Tornadoes may be found to be moving singly or in
families of several individual tornadoes. These storms
usually move in straight paths at veloci es controlled by
the low-level jet. Besides, the excep onally high winds
whirling in a tornado produce a loud roaring sound.
Geographical distribution. Except the ex-
tremely cold northern parts of the con nents during
winters, and the polar regions, tornadoes may develop
anywhere in the world. But fortunately for man, their
occurrence is a rare weather phenomenon. They are
quite common in the United States of America and
Australia. The United States experiences by far the
largest frequency.
Most of the tornadoes in the United States are
associated with vigorous cold fronts, when the warm
and moist air near the surface is over-lain by layers
127
of cold and dry air. A steep temperature gradient is
produced between the above-men oned converging
air- masses. Above the inversion layer, the atmosphere
is marked by convec ve instability. In these condi ons,
exceedingly high instability is produced in the upli ed
air mass at the cold fronts. This gives rise to tornadoes
and severe thunderstorms.
Tornadoes are rare but not unknown in other
parts of the world. They occur in France, China, eastern
part of India, and as far north as Scandinavia.
Origin of tornadoes. The exact mechanism by
which the tornadoes form is s ll not clearly understood.
Meteorologists agree on one point at least that violent
convec on in condi onally and convec vely unstable
air column is the main cause of their development.
Tornadoes associated with cold fronts are easy to
explain. When the cold and dry polar air mass pushes
the warm and humid tropical air mass (mT) alo , an
element of instability is introduced in it. The latent heat
of condensa on retards the adiaba c rate in the rising
warm and moist air to one-half or one-third of that in
the dry and cold air. Thus, the rising air currents reach
great heights. Rising air moves spirally in a counter-
clockwise manner. This causes a very low pressure in
the centre of the air column. Lower pressure ini ates
stronger winds. As the winds increase their veloci es
the gyratory mo on in the updra increases. This
results in lowering the pressure at the centre further.
The lowering pressure cools in the air rapidly to below
the dew point. In conformity with this chimney of low
pressure the characteris c funnel shaped storm cloud
develops.
The tornadoes have their beginnings at the cloud
level with a whirling cyclonic mo on around a ver cal
axis. The whirl is ini ated by the upward movement,
and a er it has begun, contributes to the updra .
However, there are conflic ng views regarding the
origin of these storms. According to some meteorolo-
gists, the cold and dry air alo , usually polar con nental
air, overrides tropical mari me air. Thus, a lid is formed
in the atmosphere. Whenever this lid is penetrated by
the tropical mari me air, it causes a violent updra as
in a chimney, which results in cyclonic or whirling mo-
on. Other meteorologists suggest that it is the polar
con nental air which penetrates the lid forcing the
tropical mari me air violently upward.
Meteorological conditions associated
with tornadoes
Near the surface of the earth, there exists a layer
of warm and moist air. An inversion layer marks the
upper boundary of the tropical mari me air adjoining
the land. In the thick layer of dry air alo , the lapse
rate is very steep.
(1) The column of moisture rises to great
heights.
(2) There exists a narrow band of strong winds
with veloci es upto 64 km per hour be-
tween 3000 to 6000 metres.
(3) In the moist layer of air at the surface,
moisture must be concentrated in a defi-
nite narrow belt.
(4) The axis of the aforesaid band of strong
winds which projects downward must
intersect the axis of the wedge of moist
air.
(5) The level of free convec on in all the tor-
nadoes is rather low. The en re length of
the air column must be characterized by
convec ve instability.
(7) There must exist some mechanism where-
by the air column is given considerable
upii .
128
 Waterspouts
Waterspout is a column of violently rota ng air
over water having a similarity to a dust devil of tornado.
In other words, tornadoes and weak visible vor ces
occurring over water are called waterspouts. They are
found over the tropical and subtropical oceans.
Diameter of waterspouts ranges from a few me-
ters to a few hundred meters. Wind speeds in these
revolving storms may vary from 72 to 215 km per hour.
It may be pointed out that waterspouts are never as
intense as the tornadoes.
There are two types of waterspouts depending
on their origin. The first type is nothing but a tornado
which has moved out of the con nent and has gone
on the ocean or any other waterbody. It resembles a
tornado in every respect. The other type, which is more
common, is called a tornado-type waterspout. It is a
simple convec onal feature of the atmosphere which
may occur at any me or place in the temperate or
tropical region. It may develop even in a fair weather.
The air in a convec on type spout may rotate in cyclonic
or an cyclonic circula on.
The first type of waterspouts build downward
from a very heavy cloud of cumulus family resul ng
from the local convec on. The second type includes
those waterspouts which build upward from the sur-
face of water and are not associated with the clouds.
However, both these types have one common feature,
i.e. they draw water spray upward in the same way as
tornadoes suck up dust and debris. The funnel cloud is
formed by the adiaba c cooling under reduced pres-
sure. The waterspouts move in the direc on of the
parent cloud mass. The period of their dura on does
not last longer than 30 to 60 minutes. The upper part of
the spout moves faster than the lower part. That is why
the funnel is o en inclined. Usually the waterspouts
are a ended by thunderstorm condi ons.
129
 CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATES
AND CLIMATIC TYPES
World climates have been generally classi¬fied
into certain types and subtypes on two bases e.g. (i)
empirical basis and (ii) gene c basis. The empirical
classifica on of world climates is based on sta s cal
data of clima c elements derived through observa ons
and experiments while gene c classifi¬ca on is based
on the causes or genesis of clima c phenomena and
clima c varia ons. Though several scien sts have at-
tempted to classify world climates into certain types
but the schemes of Wladimir Koeppen, C.W. Thornth-
waite, and G.T. Trewartha are more commonly used.
KOEPPEN’S CLASSIFICATION
It may be pointed out that the classifica on of
Koeppen is more popular because it is quan ta ve in
nature as Numerical values of temperature and precipi-
ta on have been used in delinea on of boundaries of
different clima c types. The climates have been named
on the basis of alphabets and climates have been
determined on the basis of formulae and hence the
classifica on has become difficult to memorise because
each alphabet has definite and specific meaning.
Koeppen used five major vegeta on zones of the
world as iden fied by Candolle in 1874 (e.g. mega-
therms, xerophytes, mesotherms, microtherms, and
hekistotherms) as the basis of classifica on of world.
Based on these five vegeta on zones he divided the
world climates into 5 principal types and designated
them by capital le ers A, B, C, D, and E.
A Climate represents humid tropical climates
characterized by winterless season, warm and moist
condi ons throughout the year and mean temperature
always above 180C.
B Climate represents dry climates where evapo-
ra on exceeds precipita on and there is constant water
deficit throughout the year.
C Climate represents humid mesothermmal or
middle latitudes warm temperate climates having
mild winters, average temperature of the coldest and
warmest months between 8° and 18°, and below 18°C
respec vely.
D Climate includes humid microthermal or cold
forest climates character¬ized by severe winters, av-
erage temperatures of coldest and warmest months
being 3°C and above 10°C respec vely.
E Climate includes polar climates characterized
by summerless season, average temperature of the
warmest month below 10°C.
Besides these capital le ers, Koeppen has used
the following small (lower) le ers in his scheme for
specific meaning.
f = precipita on throughout the year, average
temperatures of the coldest month being more than
18°C, minimum precipita on of 6cm in every month
of a year
m = monsoon climate, short dry season, average
precipita on in driest month less than 6cm
w = winter dry season
S = well defined summer dry season
Koeppen has divided 5 major clima c types into
11 subtypes on the basis of seasonal regimes of pre-
cipita on and nature of aridity and coldness.
(1) Tr opical Rainy Climates (A
Climates)
A or tropical rainy climate is that where the tem-
perature of the coldest month is above 18°C. On the
basis of periodicity and regime of precipita on this type
has been further divided into 4 types.
i) Af climate-humid tropical climate, precipi¬ta on
in the driest month more than 6cm, seasonal
distribu on of precipita on more or less uniform
throughout the year, very low daily range of
tem¬perature.
ii) Aw climate-tropical humid and dry cli¬mate, winter
dry season (w), precipita on of at least one month
less than 6cm, high temperature through¬out the
year.
iii) Am climate-monsoon climate, one short dry sea-
son but sufficient annual precipita on and thus
wet ground throughout the year, dense forest,
precipita on of at least one month less than 6cm.
The boundary between Aw and Am climates is de-
marcated on the basis of annual precipita on and
the precipita on of the driest moth as per formula
given below-
a = 3.94-r/25
where a = precipita on of driest month
r = annual precipita on
130
 If the precipita on of the driest month of a place
is less than the value of a, it will be Aw climate, if it is
more than the value of a, it will be Am climate.
iv) As climate-dry summers, rarely found. The afore-
said Af, Am and Aw clima c types as iden fied
by Koeppen are generally similar to equatorial
rainforest climate (AF, monsoon climate (Am), and
savanna climate (Aw) respec vely. Koeppen has
further iden fied finer details in A climates and
has used the following lower le ers to indicate
them -
w’- maximum precipita on in autumn
w”- two seasons of maximum precipita¬tion
separated by two dry seasons
s- dry summers
I- difference of temperature of the warmest and
the coldest month less than 5°C.
g- ho est season preceding precipita¬ on
(2) Dry climates (B climates)
Evapora on ex¬ceeds precipita on, precipita on
not sufficient to maintain permanent stable water table
of ground water. B climates are divided into two types
on the basis of annual temperature and the rainiest
month of the year e.g. (i) dry desert climate (BW), and
(ii) semi-arid or steppe climate (BS). The boundary be-
tween BW and BS climates is determined on the basis
of the following formula-
R= 0.44t-8.5/2
Where:
r = annual precipita on (inches)
t = temperature (O0F)
If the annual precipita on of a given place is more
than the value of r, the climate of that place will be BS
but if it is less then r, the climate will be B W.
i) BWh tropical desert climate, average annual
temperature more than 18°C (64.4°F)
ii) B S h t ro p i c a l s t e p p e c l i m a t e , m e a n
annual temperature above 18°C
iii) BWk middle latitude cold desert climate,
mean annual temperature below 18°C
iv) BSk middle latitude cold steppe climate,
mean annual temperature below 18°C
3. Humid mesother mal or war m
temper ate r ainy climates (C
climates)
Average temperature of the coldest month above
3°C but below 13°C, precipita on in all seasons. Based
on seasonal distribu on of precipita on C climates
have been divided in to 3 clima c types-
i) Cf climate-precipita on throughout the year,
precipitation more than 1.2 inches in the
driest month of summer season. This climate
represents Western Europe type of climate.
This is further divided into two second order
sub-divisions e.g. Cfa (humid subtropical) and
C (marine west coast type)
ii) Cw climate-dry winters, 10 times more
precipita on in the we est month of summer
season than the driest month of winter season.
This represents China type of climate.
iii) Ca climate-dry summers, three mes more
precipita on in the we est month of winter
season than the driest month of summer
season, precipita on of the driest month of
summer season less than 1.2 inches. This
represents Mediterranean type of climate.
Koeppen has iden fied further minor details in C
climates and has used a few explanatory small le ers
as given below-
a warm summers, temperature of the warmest
month above 22°C (71.6°F).
b cold winter, temperature of the warm-est
month below 22°C.
c cold short summer season
i, n, g = as explained above.
4. Humid microtherinal or cold snow
forest climates or humid cold
climates (D climates)-
Temperature of the coldest month below - 3°C
(26.6°F) but of the warmest month above 10°C (50°F),
ground surface covered with snow for several months
of a year. This climate has been divided into three
types.
i) Df Climate - humid cold climate, no dry season.
This is further divided into (a) Dfa (long warm
summers, con nental), (b) D (long and cool
summers), and (c) Dfc (short cool summer-
subarc c).
(ii) Dw Climate - humid cold climate, dry winters,
further divided into (a) Dwa-continental
climate with long cool summer, (b) Dwb- cool
short summer (sub-arc c type), and (c) Dwc-
cold winters, d = temperature of the coldest
month below - 38°C, f, a, w, b, c as explained
above.
131
 5.Polar climates (E climates)
Temperature of the warmest month less than
10°C (50°F), further divided into (i) ET and (ii) EF cli-
mates.
i) ET climate-tundra climate, temperature of the
warmest month below 10°C but above 0°C.
ii) EF climate-permanent snow fields,
temperature in all months below O0C.
Evaluation Of Koeppens’s Scheme
1. Koeppen used two easily measurable weather
elements e.g. temperature and precipita on
as the basis for sta s cal parameters for the
delinea on of different clima c regions. In
fact, temperature and precipita on are most
widely and most frequently used effec ve
weather elements as representa ves of the
effects of clima c controls.
2. His scheme of clima c classifica on is primarily
based on the relationship between floral
types and their characteris cs, and clima c
characteris cs of a given place or a region.
3. He also paid due considera on to the loss of
moisture through evapora on as he included
effec ve precipita on, which depends on the
rate of poten al evapotranspira on, in his
scheme.
4. It may be pointed out that it is not the total
annual precipita on which ma ers more for
vegeta on community rather it is the effec ve
precipita on (amount of precipita on which
is actually available to plants) which is more
important for flora.
5. Koeppen’s scheme appealed more to
geographers because the scheme recognized
associa on between vegeta on types and
climatic types. Besides, this scheme is
descrip ve, generalized and simple and hence
it was widely acclaimed.
Inspite of several merits as referred to above
the Koeppen’s scheme also suffers from some serious
drawbacks.
1- Koeppen gave undue significance to
mean monthly values of temperature and
precipitation in his scheme of climatic
classifica on and neglected other weather
elements such as precipitation intensity,
amount of cloudiness and number of rainy
days, daily temperature extremes, winds
etc.
2- He made his scheme more descriptive
and generalized and ignored the
considera on of causa ve factors of climate.
3- He did not include the characteristics of
different airmasses in his classifica on.
4- The use of different le er symbols to indicate
different clima c types and their secondary
and ter ary subtypes makes the scheme very
difficult to memorise.
C L A S S I F I C AT I O N BY
THORNTHWAITE
C. W. Thornthwaite, an American climatologist,
presented his first scheme of classifica on of climates
of North America in 1931 when he pub-lished the
clama c map of North America. Later he extended his
scheme of clima c classifica on for world climates and
presented his full scheme in 1933. He further modified
his scheme and presented the revised second scheme
of classifica on of world climates in 1948. His scheme
is complex and empirical in nature.
1. 1931 Classification
Like Koeppen Thornthwaite also considered natu-
ral vegeta on of a region as the indicator of climate of
that region. He accepted the concept that the amount
of precipita on and temperature had paramount con-
trol on vegeta on but he also pleaded for inclusion
of evapora on as important factor of vegeta on and
climate. This is why Thornthwaite used two factors, e.g.
precipita on effec veness and temperature effec ve-
ness, for the delimita on of boundaries of different
clima c regions.
i) Precipitation Effectiveness
Precipita on effec veness or precipita on effi-
ciency refers to only that amount of total precipita on
which is available for the growth of vegeta on. He used
precipita on efficiency ra o for the calcula on of this
amount of water available to vegeta on. Precipita on
efficiency ra o (P/E ra o) is calculated by dividing total
monthly precipita on by monthly evapora on and
precipita on efficiency index (P/E index) is derived
by summing the precipita on efficiency ra os for 12
months of a year.
He iden fied 5 humidity zones on the basis of
P/E Index and boundary values for the major vegeta-
on zones.
Humidity Zone Vegeta on P/E Index
A (Wet) Rainforest 127
B (Humid) Forest 64-127
132
C (Subhumid Grassland 32-63 (2) 1948 Classification
D (Semiarid) Steppe 16-31 A er making sizeable modifica ons Thorthwaite
presented his modified scheme of clima c classifica-
E (Arid) Desert <16
on in 1948. Though he again used previously devised
Thomthwaite further subdivided each humidity three indices of precipita on effec veness, thermal
zone into 20 subhumidity zones on the basis of seasonal efficiency and seasonal distribu on of precipita on in
distribu on of precipita on. his second classifica on but in different way. Instead of
vegeta on, as done in 1931 classifica on, he based his
1. Ar 5. Br 9. Cr 13. Dr 17. Er
new scheme of clima c classifica on on the concept
2. As 6. Bs 10. Cs 14. Ds 18. Es of poten al evapotranspira on (PE) which is in fact
an index of thermal efficiency and water loss because
3. Aw 7. Bw 11.Cw 15. Dw 19. Ew it represents the amount of transfer of both moisture
4. Ad 8. Bd 12. Cd 16. Dd 20.Ed and heat to the atmosphere from soils and vegeta on
(evapora on of liquid or solid water, and transpira-
where r = adequate rainfall in all seasons s = rain- on from living plant leaves) and thus is a func on
fall deficient in summer w = rainfall deficient in winter of energy received from the sun. It may be pointed
d = rainfall deficient in all seasons out that poten al evapotranspira on is calculated
ii)Thermal Effectiveness (and not directly measured) from the mean monthly
temperature (in 0°C) with correc ons for day length
He believed that temperature had important con- {i.e. 12 hours
tribu on in the growth of vegeta on. He, thus, devised
Thornthwaite developed four indices to deter-
an index of thermal efficiency or temperature effec ve-
mine boundaries of different clima c types e.g. mois-
ness, expressed by posi ve departure of monthly mean
ture index (Im), (ii) poten al evapotranspira on or
temperatures from freezing point, and suggested the
thermal efficiency index (PE), (iii) aridity and humidity
following formulae-
indices, and (iv) index of concentra on of thermal ef-
(i) Thermal Efficiency Ra o ficiency or poten al evapotranspira on.
(T- E Ra o) = (t-32) /4 i) Moisture Index (Im)—Moisture index refers to
moisture deficit or surplus and is calculated according
Thermal Efficiency Index
to the following formula
where t = mean monthly temperature in 0°F. It
Im = (100S-60D) /PE
is apparent that T-E Index is the sum of thermal effi-
ciency ra os for 12 months. On the basis of T-E index where Im = monthly moisture index
Thomthwaite divided the world into 6 temperature S = monthly surplus of moisture
provinces-
D = monthly deficit of moisture
Temperature Province T-E Index The sum of the 12 monthly values of Im gives the
A’ - Tropical 127 annual moisture index.
Annual Moisture Index = (100S-60D) /PE
B’ - Mesothermal 64-127
ii) Thermal Efficiency Index-Thermal efficiency is
C’ - Microthermal 32-63
simply the poten al evapotranspira on expressed in
D’ - Taiga 16-31 cen metres as expressed above. It is, thus, apparent
that the thermal efficiency is derived from the PE value
E’ - Tundra 1.15 because PE in itself is a func on of temperature. The
F’ - Frost 0 method of the calcula on of PE is given above.

Thus, on the basis of precipita on effec veness,
thermal efficiency, and seasonal distribu on of rainfall
there may be 120 probable combina ons and hence
clima c types on theore cal ground but he depicted
only 32 clima c types
iii) Aridity and Humidity Indices-These indices are
used to determine the seasonal distribu on of moisture
adequacy. These are calculated as follows-
Aridity Index = in moist climates annual water
deficit taken as a percentage of annual PE becomes

133
aridity index.
Humidity Index = in dry climates annual water
surplus taken as a percentage of annual PE becomes
humidity index.
iv) Concentra on of thermal efficiency refers to
the percentage of mean annual poten al evapotrans-
pira on (PE) accumula ng in three summer months.
The climate of a place, thus, is determined by
combining the aforesaid elements of the climatic
classifica on e.g.. moisture index, thermal efficiency
index, summer concentra on of thermal efficiency,
and seasonal moisture adequacy (aridity and humidity
indices). Thus, the climate of a place is represented by
four le ers. For example- A A’ a’r climate = Perhumid
(A) megathermal (A’) climate with summer concen-
tra on of annual thermal efficiency (PE in cm) of less
than 48 per cent (a’) and li le or no water deficit (r)
etc. On the basis of above indices the classifica on
system becomes so complex due to large number of
clima c types that it becomes difficult to represent
them cartographically.
E v a l u at i o n o f T h o r t h w a i t e ’s
Schemes
In many aspects the 1931 classifica on scheme of
Thornthwaite was almost similar to Koeppen’s scheme
because both had a few common points e.g.
(i) Like Koeppen’s scheme his scheme is also em-
pirical as well as quan ta ve as the boundaries
of different climates are determined on the
basis of quantitative parameters derived
from precipitation and temperature,
(ii) Vegetation is made as the basis for
the identification of climatic zones,
(iii) Various letter combinations are used to
designate different climatic types etc.
The Thornthwaite’s scheme differs from the
Koeppen’s scheme in that the former used two indices
of precipita on efficiency and thermal efficiency for
differen a on of different clima c types but the de-
limita on of clima c boundaries on the basis of these
two indices becomes difficult and vague. Moreover, the
Thornthwaite’s scheme yielded the number of major
clima c types (32) three mes greater than Koeppen’s
clima c types. Like Koeppen’s scheme Thornthwaite’s
scheme also became popular among zoologists, bota-
nists and geographers but it was not appreciated by
meteorologists and climatologists because this scheme
did not include the causa ve factors of climates into the
classifica on of world climates in different types.
This scheme also suffers from a serious problem
of non-availability of the data of evapora on for all
the places. Thus, the lack of adequate climate data
makes it difficult for the precise demarca on of clima c
boundaries.
CLASSIFICATION OF G.T.
TREWARTHA
G.T. Trewartha, an American climatologist, made
several revisions and modifica ons in the scheme of
clima c classifica on of Koeppen since 1930s and
ul mately presented his simple scheme of clima c
classifica on having a blending of both empirical and
gene c schemes of classifica on of world climates. In
fact, Trewartha’s basic aim was to present a simple,
generalized and unambiguous scheme of the classifica-
on of world climates so that the major clima c types
at world level could be easily and realis cally iden fied
and cartographically represented on world map. Thus,
Trewartha’s scheme is a compromise between purely
empirical and gene c methods of clima c classifica on.
According to him, if required, several second and third-
order subdivisions may be added within each major
clima c type. Like other scien sts he also made pre-
cipita on and temperature as the basis for his scheme
of clima c classifica on. He iden fied 6 major clima c
types of first order at world level and designated them
as A,B,C,D,E,F climates out of which B climates were
determined on precipita on criteria while others were
determined on the basis of temperature criteria.
1. Tropical Humid Climates (A
Climates)
A climates or tropical humid climates are found
in those low la tudes on either side of the equator
which are characterized by high temperature and
adequate rainfall throughout the year and absence of
winter season. On the basis of varia ons in precipita-
on A climates are subdivided into (i) Af, (ii) Aw, and
(iii) Am climates, (i) Af climate is tropical wet climate
which extends upto 5° to 10° la tudes on either side
of the equator and is characterized by adequate rain-
fall throughout the year. This is also known as tropical
rainforest climate. There is no winter season as it is
characterized by uniformly high temperature all the
year round.
Aw climate is a tropical wet and dry climate char-
acterized by uniformly high temperature throughout
the year but there are more than two dry months. This
climate is also known as savanna climate which is domi-
nated by dry trade winds or subtropical an cyclones
134
during winter season and by equatorial westerlies and
intertropical convergence during summer season.
Am climate is monsoon climate which receives
more than 80 per cent of annual rainfall during four
summer monsoon months.
2. Dry Climates (B Climates)
The boundaries of B (dry) climates have been
determined on the basis of precipita on varia ons.
They extend from the outer boundary of A climates to
the middle la tudes. B climates are characterized by
high evapora on, loss of moisture through evapotrans-
pira on exceeding the annual receipt of water gain
from precipita on, large annual and daily ranges of
temperature, extreme seasonal temperatures, very low
and highly variable annual precipita on, extremely low
rela ve humidity, abundant sun-shine and clear sky.
On the basis of aridity and annual average pre-
cipita on B (dry) climates have been divided into two
clima c types e.g. (i) arid or desert climate- BW climate,
and (ii) semi-arid or steppe climate- BS climate. On the
basis of temperature varia ons arid (BW) and semiarid
(BS) climates have been divided into 4 clima c types
as follows-
1. BWh climate tropical-subtropical hot desert cli-
mate
2. BWk climate middle la tudes or temperate and
boreal cold dry climate
3. BSh climate tropical-subtropical steppe or semiarid
climate
4. BSk climate middle la tudes or temperateand
boreal steppe climate
The boundary between hot dry and cold dry
climates is determined on the basis of 32°F (0°C)
isotherm of the coldest month. Tropical-subtropical dry
(BWh) and steppe (BSh) climates are dominated by dry
trade winds and subtropical an cyclones resul ng into
constant dry condi ons. At least 8 months of a year
record average temperature above 10°C. On the other
hand, temperate cold dry (BWk) and cold steppe (BSk)
climates are located on the leeward sides of the moun-
tains in the interior of the con nents and are domi-
nated by cold an cyclones during winter season.
3. Middle Latitudes Wet Climates (C
Climates)
The isotherm of 18°C of the coldest month forms
the equatorward boundary of C climates. On the basis
of seasonal distribu on of precipita on C climates
are divided into 3 types e.g. (i) Cs climate (subtropical
subhumid climate with dry summer, also known as
Mediterranean climate), (ii) Ca climate (subtropical
humid climate), and (iii) Cb climate (middle la tude
marine climate). Cs climate, located on the western
sides of the con nents on the tropical margins of the
middle la tudes, is affected by subtropical an cyclonic
condi ons in summers and by wet westerlies in winters.
Ca climate (Cfw of Koeppen), located on the eastern
sides of the con nents, receives precipita on in all
seasons but summer months receive more rainfall
than winter months (this climate is known as China
type of climate). Cb climate is affected by westerlies
throughout the year.
4. Microthermal or Temperate
Climates (D Climates)
These climates are found in the areas of high
middle la tudes which are affected by westerlies in
summers and by polar winds in winters. The poleward
and equatorward boundaries are determined by aver-
age temperatures of 10°C for 4 months in the case of
the former and for 6 months in the case of the la er.
On the basis of temperature varia ons ‘D’ climates have
been divided into 4 types e.g. (i) Da climate (con nental
humid climate with temperature of the warmest month
above 25°C), (ii) Db climate (con nental humid climate
with temperature of the warmest month below 22°C),
(iii) Dc climate (subpolar climate, short summer sea-
son), and (iv) Dd climate (temperature of the coldest
month less than -38°C).
5. Boreal Climate (E Climate)
Boreal climate is located in the higher middle
la tudes and is characterized by short and cool summer
season, long and very cold winter season, very short
frost free season, one to three months of a year having
average temperature of 10°C or more etc.
6. Polar Climate (F Climate)
Summer season is absent. Polar winds dominate
throughout the year. These climates are found in the
northern hemisphere only. No month of the year
records average temperature above 10°C. On the basis
of temperature varia ons ‘F’ climates are divided into
(i) tundra climate (Ft climate) and (ii) icecap climate
(Ff climate).
D e p a r t u re s Fro m Ko e p p e n ’s
Classification
The Trewartha’s scheme of clima c classifica on
registers the following departures from the scheme of
Koeppen.
135
 1. In B climates Koeppen used isotherm of 18°C
average annual temperature to differen ate
the boundary between hot dry and cold dry
(h/k boundary) climates while Trewartha
used an isotherm of 32°F (0°C) of the coldest
month for the determina on of h/k boundary.
2. Koeppen used the isotherm of-3°C (26.6°F)
temperature of the coldest month for
determining boundary between B and
C climates while Trewartha selected
isotherm of 32°F (0°C) for the purpose.
3. Koeppen divided C climates on the basis of
seasonal distribu on of precipita on into 3 types
e.g. (i) Cs (summers dry), (ii) Cw (winter dry),
and Cf (no dry season) but Trewartha divided
C climates into (i) Cs, (ii) Ca, and (iii) Cb types.
4. Koeppen divided D climates on the basis of
precipita on into (i) Dw and (ii) Df types while
Trewartha divided them on the basis of summer
temperature into (i) Da, (ii) Db, and (iii) Dd types.
Evaluation
As stated earlier Trewartha’s scheme of clima c
classifica on is very simple, unambiguous and a mix-
ture of both empirical and gene c methods of clima c
classifica on. It uses only two weather elements i.e.
precipita on and temperature and avoids vigorous
sta s cal and mathema cal calcula ons in determining
clima c type of a place and demarca ng boundaries
between two different clima c types. This scheme also
includes the effects of land and water surfaces on the
climate of an area. Trewartha’s scheme became more
popular among geographers because of its simplicity.
EQUATORIAL CLIMATE OR
TROPICAL RAIN FOREST
CLIMATE (AF)
Location
Equatorial type of climate, also known as tropical
rainforest wet climate or simply Af climate, is located
upto 5°to 10° la tudes on either side of the equator
but at some places it extends upto 15°-25° la tudes
mainly along the eastern margins of the con nents.
This clima c zone is subjected to seasonal shi ing due
to seasonal shi ing of pressure and wind belts conse-
quent upon the northward and southward migra on
of the sun. The equatorial climate is characterized by
two major proper es e.g. (i) uniformly high tempera-
ture throughout the year. and (ii) uniformly adequate
rainfall throughout the year received through convec-
ve mechanism. The equatorial climate is found in
the following locali- es-(i) the Amazon Basin in South
America, (ii) the Congo Basin in Africa, (iii) Guinea coast
in Africa, much of the Indo-Malaysian Region mainly
in Jawa, Sumatra, Borneo. Malaysia. Singapore and
New Guinea, (v) Philippine Islands, (vi) eastern central
America (parts of Panama. Costarica, Nicargua, Hon-
duras, Guatemala etc,), some islands in the Caribbean
Sea, western Columbia and eastern Madagascar.
Temperature
Since mid day sun is almost overhead through-
out the year and there is li le difference between the
lengths of day and night during the year and hence
the equatorial region receives maximum amount of
insola on which causes uniformly high temperature
throughout the year as the average monthly tem-
perature is always more than 18°C. The mean monthly
temperature of most of the places ranges between 24°C
and 27°C. Mean annual temperature is around 20°C but
the maximum temperature of the year touches 30°C.
The mean annual range of temperature of island areas
ranges between 0.5°C and 1°C but other areas record
annual ranges of temperature between 2°C to 3°C.
Thus, uniformly high temperatures of the equa-
torial regions, though lower than the temperatures
of the hot desert climate, becomes unpleasant and
injurious to human beings because of its uniformity
and monotony.
The daily range of temperature varying between
5°C and 10°C is usually far greater than the annual
range of temperature. Usually, mid-day temperature
rises to 29°C-34°C and comes dawn To 21°C-24°C during
nights. Thus, the rela vely low nocturnal temperature
becomes uncomfortable to local people. This is why
nights of the equatorial regions are called winters of
the tropics. The day me temperature becomes op-
pressive and unbearable due to high rela ve humidity,
weak air circula on, bright sunlight etc. The inhabitants
of the equatorial regions are so used and habitual to
uniformly high temperatures throughout the year that
they feel immediately even a slight fall in temperature.
They feel cold if temperature falls below 20°C and they
burn wood to ward off rela ve cold (though there is
no winter season).
Air Pressure And Winds
Thermally induced low pressure belt develops
around the equator due to uniformly high tem-perature
throughout the year but the pressure gradient is so
low that strong air circula on is not possible. Thus, the
equatorial region lies in the belt of calm and doldrums
characterized by light and variable winds. The surface
136
air is heated, becomes light and moves upward thus
forming convec ve currents. On the ground surface
the winds uniformly spread laterally due to more or
less uniform air pressure. The discon nuous belt of
doldrum characterized by equatorial westerlies is found
along the equator. The convergence of trade winds
coming from the subtropical high pressure belt forms
inter tropical convergence (ITC) which is associated
with atmospheric disturbances (cyclones). The winds
become strong with thundestorms. Strong winds give
temporary relief from sultry weather. Temperature is
lowered due to arrival of Harma an winds in the nights
in the Guinea coast and thus the pleasantly cooling ef-
fect of Harma an gives comfort to human bodies. Sea
breezes penetrate upto 48-96 km inland in the coastal
areas and thus brings pleasant weather through their
cooling effects. This is why coastal areas in the equato-
rial regions are compara vely be er suited for living
than the interior areas.
Precipitation
Equatorial regions receive rainfall throughout the
year and thus there is no dry season. Average annual
rainfall. Even the driest month of the year receives
rainfall more than 6 cm. Iquitos (Peru), Akassa and
Ocean Island receive 261 cm, 366cm and 213cm of rain
per annum respec vely. Though most of the rainfall
occurs through convec ve mechanism but wherever
mountain barrier becomes effec ve the amount of
rainfall increases substan ally. For example, annual
rainfall reaches 1000cm in the foothill zone of Cam-
eroon Mountain in Africa. Most of the annual rainfall
in the equatorial region is received in the form of con-
vec onal rainfall (see types of rainfall in chapter 36).
The strong daily ver cal convec ve mechanism due
to intense hea ng of ground surface because of high
amount of insola on, horizontal convergence of trade
winds forming intertropical convergence, a fairly large
number of atmospheric disturbances (cyclonic storms)
and thunderstorms yield heavy rainfall daily throughout
the equatorial regions.
Distribu on inspite of high rainfall throughout the
year there is no uniform spa al distribu on of rainfall
in all parts of equatorial clima c region. Though no
month goes dry but definitely some months of the year
receive more rainfall than the other months. Thus, the
months having more rainfall are called wet months
while the months receiving less rainfall are known as
less wet months.
Cloudiness
Equatorial climate is characterized by fairly large
amount of cloudiness throughout the year. Gener-
ally, cumulus type of clouds dominates daily weather
condi ons. On an average, there is about 60 per cent
cloudiness daily. The maximum amount of cloudiness is
found between 3 and 4 P.M. daily because of maximum
convec ve ac vity during this period but the sky is
generally clear in the morning and at night. Though the
daily period of cloudiness is less in comparison to high
middle la tude areas dominated by temperate cyclones
but there is strong heavy downpour due to convec ve
mechanism and resultant convec onal rainfall.
Rainfall regime
Equatorial rainfall is convec onal in character
wherein there is daily heavy downpour from cumulo-
nimbus clouds. The sky is usually free from clouds in
the early morning. As the sun rises above the horizon,
the amount of insola on received at the ground surface
increases and hence air temperature also increases
accordingly. Air is heated, becomes light and moves
upward and thus becomes unstable which causes
convec onal system. The ascending air cools at the dry
adiaba c lapse rate (10°C per 1000m) and the air soon
becomes saturated and condensa on level is reached.
Clouds are formed. In the beginning they are cumulus
and few in number but as the day advances, humidity
increases due to increasing evapora on, the clouds are
thickened and darkness increases. By a ernoon the
whole sky becomes overcast with thick cumulo-nimbus
clouds. Thus, heavy rain starts with lightning and cloud
thunder. As the day draws towards evening the rains
become slow and weak and they completely stop by
evening, clouds are cleared and weather becomes
pleasant for some me. The aforesaid mechanism is
repeated daily.
Variability of rainfall-inspite of very high mean
annual rainfall there is temporal variability in the
amount of rainfall and this variability is more than the
variability of temperature. The crops grown in this cli-
ma c region are such that they require more moisture
and thus the year having li le less than average annual
rainfall is termed as a drought year because the crops
are damaged. Though the word drought is unfamiliar
in equatorial climatic region but some times brief
drought condi ons are created. It may be concluded
that rainfall in equatorial rainforest climate is adequate
enough to support Field crops and luxurious dense for-
ests. Most of the rains is intercepted by forest canopy
and thus reaches ground surface slowly in the form of
aerial streamlets through leaves, branches and stems
of trees and thus there is maximum infiltra on of rain-
water. Recent clearance of rainforests in the equatorial
regions in general and in Amazonia in par cular has
137
converted once forest-converted surface into a bare
ground surface which is subjected to accelerated rate
of soil erosion due to daily heavy rains.
Ef fects of Climate On Natural
Vegetation
The tropical rainforest or equatorial climatic
region accounts for the largest number of plant spe-
cies and luxuriant growth of natural vegeta on due
to high temperature and high rainfall throughout the
year. The clima c region is characterized by broad-leaf
evergreen dense forests comprising valu- able trees
such as mahogany, rosewood, coconut palm, avony,
cincona,plaintain, bamboost wild rubber, sandal world
etc. The number of tree species is so large and their
diversity is so great that one hectare of land in the
equatorial region accounts for 40 to 100 species. It
may be pointed out that tree species account for 70
per cent of the total plant species of the tropical ev-
ergreen forests. Creepers or climbers are the second
important members of the rainforests. The creepers
comprising (i) climbers of lower strata, (ii) long woody
climbers known as ‘lianas’, and (iii) epiphytes are so
circuitous and highly irregular in form that it becomes
difficult to find out their actual length. “They ramble
through the forest, scaling the highest emergent trees
and frequently looping down to the ground and then
ascending further sec ons of the forest”. The climbers
so greatly bind several trees and plants together that
the accessibility in the forest cover becomes almost
zero.
The vertical stratification of vegetation com-
munity consists of 5 layers or strata viz. (i) first or top
layer or dominant layer represen ng the canopy of
tallest trees (30 to 60m in height), (ii) second layer or
co-dominant layer (25m to 30m in height), (iii) thrid
layer of smaller trees (12m to 20m in height), (vi) fourth
layer of shrubs (5m in height), and (v) ground layer of
herbaceous plants and ferns.
MONSOON CLIMATE (AM)
Location
Monsoon climate is generally related to those
areas which register complete seasonal reversal of wind
direc on and are associated with tropical deciduous
forests but there are some departures from this close
rela onship and near correspondence between the
regions of monsoon climate and tropical deciduous
forests. Monsoon climate is found in the zone extend-
ing between 5° and 30° la tudes on either side of the
equator. In fact, this zone comes under the domain of
trade wind belt which experiences seasonal shi ing
due to northward and southward migra on of the
sun. Onshore winds blow for six months from warm
tropical oceans towards the con nents and offshore
winds blow for another six months from land to the
sea. The areas of monsoon climate are divided in the
following categories.
True monsoon areas include India, Burma (Myan-
mar), Pakistan, Bangladesh, Thailand, Combodia, Laos,
North and South Vietnam, southern China, Philippines,
and northern coastal area of Australia.
Areas of monsoonal tendencies or pseudo-mon-
soons are found along the south-west coast of Africa
including the coasts of Guinea, Sierra Leone,Liberia and
Ivory Coast; eastern Africa and western Madagascar
(Malagasy).
Areas of monsoon effects include northeast coast
of La n America e.g. east Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam,
French Guyana, and north-east Brazil. Besides, Puerto
Rico and Dominican Republic in the Caribbean Island
also enjoy mild monsoonal effect.
Areas of modified monsoon are found in parts of
central America and south-east USA.
Temperature
Though mean annual temperature is fairly high
but summer and winter seasons are sharply differen -
ated due to northward (summer sols ce) and south-
ward movement of the sun (winter sols ce). There are
three main seasons in a year in Indian Subcon nent
and surrounding monsoonal areas e.g. (1) dry warm
summer season (March to June), (2) humid warm
summer season (July to October), and (3) dry winter
season (November to February). Average temperature
of warm dry summer months ranges between 27°C and
32°C but maximum temperature ranges between 38°C
and 48°C during May and June. Warm humid summer
months record average temperatures ranging between
20°C and 30°C. The mean temperature during day in
winter months varies from 10°C to 27°C. Annual range
of temperature ranges between 2°C and 11°C and is
controlled by nearness or remoteness of the sea (i.e.
distance from the sea), con nental, la tudinal and
al tudinal influences.
Diurnal range of temperature is much higher in
dry summer season than in other seasons. For example,
in the Ganga plains of India maximum temperature
during day me may go as high as 44°C to 48°C and the
minimum temperature during nights may come down
as low as 20°C to 25°C thus registering diurnal range
138
of 23°C to 24°C. The temperature during May and June
becomes excep onally high due to prevalence of hot
winus locally known as loo.
Air Pressure and Winds
Monsoon areas are affected by high and low
pressure systems due to winter and summer seasons
respectively. In fact, there is complete reversal of
pressure gradients over Asia c landmass because of
northward and southward migra on of the sun and
consequent differen al hea ng of the con nent and
adjoining oceanic areas. Due to southward migra on
of the sun a er 23 September (autumnal equinox) high
pressure centres are developed on the landmass of Asia
during winter season while low pressure is developed in
the southern Indian and Pacific Oceans, with the result
pressure gradient is developed from land areas to the
oceanic areas resul ng into the ou low of surface winds
from high pressure centres of the land areas towards
oceanic low pressure areas. This wind system having
northeast direc on is called winter monsoon which is
nothing more than the reestablished north-east trade
winds which are displaced during summer season due
to northward shi ing of intertropical conver-gence (ITC)
because of northward migra on of the sun. These off-
shore winds are generally dry because they come from
over the land areas but wherever they pass over the
oceanic areas, they pick up moisture and yield rainfall
when effec vely obstructed. For example, north-east
monsoon winds while passing over Bay of Bangal pick
up moisture and give rainfall in the coastal regions of
Tamil Nadu during winter season. The pressure system
is completely reversed during summer season when the
sun registers northward migra on a er 21 March and
becomes almost ver cal over tropic of Cancer on June
21. Thus, thermally induced low pressure develops due
to very high temperature over huge landmass of Asia.
These low pressure centres are further intensified due
to northward movement of intertropical convergence
(ITC) upto 20° to 35°N la tutdes while high pressure
centres are developed over southern Indian and Pacific
Oceans, with the result sea to land pressure gradi-
ent is steepened and onshore winds are generated.
These onshore winds are the southwest or summer
monsoon winds which are moist as they pass over the
sea surfaces.
Precipitation
Monsoon regions receive most of their annual
rainfall through cyclonic and orographic types of rains
though convec ve mechanism also yields some rainfall.
On an average, the average annual rainfall is around
1500mm but there are much varia ons in the tempo-
ral and spa al distribu on. Some mes, a few areas
receive less than 500mm of mean annual rainfall. Even
the temporal distribu on of rainfall within a single year
is highly variable because more than 80 per cent of
mean annual rainfall is received within 3 wet months
of summer season (July, August, and September). Thus,
the rainy season records much surplus water whereas
dry winter and summer seasons have marked deficit
water because dry seasons receive less than 25 mm
of rainfall per month. There is maximum evapora on
during warm dry summer months which results in
desicca on of soils and marked reduc on in soil water.
This seasonal regime of annual rainfall gives deciduous
character to the vegeta ons which shed their leaves
during the transi onal period between winter and
summer seasons.
The eastern coast of Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh receives much rainfall during winter season
through north-east monsoons as they while passing
over the Bay of Bengal, pick up sufficient moisture and
yield rainfall. January and February are generally dri-
est months in India but the Ganga plains receive some
rains from westerly disturbances or temperate cyclones
coming from Mediterranean Sea.
Variability of rainfall in terms of both amount
and dura on is the characteris c feature of monsoon
climate. Secondly, monsoonal rainfall is basically cy-
clonic in character.
Natural Vegetation
The number of plant species is far less in the
monsoon clima c regions than the equatorial clima c
regions. The height of the trees ranges between 12m
and -30m. There are four strata or layers in ver cal
structure of the tropical deciduous forests. The up-
permost and second strata consist of trees, the third
stratum is formed by shrubs whereas the ground stra-
tum represents herbaceous plants. Most of the trees
are decidua’s but the shrubs of the third stratum are
evergreen. The trees are characterized by thick girth
of stems, thick, rough and coarse bark and large hy-
dromorphic leaves or small, hard xeromorphic leaves.
Deciduous trees of monsoon climate denote complete
adap bility to wet-dry cli- mate. The large hydromor-
phic leaves enable the trees to trap more and more
rainfall during wet season but these are shed in dry
periods to conserve moisture while small and hard
xeromorphic leaves enable the trees to withstand dry
weather and water deficiency. Important species of
trees include sal, teak, bamboo, mango tree, mahua,
jamun, neem, shisham etc.
139
 SAVANNA CLIMATE (AW)
Location
The word savanna has been used for different
meanings by various scien sts e.g. the word savanna
region has been used by the climatologists to indicate
a par cular type of climate i.e. tropical wet-dry climate
(Aw climate of Koeppen) as savanna climate, while
the botanists have used the word savanna for a typi-
cal type of vegeta on community of tropical regions
characterized by the dominance of grasses. This climate
is also called as Sudan type of climate. Savanna type of
climate is located between 5^-20° la tudes on either
side of the equator. Thus, savanna climate is located
between equatorial type of climate (A0 and semi-arid
and subtropical humid climate. In other words, this
climate is located between equatorial low pressure
belt or rain producing intertropical convergence and
subtropical high pressure belt. The most characteris c
areas of savanna climate include the Llanos of Orinico
Valley including Columbia and Venezuela, the Guiana
Highlands, the Campos of Brazil (south central parts),
and Paraguay in South America; hilly areas of Central
America; southern part of Zaire, Angola, Zambia. Mo-
zambique, Tanjania, Uganda, and Cen- tral Rhodesia,
all to the south of the Congo Basin, and central Nigeria,
southern Kenya and Uganda, Central African Rupublic,
Dahomey, Togo, Chad, Ghana, Ivory Coast and eastern
Guinea in Africa; northern Australia and some areas
of India (the savanna of India is not the original and.
natural vegeta on cover rather it has developed due
to human interference with the original forest cover
resul ng into the development of widespread man-
induced grasslands).
Temperature
The Savanna climate is characterized by dis-
nct wet and dry seasons, mean high temperature
throughout the year (ranging between 24°C and 27°C),
and abundant insola on. Temperature does not fall
helow20°C in any month of the year. Thus, Savanna
climate is similar to equatorial climate as regards ^mp-
pratnrp hllt thf> annual range of temperature ranging
between 3°Cand 8°C is greater than in the equatorial
climate. There are three main seasons on the basis of
the combina on of temperature and humidity (though
on an average there are only two seasons as referred to
in the beginning but the dry season is further divided
into warm dry season and cold dry season on the basis
of temperature). (1) Cold dry season is characterized by
high day temperature ranging between 26°C and 32°C
but nela- vely low temperature during nights, usually
21°C. (2) Warm dry season is characterized by almost
ver cal sun’s rays, high temperature ranging between
32°C and 38°C due to abundant insola on. (3) Warm
wet season receives between 80 to 90 per cent of the
total annual rainfall and thus records rela vely lower
temperature than warm dry season.
Air Pressure and Winds
The regions of Savanna climate are affected by
low and high pressure systems in a year. Due to north-
ward migra on of the sun during summer sol
s ce (21 June) the equatorial low pressure belt
and doldurm are shi ed northward and thus Savanna
climate comes under the influence of Inter Tropical
Convergence (ITC) which is associated with atmospher-
ic disturbances (cyclones) which yield rains. Due to
southward migra on of the sun during winter sols ce
(23 December) Savanna clima c zone comes under the
influence of subtropical high pressure belt and thus an-
cyclonic condi ons dominate the weather and bring
dry condi ons. The descending stable winds under
an cyclonic condi ons cause dry condi ons. Besides,
the coastal areas are affected by local winds and sea
breezes. Eastern coasts are influenced by trade winds.
Strong and high velocity tropical cyclones dominate the
weather condi ons during warm season. It is apparent
that the Savanna type of climate is induced due to the
introduc on of wet summer and dry winter seasons
because of northward and southward migra on of the
sun respec vely. Since the Savanna climate is located
between equatorial wet and tropical dry climates and
hence there is gradual varia on in weather condi-
ons away from the equator as the aridity increases
poleward.
Rainfall
The average annual rainfall ranges between
100cm and 150cm but there is much pronounced varia-
on in the spa al distribu on of mean annual rainfall
in different parts of Savanna climate mainly because of
two factors viz. (1) distance from the equator, and (2)
the nature of topographic features. For example, the
Savanna region of Brazil, locally called as Cerrado hav-
ing the average absolute relie/ of 1300m AMSL, records
mean annual temperature and mean annul rainfall of
20°C-26°C and 75cm- 200cm respec vely. The Llanos
of Columbia is characterized bv m^an annual-rainfall of
200cm- 400cm (near Andes Mountain), mean annual
temperature of 22°C, and maximum temperature of
32°C. The Indian Savanna is characterized by the high-
est temperature (being 45°C-48°C in May and June)
and lowest temperature (being 5°C or even less during
the month of January) of all the Savanna regions of the
140
world and the mean annual rainfall well below 150cm,
80 to 90 per cent of which is received during a brief
period of 3 months (July to September).
Since the Savanna climate is a transi onal belt
between humid equatorial and dry tropical cli-mates
and hence there is much variability in the amount and
dura on of rainfall at the wet (equatorward) and dry
(poleward) boundaries. There is copious rainfall in the
equatorward margins because of convergence of sur-
face winds and convec ve mechanism of ascending un-
stable winds but at the poleward margins near dry cli-
mate (BWh) is found and rainfall significantly decreases
due to descending air and an cyclonic condi ons. Here
mean annual rainfall becomes as low as 25 cm. As the
Intertropical Convergence (ITC) moves north-ward due
to northward migra on of the sun, thunderstorms
begin to develop by March and the amount of rainfall
increases in the following months. The Intertropical
Convergence reaches its northernmost limit by August.
Thus, rainfall con nues to increase, upto August and
most of rains are received through tropical cyclones and
thunderstorms. Rainfall decreases due to southward
shi ing of ITC and dry trade winds are re-established
a er November resul ng into dry weather condi on. It
is apparent that the period of wet weather decreases
while that of dry weather increases as the distance
from the outer limit of the equatorial climate increases.
The amount of mean annual rainfall also decreases
from east to west. Savanna climate is also characterized
by high variability of rainfall as there may be so heavy
and abundant rainfall in a par cular year that floods
are caused while the following year may receive so li le
rainfall that drought condi ons prevail.
Vegetation
Though general characteris cs of typical Sa-vanna
vegeta on are trees and grasses but the Savanna Biome
is, no doubt, dominated by grasses. The Savanna veg-
eta on community has developed layered structure
wherein three dis nct layers have clearly developed.
(1) The ground layer is dominated by various types
of grasses and herbaceous plants, The grasses are
generally coarse, stiff and hard having the height
ranging between 80cm to 350cm. The African elephant
grass a ains enormous height of 500cm. The grasses bear
deserted look during dry summer season but they
become lush green again during humid summer season.
(2) The middle layer consists of shrubs and stunted
woody plants. (3) The canopy layer is formed by trees
of various types. The general characteris cs of trees
depend on the availability of water and moisture and
therefore there is great taxonomic variety of Savanna
trees which are usually 6-12m in height. The Savanna
trees have developed various unique characteris cs
to withstand dry condi ons. For example, there are
a few species of trees which have developed such
mechanisms which help them to reduce evapotrans-
pira on from their leaves during warm dry season
and enable them to remain green even during dry
season of deficient water supply. On the other hand,
there are such tree species which cannot withstand
dry condi ons and therefore they shed their leaves
and bear the characteris cs of deciduous trees. The
roots of Savanna trees have also developed according
to the environmental condi ons as they are very large
which can penetrate into the soils and ground upto the
depths from 5m to 20m so that they can obtain water
from groundwater even during dry season when the
groundwater table falls considerably. The small plants
and many herbaceous plants have special kinds of root
systems characterized by root tubers and swellings so
that they may preserve water which may be used by
plants during dry season. On the basis of the propor on
of trees and grassland and the structure of vegeta on,
the Savanna vegeta on is divided into 4 types. (1)
Woodland savanna is dominated by trees and shrubs
and absence of epiphytes but some climbers having
their roots in the ground are found. (2) Tree savanna
represents rela vely open vegeta on cover wherein
trees and shrubs are sparsely distributed. (3) Shrub
savanna is represented by treeless vegeta on which is
dominated by grasses at the ground layer and shrubs
at the second layer, (4) Grass savanna is characterized
by genera! absence of trees and shrubs and overdomi-
nance of dense grasses.
Frequent fires, both natural and anthropogenic
(deliberate annual burning of grasses by man), are
common features of all the savanna biomes. The rap-
idly increasing human popula on for the last 50 years
or so has put enormous strain on the natural savanna
grasslands because a vast area of the original grasslands
has been converted into agricultural fields to grow
more food crops to feed the teeming millions. Thus,
the areas of natural savanna grasslands have shrunk
considerably. The savanna ecosystem, thus, has been
greatly degraded and destabilized.
141
 TROPICAL-SUBTROPICAL
H O T D E S E R T C L I M AT E
(BWH)
(Sahara Type Of Climate)
Location
The hot desert or Sahara type of climate is lo-
cated between the la tudinal belt of 5Q-30Q(35°)
in both the hemispheres on the western parts of the
con nents. This climate is found in (1) Africa - the
Namib and Kalahari deserts of coastal Angola and
southwest Africa, interior Botswana and South Africa,
and Sahara desert; (2) Asia - Thar deserts of India and
Pakistan. Arabian deserts. Iranian desert; (3) South
America - Acatama desert of coastal Peru and Chile; (4)
Mojave and Arizona deserts of southwestern USA: (5)
Australia - Great Sandy Desert, Great Victoria Desert
and Tanami Desert. This climate is characterized by
annual aridity, and subsiding warm air masses of the
subtropical an cyclones. The following reasons are
held responsible for the genesis of perpetual aridity of
the tropical- subtropical hot desert climate- (i) Temper-
ate cyclones do not reach these areas, (ii) Intertropical
Convergence (ITC) also does not influence these areas
because of their distant loca on from the equator, (iii)
The trade winds spend most of their moisture through
rainfall in the eastern margins of the con nents and as
they reach the western margins of the con nents they
become dry and hence are unable to give rainfall, (iv)
Due to an cyclonic condi ons winds descend from
above and hence they are warmed adiaba cally with
the result their moisture retaining capacity increases
resul ng into marked decrease in rela ve humidity, (v)
Subtropical high pressure system ranses-divergemie
of surface winds which is antagonis c to rainfall, (vi)
The ground temperature is so high that raindrops, if
formed at all, are evaporated therefore they roach the
ground surface.
Temperature
On the basis of annual distribu on of tempera-
ture two dis nct seasons are recognized e.g. summer
season and winter season. Average temperature during
summer season ranges between 30°C and 35°C but
maximum temperature exceeds 40°C during mid-day.
The temperature of 40°C to 48°C is very common at
noon during summer months. The western part of
Great Australian Desert records temperature above
40°C for 64 days in con nua on and above 32°C for
150 days in con nua on but temperature falls at nights
giving much relief to the people. Phoenix of Arizona
(USA) records more than 32°C at noon but tempera-
ture falls to 24°C in the nights. Azizia has recorded the
highest temperature of 58°CTTr36.40F) so far. Similarly,
excep onally very high temperature of 56.4°C (134°F)
has been recorded in the Death Valley of Californian
desert (USA). Day time mean temperature during
winter season ranges between 15.5°C and 21°C but
some limes it reaches 27°C but at nights temperature
falls to 10°C.
It is, thus, apparent that both annual and diurnal
ranges of temperature are high in the tropical-subtrop-
ical hot desert clima c areas. Generally, annual range
of temperature ranges between 17°C and 22°C while
daily range varies from 22°C to 28°C. Some mes, daily
range of temperature exceeds 40°C. Very high daily and
annual range of temperature is because of open and
clear skies, vegeta on-free ground surface, very low
humidity, distance from the equator, dominance of
sands etc. It may be pointed out that in the absence of
clouds and moisture maximum insola on is received at
the ground surface. Loose sands are soon heated and
thus ground temperature soon shoots up. Again there
is rapid loss of heat from the sandy surface through
outgoing longwave terrestrial radialionat nights due to
clear sky and completely dry condi on (total absence
of moisture in the air) resul ng into considerable fall
in night temperature. This mechanism causes very high
daily range of temperature. It may be remembered
that blankets are needed in the nights in hot desert
areas due to very high difference in day me and night
temperatures even during summer seasons. Tripoli
recorded highest and lowest temperatures of 91°F and
31°F respec vely on December 25, thus registering a
daily range of 60°F.
Pressure and Winds
Poleward areas of the regions of hot desert
climate are affected by divergent air circula on and
an cyclonic condi ons because they fall in the belt of
subtropical high pressure. The winds become stable
and dry because they descend from above and are
heated and thus there prevails dry condi on. The
north-east trades (northern hemisphere) become dry
when they reach the western parts of the con nents
in the la tudinal zones of 15°-35°. Some local low pres-
sure centres are formed during summer season and
thus a few local but weak cyclonic storms are produced.
The upper air an cyclonic condi ons do not allow the
winds of these local storms to rise. Heat waves domi-
nate in summer season thus making human life very
difficult. The extensive deserts of Sahara and Australia
become ideal source regions for the development of
tropical con nental airmasses.
142
 Rainfall
Rainfall in tropical desert climate is so low and
variable that it becomes difficult to determine aver-
age annual rainfall as it never comes true. The various
sources put the annual average of rainfall between 25
cm and 37.5 cm but these figures are highly mislead-
ing because there are so many such areas where not
even a single drop of rain is received for several years
in con nua on. Thus, the annual average rainfall is
considered to be less than 12 cm. Most of Sahara re-
ceives less than 12 cm of mean annual rainfall. Cairo of
UAR(3.0cm), Lima of Peru (5 cm), William Creek of Aus-
tralia (13.3 cm), Y uma of Arizona (USA, 8 cm), Toloth in
S.W. Africa (5.6 cm) receive very low mean annual rain-
fall. Northern parts of Chile some mes do not receive
any drop of rains for 5 to 10 years in con nua on. The
equatorward rela vely more humid areas, however,
receive 50 to 75 cm as mean annual rainfall. Most of
the rains is of convec onal type due to local hea ng.
Some mes, occasional storms give heavy downpour
within few hours causing flash floods. For example, 85
cm of rainfall was recorded within two days in Doorbazi
of Rajasthan whereas its mean annual rainfall is only
12.5 cm. Such occasional catastrophic rainfall causes
flash floods resul ng into choking of storm drains,
destruc on of human se lements, sil ng and choking
of canals and destruc on and disrup on of means of
transport and communica on. Such heavy rainfall is
not useful at all as all of the rainwater are disposed off
quickly through surface runoff and the remaining water
is evaporated due to high temperature.
Skies are generally free from clouds and thus sun’s
rays reach the ground surface without being reflected
throughout the year and hence the tropical desert
clima c regions receive sufficient bright sunshine all
the year round. The Sonoran Deserts of the USA and
Mexico receive more than 75 per cent and 90 per cent
sunshine during winter and summer seasons respec-
vely. Most parts of Sahara Desert are characterized
by 1/10 cloudiness in December and January and 1/30
cloudiness from June to October. It is, thus, apparent
that the ground surface is more or less always baked
in the sun. Some mes, dark cumulo-nimbus clouds
are formed, thunderstorms with cloud thunder and
lightning are experienced but s ll there is no rain be-
cause raindrops are evaporated before they reach the
ground surface. The average rela ve humidity ranges
between 10 to 30 per cent.
Natural Vegetation
Hot desert type of climate is not conducive for
vegeta on growth because of acute scarcity of water.
This is why most of the regions under this climate are
either devoid of any vegeta on such as Lybian and
Arabian deserts or if there is any vegeta on at all, that
is very li le, sparse and bushy in character. The vegeta-
on of hot desert climate is of xerophy c type which
has special characteris cs to withstand harsh climate
characterized by extreme aridity, high temperature
and very high rate of evapora on. They have their own
moisture conserving devices such as long roots, thick
barks, waxy leaves, thorns and li le leaves so that they
may avoid evapotranspira on and consequent loss of
moisture from them. Most of the vegeta on are found
in the form of bushes. Cactus, acacia, date palm, a few
flowering plants etc. form the composi on of natural
vegeta on of hot desert climate.
MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE
(CS CLIMATE)
Location
The Mediterranean type of climates, clima cally
known as subtropical dry summer climates, is called
Mediterranean type because most of the areas falling
under this climate are situated around Mediterranean
Sea. The Mediterranean climate or biome is also called
as sclerophvll ecosystem or biome because of the
development of special features and characteris cs in
the dominant trees and shrubs to adapt to the typical
environment condi ons if this climate-dry summer and
wet winter. Though the Mediterranean type of climate
covers only 1.7 per cent area of the globe but this is
most clearly defined climate and is easily differen ated
from other clima c regions. The Mediterranean climate
has three dis nct characteris cs - (i) wet winter and
dry summer season, (ii) warm and hot summers, and
mild winters, and (iii) abundant sunshine throughout
the year (90 per cent in summer and 50 to 60 per
cent in winter). This climate has developed between
30°- 40° (some mes upto 45°) la tudes in both the
hemispheres in the western parts of the con nents
(fig: 39.5). This clima c region includes (A) European,
Asia c and African lands bordering the Mediterranean
Sea e.g. (1) European lands — Rhone- Saone Valleys of
France, southern Italy, Greece; (2) Asia c lands-western
Turkey. Syria.
Phanniyu / petern Israel: (3)north coastal Africa
- Morocco, northern Algeria and Tunisia and the area
north of Bengasi in Lybia, (B) central and southern Cali-
fornia in the USA, (C) central Chile in South America, (D)
the Capetown area of South Africa, and (E) the coastal
zones of southern and south-western Australia. The
Mediterranean type of climate owes its origin to the
143
seasonal shi ing of wind and pressure belts due to
northward (summer sols ce) and southward migra on
(winter sols ce) of the sun. Thus, these areas come
under the domain of westerlies in winter sea-son.
Since the westerlies are moisture laden because they
come from over the oceans and are associated with
temperate cyclones, they give sufficient rains during
winter season. On the other hand, they come under
the influence of subtropical high pressure belt and
associated an cyclones during summer season and
hence there is no rainfall.
Temperature
The average temperature during cool winter
season ranges between 5°C and 10°C whereas mean
summer temperature varies from 20°C to 27°C and
thus the mean annual range of temperature becomes
15°C to 17°C or even more. In fact, the Mediterranean
climate is considered as a resort climate because of its
pleasant and comfortable winter season. The Medi-
terrancean climate whether having coastal or inland
loca on generally records temperature above freezing
point during winter season as the average temperature
of the coldest month ranges between 4.4°C and 10°C.
The mean January temperature is recorded as 7.7°C
at Sacramento in California (USA). 6.1 °C at Marseille
(France), 12.8°C at Perth (Australia) and 6.6°C at Rome.
Some mes, the temperature becomes so low at nights
that frost occurs which is very much injurious to field
crops. The valleys and depressions have freezing to
subfreezing temperatures in winter and hence valleys
are avoided for sensi ve crops like citrus fruits which
are grown on hill slopes. Los Angeles (California, USA),
Naples (Italy) and Sacramento (California, USA) have re-
corded lowest temperatures of -2.2°C, -1.1 °C and-8.3°C
respec vely. It may be pointed out that occasional fall
of temperature below freezing point is limited to a few
minutes to a few hours only. Summer temperature rises
above 26°C e.g. Red Bluff of Sacramento valley records
27.5°C whereas average temperatures during summer
season are 26.6°C in European Meidterranean lands
and 24°C in north-west Africa. It may be men oned that
high summer temperatures are never uncomfortable
due to low rela ve humidity. Daily maximum tempera-
ture in summer goes beyond 26°C. For example, the
Great Valley of California records daily maximum sum-
mer temperatures ranging between 30°C and 32°C. Red
Bluff and Sacramento have recorded highest daily maxi-
mum temperatures of 45.5°C and 46°C respec vely so
far. The night temperature during summer season falls
to 15.5°C, thus diurnai range of temperature becomes
as high as 30°C. Daily and annual ranges increase from
coastal areas to inland areas.
On the basis of temperature varia ons the Medi-
terranean climate is divided into 2 subtypes e.g. Csa
and Csb. Csa climate, characterized by hot summer,
has inland loca on whereas Climaxing of mild sum-
mer is located along the coastal margins of the con -
nents. It may be pointed out that tempera tures of the
Mediterranean clima c regions except those around
Mediterranean Sea are largely affected by cool oceanic
currents e.g. Californian region by cool California cur-
rent, Chilean region by cool Peru current, Cape Town
region by Benguela currents etc.
Air Pressure and Winds
In fact, the Mediterranean climate is the out-
come of the seasonal shi ing of pressure and wind
bells. All the pressure belts except polar high pressure
belt move northward from their normal posi ons dur-
ing northern summer (summer sols ce when the sun
becomes ver cal over the tropic of Cancer on June 21)
and thus subtropical high pressure system extends over
the regions of Mediterranean climate (30°N to 40°N)
and an cyclonic condi ons dominate the weather
conditions causing subsidence of air from above,
horizontal divergence of surface winds, stability of air
resul ng into dry condi ons. Sirocco local hot winds
blow from Sahara northward picking red sands which
are brought to Italy, Spain, southern France and Greece.
Summer winds are generally hot and dry. These areas
come under the domain of westerlies during winter
season when the sun moves southward (northern
winter). The westerlies are associated with temperate
cyclones origina ng in the middle la tudes. Since the
westerlies are associated with temperate cyclones and
come from over sea surfaces and hence being moist
give sufficient rainfall in the coastal areas. Some local
winds like Bora. Mistral (cold winds) etc. affect the local
weather condi ons of the European Mediterranean
lands during winters.
Precipitation
The mean annual rainfall ranges between 37
cm and 65 cm, the most por on of which (more than
75 per cent) is received during winter season mainly
between December and March in the northern Hemi-
sphere and between May to September in the southern
hemisphere. The winter rainfall is received through
cyclonic storms associated with moist westerlies. The
summer season is almost dry. Because of moderate to
scanty rainfall the mediterranean climate is called as
subhumid climate. The orographic rainfall is common in
those coastal areas (e.g. California) which are backed by
mountain ranges parallel to the coasts. Though winter
season is quite wet but the sky is seldom overcast for
144
longer dura on in con nua on and thus abundant
sunshine is available even during wet winter season.
For example, Red Bluff (California. USA) has only 11, 12,
10 and 10 rainy days in December, January, February
and March respec vely. January is the rainiest month
in San Bernardino and Los Angeles but there are only
7 rainy days. January being the coldest month of Red
Bluff receives 1 1.5 cm of rainfall while July being the
coldest month of Perth (Australia) receives 16 cm
of rainfall. All these indicate the intensity of rainfall
during winter months in the Mediterranean clima c
regions. Summer season is characterized by scanty
rainfall, almost dry weather, clear skies, and bring sun-
shine. Besides temporal varia on, there is also spa al
varia on of rainfall. Generally, the amount of rainfall
increases poleward and decreases from south (24 cm
at San Deigo, 29 ern at Los Angeles) to north (58 cm at
Sansfransisco) in California.
The seasonal regime of rainfall causes fluctua-
ons in the soil-water and soil-moisture regimes during
winter and summer seasons. The amount of soil-water
increases during winter season because of winter
and spring rainfall which is responsible for maximum
growth in vegeta on but dry summer season causes
deficiency in the soil-water content because of loss of
water and moisture due to increased evapora on and
evapotranspira on because of substan al increase
in temperature and of course due to general lack of
rainfall during summer season.
Natural Vegetation
Though the Mediterranean regions are widely
sca ered over different con nents, there is more or
less broad generaliza on in the overall structure and
composi on of vegeta on community of all the regions
of Mediterranean biome. The structure of Mediter-
ranean vegeta on’s is such that they can withstand
the aridity of summer season. Consequently, the
leaves have developed sclerophyllous characteris cs
in that they are s ff and hard and the stems have thick
barks.
The Mediterranean vegeta on community con-
sists of a variety of sclerophyll plant forma on classes
which range from Mediterranean mixed evergreen
forests. The vegeta on community is dominated by
trees and shrubs. The shrubs are differently named in
various parts of the Mediterranean biome on the basis of
local names e.g. maquis or garipue in southern Europe,
chaparral in California, fymbos or fymbosch in South
Africa, and mallee scrub in Australia.
The xeromorphic structure such as thickened
sui cles, grandular hairs, sunken stomata etc. enables
the plants to withstand dry condi ons. The sclero-
phyllous structure of plant leaves enables them to
regulate the gaseous exchange according to the avail-
ability or scarcity of water during different seasons
of the year. The plants have also developed special
types of root systems in accordance with the regional
environmental condi ons mainly the availability of
moisture. The European Mediterranean regions are
characterized by mul -layered structural pa ern of
vegeta on community consis ng of (i) topmost layer
of evergreen and deciduous oak trees, (ii) middle layer
of shrubs locally called as maquis or gajdgue, and (iii)
the ground layer of numerous herbaceous plants. The
Californian Mediterranean lands are characterized by
the (i) topmost layer of oak trees, (ii) the middle laser
of chaparrals, equiva- lent to European maquis, and (iii)
the ground layer of herbaceous plants and grasses. The
South African Mediterranean Biome is characterized
by a rac ve flowering plants of numerous varie es
e.g. Erica Ereesia, Lobellia. Kniphofia species etc. The
shrubs are locally called as fvmhos. The Australian
Mediterranean Biome is characterized by numerous
species of eucalyptus.
Fire, both natural and man-included, is normally
an annual occurrence in the Mediterranean clima c
regions. Burning, mass clearance of natural vegeta on
for agricultural and commercial purposes, overgrazing
of grasslands etc. have led to accelerated rate of soil
erosion, increase in the silt load of major rivers and
transforma on of original natural vegeta on.
CHINA TYPE OF CLIMATE
(CA)
(Subtropical Humid Climate)
Location
China type of climate, climatologically known
as subtropical humid climate, is characterized by hot
summer, mild to cold winters, spa al varia ons in
temperature, humidity and precipita on and in cased
between 20°-40Q la tudes in both the hemisphere’s
along the eastern parts of the con nents. This clima c
Rison is flanked by inland dry regions in the west (ex-
cept in For and Danube basins), by monsoon clima c
areas in the south, by humid con nental climate in
the north, and by oceans in the east. The subtropical
humid climate (Ca) is found in the following regions-
south-east and south China (south of Yellow river): Po
Basin; Danube Basin; south-eastern USA; south-eastern
Brazil. Paraguay. Uruguay and north-eastern Argen na;
south-eastern Africa: and east coast of Australia.
145
 It is apparent that Mediterranean type and China
type of climates are found in the same la tudinal loca-
ons but are differen ated on the following counts-(i)
Mediterranean climate is found in the western parts
of the con nents while China type of climate is located
along the eastern coastal areas of the con nents, (ii)
Mediterranean climate is characterized by wet winter
and dry summer whereas in China type of climate sum-
mer season receives maximum rainfall though rainfall is
received throughout the year, (iii) Mean annual rainfall
is higher in China type of climate than Mediterranean
climate. China type of climate is also called as sub
monsoon climate because of its near similarity with
monsoon climate.
Temperature
The coastal parts of China type of climate are
frequented by warm oceanic currents (e.g. warm Gulf
Stream off the east coast of the USA, warm Bra/.il
current alone the east coast of South America, warm
east Australia current off the east coast of Australia,
Kuro Ship current off the coast of China, and Mozam-
bique current alone the south-east coast of Africa) and
thus these warm currents affect the temperature of
coastal areas. The mean summer temperature ranges
between 24°C and 26.6°C. The month of July records
mean temperature of 28°C at Charlston (South Caro-
lina. USA) and Montgomery (Alabama, USA), 27.2°C
at Shanghai whereas January, the warmest month in
the southern hemisphere, records mean temperature
of 25°C at Brisbane (Australia) and Durban (Africa),
and 23.3°C at Buenos Aires (South America). Daily
maximum temperature crosses 37.7°C (100°F). For
example, maximum daily temperature at Montgom-
ery is recorded as 41°C in July and 41.6°C in August.
Similarly, Savannah of Georgia (USA) has recorded
41°C as maximum day me temperature in July. It may
be pointed out that high summer temperature is also
associated with high rela ve humidity and hence the
weather becomes uncomfortable. The loss of the heat
during nights through outgoing long wave radia on is
retarded because of cloudiness and hence tempera-
ture does not fall appreciably at nights resul ng into
low diurnal range of temperature. For example, the
mean maximum and mean minimum temperatures of
Montgomery (Alabama, USA) are 32.8°C and 22.2°C
respec vely and thus diurnal range of temperature
becomes 11.6°C.
Generally, winters are mild as mean temperature
ranges between 6.6°C and 10°C. Mean winter tempera-
ture is recorded as 9.4°C at Montgomery (Alabama,
USA), 3.3°C at Shanghai, 10°C at Buenos Aires, 11.7°C
at New Orleans (USA), 6.1°C at Nagasaki, and 11°C at
Sydney. Mean annual range of temperature in China
type of climate is not large but is marked by wide range
of spa al varia ons. For example, mean annual range
of temperature is 12.8°C at Buenos Aires and Sydney,
10.5°C at Montgomery and 24°C at Shanghai. In fact,
annual range of temperature is controlled by the ex-
tent of land areas and the strength of winter monsoon
winds. The more extensive the land areas and stronger
the winter monsoon, the larger is the annual range of
temperature. The arrival of cold polar winds during
winter season causes temperature to fall below freez-
ing. For example, in the absence of any mountain har-
rier from west to east in North America, the extremely
cold con nental polar airmass invades the whole of the
plains of the USA and reaches the Gulf Coastal plains
of the country and thus the temperature falls below
freezing point (about -12°C) in the Gulf Coastal state
of the southern USA during winter season.
Air Pressure and Winds
The con nental and oceanic areas are character-
ized by low and high pressure systems during summer
season, with the result monsoons are developed.
Thus, tropical mari me airmass (mT) develops over
land areas falling in climate mainly over China and
southeastern USA. This air mass is south-easterly in
the northern hemisphere while it is north-easterly in
the southern hemisphere (during summer season).
High pressure systems develop over south western
and northern central Pacific Ocean and near Azores in
the Atlan c Ocean. These tropical mari me airmasses
are also associated with tropical cyclones which yield
sufficient rainfall. These tropical cyclones are called
typhoons in China, hurricanes in the USA and southern
busters in Australia. The pressure system is reversed
during winter season as high pressure develops over
con nental areas while oceanic areas are character-
ized by low pressure systems. Thus, the winds become
offshore. This is the reason that the coastal areas of the
eastern and south-eastern USA are not much benefit-
ted from the warm Gulf Stream because the winds
are offshore.
Precipitation
Though average annual precipitation in sub-
tropical humid climate (Ca) ranges between 75 cm and
150cm and some mes it becomes as much high as 250
cm in some favoured loca ons but there is wide range
of varia on in the seasonal and spa al distribu on
of annual rainfall. Generally, rainfall decreases from
coastal areas to the inland loca ons. On the basis of
seasonal distribu on of rainfall this climate is divided
into two subtypes e.g. (i) Caf climate having rainfall
146
throughout the year, and (ii) Cw climate having dry
season during winter. On an average, the summer
rainfall in China type of climate is definitely abundant
and exceeds evapotranspira on. The summer rainfall
is received through cumulus clouds resul ng from
convec ve currents caused by intense local hea ng
of the ground surface. Besides, tropical cyclones (e.g.
typhoons in China and hurricanes and tornadoes in the
USA) also yield heavy downpour with cloud thunder
and lightning. The Gulf coastal states of the USA are
generally frequented by large number of thunder-
storms. For example, Florida experienees at least 60
thunderstorms each year. These thunderstorms are
associated with unstable tropical mari me air mass.
The summer rainfall in China and Japan is divided into
three types of regime viz. (i) maximum rainfall period
of early summer season, (ii) maximum rainfall period of
late summer season, and (iii) minimum rainfall period
of middle summer season. Some mes, the rainfall
occurring from hurricanes in the south-east USA and
from typhoons in China is so heavey that catastrophic
Hoods are caused.
Hurricanes very o en strike the southern and
south-eastern coasts of the USA. The Gulf coasts of
Louisiana, Texas. Alabama and Florida are worst af-
fected areas. The Galveston, Texas (USA) disaster of
September 8,1900 tells the story of devasta on caused
by hurricane in Gulf coastal states of the
USA. The terrible hurricane generated a strong
storm surge ( dal wave) which raced inland and killed
6000 people mostly through drowning caused by in-
unda on under 3 to 4.5m deep water.
Winter rainfall is generally received through win-
ter cyclones which are associated with the westerlies.
Though the dura on of individual rainstorm during
winter season is much longer but total rainfall is com-
para vely less. It may be pointed out that in spite of less
rainfall during winter season there is more cloudiness
and larger number of rainy days than during rainier
summer season. For example, 5 cm of January rainfall
of Shanghai is received within 12 days whereas 15 cm
of August rainfall is received in only 11 days. Some
mes, there is occasional frost and snowfall during
winter season.
Natural Vegetation
The China type of climate characterized by
abundant rainfall, high temperature and long growing
season of 7 to 12 months favours luxuriant growth of
natural vegeta on. Dense forests of evergreen nature
are found in more humid areas but areas of moderate
rainfall are characterized by deciduous sparse forests
and grasslands. Normally, mixed forests of coniferous
trees and broad leaf trees are found. The broad-leaved
forests are both evergreen and deciduous depend-
ing on the spa al varia on of distribu on of annual
rainfall.
STEPPE CLIMATE (BSK)
Location
The middle la tude steppe climate (BSk) spread
over temperate grasslands is located in the interiors of
the con nents which come in the westerly wind belt
but because of their more interior loca ons they do
not get sufficient rainfall and hence the grasslands are
prac cally treeless. The temperate grassland steppes
of the southern hemisphere are located along the
south-eastern margins of the con nents (fig 39.7)
and therefore have more moderate climate than their
counterparts of the northern hemisphere because of
more marine influences as they arc closer to marine
environment* The temperate grasslands of Eurasia,
known as steppes, are most extensive as they extend
for a distance of more than 3200 km from the shores
of the Black Sea across the Great Russian Plain to the
foothills of the Altai Moutanins. Their con nuity is
broken at few places
by the highlands. There are also some isolated
patches of steppes e.g. in Hungry (known as Pustaz)
and in the plains of Manchuria (Manchurain Grass-
land). The temperate grasslands in North America text
ending in Canada and USA both) are locally known as
prairies which extend from the foothills of the Rockies
in the west to the temperate deciduous forest biome
in the east. The temperate grasslands of the southern
hemisphere include the pampas of Argentina and
Uruguay of South America, bush veld and high veld of
South Africa, and downs of the Murray-Darling Basins
of southeastern Australia and Canterbury grasslands
of New Zealand.
Temperature
The temperate steppes are characterized by
con nental climate wherein extremes of summer and
winter temperatures are well marked but the temper-
ate grasslands of the southern hemisphere are marked
by more moderate climate. Summers are warm with
over 20°C temperature in July (Winnipeg, Canada) and
over 22°C in January (Petoria, South Africa, January is
summer month in the southern hemisphere). Winter
season becomes very cold in the northern hemisphere
because of enormous distances of temperate grass-
147
lands from the nearest sea. Winnipeg records -20°C in
January. The average temperatures during winter sea-
son for Tashkent (Uzbeck Republic) and Semipala nsk
(Kazakh Republic) are O0C and -12°C respec vely. The
steppe climate of the southern hemisphere is never
severe rather it is moderate because of nearness to
the sea.
The average winter temperature ranges between
1 °C and 12°C in the southern hemisphere.
The steppe climate is characterized by annual
range of temperature. For example, Winnipeg (Can-
ada) records mean annual range of 40°C. Laramine
(Wyoming state in USA) records annual range of 23.4°C
(-6.7°C in January and 16.7°C in July). Due to marine
influences the mean annual range of temperature
in the southern hemisphere is much lower than the
northern hemisphere as it is around 10°C to 12°C only.
Diurnal range of temperature is also very high in the
temperate steppe climate.
Precipitation
The mean annual precipita on ranges be- tween
25 cm to 75 cm in different loca ons of the temperate
grassland steppe areas. The winter precipita on in the
northern hemisphere is usually received in the form of
snowfall and most parts of
Eurasian steppes are snow-covered for several
months during northern winters. Most of the annual
rainfall is received during summer season.
Regional Characteristics
The Eurasian steppe climate covers the largest
area in the former Soviet Union (now the Com-mon-
wealth of Independent States-CIS and other Republics
of former USSR) wherein it extends from eastern
Europe to western Siberia and between temperate
coniferous forests in the north and arid regions in the
south-west. The Eurasian steppes are divided into (i)
forest steppe, and (ii) grass steppe wherein the former
receives mean annual precipita on of 50 cm to 60 cm
whereas the la er receives 40 cm to 50cm as mean
annual precipita on. The following sequences of veg-
eta on communi es are found from north to south- (i)
forest steppe (consis ng of oak, elms, limes, mapple,
a few arboreal vegeta on of Siberian Steppe such as
birch with mixture of aspen and willow), (2) meadow
steppe (consis ng of the species of turf grasses such as
s pa and Fescue and numerous herbaceous flowering
plants such as numerous herbaceous flower plants such
as Trifolium and several types of daisy, (3) grass steppe
(consis ng of grasses mainly tussock-forming species
of S pa. a few flowering xerophy c shruby species of
Artemisia, (4) semi-arid xeromorphic steppe dominated
by xerophy c grasses such as Fescue and feather grass
species, (mean annual precipita on ranging between
30 cm to 35 cm).
The North American Prairie has developed in the
USA and Canada between the foothills of the Rockies
in the west and temperate deciduous forest biome in
the east. On the basis of decreasing trend of mean
annual precipita on from east (105 cm) to west (40
cm) the North American Prairies are divided into 3
subregions e.g. (1) tall grass prairie (most dominant
species of tallest grass are Bluestem and Switch Grass
which a ain the height of 1.5m to 2m, few patches of
oak and hickory trees are also found), (2) mixed prairie
(most extensive cover in the Great Plains of the USA,
mixture of medium grasses, 0.6 to 1.5m in height, and
short grasses such as li le bluestem, needle grass-S pa
spartea, June grass and short and bunch grasses such
as buffalo grass and blue gramma, and (3) short grass
prairie (developed over western part of the Great Plains
and dominated by short grasses of 60 cm height).
The South American Pampas are developed over
J2 per cent au,a of Argen na and are more humid than
Eurasian steppes. The mean annual precipita on de-
creases from east (coastal land, 90 cm) to west (45 cm).
Thus, the Pampas are divided into two sub-types e.g. (i)
Humid Pampa and (ii) Subhumid Peampa. The humid
Pampa, developed in the eastern part of Argen na, is
characterized by tall grasses whereas increasing aridity
westward results in the growth of short grasses in the
western sub-humid Pampa.
The African veld has developed on the high pla-
teau land of varying heights (1500m to 2000 m) in the
south-eastern part of South Africa. The African Velds
include the temperate grasslands of southern Tran-
swall and Orange Free State of South Africa and some
parts of Lisotho. Plant growth is not possible because
of uncertainty of rainfall, increasing aridity, severity of
frosts during nights and high daily range of temperature
during winter season and thus true climax grasslands
of African Velds have developed.
The Australian downs have developed in the
south-eastern parts of Australia and in the northern
part of Tasmania. The region is characterized by (i) rela-
vely warmer winter season than the temperate grass-
lands of the northern hemisphere, and (ii) mixture of
grasses with eucalyptus trees. The grasslands gradually
change from south (Australian coast) to north (interior
land) in accordance with the decreasing trend of mean
annual precipita on from south (152 cm) to north (63.5
148
cm). The region is further divided into dis nct 3 subre-
gions e.g. (1) temperate tall grasslands, (2) temperate
short grasslands, and (3) xerophy c grasslands.
WEST EUROPEAN TYPE OF
CLIMATE (CB) LOCATION
West European type of climate (Cb) also known
as marine west coast climate is located between 40°
and 65° la tudes in both the hemispheres along the
western coasts of the con nents. This clima c region
is surrounded by Mediterranean climate in the south,
con nental dry climate in the east and semi-arc c
climate in the north. The inland
extension of this climate is controlled by topo-
graphic features. For example, wherever the coast is
paralleled by mountain ranges, this climate is found in
a very narrow coastal belt e.g. marine west coast cli-
mate is confined to the coastal strips along the western
coasts of North and South Americas because of Rockies
and Andes. On the other hand, wherever relief barrier
does not exist, marine influences reach far inland e.g.
north-western Europe. Thus, the west European type
of climate has developed over north-western Europe
(including Great Britain, western Norway, Denmark,
northwest Germany. Netherlands, Belgium, Luxem-
berg, and northwestern France). Bri sh Columbia of
Canada, Washington and Oregon states of the USA,
south-west coast of Chile (S. America), south-east coast
of Aus alia, and Tasmania and New Zealand.
Temperature
The temperatures, in the west European climate
are affected by marine influences, warm ocean currents
and prevailing winds and air masses. In fact, the moder-
a ng effects of sea bring down the difference between
summer and winter seasons considerably. This climate
is characterized by cool summer and mild winters.
Average temperature during summer season ranges
between 15°C and 21°C. Thus, the summer months
are characterized by nega ve thermal anomaly i.e. the
coastal regions in the marine west coast climate record
rela vely lower temperature during summer season
than the average temperature for their la tudes. There
is very negligible varia on in the spa al distribu on of
temperature during summer season as it is indicated
by mean July temperature of the following sta ons
= 17°C at Sea le (USA), 14.4°C at Bergen (Norway).
15.6°C at Dublin (Ireland), and 19°C at Paris (France).
The daily minimum temperatures in July at Sea le and
Bellingham (Wales) are 12.8°C and 10.6°C respec vely
while daily maxima at these sta ons are 22.8°C and
21.7°C respec vely. Thus, diurnal range of temperature
in July for Sea le and Bellingham becomes 10.0°C and
I 1.1 °C. Some mes, day me summer temperature
excep onally rises to 32°C- 38°C.
Winters are excep onally milder for their la -
tudes due to proximity of warm ocean currents and
thus the coastal loca ons of western Europe are char-
acterized by posi ve thermal anomaly i.e. they record
higher temperature than the average temperature of
their respec ve la tudes due to the influence of warm
North Atlan c Dri (extension of warm Gulf Steam).
The posi ve thermal anomaly of 11°C to 17°C is a
common feature. The winter temperature decreases
rapidly from the coasts towards the interior parts in
Europe due to decreasing marine influence inland.
This is why the January isotherms instead of follow-
ing la tudes become parallel to the coasts. The mean
January temperature in coastal areas of N.W. Europe
ranges between 4°C and 10°C but it becomes - 18°C to
-40°C in the interior con -nental loca ons of Eurasia.
The night temperature generally falls below freezing
point and hence ground frost is of very common oc-
currence. Cold waves are generated due to arrival of
cold con nental polar air masses.
The marine west coast climate comes under
the domain of westerlies which are regular features
throughout the year. Since these winds come from
over the oceans and hence they are moist and give
precipita on. These westerlies are also associated
with temperate cyclones which are the main sources
of precipita on. The poleward margines are dominated
by subpolar low pressure belt of dynamic origin where
unstable polar front is formed due to convergence
of two contras ng air masses e.g. warm and moist
westerlies and cold polar air mass. This polar front
thus causes the development of temper-ate cyclones
which move in easterly direc on under the influence
of westerlies.
Precipitation
Marine coast climate or West European type of
climate is basically humid climate and is charac-terized
by abundant and uniformly distributed precipita on
throughout the year but winter maximum is the char-
acteris c feature of coastal loca ons while interior
loca ons record summer maximum. Inspite of abun-
dant precipita on all the year round there is much
spa al varia on in its amount. Generally, precipita on
decreases from the coasts towards interior loca ons
and from north to south along the coast. The regional
distribu on of precipita on is highly controlled by
topographic factor. The areas of low reliefs receive
rela vely low precipita on. For example, the north-
149
western European lowland in the absence of any effec-
ve relief barrier receives mean annual precipita on
ranging between 50 cm and 75 cm. On the other hand,
the western coastal areas of North America and of
Chile in South America falling under marine west coast
climate receive high mean annual precipita on ranging
between 250 cm and 375 cm because of the presence
of the coast range mountains in North America (parallel
to the coast) and the Andes in South America (parallel
to the coast). The leeward slopes of these mountains
become dry because of very low precipita on as they
fall in rainshadow region.
Though the precipita on is uniformly distributed
throughout the year but winter season receives more
than the summer season, but there is no dry month.
These condi ons are confined only to the coastal loca-
on because interior loca ons receive more precipita-
on in summers than in winters. The precipita on in
low land areas (plains) is cyclonic in nature and is usu-
ally received in the form of drizzles and con nues for
fairly long me. Sky remains overcast for several days in
con nua on. The winter cyclonic precipita on is very
widespread. The summer precipita on is of short dura-
on but is stormy and heavy. The 6 cm July precipita on
of London is received in 13 days while 5.3cm January
precipita on comes in 15 days. The thunderstorms are
very few in number. It is interes ng to note that though
the mean annual rainfall is moderate but it is received
in large number of rainy days. For example, the mean
annual precipita on of 56.5 cm of Paris is received
in 188 rainy days while London gets mean annual
precipita on of 71.3 cm in 164 days. The percentage
of cloudiness is also much higher in this climate e.g.
the Pacific coastal areas of N. America record average
annual cloudiness between 60-70 per cent while it is
70 per cent in the western Europe. Winter months are
also characterized by snowfall but the number of days
receiving snowfall is less than in other climates located
within the same la tudes. The snow days in London,
Paris and Sea le (represen ng low land loca on) are
13, 14 and 10 respec vely. The frequency of snow-days
and intensity of snowfall both increases poleward and
towards interior loca ons.
Natural Vegetation
The abundant precipita on throughout the year
has given birth to dense forests of three types e.g. (i)
broad-leaf deciduous forest (oak, birch, walnut, maple,
elm, chestnut etc.), (ii) needle-leaf (coniferous) forest
(pine, fir, spruce etc.), and (iii) mixed forest but cleared
in Bri sh Isles and European countries due to urban
and agricultural development. Dense forests are now
found only on mountains and highlands. Douglas fir,
redwood, hemlock, spruce, cedar etc. so wood for-
ests of much commercial use are found in the states
of Washington, and Oregon of the USA and Bri sh
Columbia of Canada.
BOREAL OR SUBARCTIC OR
TAIGA TYPE OF CLIMATE
Location
The boreal or sub-arc c climate represen ng the
boreal forest biome or temperate coniferous forest
biome and the most extreme type of microthermal
climate is called taiga type or Siberian type of climate
and includes the areas of subarc c regions of North
America (extending from Alaska of the USA across
Canada to Hudson Bay in the east) and Eurasia (from
the Scandinavian Peninsula across the Russian Siberia
to the Bering Sea). Besides, there are small patches
of this climate at higher al tudes in Germany, Poland,
Switzerland, Austria and other parts of Europe and on
the high Rocky Mountains of North America. In fact,
the taiga climate is located between the tundra climate
in the north and the temperate grassland biome (cli-
mate) (Eursian steppes and North American Prairies)
in the south. The taiga climate is conspicuous by its
total absence in the southern hemisphere because of
narrowing trend of con nents towards the south pole.
The vicinal loca on of taiga climate extends from 50°-
55°N to 65°-70°N la tudes.
Temperature
The taiga type of climate is characterized by
extreme con nental climate marked by bi erly cold
winter of long dura on and cool short summer season
of brief period extending over one to three months.
Spring and autumn are merely brief transi onal periods
between summer and cold seasons. The I0°C isotherm
of the warmest month forms the northern boundary
of this clima c region. The winter season extending
over 8 months always records temperatures below
freezing point as is apparent from the average January
temperatures of the following inland loca ons = -26°C
at Eagle (Canada), -30.6°C at Dawson (Canada), -24°C
at Okhotsk
(Russia), -43.3°C at Yakutsk (Russia), -50.6°C at
Verkhoyansk (Russia) etc. The Siberian taiga cli-mate
records the lowest minimum temperature e.g. Verk-
hoyansk -68°C and Oimekon -66.8°C (Russia, lowest
temperature ever recorded) while the lowest minimum
temperature recorded so far in North American sub-
arc c climate at Snag (Yukon, Alaska, USA) is -62.8°C.
150
 In comparison to severe cold winter months
temperature during brief summer season increases
rapidly. July being the warmest month has an aver
age temperature of 16°C. It may be pointed out that
several interior loca ons record temperature below
freezing point even in the month of July. The growing
season is between 50 to 70 days only because soil
water is frozen for 5 to 7 months of winter season in
con nua on. The annual ranges of temperature are
very large and greatly vary from place to place. For
example, the temperature of the coldest and warmest
months of Moscow are -12°C and 20°C respec vely and
thus the annual range of temperature becomes 32°C.
Verkhoyansk records the annual range of temperature
of more than 64°C.
Precipitation
The subarc c or taiga type of climate is character-
ized by low mean annual precipita on because (i) ex-
tremely low temperature for longer period of the year
does not favour evapora on and thus there is very low
amount of absolute humidity in the air, (ii) the regions
falling in taiga type of climate are located in the leeward
sides of the con nents and in the interior regions and
thus they are away from the marine influences, and (iii)
the regions are characterized by polar high pressure,
an cylonic condi ons as evidenced by subsidence of
air from above and divergence of surface winds. The
me<m annual precipita on ranging between 37 cm
and 60 cm is received mostly in the form of fine, dry
snow which accumulates throughout the winter and is
released as surface water due to thawing because of
increase in temperature during brief summer season.
It may be pointed out that the precipita on is more or
less uniformly distributed throughout the year whether
in liquid form as rainfall (during summer) or snowfall
during winters.
The following are the main characteris c features
of subarc c taiga type of climate—
• Bi erly cold long winter season (temperature
below zero degree centigrade at least for 6
months).
• Heavy snowfall during winter season.
• Forma on of permafrost ground (permanently
frozen ground) because of freezing of ground
moisture due to subfreezing temperature.
• Cool summer of short duration having
precipita on in liquid form (rainfall) and mel ng
of snow cover.
• Growing period of vegeta on ranging from 50
days a year along the northern boundary to 100
days along the southern boundary.
• High range of variability in the spatial
distribu on
• Extreme annual range of temperature (ranging
between 25°C during summer months and 40°C
during winter months).
Natural Vegetation
The coniferous trees are the most dominant
member of taiga climate or the Boreal Forest Biome.
These trees form dense cover of forests which are the
richest sources of so wood in the world. There are
four major genera of evergreen coniferous trees e.g
(i) Pine (white pine, red pine, Scots pine, jack pine,
lodgepole pine etc.), (ii) Fir (doughlas fir, balsam fir
etc.), (iii) Spruce (Picea), and (iv) Larch (Larix). Besides,
a few species of temperate deciduous hardwood trees
have also developed in this climate mainly in those
areas which have been cleared by man through fell-
ing of original temperate coniferous trees. Thus, the
temperate deciduous trees represent the ‘secondary
succession of vegeta on’ which includes alder, birch
and poplar.
TUNDRA CLIMATE Location
Tundra is a Finnish word which means barren
land. Thus, the tundra region having least vegeta on
and polar or arc c climate is found in North America
and Eurasia between the southern limit of the perma-
nent ice caps in the north and the northern limit of the
taiga or subarcitc climate in the south. Thus, tundra
climate has developed over parts of Alaska (USA), ex-
treme northern parts of Canada, the coastal strips of
Greenland and the arc c seasboard regions of
European Russia and northern Siberia. Besides,
tundra climate has also developed over arc c islands.
Vegeta ons rapidly change to the north of treeline
because of increasing severity of climate.
Tundra climate is further divided into two sub-
types e.g. (i) arc c tundra climate and (ii) alpine tundra
climate (which is found over high mountains of tropical
to temperate areas). Based on varia ons in general
vegeta on characteris cs arc c tundra is divided in
3 zones from south to north viz. (i) low arc c tundra,
(ii) middle arc c tundra, and (iii) high arc c tundra. It
may be pointed out that high, middle, and low are not
indica ve of al tudes rather these indicate la tudes.
151
 The poleward boundary of tundra climate is of ice and snow protect the plants from gusty icy winds.
the year while 10°C isotherm of the warmest month Such herbaceous plants include willow the stems of
makes the equator ward boundary. which are very close to the ground surface (hardly a
few cen metres above the ground). Though the growth
Temperature rate of these herba-ceous plants is exceedingly slow but
The tundra climate is characterized by general their survival period is unbelievably very long (between
absence of insola on and sunlight and very low tem- 150to 300 years). The evergreen flowering plants de-
perature throughout the year. The average annual velop on the ground like cushions mostly during short
temperature is -12°C. Winters are long, bi erly cold cool summers.
and very severe while summers are very short but cool.
The warmest month of the year records average tem-
perature between 0°C and 10°C. It is interes ng to note
that diurnal range of temperature is very low because
of very li le difference in day and night temperatures
but the annual range is quite large. The severe climate
does not favour much vegeta on growth and hence
most of the areas under tundra climate remain bar-
ren land. The ground surface is covered with snow at
least for 7 to 8 months each year. The region is swept
by speedy cold powdery storms known as blizzards.
Growing season is less than 50 days in a year. The
ground is permanently frozen (permafrost). Even soil
is also perennially frozen.

Precipitation
Mean annual precipita on, mostly in the form of
snowfall, is below 40 cm. The absolute humidity is very
low because of very low rate of evapora on due to very
low temperature throughout the year. The divergent
system of air circula on and an cyclonic condi ons
do not favour much precipita on. Most of the annual
precipita on is received during summer and autumn
because of rela vely higher temperature.

Natural Vegetation
There is prefect rela onship between vegeta-
on and the condi on of moisture in the soils. The
characteris c lithosols of tundra biome support only
lichens and mosses. Only 3 per cent species of the
total world species of plant could develop in tundra
climate because of the severity of cold and the absence
of minimum amount of insola on and sunlight. The
vegeta ons of tundra climate are cryophytes i.e. such
vegeta ons are well adapted to severe cold condi ons
as they have developed such unique features which
enable them to withstand extreme cold condi ons.
Most of the plants are tu ed in form and range in
height between 5 cm and 8 cm. These plants have the
tendency of s cking to the ground surface because the
temperature of the ground surface is rela vely higher
than the temperature of the overlying air. The herbs
have developed only in those areas where heaps of

152