CHAPTAR-II

METEOROLOGY
 METEOROLOGY

Introduction
▪ Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere
that focuses on weather processes and forecasting.
Metrology is the study of the atmosphere and motions within the atmosphere on short-time
scales. Commonly known as ‘weather,’ meteorology focuses on the atmospheric variables
related to current or near-future conditions. Several weather elements describe the
atmosphere such as temperature, humidity, precipitation amount and type, wind direction
and strength, atmospheric pressure, and cloud cover. Three major spatiotemporal scales
describe atmospheric circulation systems and areas of study: microscale, mesoscale, and
macroscale (including synoptic and planetary scale motions). Meteorology has evolved into a
strong physics-based discipline with multiple specialization areas and increasingly rigorous
professional qualifications.
 METEOROLOGY

Components of Meteorology:
1. Temperature
2. Radiation
3. Atmospheric Pressure
4. Relative Humidity
5. Wind speed
 METEOROLOGY

Application of Meteorology:
1. Weather Forecasting
2. Aviation Meteorology
3. Agricultural Meteorology
4. Hydrometeorology
5. Nuclear Meteorology
6. Maritime Meteorology
METEOROLOGY

5
 METEOROLOGY

Hydrometeorology
▪ Hydrometeorology is the study of “precipitation and
evaporation”, which are the two fundamental phases in
the hydrological cycle.

▪ Practical use of Hydrometeorology is to determine

weather forecasts and magnitude of extreme rainfalls
events.

▪ The main scope of hydrometeorology includes the

study of the atmosphere and of the main features of
solar radiation.
 METEOROLOGY
The Atmosphere
➢ The atmosphere forms a distinctive, protective layer about 100 km
thick around the Earth. Its average structure is shown in Figure.

➢ Although both air “pressure and density decrease rapidly with

increasing altitude”, but the temperature varies in an irregular way.
The layers of the atmosphere, ‘spheres’, are defined by this
temperature profile as under;

Sr# Components Height (Km)

i) Tropo-sphere 0– 10

ii) Strato-sphere 11 – 50

iii) Meso-shpere 50 – 80

iv) Thermo-shpere 80 – 100

Continued…
 METEOROLOGY

➢ After a general decrease in temperature through the “troposphere”,

the rise in temperature from heights of 20 to 50 km is caused by
layer of ozone, which absorbs short-wave solar radiation, releasing
some of the energy as heat.

➢ To the hydrologist, “the troposphere is the most important layer”

because it contains 75% of the weight of the atmosphere and
virtually all its moisture.

➢ The height of the troposphere, the boundary zone between the

troposphere and the “stratosphere, is shown at about 11 km in
Figure, but this is an average figure”, which ranges from 8 km at
the Poles to 16 km at the Equator.
 METEOROLOGY
Structure of the atmospheric(Temperature Variation)
Figure 1.2: Photograph showing layers of atmosphere and their average
thickness.
 METEOROLOGY
Chemical Composition of Atmosphere
➢ “Dry air has a very consistent chemical composition throughout
the atmosphere up to the mesopause at 80 km”. The proportions of
the major constituents are as shown in Table.
➢ The last category contains small proportions of other inert gases
and, of particular importance, the stratospheric layer of ozone
which filters the sun’s radiation.
➢ Small quantities of hydrocarbons, ammonia and nitrates may also
exist temporarily in the atmosphere.
Major Constituents of Air/ Atmosphere
Name of Gas Percentage (by mass)
Nitrogen 75.51
Oxygen 23.15
Argon 1.28
Carbon dioxide, etc. 0.06
 METEOROLOGY

Atmospheric Pressure and Density

➢ “The weight of a column of air of unit area of cross-section from
the level of measurement to the top of the atmosphere”. More
specifically, pressure may be considered to be the downward force
on unit horizontal area due to gravity.

➢ At sea level, the average atmospheric pressure (p) is 1 bar. A

pressure of 1 bar is equivalent to 760 mm of mercury; the average
reading on a standard mercury barometer. “Measurements of
atmospheric pressure are usually given in millibars (mb)”.
 METEOROLOGY

Atmospheric Pressure Measuring Device

 HYDROMETEOROLOGY
2) Water Vapour
➢ The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere is directly related to
the temperature and thus, although lighter than air, “water vapour
is restricted to the lower layers of the troposphere” because
temperature decreases with altitude.
➢ The distribution of water vapour also varies over the Earth’s
surface according to temperature, and is lowest at the Poles and
highest in Equatorial regions.
➢ “The water vapour content or humidity” of air is usually measured
as a vapour pressure, and the units used are millibars (mb)
Average Water Vapour Values for Latitudes (Volume %);
Height (km) Water Vapour Height (km) Water Vapour
0 1.3 5 0.27
1 1.0 6 0.15
2 0.69 7 0.09
3 0.49 8 0.05
4 0.37
 HYDROMETEOROLOGY
Saturation
➢ Air is said to be saturated “when it contains the maximum amount
of water vapour” it can hold at its prevailing temperature.

➢ The relationship between saturation vapour pressure (e) and air

temperature Is shown in Figure. At typical temperatures near the
ground, (e) ranges from 5 to 50 mb. At any temperature T = Ta,
“saturation occurs” at corresponding vapour pressure e = ea.

Continued…
 HYDROMETEOROLOGY
Saturation
➢ Air is said to be saturated “when it contains the maximum amount
of water vapour” it can hold at its prevailing temperature.

➢ The relationship between saturation vapour pressure (e) and air

temperature Is shown in Figure. At typical temperatures near the
ground, (e) ranges from 5 to 50 mb. At any temperature T = Ta,
“saturation occurs” at corresponding vapour pressure e = ea.

Continued…
HYDROMETEOROLOGY
 HYDROMETEOROLOGY

(Vapor Pressure & Temperature)

Variation of Temperature and Pressure with Height.
 HYDROMETEOROLOGY

Saturation Deficit
➢ Saturation deficit is the difference between the saturation vapour
pressure at air temperature, Ta, and the actual vapour pressure
represented by the saturation vapour pressure at Td, the dew point.

➢ The saturation deficit, (es – ea), represents “the further amount of

water vapour that the air can hold at the temperature, Ta, before
becoming fully saturated”.

Dew Point (Saturation)

➢ Dew point is the temperature, Td, at which a mass of
unsaturated air becomes saturated when cooled, with the
pressure remaining constant.

Continued…
 HYDROMETEOROLOGY

Relative Humidity
➢ Relative Humidity is the relative measure of the amount of
moisture in the air to the amount needed to saturate the air at
the same temperature, i.e. ea/esx100 (represented as a
percentage).
Absolute Humidity (Pw)
➢ Absolute humidity (Pw) is generally expressed as the mass
of water vapour per unit volume of air at a given
temperature and is equivalent to the water vapour
density. Thus, if a volume (V) of air contains m gram of
water vapour, then
Pw = mass of water vapour (g) / volume of air (m3) = mw/V (g m-3)
 HYDROMETEOROLOGY
3) Solar Radiation
➢ The main source of energy at the Earth’s surface is “radiant
energy” from the sun, “termed solar radiation”. It is the solar
radiation emerging from sun and is the major activator of
hydrological cycle.

➢ The amount of radiant energy received at any point on the Earth’s

surface (assuming no atmosphere) is governed by the following
factors;

i) The solar output

ii) Distance from the sun
iii) Altitude of the sun
v) Length of day
 HYDROMETEOROLOGY
Atmospheric effects on solar radiation
➢ The atmosphere has a marked effect on the energy balance at the
surface of the Earth. “In one respect it acts as a shield protecting
the Earth from extreme external influences”, but it also prevents
immediate direct loss of heat. Thus “it operates as an energy filter
in both directions”.
➢ The interchanges of heat between the incoming solar radiation and
the Earth’s surface are many and complex. “There is a loss of
energy from the solar radiation as it passes through the
atmosphere known as attenuation”. Attenuation is brought about in
three principle ways.

Scattering
➢ About 6 of incoming radiation is scattered back into space
through collisions with molecules of air or water vapour. A further
16% are also scattered, but reach the Earth as diffuse radiation,
Continued…
 HYDROMETEOROLOGY
Atmospheric effects on solar radiation
Absorption
➢ 19% of solar radiation is absorbed by the gases of the
atmosphere, particularly by the ozone, water vapour and
carbon dioxide. These gases observed small wave length
radiation and very little of this radiations penetrates below the
altitude of 40 Km.
Reflection
➢ On average, 33% of solar radiation is reflected from
“clouds and the earth/ ground back into space”. The
amount of reflection depends on the reflecting surfaces
(Albedo).
➢ White clouds and fresh white snow reflect about 90% of the
radiation, but a dark tropical ocean under a high sun absorbs
nearly all of it.
➢ Between these two extremes is a range of surface conditions
depending on roughness, soil type and water content of the
soil.
 HYDROMETEOROLOGY
Net Radiation
➢ As a result of the various atmospheric losses, only 51% of solar
radiation reaches the Earth’s surface. The short-wave
component of that 51% is absorbed and heats the land and oceans.
➢ The Earth itself radiates energy in the long-wave length and this
long-wave radiation is readily absorbed by the atmosphere. The
Earth’s surface emits less than half of energy in the long wave
length compared to the energy received in short-wave length
through solar radiation.
➢ “The amount of energy available at any particular point of the earth
for heating the ground surface, lower air layers and for evaporation
of water is called net radiation (LH)”.
Net Radiation

26
27
 HYDROMETEOROLOGY

4) Evaporation
➢ Evaporation is the primary process of “water transfer in the
hydrological cycle”. The “oceans contain 95% of the Earth’s
water” and constitute a vast reservoir that remains comparatively
undisturbed.

➢ From the surface of the seas and oceans, water is evaporated and
“transferred to temporary storage in the atmosphere”, the first
stage in the hydrological cycle.
 HYDROMETEOROLOGY

Factors Affecting Evaporation

Latent heat
➢ Latent heat is required to change a liquid into its gaseous form and
in nature this is provided by energy from the sun. the latent heat of
vaporization comes from solar (short-wave) and terrestrial (long-
wave) radiation. The incoming solar radiation is the dominant
source of heat and affects evaporation amounts over the surface of
the earth according to latitude and season.
Temperature of Air and Evaporating Surface
➢ Temperature of both air and the evaporating surface is important
and dependent upon the major energy source, the sun. The higher
the air temperature, the more water vapour it can hold and
similarly, if the temperature of the evaporating water is high, it can
more readily vaporize. Thus evaporation amounts are high in
tropical climates and tend to be low in polar regions. Similar
contrasts are found between summer and winter evaporation
quantities in mid-latitudes.
Continued…
 HYDROMETEOROLOGY
Saturation Deficit
➢ “Evaporation is dependent on the saturation deficit of the air”,
which is the amount of water vapour that can be taken up by the
air before it becomes saturated. “The saturation deficit” is given
by the difference between the saturation vapour pressure at the
surface temperature and the actual vapour pressure of the air.
Hence more evaporation occurs in inland areas where the air
tends to be drier than in coastal regions with damp air from
the sea.
Movement of Air
➢ As water evaporates, the air above the evaporating surface
gradually becomes more humid until finally it is saturated and can
hold no more vapour. If the air is moving, then, the amount of
evaporation is increased as drier air replaces the humid air. “Thus
wind speed at the surface is an important factor”. Evaporation is
greater in exposed areas that enjoy plenty of air movement than in
sheltered localities where air tends to stagnate.
 HYDROMETEOROLOGY
Example-I
Determine (i) the saturation vapour pressure (ii) the actual vapour
pressure (iii) saturation deficit and (iv) the dew point temperature of the
atmosphere corresponding to a temperature of 300 and a relative
humidity of 80%.
Solution

i) From Table, the saturation vapour pressure at 300C is 42.43 mb.

So es = 42.43 mb
ii) h = 80%, ea = 33.944 mb (as h = ea/es x 100)
Actual vapour pressure = 33.944 mb

iii) Saturation deficit = (es – ea) = (42.43 – 33.944) = 8.486 mb

iv) From Table, the temperature at which es = e = 33.944 is
obtained at 26.1650C
Hence the dew point temperature, Td = 26.1650C
 HYDROMETEOROLOGY
Example-II
If the atmospheric pressure, temperature and vapour pressure of the
atmosphere are 1005 mb, 280C and 19.873 mm of mercury, determine
the relative humidity, dew point temperature and the density of the
atmosphere.
Solution

From Table 2.1, for 280C es = 37.796 mb

ea = 19.873 mm of mercury = 19.873 x 1.33 = 26.43 mb

Relative humidity h = ea x 100 = 100 x 26.43 = 69.93%

es 37.796

From Table the Temperature corresponding to Saturation vapour

pressure of 26.43 mb is 220C. Hence the dew point temperature is
220C.
HYDROMETEOROLOGY

33
HYDROMETEOROLOGY

34
 HYDROMETEOROLOGY

5) Effects of Climate Change in Pakistan

➢ Rise in mean temperature 0.6 to 1.0 oC in coastal areas, arid
mountains.

➢ 10 to 15% decrease in both winter and summer rainfall in coastal

belt and hyper arid plains.

➢ 18-32% increase in rainfall in monsoon zone especially the sub-

humid and humid areas.

➢ 5% decrease in relative humidity in Balochistan.

➢ 0.5 to 0.7% increase in solar radiation in southern half of country.

➢ 3-5% decrease in cloud cover in central Pakistan with increase in

sunshine hours.