METEOROLOGY THE ATMOSPHERE

THE ATMOSPHERE
INTRODUCTION:

 Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere.

 The atmosphere is the envelope of gases surrounding the earth.
 Weather refers to the elements that we see daily such as temperature, rain, wind,
atmospheric pressure, etc. These can change every hour and day by day.
 Climate is the more general pattern of the weather established by analyzing, on an
annual basis, the daily weather conditions at a particular point.

STRUCTURE & COMPOSITION:

The atmosphere can be divided into distinctive layers which are defined by the
variation of the air temperature with increase in height. Following are the layers of the
atmosphere in ascending order:

1) Troposphere:
 It extends from the surface of the earth to about 08 km above the poles and
about 16 km above the equator i.e. up to the tropopause.
 Nearly all weather changes occur in this layer and nearly all the water vapour
in the atmosphere is contained in this layer. Hence, this layer is of great
significance to the Mariners.
 Here, atmospheric temperature normally falls steadily as height increases.
 Sometimes, the temperature of air may increase with increase in height
instead of falling. This is called ‘temperature inversion’. Sometimes the
temperature of air remains constant with increase in height. The air is then
said to be an isothermal layer. However, both above conditions are
temporary and will return to normal subsequently.

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2) Stratosphere:
 It extends from the tropopause up to about 50 km above the earth’s surface
i.e. up to the stratopause.
 In the lower stratosphere, air temperature is constant with increasing height,
but in the middle and upper parts of the stratosphere, it increases with
increasing height. This is mainly due to the presence of ozone in this layer.
 This layer does not hold much significance for the mariners.

3) Mesosphere:
 It extends from the stratopause up to about 80 km above the surface of the
earth i.e. up to the mesopause.
 In the mesosphere, the air temperature decreases rapidly with increasing
height.
 Like the stratosphere, this layer too is not of any significance to the mariners.

Composition:

The atmosphere is made up of a mixture of the following gases, the composition of

which is nearly constant in all layers:

 Nitrogen – 78%
 Oxygen – 21%
 Rare gases including CO2 – 1%

Also, the density of air decreases with increase in height.

ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE:

A process is said to be adiabatic when there is no heat transfer i.e. heat does not
enter or leave the system.

The change of temperature of air with increase in height is due to increase or

decrease in its volume, without any transfer of heat from or to the surrounding.

As we know, the temperature increases when volume decreases and vice-versa.

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By a law in physics, when a parcel of air is made to rise, its volume increases in
accordance with the rarer air at that height. Therefore, when the volume of this air
increases, its temperature decreases.

The expansion of air has caused it to cool, though no exchange of heat has taken
place with the surrounding. This cooling of air is thus adiabatic.

Adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which the parcel of air is cooled with increase in
height. It is usually expressed in deg. Celsius per km. It is also called Environmental
lapse rate (ELR) which is of the value of 6.50C per km for standard atmosphere. When
the air temperature decreases with increase in height, the ELR is positive, and when
the air temperature increases with increase in height (temperature inversion), the ELR
is negative.

The ELR in the lower troposphere increases significantly whenever a mass of air is
heated by a land surface during the day or whenever a mass of air is passing over a
relatively warmer land or sea surface (dry air). In contrast, the ELR decreases when air
is cooled by a land surface during the night or whenever a mass of air is passing over a
relatively cooler land or sea surface (wet air).

Wet & Dry Air:

Air is termed as saturated when it contains the maximum amount of water vapour
possible at a given temperature. In other words, any parcel of air that is fully
saturated with water vapour is called wet air or saturated air.

Any parcel of air that is not fully saturated with water vapour is called dry air.

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR)

It has been observed that the temperature of a dry parcel of air which is made to rise
falls at a steady rate of 100C per km of ascent. In other words, the DALR is 100C per km.

Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR)

The temperature of a saturated parcel of air which is made to rise falls at a rate of
approximately 50C per km of ascent. In other words, the SALR is about 50C per km. it is
slightly variable – less at the equator and more at the poles.

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Why is SALR less than DALR?

As the saturated air rises, its temperature decreases and its capacity of hold water
vapour also decreases. The excess moisture condenses into water droplets. This
condensation causes the release of latent heat of vaporization that warms up the
parcel of air. Therefore the temperature falls only by 50C per km instead of 100C per
km. More the water vapour in the air; more is the condensation and more is the latent
heat released. In other words, more the water vapour; less is the decrease in
temperature i.e. less is the SALR.

DIURNAL VARIATION OF ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE:

The atmospheric temperature reaches its maximum at about 1400 hrs LT and its
minimum at about half an hour after sunrise. This systematic change in the
atmospheric temperature during an average 24 hour period is termed as diurnal
variation of temperature.

The difference between the maximum and minimum values of the atmospheric
temperatures for any given day is called the diurnal range of atmospheric
temperature for that day.

The diurnal range of air temperature over land is large whereas over sea, it is very
small.

This is because –

LAND
A) Land being a solid has low value of
specific heat and so heats up
quickly.
B) Heat received by land is retained
only by the top layer as land is
poor conductor of heat.
C) Evaporation causes cooling. But in
case of land, evaporation is
negligible.
SEA
A) Sea being liquid has a higher value of
specific heat and so heats up or cools
down slowly.
B) Heat received by the sea is
distributed over large masses of
water by convection currents.
C) Over the sea, evaporation during the
day causes cooling which balances
the heat received from the sun.

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Therefore, the temperature of land varies a lot between day and night. Thus, the air in
contact with it has a large diurnal range. Whereas the air in contact with the sea has a
practically negligible diurnal range as the temperature of the sea is not varying much
between day and night.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE:

Atmospheric pressure is defined as the force per unit area exerted against a surface
by the weight of the air above that surface.

The unit of measurement is millibars (mb) or hectopascals (hPa). (1 mb = 1 hPa)

The atmospheric pressure is measured using an instrument called the barometer.

Hence it is also known as the barometric pressure.

The formula which defines this pressure is P = ρgh where P is the atmospheric
pressure, ρ is the mean density of the air in the column, g is the value of gravity and h
is the height of the air column.

Lapse Rate of Atmospheric Pressure:

At any height above the surface of the earth, the atmospheric pressure will be less
than that at the surface. This is because of the smaller values of both height of the air
column (h) and the mean density of air in the column (ρ) as air density decreases with
height. The graph of the lapse rate of atmospheric pressure against height above sea
level is a curve. Lapse rate at lower level of atmosphere is about 1 mb or 1 hPa for
every 10 m height above sea level. Lapse rate at higher levels of atmosphere is higher.

Diurnal Variation of Atmospheric Pressure:

It has been observed that the atmospheric pressure reaches it maximum at about
1000 hrs and 2200 hrs LT and its minimum at about 0400 and 1600 hrs LT. This daily
variation in the atmospheric pressure is known as the diurnal variation of atmospheric
pressure and the difference between the maximum and minimum values of the
atmospheric pressure is known as the diurnal range of atmospheric pressure.

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Barometric Tendency:

It is the difference between the atmospheric pressure at the time of observation and
the atmospheric pressure 3 hours earlier. The characteristics of the tendency
observed may be described as rising, falling or steady or a combination of these
terms. It is expressed to the nearest tenth of a hectopascal or millibar. When
observed barometric tendencies are plotted on a chart, the points having the same
tendencies are joined by lines called isallobars. (The points having same values of
atmospheric pressure are joined by lines called isobars)

WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE:

Water can exist in the atmosphere in the following states:

1. Vapour – water vapour

2. Liquid – water droplets
3. Solid – ice crystals

Under certain circumstances, it changes from one state to another.

condensation freezing
VAPOUR LIQUID SOLID
evaporation melting

When water changes from solid state to vapour state or vice-versa, the process is
called sublimation.

During evaporation, latent heat is absorbed and during condensation, latent heat is
released.

WATER VAPOUR & HUMIDITY

In general, humidity is the quantity of water vapour present in the atmosphere. The
quantity of water vapour in the atmosphere is variable both in time and space. The
actual water vapour content of a sample of air may be expressed by a number of
terms:

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1. Humidity Mixing Ratio: It is the ratio of the mass of water vapour in a given
sample of air to the mass of dry air (air without water vapour). Units are grams
/ kg.
2. Absolute Humidity: It is the ratio of the mass of water vapour in a given
sample of air to the volume occupied by the mixture of water vapour and air.
Units are grams / m3.
3. Relative Humidity: It is the ratio of the mass of the water vapour present in a
given sample of air to that which could be present if the air was saturated at
the same temperature. It is expressed as a percentage.

Relative Humidity (RH) = x 100

If the temperature of a parcel of air increases, its capacity to hold water

vapour also increases. If no water vapour is allowed to come in or go out of
the sample of air, its relative humidity decreases. In other words, the air
becomes relatively drier. In contrast, when the parcel of air is cooled, its
relative humidity increases. Thus, Relative humidity is inversely proportional to
temperature. (RH α 1/ t)

4. Dew Point: When a sample of air is progressively cooled, its relative humidity
will increase. The temperature at which the relative humidity becomes 100%
i.e. the air becomes fully saturated (wet) is known as the dew point.

NOTES:

A) Atmospheric Sweat: When a cargo hold is ventilated, the air brought in by the
ventilators is very small compared to the air already present in the hold. If the
temperature of the air in the hold is less than the temperature of the air
entering the hold, then it will cool the entering air and if cooled below the dew
point it will give off moisture and condense as sweat on the cargo and on the
steel parts of the hold. This will damage the cargo and the ship. It is therefore
very important to compare the temperature of air in the hold with the dew
point of the outside air. If the hold temperature is less than the dew point of

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the outside air, restrict ventilation. If the hold temperature is greater than the
dew point of outside air, ventilate freely.
(Thumb Rule: Outside HOT, ventilate NOT. Outside COLD, ventilate the HOLD)

B) Cargo Sweat: Some cargoes such as hides, skin, ores, etc. give off large
quantities of water vapour making the relative humidity of air inside the hold
very high. The slightest cooling will cause condensation and sweat will form on
the steel parts and drip on the cargo causing damage to it. This can be only
prevented using large capacity exhaust fans, by using dunnage to keep cargo
off the steel and covering the top of cargo.

C) Ship sweat: When temperature of the sea is much lower than that of the air
above it, the underwater parts of the hold get cooled by contact with the sea.
Hence sweat is formed on steel parts below the waterline which normally
flows into the bilges. To avoid this, dunnage can be used to prevent cargo
coming in contact with the steel parts.

WIND
Wind is defined as the horizontal movement of air across the surface of the Earth. The
direction from which it blows and its speed are its important characteristics.

Isobars: An isobar is a line drawn on a weather map joining all places having equal
atmospheric pressure at the time for which that weather map was drawn. Isobars are
smooth lines that curve gently without any sudden change of direction except at
fronts where it may change direction suddenly by about 90 degrees. Isobars cannot
cross each other or meet as one place cannot have at a same time a different value of
atmospheric pressure. For standardization, isobars are drawn at intervals of 4mb and
pressure denoted by an isobar is divisible by 4. (for eg- 996, 1000, 1004 and so on)

Pressure Gradient:

 It is the change of atmospheric pressure over unit distance at right angles to the
isobars.

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 When isobars are close together, pressure gradient is said to be high and strong
winds are expected to blow. When isobars are far or well-spaced, pressure
gradient is said to be small and winds of lower speed will be expected to blow.
 For a given pressure gradient, stronger winds will blow at the lower latitudes
than in the higher latitudes.

Coriolis Force (or geostrophic force):

 When a horizontal pressure gradient exists, a force called pressure gradient

force acts on the air which moves from high to low pressure at right angles to
the isobars.
 However, the air does not move in this direction as it is deflected by Coriolis
force or the geostrophic force. It is called so as it relates to the rotation of the
earth about its axis and causes the air to be deflected to the right of its line of
motion in the northern hemisphere and to the left of its line of motion in the
southern hemisphere.
 Coriolis force always acts at right angles to the direction in which the wind is
blowing.
 Mathematically it can be shown that in the horizontal plane, with the xy
coordinates aligned to north and east respectively, the Coriolis force acting per
unit mass of air is 2ΩsinΦv where Ω is the angular velocity of the earth, Φ is the
latitude and v is the speed of the air.
 When at equator Φ = 0, that means, Coriolis force is zero or minimum at the
equator. As latitude increases, the Coriolis force also increases and is maximum
at the pole

Geostrophic Wind:

 When isobars are straight lines parallel to each other, the resultant horizontal
motion due to the action of the pressure gradient and Coriolis forces is termed
as Geostrophic wind.
 Its direction is parallel to the isobars and its speed is constant.
 The Geostrophic wind is used by professional meteorologists in forecasting,
but as it does not exist at the surface, it is of limited practical value to the
seafarer.

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Gradient Wind:

 It is the horizontal air motion parallel to isobars which are curved. It is due
to the action of the pressure gradient, Coriolis force and cyclostrophic force.
 In a low pressure system, the gradient wind blows in an anti-clockwise
fashion in the Northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern
hemisphere.
 In a high pressure system, it blows clockwise in the Northern hemisphere
and anti-clockwise in the Southern hemisphere. (as shown in the diagram
below)

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Cyclostrophic Force:

 It is the force that acts radially outwards from the centre of rotation of the air
particle following a curved path.
 The value of the force is directly dependent upon the gradient wind speed.

Angle of indraft:

 Air moving across the surface of the earth is affected by friction, and does not
achieve the speed which in theory is directly related to the pressure gradient. As
a result, the Coriolis and the cyclostrophic forces have smaller values and
therefore neither the Geostrophic or gradient winds exist.
 The pressure gradient becomes dominant and the resultant wind blows
diagonally across the isobars from high to low pressure. The angle that the
resultant wind direction makes with the isobars is called angle of indraft.
 This angle depends on friction, gradient force and latitude. (as Coriolis force is
variable at different latitudes)
 Over land the effect of friction is greater and therefore the angle of indraft is
larger.

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Buys Ballot’s Law:

 Buys Ballot formulated a law identifying the relationship between wind and
pressure distribution. The law states that if an observer has his back to the
wind, then low pressure will be to the left in the northern hemisphere and right
in the southern hemisphere.
 It follows that the high pressure will be on the right in the northern hemisphere
and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
 In other words, “face the true wind and the Low pressure area will be on your
right in the Northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.”
 However this law cannot be applied near the equator as Coriolis force here is
negligible and winds blow directly from high pressure to low pressure across
the isobars.
 This law should not be applied in the vicinity of the land as wind may not be free
unobstructed wind and may be wind deflected by the land.

Geostrophic Wind Scale:

 It is a scale provided on a weather map that is used to predict wind speed at

sea. It is drawn to the scale of the map.
 The distance between two consecutive isobars is taken off the weather map a
divider. The divider is then placed on the Geostrophic wind scale, one leg of the
divider is placed on the margin indicating the present latitude and other leg is
placed horizontally to the right on the curved lines that indicate the Geostrophic
wind speed.
 If the other leg of the divider falls between two curves, interpolation must be
carried out accordingly.
 Because of the friction between the air and the earth’s surface, the wind speed
over land is taken as half of Geostrophic wind speed and over sea since friction
is less, it is taken as 2/3rd of the Geostrophic wind speed.

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Important Definitions:

 Sea (waves): it is the name given to waves on the sea surface, created by wind
that is presently blowing. The height of sea disturbance in open waters is
directly proportional to the wind force.
 Swell: is the name given to waves on the sea surface, formed by wind that has
subsequently stopped blowing or is blowing at some other place quite far away.
Swell travels quickly and can be felt even over 1000 miles away. It travels
radially outward from the centre of the storm and is usually the first indication
of the presence and bearing of the TRS.
 Gust & Lull: A gust in an increase in wind speed about the mean value and a lull
is a decrease in wind speed about the mean value.
 Squall: is a prolonged gust with a duration of more than one minute and an
increase in speed of atleast 16 knots or three steps on the BF scale, its speed
being Force 6 or greater.
 Veering: A clockwise change in the direction from which the wind is blowing is
called veering.
 Backing: An anti-clockwise change in the direction from which the wind is
blowing is called backing.

THUNDERSTORMS:

1. It is a phenomenon where the atmosphere is very unstable throughout for a

considerable depth.
2. There is a large quantity of moisture in the atmosphere and towering
cumulonimbus clouds are formed.
3. There is a release of latent heat which causes the temperature to rise there by
forcing the air to rise violently further up aggravating the violent formation of
cumulonimbus clouds.
4. Release of latent heat creates a situation of violent convection. This leads to
separation of positive and negative charges and build up of potential
difference among the clouds.
5. When two layers of cloud with different charges come close to each other, the
charges move from higher potential to lower potential.

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6. This ionizes the atmospheric gases so that the discharge path becomes visible
as a flash of light. The ionization also creates a shockwave which is heard as
thunder. As a shock wave lasts longer than the flash, the thunder is heard
longer than the lightning.

GLOBAL WIND AND PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION:

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Doldrums / Inter tropical convergence zone:

 It is the term for the zone in the equatorial ocean regions where light and
variable winds occur.
 It is the area of low latitudes in which the trade winds of the two hemispheres
converge. Hence the name inter tropical convergence zone.
 Though the doldrums are known for light and variable winds, sometimes
squalls, heavy rains and thunderstorms may be experienced.

Trade Winds:

 Trade winds are defined as the winds that exist between the subtropical high
and the ITCZ. The term is derived from their reputation for constant direction
and speed, which made them very reliable for trade by sailing vessels.
 These blow constantly throughout the year from about 250 to 300 latitude
towards the equator in both hemispheres over all major sea areas.
 In the northern hemisphere, they blow from subtropical high to ITCZ, being
deflected to the right slightly by Coriolis force and hence blow from NE and are
called NE trade winds.
 In the southern hemisphere, they blow from subtropic high (300 S) to ITCZ and
get deflected slightly to the left by Coriolis force and hence blow from SE and
are called SE trade winds.
 The average trade wind speed is about 12 to 15 knots (Force 4).
 In general, the trade winds blow more strongly towards the end of winter in
each hemisphere.

Subtropical High / Horse Latitudes:

 These are located in latitudes 300 to 350 N/S.

 The winds here are light and variable.
 It is a high pressure belt and in general, the weather here is clear.
 They have earned the name ‘horse latitudes’ because when sail ships were
stuck in these regions due to lack of wind, they had to throw their horses
overboard.

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Westerlies and Polar Easterlies:

 Westerlies are the winds that blow from the subtropical high to the sub-polar
low, in both cases being deflected by Coriolis force and therefore coming from
the west, hence the name westerlies.
 These winds blow from the sub polar high region of the latitudes 300 N/S to the
sub-polar low regions of the latitude 600 N/S.
 Polar Easterlies are the winds that blow from the Polar regions (high pressure)
to the sub-polar low, in both cases being deflected by Coriolis force and
therefore coming from the east, hence the name Polar Easterlies.
 These winds blow from the respective poles to the sub-polar high region of 600
N/S.

LOCAL WINDS:
1. Bora Winds:

 These are katabatic winds which blow from N or NE down the slopes of steep
mountains of the Adriatic, Ural mountains off the North coast of Black Sea.
 Because of the great heights from where these winds come, they attain gale
force in a very short time without the usual warning indicated by barometric
pressure.
 These are very dangerous to the ships at anchor and small crafts in its path.

2. Levanter:

 It is an easterly, light to moderate, moist wind that blows across the Strait of
Gibraltar, mainly in March and also between July and October.
 Its moist nature brings rain, mist or fog, sometimes haze.
 It is the cause of the ‘Banner cloud’ or ‘Levanter cloud’ which stretches a mile
or so to leeward, like a flag, from the top of the Rock.
 If the force of the Levanter exceeds Beaufort scale 7, the banner cloud lifts and
disappears.

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3. Mistral

 It is a strong N or NW katabatic wind blowing over the Gulf of Lions in the NW

part of the Mediterranean Sea.
 Its main features are its frequency of occurrence, its dry, cold nature and the
rapidity with which is can develop into gale force, without any indication by
barometric pressure.

4. Norther

 It is a strong gale, with rain and occurs during the winter in Chile.
 It gives good warning signs of its approach which are the falling barometric
pressure, clouds and overcast sky, swell from northward and water high in the
harbours.
 The term norther is also applicable to the winds which blow over the Gulf of
Mexico and western Caribbean in winter. But these are set off without warning
and occur when there are intense anticyclone over NW America.
 They reach gale force in the Gulf of Mexico but diminish in strength in the
Caribbean.

5. Shamal

 It is the NW wind in the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman.

 It is a warm, dusty, dry wind from the deserts of Arabia.
 The sky is cloudless and the visibility during the Shamal is very bad because of
the huge amount of sand and fine dust from the desert.
 It may change direction due to the trend of the land features and can blow
from W or even SW.
 No indication is given by barometric pressure of the approach of a Shamal,
though the wind force in winter can reach BF 8 or 9, sometimes accompanied
by rainsqualls, thunder and lightning.

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6. Tornadoes and Water-sprout

 A tornado is a violent whirlwind of the cyclonic type – anticlockwise in the NH

and clockwise in the SH.
 Its axis is nearly vertical, extending from the cloud-base downward and often
reaching ground level.
 Its width is anything between 50 and 500 metres but the wind is often of
hurricane force at the centre.
 It generally travels at a speed of about 10-30 knots and lasts for a few minutes
to a few days.
 The hurricane force winds of such a small diameter, cause an intense upward
current at the centre, capable of lifting heavy objects into the air, uprooting
trees, destroying buildings, etc.
 Tornadoes are associated with Cumulonimbus clouds.
 The favorable conditions for the formation of tornado is same as that for
Thunderstorm i.e. great atmospheric instability, high humidity, convergence at
low levels, etc.
 Tornadoes occur very frequently and violently over mid-west-USA and central
plains of the USA.
 When tornadoes are formed and pass over the sea, large quantities of water
are carried up forming a water sprout, which appears as a thin, funnel-shaped,
opaque column, broad at the top and very thin at the sea level.

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