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Hess
MasteringGeography TM About the cover:
Mount Monolith rises above
Divide Lake in Tombstone
Territorial Park, Yukon, Canada.
Tasa
Darrel Hess
Need help visualizing
Physical Geography A Landscape Appreciation

“Reading” the landscape of
Mc Knight’s
Mount Monolith, a geographer Illustrated by Dennis Tasa
physical geography concepts? sees evidence of Earth’s history
and the processes that continue
to shape its surface. Over
Need guidance before a lecture millions of years, Earth’s internal
processes uplifted granite that
or an exam? had cooled deep below the
surface to form this part of the
Ogilvie Mountains. In the more
MasteringGeography has the resources you need to help you excel recent geologic past, the climate
in your physical geography course and get you the grade you want! cooled and large glaciers
MasteringGeography is an online homework, tutorial, and assessment formed, sculpting the terrain
system designed to improve results by empowering you to quickly master and leaving the steep spires of
this 1921 meter (6302 foot) high
geography concepts. You will benefit from self-paced coaching activities
peak. As you read this book, you
that feature feedback and hints that keep you on track. With a wide will visit many such landscapes
range of interactive, engaging, and assignable activities, you will be and learn to read the histories
encouraged to actively learn and master challenging course concepts. they hold.
Mc Knight’s
Top Three Reasons You’ll Want to Use
Physical
MasteringGeography:
1. Whether or not your professor assigns homework through
MasteringGeography, YOU have access to both the eText and all of
the resources in the Study Area. Access Mobile Field Trips, Project
Condor Quadcopter videos, practice quizzes, flashcards, Videos,
Geography
GIS-inspired MapMaster interactive maps, In the News readings,
Animations, and more to help you get the best possible grade.
2. Dynamic Study Modules ensure you acquire, retain, and recall

information faster and more effectively so you can be successful
on quizzes and exams. Each question prompts you to identify how
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3. For any homework activities your professor assigns, such as with GIS-
inspired MapMaster interactive maps, Videos, Encounter Google
Earth Activities, Mobile Field Trips, Project Condor Quadcopter
videos, or Animations, you’ll receive wrong-answer feedback
personalized to your answers, which will help you get back on track. A Landscape Appreciation
To get access to all this great material and more, ask your instructor how
Twelfth Edition
you can get started using MasteringGeography!
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-419542-1
ISBN-10: 0-13-419542-6
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with MasteringGeography™
DURING CLASS
Learning Catalytics™ and Engaging Media
“My students are so busy and
What has Teachers and Students excited?
engaged answering Learning
Learning Cataltyics, a ‘bring your own device’
student engagement, assessment, and classroom Catalytics questions during
intelligence system, allows students to use their lecture that they don’t have
smartphone, tablet, or laptop to respond to time for Facebook.”
questions in class. With Learning Cataltyics, you
can: Declan De Paor, Old Dominion University
• A
ssess students in real time using open-
ended question formats to uncover student
misconceptions and adjust lecture accordingly.
• A
utomatically create groups for peer instruction
based on student response patterns, to optimize
discussion productivity.
Enrich Lecture with Dynamic Media

Teachers can incorporate dynamic media into lecture, such as Videos,
Mobile Field Trip Videos, MapMaster Interactive Maps, Project Condor
Quadcopter Videos, and Geoscience Animations.
NONETM_A01_HESS5421_12_SE_FM.indd 7 2/3/16 5:28 PM

Mastering Geography™
MasteringGeography delivers engaging, dynamic learning opportunities—focusing on course

objectives and responsive to each student’s progress—that are proven to help students absorb
physical geography course material and understand challenging geography processes and concepts.
AFTER CLASS
Easy to Assign, Customizable, Media-Rich, and Automatically Graded Assignments
NEW! Geography Videos from such

UPDATED! MapMaster Interactive Map sources as the BBC and The Financial Times
Activities are inspired by GIS, allowing students are now included in addition to the videos
to layer various thematic maps to analyze from Television for the Environment’s Life and
spatial patterns and data at regional and global Earth Report series in MasteringGeography.
scales. This tool includes zoom and annotation Approximately 200 video clips for over
functionality, with hundreds of map layers 30 hours of footage are available to students
leveraging recent data from sources such as and teachers in MasteringGeography.
NOAA, NASA, USGS, United Nations, and the CIA.
NEW! Mobile Field Trip Videos

have students accompany acclaimed
photographer and pilot Michael Collier
in the air and on the ground to explore
iconic landscapes of North America and
beyond. Readers scan Quick Response
(QR) links in the book to access the 20
videos as they read. Also available within
MasteringGeography with assignable
assessments.

www.MasteringGeography.com
NEW and UPDATED! GeoTutors are

highly visual and data-rich coaching items
with hints and specific wrong answer
feedback that help students master the
toughest topics in geography.
NEW! Project Condor Quadcopter

Videos take students out into the
field through narrated and annotated
quadcopter video footage, exploring the
physical processes that have helped shape
North American landscapes.
UPDATED! Encounter (Google Earth)

activities provide rich, interactive
explorations of physical geography
concepts, allowing students to visualize
spatial data and tour distant places on
the virtual globe.
Geoscience Animations
help students visualize the most
challenging physical processes
in the physical geosciences with
schematic animations that include
audio narration. Animations
include assignable multiple-choice
quizzes with specific wrong
answer feedback to help guide
students toward mastery of these
core physical process concepts.

A01_HESS5421_12_SE_FM.indd 10 1/27/16 11:00 PM
McKNIGHT’S
Physical
Geography
A Landscape Appreciation
Darrel Hess
City College of San Francisco
illustrated by Dennis Tasa

Senior Geography Editor: Christian Botting Compositor: SPi Global
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Hess, Darrel. | McKnight, Tom L. (Tom Lee). 1928–2004 Physical

geography.
Title: Mcknight’s physical geography : a landscape appreciation / Darrel
Hess
; illustrated by Dennis Tasa.
Description: Twelfth edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Pearson, 2016.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016001401 | ISBN 9780134195421
Subjects: LCSH: Physical geography.
Classification: LCC GB54.5 .H47 2016 | DDC 910/.02–dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2016001401
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10—V356—18 17 16 15
ISBN 10: 0-134-19542-6; ISBN 13: 978-0-134-19542-1 (Student edition)

www.pearsonhighered.com ISBN 10: 0-134-32635-0; ISBN 13: 978-0-134-32635-1 (Instructor’s Review Copy)

Brief Contents
1 Introduction to Earth 2
2 Portraying Earth 28
3 Introduction to the Atmosphere 54
4 Insolation and Temperature 76
5 Atmospheric Pressure and Wind 108
6 Atmospheric Moisture 138
7 Atmospheric Disturbances 174
8 Climate and Climate Change 204
9 The Hydrosphere 250
10 Cycles and Patterns in the Biosphere 278
11 Terrestrial Flora and Fauna 306
12 Soils 342
13 Introduction to Landform Study 372
14 The Internal Processes 398
15 Weathering and Mass Wasting 444
16 Fluvial Processes 466
17 Karst and Hydrothermal Processes 498
18 The Topography of Arid Lands 514
19 Glacial Modification of Terrain 538
20 Coastal Processes and Terrain 568
Learning Check Answers AK-1
Appendix I The International System of Units (SI) A-1
Appendix II U.S. Geological Survey Topographic Maps A-3
Appendix III Meteorological Tables A-8
Appendix IV The Weather Station Model A-13
Appendix V Köppen Climate Classification A-19
Appendix VI Biological Taxonomy A-21
Appendix VII The Soil Taxonomy A-23
Glossary G-1
Credits C-2
Index I-1
xiii

Geoscience ANIMATIONS
Animation
Covering the most difficult-to-visualize topics in physical geography, the Geoscience Animations can be accessed by Gulf Stream
students with mobile devices through Quick Response Codes in the book, or through the Study
Area. Teachers can assign these media with assessments in .
1 Introduction to Earth End of the Last Ice Age The Eruption http://goo.gl/VxNztu
Solar System Formation Orbital Variations and of Mount
Earth-Sun Relations Climate Change St. Helens
2 Portraying Earth 9 The Hydrosphere Igneous Features

Hydrologic Cycle Folding
Map Projections
The Carbonate Buffering Faulting
3 Introduction System Seismic Waves
to the Atmosphere Seismographs
Tides
Ozone Depletion
Coriolis Effect
Tidal Cycle 15 Weathering
Ocean Circulation Patterns— and Mass Wasting
4 Insolation and Subtropical Gyres Mechanical Weathering
Temperature Ocean Circulation Patterns— Mass Wasting
Atmospheric Energy Balance Global Conveyor-Belt The Eruption of Mount St.
Gulf Stream Circulation Helens
Global Warming North Atlantic Deep Water 16 Fluvial Processes
5 Atmospheric Pressure Circulation Stream Sediment Movement
and Wind Arctic Sea Ice Decline Oxbow Lake Formation
Development of Wind The Water Table Floods and Natural Levee
Patterns Groundwater Cone of Formation
Coriolis Effect Depression Stream Terrace Formation
Cyclones and Anticyclones 10 Cycles and Patterns 18 The Topography
Global Atmospheric in the Biosphere of Arid Lands
Circulation Biological Productivity in Wind Transportation of
The Jet Stream and Rossby Midlatitude Oceans Sediment
Waves Net Primary Productivity Desert Sand Dunes
Seasonal Pressure and
Precipitation Patterns
13 Introduction to 19 Glacial Modification
Landform Study of Terrain
El Niño
Metamorphic Rock End of the Last Ice Age
6 Atmospheric Moisture Foliation Isostasy
Hydrologic Cycle Isostasy Flow of Ice within a Glacier
Water Phase Changes
Adiabatic Processes and
14 The Internal Processes Glacial Processes
Seafloor Spreading Orbital Variations and
Atmospheric Stability
Paleomagnetism Climate Change
Seasonal Pressure and
Precipitation Patterns
Convection and Plate 20 Coastal Processes
Tectonics and Terrain
7 Atmospheric Plate Boundaries Wave Motion
Disturbances Divergent Boundaries Wave Refraction
Cold Fronts Subduction Zones Tsunami
Warm Fronts Collision of India with Tides
Midlatitude Cyclones Eurasia Coastal Sediment Transport
Hurricanes Transform Faults and Movement of a Barrier Island
Hurricane Hot Towers Boundaries Coastal Stabilization
Tornadoes Breakup of Pangaea Structures
8 Climate and HotSpot Volcano Tracks Seamounts & Coral Reefs
Climate Change Terrane Formation
Seasonal Pressure and Volcanoes
Precipitation Patterns Formation of Crater Lake
xiv

videos
video
Videos providing engaging visualizations and real-world examples of physical geography concepts can Yosemite
be accessed by students with mobile devices through Quick Response Codes in the book, or through the
Study Area. Teachers can assign these media with assessments in .
1 Introduction to Earth 12 Soils https://goo.gl/iXSy3f

Mobile Field Trip: Introduction to Physical Mobile Field Trip: The Critical Zone
Geography Maps of Soil Moisture
2 Portraying Earth California Drought
Mobile Field Trip: Introduction to Physical 13 Introduction to Landform Study
Geography Mobile Field Trip: Yosemite
Studying Fires Using Multiple Satellite Sensors Mobile Field Trip: Oil Sands
3 Introduction to the Atmosphere Black Smokers
Ozone Hole 14 The Internal Processes
Coriolis Effect Merry Go Round Mobile Field Trip: San Andreas Fault
4 Insolation and Temperature Mobile Field Trip: Kīlauea Volcano
Project Condor: Cinder Cones and Basaltic Lava
Seasonal Radiation Patterns
Flows
Ocean Circulation Patterns—Subtropical Gyres
Project Condor: Monoclines of the Colorado
Seasonal Changes in Temperature
Plateau
5 Atmospheric Pressure and Wind Project Condor: Identifying Anticlines
El Niño and Synclines
La Niña Project Condor: Faults versus Joints
Mobile Field Trip: El Niño
15 Weathering and Mass Wasting
6 Atmospheric Moisture Project Condor: Jointing
Hydrological Cycle Mobile Field Trip: Landslide!
Mobile Field Trip: Clouds: Earth’s Dynamic
Atmosphere
16 Fluvial Processes
Mobile Field Trip: Streams of the Great Smoky
7 Atmospheric Disturbances Mountains
2005 Hurricane Season Project Condor: Meandering Rivers
Hurricane Sandy Mobile Field Trip: Mississippi Delta
8 Climate and Climate Change Project Condor: River Terraces and Base Level
Mobile Field Trip: Climate Change in the Arctic 17 Karst and Hydrothermal Processes
18,000 Years of Pine Pollen Mobile Field Trip: Mammoth Cave
Temperature and Agriculture
18 The Topography of Arid Lands
9 The Hydrosphere Project Condor: Characteristics of Alluvial Fans
Hydrological Cycle Mobile Field Trip: Desert Geomorphology
Mobile Field Trip: Moving Water Across 19 Glacial Modification of Terrain
California Mobile Field Trip: The Glaciers of Alaska
Mobile Field Trip: Mammoth Cave Mobile Field Trip: Climate Change in the Arctic
10 Cycles and Patterns in the Biosphere 20 Coastal Processes and Terrain
Global Carbon Uptake by Plants Summertime/Wintertime Beach Conditions
Mobile Field Trip: Forest Fires in the West Mobile Field Trip: Gulf Coast Processes
11 Terrestrial Flora and Fauna Movement of Sand in Beach Compartment
Mobile Field Trip: Cloud Forest Mobile Field Trip: Cape Cod: Sculpted by Ice
Climate, Crops, and Bees & Storm
xv

Contents
Geoscience AnimationS xiv 2 Portraying Earth 28

VideoS xv
Preface xxv
Digital & Print Resources xxviii Maps and Globes 30

Maps 30
Dedication xxx Map Scale 30
Scale Types 30
About the Authors xxxi Large-Scale and Small-Scale Maps 32
Map Projections and Properties 32
Map Projections 33
Map Properties 33
Families of Map Projections 34
Cylindrical Projections 34
1 Introduction to Planar Projections 35
Earth 2 Conic Projections 36
Pseudocylindrical Projections 36
Conveying Information on Maps 37
Map Essentials 37
Geography and Science 4 Isolines 37
Studying the World Geographically 4 Portraying the Three-Dimensional Landscape 39
The Process of Science 6 GNSS—Global Navigation Satellite System 40
Numbers and Measurement Systems 6
Remote Sensing 41
Focus ▶ Citizens as Scientists 7
Aerial Photographs 41
Environmental Spheres and Earth Systems 8 Global Environmental Change ▶ Growing a City
Earth’s Environmental Spheres 8 in the Desert 42
Earth Systems 9 Visible Light and Infrared Sensing 43
Earth and the Solar System 10 Thermal Infrared Sensing 43
The Solar System 10 Multispectral Remote Sensing 44
The Size and Shape of Earth 11 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 47
The Geographic Grid—Latitude and Longitude 12 Overlay Analysis 48
Latitude 13 GIS in Decision Making 48
Longitude 15 Tools of the Geographer 49
Locating Points on the Geographic Grid 16 Focus ▶ GIS for Geographic Decision Making 50
Earth–Sun Relations and the Seasons 17 LearningReview 51
Earth Movements 17 EnvironmentalAnalysis 52
The Annual March of the Seasons 19
Seasonal Transitions 20
Significance of Seasonal Patterns 22 3 Introduction to
Telling Time 22 the Atmosphere 54
Standard Time 22
International Date Line 23
global environmental change ▶ Images of Earth
at Night 25 Size and Composition of the Atmosphere 56
Daylight-Saving Time 25 Size of Earth’s Atmosphere 56
LearningReview 25 Development of Earth’s Modern Atmosphere 56
EnvironmentalAnalysis 27 Composition of the Modern Atmosphere 57
xvi

Contents xvii
Permanent Gases 57 Variations in Insolation by Latitude and Season 90

Variable Gases 57 Latitudinal and Seasonal Differences 90
Particulates (Aerosols) 58 Latitudinal Radiation Balance 91
Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere 59 Land and Water Temperature Contrasts 92
Thermal Layers 59 Warming of Land and Water 93
Pressure 60 Cooling of Land and Water 93
Composition 61 Implications 93
Human-Caused Atmospheric Change 62 Mechanisms of Global Energy Transfer 94
Depletion of the Ozone Layer 62 Atmospheric Circulation 94
Air Pollution 64 Oceanic Circulation 94
People & the Environment ▶ The UV Index 65 Vertical Temperature Patterns 97
global environmental change ▶ Aerosol Plumes Environmental Lapse Rate 97
Circling the Globe 66 Average Lapse Rate 97
Energy Production and the Environment 67 Temperature Inversions 97
Weather and Climate 67 Global Temperature Patterns 98
Weather 67 Prominent Controls of Temperature 98
energy for the 21st century ▶ Transitioning from Seasonal Patterns 99
Fossil Fuels 68 Annual Temperature Range 100
Climate 69 Measuring Global Temperatures 100
The Elements of Weather and Climate 69 Urban Heat Islands 100
The Controls of Weather and Climate 69 global environmental change ▶ The Deadly Heat
The Coriolis Effect 71 Waves of 2015 101
LearningReview 73 Focus ▶ Measuring Earth’s Surface Temperature
EnvironmentalAnalysis 74 by Satellite 102
Climate Change and Global Warming 103
Temperature Change Over the Last Century 103
4 Insolation and Increasing Greenhouse Gas Concentrations 103
Temperature 76 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) 105
LearningReview 105
EnvironmentalAnalysis 107
The Impact of Temperature on the Landscape 78
Energy, Heat, and Temperature 78
Energy 78
Temperature and Heat 79 5 Atmospheric Pressure
Measuring Temperature 79 and Wind 108
Solar Energy 80
Electromagnetic Radiation 80
energy for the 21st century ▶ Solar Power 81
The Impact of Pressure and Wind
Insolation 83
on the Landscape 110
Basic Warming and Cooling Processes
The Nature of Atmospheric Pressure 110
in the Atmosphere 83
Factors Influencing Atmospheric Pressure 110
Radiation 83
Mapping Pressure with Isobars 112
Absorption 84
Reflection 84 The Nature of Wind 112
Scattering 84 Direction of Movement 112
Transmission 85 Wind Speed 114
Conduction 87 Cyclones and Anticyclones 115
Convection 87 energy for the 21st century ▶ Wind Power 116
Advection 87
The General Circulation
Adiabatic Cooling and Warming 87 of the Atmosphere 117
Latent Heat 88 Idealized Circulation Patterns 117
Earth’s Solar Radiation Budget 88 Seven Components
Long-Term Energy Balance 88 of the General Circulation 118
Global Energy Budget 89 Subtropical Highs 119

xviii Contents
Trade Winds 121 Condensation 149

Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) 122 The Condensation Process 149
The Westerlies 122 Adiabatic Processes 149
Polar Highs 124 Dry and Saturated Adiabatic Rates 149
Polar Easterlies 124 Significance of Adiabatic Temperature Changes 151
Polar Front 124
Clouds 151
Vertical Patterns of the General Circulation 125
Classifying Clouds 151
Modifications of the General Circulation 125 Fog 154
Seasonal Variations in Location 125 Dew 155
Monsoons 126 Clouds and Climate Change 155
Localized Wind Systems 127 Atmospheric Stability 155
Sea and Land Breezes 127 Buoyancy 155
global environmental change ▶ Changes The Stability of Air 155
in the South Asian Monsoon 129 Determining Atmospheric Stability 156
Valley and Mountain Breezes 130
Precipitation 157
Katabatic Winds 130
The Processes 158
Foehn and Chinook Winds 130
Forms of Precipitation 160
Santa Ana Winds 131
Atmospheric Lifting and Precipitation 161
El Niño–Southern Oscillation 131
Focus ▶ GOES Weather Satellites 162
Effects of El Niño 131
Convective Lifting 163
Normal Pattern 132
Orographic Lifting 163
El Niño Pattern 132
Frontal Lifting 164
La Niña 133
Convergent Lifting 164
Causes of ENSO 133
Teleconnections 134 Global Distribution of Precipitation 165
Focus ▶ Multiyear Atmospheric and Oceanic Regions of High Annual Precipitation 165
Cycles 135 Regions of Low Annual Precipitation 165
LearningReview 136 Seasonal Precipitation Patterns 166
EnvironmentalAnalysis 137 Precipitation Variability 167
Acid Rain 167
Sources of Acid Precipitation 168
6 Atmospheric LearningReview 171

Moisture 138
7 Atmospheric
The Impact of Atmospheric Moisture
Disturbances 174
on the Landscape 140
The Nature of Water: Commonplace but Unique 140
The Hydrologic Cycle 140 The Impact of Storms on the Landscape 176
The Water Molecule 140
Air Masses 176
Important Properties of Water 141
Characteristics 176
Phase Changes of Water 142 Origin 176
Latent Heat 142 Classification 176
Importance of Latent Heat in the Atmosphere 144 Movement and Modification 176
Water Vapor and Evaporation 144 North American Air Masses 177
Evaporation and Rates of Evaporation 144 Fronts 178
Evapotranspiration 145 Types of Fronts 178
Measures of Humidity 145 Cold Fronts 179
Actual Water Vapor Content 145 Warm Fronts 179
Relative Humidity 146 Stationary Fronts 179
Related Humidity Concepts 147 Occluded Fronts 179
global environmental change ▶ Extreme Dew Point Air Masses, Fronts, and Major
Temperatures 148 Atmospheric Disturbances 179

Contents xix
Midlatitude Cyclones 180 Polar and Highland Climates (Groups E and H) 226

Characteristics 180 Focus ▶ Signs of Climate Change in the Arctic 227
Movements 182 Tundra Climate (ET) 228
Life Cycle 182 Ice Cap Climate (EF) 229
Weather Changes with the Passing of a Midlatitude Highland Climate (Group H) 230
Cyclone 184 Global Patterns Idealized 231
Occurrence and Distribution 184
Global Climate Change 232
Focus ▶ Conveyor Belt Model of Midlatitude Time Scales of Climate Change 233
Cyclones 185
Determining Climates of the Past 233
Midlatitude Anticyclones 186 Dendrochronology 233
Characteristics 186 Oxygen Isotope Analysis 234
Relationships of Cyclones and Anticyclones 186 Ice Cores 235
Easterly Waves 187 Pollen Analysis 236
Tropical Cyclones: Hurricanes 187 Remnant Glacial Landforms 236
Categories of Tropical Disturbances 187 Speleothems 236
Characteristics 188 Causes of Climate Change 236
Origin 189 Atmospheric Aerosols 236
Movement 189 Fluctuations in Solar Output 237
Damage and Destruction 191 Variations in Earth–Sun Relations 238
Hurricanes and Climate Change 193 Greenhouse Gas Concentrations 238
Localized Severe Weather 194 Feedback Mechanisms 239
Thunderstorms 194 The Roles of the Ocean 239
Tornadoes 196 Anthropogenic Climate Change 240
global environmental change ▶ Are Tornado Observed Current Climate Change 240
Patterns Changing? 197 Natural or Anthropogenic Climate
Severe Storm Watches and Warnings 199 Change? 241
Focus ▶ Weather Radar 200 Future Climate Change 242
LearningReview 201 Using Models to Predict Future Climate 242
EnvironmentalAnalysis 203 Projections of Future Climate 243
Addressing Climate Change 244
global environmental change ▶ Disappearing
8 Climate and Climate and Novel Climates 245
energy for the 21st century ▶ Strategies for Reducing
Change 204 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 246
International Climate Change Agreements 247
Newly Industrialized Countries 247
Mitigating and Adapting 247
Climate Classification 206
LearningReview 248
The Köppen Climate Classification System 206
Climographs 207
World Distribution of Major Climate Types 208
Tropical Humid Climates (Group A) 209
Tropical Wet Climate (Af ) 209
9 The
Tropical Savanna Climate (Aw) 211 Hydrosphere 250
Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am) 213
Dry Climates (Group B) 214
Subtropical Desert Climate (BWh) 215 The Hydrologic Cycle 252
Midlatitude Desert Climate (BWk) 217 Surface-to-Air Water Movement 252
Mild Midlatitude Climates (Group C) 218 Air-to-Surface Water Movement 253
Mediterranean Climate (Csa, Csb) 219 Movement On and Beneath Earth’s
Humid Subtropical Climate (Cfa, Cwa, Cwb) 220 Surface 253
Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb, Cfc) 222 Residence Times 253
Severe Midlatitude Climates (Group D) 223 Energy Transfer in the Hydrologic Cycle 254
Humid Continental Climate (Dfa, Dfb, Dwa, Dwb) 223 The Oceans 254
Subarctic Climate (Dfc, Dfd, Dwc, Dwd) 225 How Many Oceans? 254

xx Contents
Characteristics of Ocean Waters 255 Focus ▶ What’s Killing Our Forests? 299
Movement of Ocean Waters 256 Edaphic Influences 300
Tides 257 Topographic Influences 300
Ocean Currents 258 Wildfire 300
People & the Environment ▶ The Great Pacific Environmental Correlations 302
Garbage Patch 260 The Example of Tropical Rainforest 302
Waves 261 LearningReview 304
Permanent Ice—The Cryosphere 261 EnvironmentalAnalysis 305
Permafrost 262
Surface Waters 264
Lakes 264
Wetlands 267 11 Terrestrial Flora
Rivers and Streams 268
and Fauna 306
Groundwater 269
Movement and Storage of Groundwater 269
Zone of Aeration 270
Zone of Saturation 270 Ecosystems and Biomes 308
Waterless Zone 271 Ecosystem: A Concept for All Scales 308
Groundwater Mining 271 Biome: A Scale for All Biogeographers 308
global environmental change ▶ Monitoring Terrestrial Flora 309
Groundwater Resources from Space 273 Characteristics of Plants 309
LearningReview 275 Environmental Adaptations 310
EnvironmentalAnalysis 276 Global Distribution of Plant Associations 311
Vertical Zonation 313
Local Variations 314
10 Cycles and Terrestrial Fauna 314
Patterns in the Characteristics of Animals 315
Kinds of Animals 315
Biosphere 278 Environmental Adaptations 316
Focus ▶ Changing Climate Affects Bird
The Impact of Plants and Animals on the Landscape 280 Populations 318
Competition among Animals 320
The Geographic Approach to the Study of Organisms 280
Cooperation among Animals 320
Biogeography 280
The Search for a Meaningful Classification Scheme 281 Zoogeographic Regions 321
Biogeochemical Cycles 281 The Major Biomes 323

The Flow of Energy 282 Tropical Rainforest 323
The Hydrologic Cycle 284 Tropical Deciduous Forest 324
The Carbon Cycle 284 Tropical Scrub 325
energy for the 21st century ▶ Biofuels 285 Tropical Savanna 325
The Nitrogen Cycle 286 Desert 327
The Oxygen Cycle 287 Mediterranean Woodland and Shrub 328
Mineral Cycles 289 Midlatitude Grassland 328
Midlatitude Deciduous Forest 329
Food Chains 289
Boreal Forest 330
Food Pyramids 290
Tundra 332
Pollutants in the Food Chain 290
Human Modification of the Biosphere 333
Biological Factors and Natural Distributions 292
Physical Removal of Organisms 333
Evolutionary Development 292
Habitat Modification 333
Migration and Dispersal 293
global environmental change ▶ Rainforest Loss
global environmental change ▶ Honey Bees in Brazil and Southeast Asia 335
at Risk 294
Introduction of Exotic Species 336
Reproductive Success 295
Loss of Biodiversity 337
Population Die-off and Extinction 295 People & the Environment ▶ Invasive Species
Plant Succession 296 in Florida 338
Environmental Factors 297 LearningReview 339
The Influence of Climate 297 EnvironmentalAnalysis 341

Contents xxi
12 Soils 342 Spodosols (Soils of Cool, Forested Zones) 367

Oxisols (Highly Weathered and Leached) 367
Distribution of Soils in the United States 368
LearningReview 369
Soil and Regolith 344

Soil as a Component of the Landscape 344 13 Introduction
From Regolith to Soil 344 to Landform
Soil-Forming Factors 344 Study 372
The Geologic Factor 344
The Climatic Factor 345
The Topographic Factor 345 The Structure of Earth 374
The Biological Factor 346 Earth’s Hot Interior 374
global environmental change ▶ Invasive The Crust 374
Earthworms Change Soils as We Know Them! 347 The Mantle 374
The Time Factor 348 The Inner and Outer Cores 375
Plate Tectonics and the Structure of Earth 375
Soil Components 348
Inorganic Materials 348 The Composition of Earth 375
Organic Matter 349 Minerals 376
Soil Air 349 Rocks 377
Soil Water 349 Igneous Rocks 378
Sedimentary Rocks 381
Soil Properties 351
Metamorphic Rocks 384
Color 351
energy for the 21st century ▶ Unconventional
Texture 352
Hydrocarbons and the Fracking Revolution 385
Structure 352
The Rock Cycle 386
Soil Chemistry 353 Continental and Ocean Floor Rocks 387
Colloids 353 Isostasy 388
Cation Exchange 354 Utilizing Earth’s Mineral Resources 389
Acidity/Alkalinity 354
The Study of Landforms 389
Soil Profiles 354 global environmental change ▶ Technological
Soil Horizons 354 Gadgets and the Mining of Rare Earths 389
Pedogenic Regimes 356 Some Critical Concepts 390
Laterization 356 Internal and External Geomorphic Processes 390
Podzolization 356 Uniformitarianism 391
Gleization 357 Geologic Time 392
Calcification 357
Scale and Pattern 394
Salinization 357
An Example of Scale 394
Climate and Pedogenic Regimes 358
Pattern and Process in Geomorphology 395
Soil Classification 358 LearningReview 396
The Soil Taxonomy 358 EnvironmentalAnalysis 397
Focus ▶ Soil Differences—They’re All About Scale 359
The Mapping Question 360
Global Distribution of Major Soils 360 14 The Internal
Entisols (Very Little Profile Development) 362 Processes 398
Inceptisols (Few Diagnostic Features) 362
Andisols (Volcanic Ash Soils) 363
Gelisols (Cold Soils with Permafrost) 363
Histosols (Organic Soils on Very Wet Sites) 364 The Impact of Internal Processes on the
Aridisols (Soils of Dry Climates) 364 Landscape 400
Vertisols (Swelling and Cracking Clays) 364 From Rigid Earth to Plate Tectonics 400
Mollisols (Dark, Soft Soils of Grasslands) 365 Wegener’s Continental Drift 400
Alfisols (Clay-Rich B Horizons, The Theory of Plate Tectonics 402
High Base Status) 366 The Evidence 402
Ultisols (Clay-Rich B Horizons, Seafloor Spreading 402
Low Base Status) 366 Plate Tectonic Theory 405

xxii Contents
Plate Boundaries 406 Weathering and Rock Openings 446

Divergent Boundaries 406 Types of Rock Openings 446
Convergent Boundaries 408 The Importance of Jointing 447
Transform Boundaries 409 Weathering Agents 447
Plate Boundaries over Geologic Time 411 Mechanical Weathering 448
Additions to Plate Tectonic Theory 412 Chemical Weathering 450
Hot Spots and Mantle Plumes 412 Biological Weathering 452
Accreted Terranes 415 Differential Weathering 453
Remaining Questions 416 Climate and Weathering 453
Volcanism 416
Mass Wasting 453
Volcano Distribution 416
Factors Influencing Mass Wasting 454
Magma Chemistry and Styles of Eruption 418
Lava Flows 418 Types of Mass Wasting 454
Volcanic Peaks 420 Fall 454
Volcanic Hazards 423 Slide 456
Volcanic Gases 423 global environmental change ▶ Are Rockfalls
Lava Flows 424 Becoming More Common Around the World? 457
Eruption Column and Ash Fall 424 Flow 458
Pyroclastic Flows 424 People & the Environment ▶ The Oso Landslide 460
Global Environmental Change ▶ Have Volcanic Creep 461
Aerosols Offset Greenhouse Gas Warming? 425 LearningReview 463
Volcanic Mudflows (Lahars) 426 EnvironmentalAnalysis 464
Monitoring Volcanoes 426
People & the Environment ▶ Human Impacts of Recent
Volcanic Eruptions 428
Intrusive Igneous Features 429
16 Fluvial
Plutons 429 Processes 466
Tectonism: Folding 430
The Process of Folding 430
Types of Folds 431
Topographic Features Associated with The Impact of Fluvial Processes on the
Folding 432 Landscape 468
Tectonism: Faulting 432 Streams and Stream Systems 468
Types of Faults 433 Streamflow and Overland Flow 468
Landforms Associated with Normal Faulting 434 Valleys and Interfluves 468
Landforms Associated with Strike-Slip Faulting 435 Drainage Basins 468
Earthquakes 436 Stream Orders 469
Seismic Waves 436 energy for the 21st century ▶ Hydropower 470
Earthquake Magnitude 437 Fluvial Erosion and Deposition 471
Shaking Intensity 437 Erosion by Overland Flow 471
Earthquake Hazards 437 Erosion by Streamflow 471
Ground Shaking 437 Transportation 472
Tsunami 438 Deposition 472
Earthquake Hazard Warnings 439 Perennial and Intermittent Streams 473
Complexities of the Internal Processes—Example of the Floods as Agents of Erosion and Deposition 473
Northern Rockies 439
Stream Channels 475
Focus ▶ Earthquake Prediction 440
Channel Flow 475
LearningReview 441
Stream Channel Patterns 475
Structural Relationships 477
Consequent and Subsequent
Streams 477
15 Weathering and Antecedent and Superimposed
Mass Wasting 444 Streams 477
Stream Drainage Patterns 478
The Shaping and Reshaping of Valleys 480
Valley Deepening 480
Denudation 446 Valley Widening 482
The Impact of Weathering Valley Lengthening 483
and Mass Wasting on the Landscape 446 Deposition in Valleys 485

Contents xxiii
Floodplains 486 Fluvial Erosion in Arid Lands 519

Floodplain Landforms 486 Fluvial Deposition in Arid Lands 521
Modifying Rivers for Flood Climate Change and Deserts 522
Control 488 The Work of the Wind 522
Flood Control on the Mississippi
global environmental change ▶ Desertification 523
River 488
Aeolian Erosion 524
Stream Rejuvenation 490 Aeolian Transportation 524
People & the Environment ▶ The Future of the Aeolian Deposition 525
Mississippi River Delta 491 Aeolian Processes in Nondesert Regions 527
global environmental change ▶ Restoring Urban
Characteristic Desert Landscape Surfaces 529
Streams 492
Erg—A Sea of Sand 529
Theories of Landform Development 494 Reg—Stony Deserts 529
Davis’s Geomorphic Cycle 494 Hamada—Barren Bedrock 530
Penck’s Theory of Crustal Change and Slope Two Representative Desert Landform
Development 495 Assemblages 530
Equilibrium Theory 495
Basin-and-Range Landforms 530
LearningReview 495 The Ranges 530
Piedmont Zone 531
The Basins 531
Mesa-and-Scarp Terrain 532
17 Karst and Focus ▶ Death Valley’s Extraordinary Basin-and-Range
Hydrothermal Terrain 533
Structure of Mesa-and-Scarp Landforms 534
Processes 498 Erosion of Escarpment Edge 534
Arches and Natural Bridges 535
The Impact of Solution Processes Badlands 535
on the Landscape 500 LearningReview 536
Dissolution and Precipitation 500 EnvironmentalAnalysis 537
Dissolution Processes 500
Precipitation Processes 500
Caverns and Related Features 501
Speleothems 501
19 Glacial Modification
of Terrain 538
Karst Topography 502
global environmental change ▶ Caverns Hold
Evidence of Climate Change 503
Karst Landforms 504 The Impact of Glaciers on the Landscape 540
Hydrothermal Features 507 Types of Glaciers 540
Hot Springs 507 Mountain Glaciers 540
energy for the 21st century ▶ Geothermal Continental Ice Sheets 540
Energy 508
Glaciations Past and Present 541
Geysers 509
Pleistocene Glaciation 541
Fumaroles 509
Indirect Effects of Pleistocene Glaciations 542
Hydrothermal Features in Yellowstone 510
Contemporary Glaciation 544
LearningReview 512
EnvironmentalAnalysis 513 Glacier Formation and Movement 546
Changing Snow to Ice 546
People & the Environment ▶ Disintegration of
Antarctic Ice Shelves 547
18 The Topography Glacier Movement 548
of Arid Lands 514 Glacier Flow versus Glacier Advance 549
The Effects of Glaciers 549
Erosion by Glaciers 549
Transportation by Glaciers 550
A Specialized Environment 516 Deposition by Glaciers 550
Special Conditions in Deserts 516 Continental Ice Sheets 551
Running Water in Waterless Regions 517 Development and Flow 551
Surface Water in the Desert 517 Erosion by Ice Sheets 552

xxiv Contents
Deposition by Ice Sheets 553 Stream Outflow 578

Glaciofluvial Features 555 global environmental change ▶ Impact of
Mountain Glaciers 556 Sea-Level Rise on Islands 579
Development and Flow of Mountain Glaciers 556 Coastal Sediment Transport 579
global environmental change ▶ Shrinking Coastal Depositional Landforms 580
Glaciers 557 Sediment Budget of Depositional
Erosion by Mountain Glaciers 558 Landforms 580
Deposition by Mountain Glaciers 562 Beaches 581
The Periglacial Environment 562 Spits 581
Patterned Ground 563 Barrier Islands 582
Proglacial Lakes 563 Human Alteration of Coastal Sediment
Budgets 584
Causes of the Pleistocene Glaciations 564
Shorelines of Submergence and Emergence 585
Climate Factors and the Pleistocene 565
Coastal Submergence 585
Are We Still in an Ice Age? 565
Coastal Emergence 587
LearningReview 565
EnvironmentalAnalysis 567 Coral Reef Coasts 588
Coral Polyps 588
Coral Reefs 589
20 Coastal Processes Focus ▶ Imperiled Coral Reefs 590
LearningReview 592
and Terrain 568 EnvironmentalAnalysis 593
Learning Check Answers AK-1

The Impact of Waves and Currents on the Landscape 570 Appendix I The International System of Units (SI) A-1
Coastal Processes 570 Appendix II U.S. Geological Survey Topographic Maps A-3
The Role of Wind in Coastal Processes 570
Coastlines of Oceans and Lakes 570 Appendix III Meteorological Tables A-8
Waves 570 Appendix IV The Weather Station Model A-13
Wave Motion 570 Appendix V Köppen Climate Classification A-19
Wave Refraction 572
Appendix VI Biological Taxonomy A-21
Wave Erosion 572
Tsunami 574 Appendix VII The Soil Taxonomy A-23
Important Shoreline-Shaping Processes 576 Glossary G-1
Tides 576 Credits C-2
Changes in Sea Level and Lake Level 576
energy for the 21st century ▶ Tidal Power 577
Index I-1
Ice Push 578
Organic Secretions 578

Preface
McKnight’s Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation Bird Populations; Earthquake Prediction; and Imperiled
presents the concepts of physical geography in a clear, readable Coral Reefs.
way to help students comprehend Earth’s physical landscape. • Several new People & the Environment special content features
The 12th edition of the book has undergone a thorough revision, have been added: Invasive Species in Florida; Human Impacts
while maintaining the time-proven approach to physical of Recent Volcanic Eruptions; and The Oso Landslide. Several
geography first presented by Tom McKnight over 30 years ago. more have been revised for currency: The UV Index; The Great
Pacific Garbage Patch; The Future of the Mississippi River
Delta; and Disintegration of Antarctic Ice Shelves.
• The entire art program has continued its thorough revision
New to the 12th Edition and updating by illustrator Dennis Tasa. Over 200 new
diagrams, maps, and photographs are found throughout.
Users of earlier editions will see that the overall sequence of
Even the figures that have remained essentially the same
chapters and most topics remains the same, with material
have been updated with minor changes to improve usability.
added and updated in several key areas. Changes to the new
• Each chapter includes a refined learning path, beginning
edition include the following:
with a series of new Key Questions to help students
• NEW Global Environmental Change features written by prioritize key issues and concepts.
expert contributors present brief case studies on natural and • Throughout each chapter, new and revised Learning Check
human-caused environmental change, exploring important questions periodically confirm a student’s understanding of
contemporary events and implications for the future. the material.
• NEW Mobile Field Trip Videos have students accompany • An expanded end-of-chapter Learning Review now includes
acclaimed photographer and pilot Michael Collier in the air a capstone activity called Environmental Analysis that
and on the ground to explore iconic landscapes of North sends students online to use a variety of interactive science
America and beyond. Readers scan Quick Response (QR) resources and data sets to perform data analysis and critical
links in the book to access the 20 videos as they read. Also thinking tasks.
available within MasteringGeography. • The findings of the IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report have
• NEW Project Condor Quadcopter Videos, linked via QR been incorporated throughout.
codes, take students out into the field through narrated • In Chapter 2, material on GPS and GIS has been updated
quadcopter footage, exploring the physical processes that and expanded.
have helped shape North American landscapes. • In Chapter 4, the material on the greenhouse effect has been
• C h a p t e r s n o w o p e n w i t h n e w “ H a v e Yo u E v e r updated and revised.
Wondered…?” questions to engage students in the everyday • New diagrams in Chapter 5 illustrate the consequences of
big-picture questions for that chapter. El Niño.
• Updated Seeing Geographically features at the beginning • Chapter 7 includes discussion and illustrations of some of
and end of each chapter in the Learning Review ask the latest storms, including 2015’s Hurricane Patricia.
students to perform visual analysis and critical thinking • Chapter 8, Climate and Climate Change, has been thoroughly
tasks that test their initial assumptions before they read the updated and revised with the latest data and applications,
chapter and their understanding of key chapter concepts fully incorporating the latest findings of the IPCC.
after they have read the chapter. • Many new and revised diagrams appear in Chapter 14 to
• New Practicing Geography photo features highlight the illustrate the internal processes.
real-world people and professions in geography and science • Over 130 Quick Response (QR) Codes are integrated
today. throughout the book to enable students with mobile devices
• Energy for the 21st Century features have been updated to access Mobile Field Trips, Condor Quadcopter Videos,
with topics including Transitioning from Fossil Fuels; Solar and mobile-ready versions of the Geoscience Animations and
Energy; Wind Power; Strategies for Reducing Greenhouse other videos as they read, for just-in-time visualization and
Gas Emissions; Biofuels; Unconventional Hydrocarbons conceptual reinforcement. These media are also available in
and the Fracking Revolution; Hydropower; Geothermal the Student Study Area of MasteringGeography, and many
Energy; and Tidal Power. can also be assigned by teachers for credit and grading.
• New Focus features include Citizens as Scientists; GIS for • The book is supported by MasteringGeography TM, the
Geographic Decision Making; Multiyear Atmospheric most widely used and effective online homework, tutorial,
and Oceanic Cycles; Soil Differences—They’re All About and assessment system for the sciences. Assignable media
Scale; and Death Valley’s Extraordinary Basin-and-Range and activities include Geoscience Animations, Videos,
Terrain. Mobile Field Trip Videos, Project Condor Quadcopter
• Updated and revised Focus features include Measuring Videos, Encounter Physical Geography Google Earth™
Earth’s Surface Temperature by Satellite; GOES Weather Explorations, GIS-inspired MapMaster™ interactive
Satellites; Conveyor Belt Model of Midlatitude Cyclones; maps, coaching activities on the toughest topics in physical
Weather Radar; Signs of Climate Change in the Arctic; geography, end-of-chapter questions and exercises, reading
What’s Killing Our Forests?; Changing Climate Affects quizzes, and Test Bank questions.
xxv

xxvi Preface
To the Student Acknowledgments

Welcome to McKnight’s Physical Geography: A Landscape My special thanks goes to the three people most responsible
Appreciation. Take a minute to skim through this book to see for the improvements you see in this latest edition of
some of the features that will help you learn the material in McKnight’s Physical Geography. First, I want to express
your physical geography course: my admiration and great appreciation for illustrator Dennis
Tasa—now having worked together on three editions, he
• You’ll notice that the book includes many diagrams,
continues to impress me with his ability to take my poorly
maps, and photographs. Physical geography is a visual
explained ideas and turn them into effective and impressive
discipline, so studying the figures and their captions is just
illustrations. Next, I extend my thanks to Michael Collier,
as important as reading through the text itself.
who developed the Mobile Field Trips you find throughout
• Many photographs have “locator maps” to help you learn
the book—equal parts scientist, educator, story teller and
the locations of the many places we mention in the book.
artist, in these field trips he brings to life the excitement and
• A reference map of physical features of the world is found
wonder of the study of physical geography. Finally, and most
inside the front cover of the book, and a reference map of
importantly, I offer my gratitude to Executive Development
the countries of the world is found inside the back cover.
Editor Karen Karlin—her unfailing sound advice, as well as
• Practicing Geography photo features highlight the real-
her critical eye for every concept, every sentence, and every
world people and professions in geography and science
piece of art, helped me immeasurably as an author and has
today.
vastly improved this book.
• Each chapter begins with a quick overview of the material,
More than any previous edition, this was a collaborative
as well as a series of questions—think about these questions
effort incorporating contributions of many scholars who wrote
as you study the material in that chapter.
short boxed essays, problem sets, and activities for the book.
• Look at the photograph that begins each chapter. The
My thanks to all of them, but especially to Redina Herman
Seeing Geographically questions for this photograph will
and Michael Pease for their often unheralded work:
get you thinking about the material in the chapter and
about the kinds of things that geographers can learn by
Sandra Arlinghaus, University of Michigan
looking at a landscape.
• As you read through each chapter, you’ll come across Robert Bailis, Stockholm Environment Institute
short Learning Check questions. These quick questions are Keith Clarke, University of California–Santa Barbara
designed to check your understanding of key information in Kristine L. DeLong, Louisiana State University
the text section you’ve just read. Answers to the Learning Robert A. Dull, University of Texas at Austin
Check questions are found in the back of the book.
Ted Eckmann, University of Portland
• Each chapter concludes with a Learning Review. Begin
with the Key Terms and Concepts questions—these will Matthew Fry, University of North Texas
check your understanding of basic factual information Redina L. Herman, Western Illinois University
and key terms (which are printed in bold type throughout Christopher Groves, Western Kentucky University
the text). Then, answer the Study Questions—these will Andrew J. Grundstein, University of Georgia
confirm your understanding of major concepts presented Ryan Longman, University of Hawaii at Manoa
in the chapter. Finally, you can try the Exercises—for
Kerry Lyste, Everett Community College
these problems you’ll interpret maps or diagrams and use
basic math to reinforce your understanding of the material Michael E. Mann, Pennsylvania State University
you’ve studied. Michael C. Pease, Central Washington University
• Environmental Analysis activities at the end of each chapter Natalie Peyronnin, Mississippi River Delta Restoration
will direct you to interactive science resources and data sets Jennifer Rahn, Samford University
for broader data analysis and critical thinking.
Christopher J. Seeger, Iowa State University
• Finish the chapter by answering the Seeing Geographically
questions at the end of the Learning Review. To answer Diana Sammataro, DianaBrand Honey Bee Research Services
these questions, you’ll put to use things you’ve learned in Randall Schaetzl, Michigan State University
the chapter. As you progress through the book, you begin Bradley A. Shellito, Youngstown State University
to recognize how much more you can “see” in a landscape Stephen Stadler, Oklahoma State University
after studying physical geography. Pat Stevenson, Natural Resources Department, Stillaguamish Tribe
• The alphabetical glossary at the end of the book provides
Paul Sutton, University of South Australia
definitions for all of the key terms.
• All chapters include Quick Response (QR) codes/icons Nancy Lee Wilkinson, San Francisco State University
that direct you to Mobile Field Trips, Project Condor Kyungsoo Yoo, University of Minnesota
Quadcopter Videos, online animations, and other videos
that you can access with your mobile device. Download Over the years, scores of colleagues, students, and friends
free QR scanning apps from the app store for your mobile have helped me and the founding author of this book,
device. The animations and videos help explain important Tom McKnight, update and improve this textbook. Their
concepts in physical geography and also provide real-world assistance has been gratefully acknowledged previously.
case studies of physical geography in action. The animations Here we acknowledge those who have provided assistance in
and videos can also be accessed through the Student Study recent years by acting as reviewers of the text and animations
Area in MasteringGeography, and can also be assigned for that accompany it, or by providing helpful critiques and
credit by teachers. suggestions:

Preface xxvii
Victoria Alapo, Metropolitan Community College Nick Polizzi, Cypress College

Jason Allard, Valdosta State University Robert Rohli, Louisiana State University
Casey Allen, Weber State University Anne Saxe, Saddleback College
Sergei Andronikov, Austin Peay State University Randall Schaetzl, Michigan State University
Christopher Atkinson, University of North Dakota Jeffrey Schaffer, Napa Valley College
Greg Bierly, Indiana State University John H. Scheufler, Mesa College
Mark Binkley, Mississippi State University Terry Shirley, University of North Carolina–Charlotte
Peter Blanken, University of Colorado Jorge Sifuentes, Cuesta College
Margaret Boorstein, Long Island University Robert A. Sirk, Austin Peay State University
James Brey, University of Wisconsin Fox Valley Valerie Sloan, University of Colorado at Boulder
David Butler, Texas State University Dale Splinter, University of Wisconsin–Whitewater
Karl Byrand, University of Wisconsin Stephen Stadler, Oklahoma State University
Sean Cannon, Brigham Young University–Idaho Herschel Stern, Mira Costa College
Wing Cheung, Palomar College Jane Thorngren, San Diego State University
Jongnam Choi, Western Illinois University Christi Townsend, San Diego State University
Glen Conner, Western Kentucky University Scott Walker, Northwest Vista College
Carlos E. Cordova, Oklahoma State University Timothy Warner, West Virginia University
Richard A. Crooker, Kutztown University of Pennsylvania Shawn Willsey, College of Southern Idaho
Mike DeVivo, Grand Rapids Community College Donald Wuebbles, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign
Bryan Dorsey, Weber State University Kenneth Zweibel, George Washington University
Don W. Duckson, Jr., Frostburg State University
Tracy Edwards, Frostburg State University I would also like to thank Jess Porter of University of
Steve Emerick, Glendale Community College Arkansas at Little Rock, Stephen O’Connell of the University
of Central Arkansas, Jason Allard of Valdosta State University,
Purba Fernandez, De Anza College
Richard Crooker of Kutztown University, Chris Sutton of
Jason Finley, Los Angeles Pierce College
Western Illinois University, and Andrew Mercer of Mississippi
Lynda Folts, Richland College
State University for their contributions to MasteringGeography
Doug Foster, Clackamas Community College and other supporting material.
Basil Gomez, Indiana State University Many of my colleagues at City College of San Francisco
Jerry Green, Miami University–Oxford offered valuable suggestions on sections of the previous and
Michael Grossman, Southern Illinois University–Edwardsville current editions of the book: Ian Duncan, Carlos Jennings, Dack
Andrew J. Grundstein, University of Georgia Lee, Chris Lewis, Joyce Lucas-Clark, Robert Manlove, Kathryn
Perry J. Hardin, Brigham Young University Pinna, Todd Rigg-Carriero, Kirstie Stramler, Carole Toebe,
Ann Harris, Eastern Kentucky University and Katryn Wiese. I also extend my appreciation to my many
Miriam Helen Hill, Jacksonville State University students over the years—their curiosity, thoughtful questions,
Barbara Holzman, San Francisco State University and cheerful acceptance of my enthusiasm for geography have
Robert M. Hordon, Rutgers University helped me as a teacher and as a textbook author.
Textbooks of this scope cannot be created without a
Matt Huber, Syracuse University
production team that is as dedicated to quality as the authors.
Paul Hudson, University of Texas
First of all, my thanks go to Pearson Senior Geography Editor
Catherine Jain, Palomar College Christian Botting, who provided skillful leadership and assembled
Steven Jennings, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs the outstanding group of professionals with whom I worked. My
Ryan Jensen, Brigham Young University thanks and admiration go to Project Manager Connie Long, who
Dorleen B. Jenson, Salt Lake Community College cheerfully kept me on track throughout the entire production
Kris Jones, Saddleback College process. Many thanks also to Development Editor Karen Karlin,
Ryan Kelly, Lexington Community College Program Manager Anton Yakovlev, SPi Global Project Manager
Joseph Kerski, ESRI Rebecca Lazure, Photo Researcher Kristin Piljay, International
John Keyantash, California State University–Dominguez Hills Mapping Senior Project Manager Kevin Lear, Director of
Rob Kremer, Metropolitan State College of Denver Development Jennifer Hart, Editorial Assistant Michelle
Kara Kuvakas, Hartnell College Koski, Executive Marketing Manager Neena Bali, Senior Field
Steve LaDochy, California State University Marketing Manager Mary Salzman, Marketing Assistant Ami
Sampat, and Media Producers Tim Hainley and Ziki Dekel.
Colin Long, University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh
Finally, I wish to express my appreciation for my wife,
Michael Madsen, Brigham Young University–Idaho
Nora. Her help, understanding, and support have once again
Kenneth Martis, West Virginia University seen me through the long hours and many months of work
Martin Mitchell, Minnesota State University–Mankato that went into this book.
William Monfredo, University of Oklahoma Darrel Hess
Mandy Munro-Stasiuk, Kent State University Earth Sciences Department
Paul O’Farrell, Middle Tennessee State University City College of San Francisco
Thomas Orf, Las Positas College 50 Phelan Avenue
Michael C. Pease, Central Washington University San Francisco, CA 94112
Stephen Podewell, Western Michigan University dhess@ccsf.edu

Digital & Print Resources
MasteringGeography™ with Pearson eText. The Mastering Practicing Geography: Careers for Enhancing Society and
platform is the most widely used and effective online homework, the Environment by American Association of Geographers
tutorial, and assessment system for the sciences. It delivers self- (0321811151). This book examines career opportunities
paced tutorials that provide individualized coaching, focus on for geographers and geospatial professionals in the business,
course objectives, and are responsive to each student’s progress. government, nonprofit, and education sectors. A diverse
The Mastering system helps teachers maximize class time group of academic and industry professionals shares insights
with customizable, easy-to-assign, and automatically graded on career planning, networking, transitioning between
assessments that motivate students to learn outside of class and employment sectors, and balancing work and home life.
arrive prepared for lecture. offers: The book illustrates the value of geographic expertise and
technologies through engaging profiles and case studies of
• Assignable activities that include GIS-inspired MapMaster™
geographers at work.
interactive map activities, Encounter Google Earth™
Explorations, video activities, Geoscience Animation activities, Teaching College Geography: A Practical Guide for
Mobile Field Trip video activities, Project Condor Quadcopter Graduate Students and Early Career Faculty by American
video activities, map projections activities, GeoTutor coaching Association of Geographers (0136054471). This two-part
activities on the toughest topics in geography, Dynamic Study resource provides a starting point for becoming an effective
Modules that provide each student with a customized learning geography teacher from the very first day of class. Part One
experience, end-of-chapter questions and exercises, reading addresses “nuts-and-bolts” teaching issues. Part Two explores
quizzes, Test Bank questions, and more. being an effective teacher in the field, supporting critical
• A student Study Area with GIS-inspired MapMaster™ thinking with GIS and mapping technologies, engaging
interactive maps, videos, Geoscience Animations, Mobile learners in large geography classes, and promoting awareness
Field Trip videos, Project Condor Quadcopter videos, web of international perspectives and geographic issues.
links, glossary flashcards, In the News readings, chapter
quizzes, PDF downloads of outline maps, an optional Aspiring Academics: A Resource Book for Graduate
Pearson eText, and more. Students and Early Career Faculty by American Association
of Geographers (0136048919). Drawing on several years of
Pearson eText gives students access to the text whenever research, this set of essays is designed to help graduate students
and wherever they can access the Internet. Features of Pearson and early career faculty start their careers in geography and
eText include: related social and environmental sciences. Aspiring Academics
• Now available on smartphones and tablets. stresses the interdependence of teaching, research, and
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• Instructor and student note-taking, highlighting, university appointment.
bookmarking, and search.
www.masteringgeography.com
Television for the Environment “Earth Report” Geography For Students
Videos, DVD (0321662989). This three-DVD set helps Physical Geography Laboratory Manual, 12th edition
students visualize how human decisions and behavior have by Darrel Hess. This lab manual offers a comprehensive
affected the environment and how individuals are taking steps set of more than 45 lab exercises to accompany any physical
toward recovery. With topics ranging from the poor land geography class. The first half covers topics such as basic
management promoting the devastation of river systems in meteorological processes, the interpretation of weather maps,
Central America to the struggles for electricity in China and weather satellite images, and climate data. The second half
Africa, these 13 videos from Television for the Environment’s focuses on understanding the development of landforms and
global Earth Report series recognize the efforts of individuals the interpretation of topographic maps and aerial imagery.
around the world to unite and protect the planet. Many exercises have problems that use Google Earth™, and
Geoscience Animation Library, 5th edition, DVD the lab manual website contains maps, images, photographs,
(0321716841). Created through a unique collaboration among satellite movie loops, and Google Earth™ KMZ files. The
Pearson’s leading geoscience authors, this resource offers over 12th edition of the lab manual includes both new and revised
100 animations covering the most difficult-to-visualize topics exercises, new maps, expanded use of Google Earth™, and
in physical geography, meteorology, oceanography, earth is now supported by a full MasteringGeography program.
science, and physical geology. www.masteringgeography.com.
xxviii

Digital & Print Resources xxix
Goode’s World Atlas, 23rd Edition (0133864642). Goode’s TestGen® Test Bank (Download) by Steve Stadler
World Atlas has been the world’s premiere educational atlas (0134326377). TestGen® is a computerized test generator
since 1923—and for good reason. It features over 250 pages of that lets you view and edit Test Bank questions, transfer
maps, from definitive physical and political maps to important questions to tests, and print tests in a variety of customized
thematic maps that illustrate the spatial aspects of many formats. This Test Bank includes around 3000 multiple-
important topics. The 23rd Edition includes over 160 pages of choice, true/false, and short answer/essay questions. All
digitally produced reference maps, as well as thematic maps on questions are correlated against the National Geography
global climate change, sea-level rise, CO2 emissions, polar ice Standards, textbook key learning concepts, and Bloom’s
fluctuations, deforestation, extreme weather events, infectious Taxonomy. The Test Bank is also available in Microsoft
diseases, water resources, and energy production. Word® and importable into Blackboard. Available from
www.pearsonhighered.com/irc and in the Instructor
Pearson’s Encounter Series provides rich, interactive
Resources area of MasteringGeography™.
explorations of geoscience concepts through Google
Earth™ activities, covering a range of topics in regional,
human, and physical geography. For those who do not Instructor Resource DVD (0134326369). The Instructor
use MasteringGeography™, all chapter explorations are Resource DVD provides a collection of resources to help
available in print workbooks, as well as in online quizzes at teachers make efficient and effective use of their time. All
www.mygeoscienceplace.com, accommodating different digital resources can be found in one well-organized, easy-to-
classroom needs. Each exploration consists of a worksheet, access place. The IRDVD includes:
online quizzes whose results can be emailed to teachers, and a
corresponding Google Earth™ KMZ file. • All textbook images as JPEGs, PDFs, and PowerPoint™
Presentations
• Encounter Physical Geography by Jess C. Porter and • Pre-authored Lecture Outline PowerPoint® Presentations,
Stephen O’Connell (0321672526) which outline the concepts of each chapter with embedded
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Dedication
For our nephews, Daniel, Kyle, and Nicholas

D. H.
About Our Sustainability Initiatives

Pearson recognizes the environmental challenges facing this planet, as well as acknowledges our responsibility in making
a difference. This book is carefully crafted to minimize environmental impact. The binding, cover, and paper come from
facilities that minimize waste, energy consumption, and the use of harmful chemicals. Pearson closes the loop by recycling
every out-of-date text returned to our warehouse.
Along with developing and exploring digital solutions to our market’s needs, Pearson has a strong commitment to achieving
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absolute carbon footprint by 22% since then. Pearson has protected over 1,000 hectares of land in Columbia, Costa Rica,
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helping make them more sustainable and limiting our environmental impact for local communities.
The future holds great promise for reducing our impact on Earth’s environment, and
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visit https://www.pearson.com/social-impact/sustainability/environment.html.
xxx

About the Authors
Darrel Hess began teaching geography at City College of

San Francisco in 1990 and served as chair of the Earth Sciences
Department from 1995 to 2009. After earning his bachelor’s
degree in geography at the University of California, Berkeley,
in 1978, he served for two years as a teacher in the Peace
Corps on Jeju Island, Korea. Upon returning to the United
States, he worked as a writer, photographer, and audiovisual
producer. His association with Tom McKnight began as a
graduate student at UCLA, where he served as one of Tom’s
teaching assistants. Their professional collaboration developed
after Darrel graduated from UCLA with a master’s degree
in geography in 1990. He first wrote the Study Guide that
accompanied the fourth edition of Physical Geography: A
Landscape Appreciation, and then the Laboratory Manual that
accompanied the fifth edition. Darrel continues to author the
Laboratory Manual, along with the California Edition of this
book, now in its fourth incarnation. In 1999 Tom asked Darrel
to join him as coauthor of the textbook. Darrel was the 2014
recipient of the American Association of Geographers (AAG)
Gilbert Grosvenor Geographic Education Honors. As did Tom,
Darrel greatly enjoys the outdoor world. Darrel and his wife,
Nora, are avid hikers, campers, and scuba divers.
Tom L. McKnight taught geography at UCLA from 1956 to 1993. He received his
bachelor’s degree in geology from Southern Methodist University in 1949, his master’s
degree in geography from the University of Colorado in 1951, and his Ph.D. in geography
and meteorology from the University of Wisconsin in 1955. During his long academic
career, Tom served as chair of the UCLA Department of Geography from 1978 to 1983, and
was director of the University of California Education Abroad Program in Australia from
1984 to 1985. Passionate about furthering the discipline of geography, he helped establish
the UCLA/Community College Geography Alliance and generously funded awards for both
undergraduate and graduate geography students. His many honors include the California
Geographical Society’s Outstanding Educator Award in 1988, and the honorary rank of
Professor Emeritus upon his retirement from UCLA. In addition to Physical Geography:
A Landscape Appreciation, his other college textbooks include The Regional Geography
of the United States and Canada; Oceania: The Geography of Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands; and
Introduction to Geography, with Edward F. Bergman. Tom passed away in 2004—the geographic community misses him
enormously.
xxxi

1
SeeingGeographically
NASA created this natural-color, composite satellite image of Earth. What evidence of human presence do you
see here? What might cause the different colors of the ocean areas? The different colors of the land areas?
What relationship might exist between the color of land surfaces and the presence or absence of cloud cover?
M01_HESS5421_12_SE_C01.indd 2 1/26/16 11:56 AM

Introduction
to Earth
Have You Ever Wondered how we know that human activity is
changing global climate? Or why Seattle residents need to worry about earthquakes
but Minneapolis residents don’t? Or why kangaroos are native to Australia but not to
China? Or even why the days are longer in summer than in winter? These are the kinds
of questions we answer in physical geography.
If you opened this book expecting that the study of geography was going to be
memorizing names and places on maps, you’ll be surprised to find that geography is
much more than that. Geographers study the location and distribution of things—
tangible things such as rainfall, mountains, and trees, as well as less tangible things such
as language, migration, and voting patterns. In short, geographers look for and explain
patterns in the physical and human landscape.
In this book you learn about fundamental processes and patterns in the natural
world—the kinds of things you can see whenever you walk outside: clouds in the sky,
mountains, streams and valleys, and the plants and animals that inhabit the landscape.
You also learn about human interactions with the natural environment—how events
such as hurricanes, earthquakes, and floods affect our lives and the world around us, as
well as how human activities are increasingly altering our global environment. By the
time you finish this book, you’ll understand—in other words, you’ll appreciate—the
landscape in new ways.
As you study this chapter, think about these KeyQuestions:

• How do geographers study the world?
• How do we make sense of different environments on Earth?
• How does Earth fit in with the solar system?
• How do we describe location on Earth?
• Why do the seasons change?
• How do global time zones work?
Mobile Mobile Field Trip videos,

RUSSIA Field Trip created by renowned Earth
Introduction to Science writer, photographer,
Physical Geography and pilot Michael Collier, are
EUROPE
NORTH virtual field trips that explore
AMERICA
physical geography from
ATLANTIC AFRICA the air and ground. This first
OCEAN Mobile Field Trip introduces
https://goo.gl/B2xTBh you to the study of physical
SOUTH
geography.
AMERICA
M01_HESS5421_12_SE_C01.indd 3 2/4/16 2:39 PM

4 Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation
Geography and Science other hand, is much broader in scope than most other
disciplines, “borrowing” its objects of study from related
The word geography comes from the Greek words mean- fields. Geographers, too, are interested in rocks and eco-
ing “Earth description.” Several thousand years ago many nomic systems and population—especially in describing
scholars were indeed “Earth describers,” and therefore and understanding their location and distribution. We
geographers, more than anything else. Nonetheless, over sometimes say that geography asks the fundamental ques-
the centuries there was a trend away from generalized Earth tion, “Why is what where, and so what?”
description toward more specialized disciplines—such as
geology, meteorology, economics, and biology—so geogra- LearningCheck 1-1 What are the differences between
phy as a field of study was somewhat overshadowed. Over physical geography and human geography? (Answer on p. AK-1)
the last few hundred years, however, geography reaffirmed
its place in the academic world, and today geography is an
Another basic characteristic of geography is its interest
expanding and flourishing field of study.
in interrelationships. One cannot understand the distribu-
tion of soils, for example, without knowing something
Studying the World Geographically about the rocks from which the soils were derived, the
Geographers study how things differ from place to place— slopes on which the soils developed, and the climate and
the distributional and locational relationships of things vegetation under which they developed. Similarly, it is
around the world (what is sometimes called the “spatial” impossible to comprehend the distribution of agriculture
aspect of things). Figure 1-1 shows the kinds of “things” without an understanding of climate, topography, soil,
geographers study, divided into two groups representing drainage, population, economic conditions, technology,
the two principal branches of geography. The elements of historical development, and many other factors, both
physical geography are natural in origin, and for this rea- physical and cultural. Because of its wide scope, geogra-
son physical geography is sometimes called environmental phy bridges the academic gap between natural science and
geography. The elements of human geography are those of social science, studying all of the elements in Figure 1-1 in
human endeavor; this branch includes such subfields as cul- an intricate web of geographic interrelationships.
tural geography, economic geography, political geography, In this book we concentrate on the physical elements of
and urban geography. The almost unlimited possible com- the landscape, the processes involved in their development,
binations of these various elements create the physical and their distribution, and their basic interrelationships. As we
cultural landscapes of the world that geographers study. proceed from chapter to chapter, this notion of landscape
All of the items shown in Figure 1-1 are familiar to development by natural processes and landscape modifica-
us, and this familiarity highlights a basic characteristic tion by humans serves as a central focus. We pay attention
of geography as a field of learning: geography doesn’t to elements of human geography when they help to explain
have its own body of facts or objects that only geogra- the development or patterns of the physical elements—
phers study. The focus of geology is rocks, the attention especially the ways in which humans influence or alter the
of economics is economic systems, demography exam- physical environment.
ines human population, and so on. Geography, on the
Global Environmental Change: Several broad geo-
graphic themes run through this book. One of these themes
Elements of Geography is global environmental change—both the human-caused
and natural processes that are currently altering the land-
Physical Geography Human Geography scapes of the world. Some of these changes can take place
Landforms Population over a period of just a few years, whereas others require
Rocks & Economic
many decades or even thousands of years (Figure 1-2). We
Minerals Activities pay special attention to the accelerating impact of human
Natural Science
Social Science
activities on the global environment: in the chapters on the

Water Languages atmosphere we discuss such issues as human-caused climate
Weather change, ozone depletion, and acid rain, whereas in later
& Religions chapters we look at issues such as rainforest removal and
Climate coastal erosion.
Plants Political Rather than treat global environmental change as a sep-
Systems arate topic, we integrate this theme throughout the book.
To help with this integration, we supplement the main text
Animals Settlements
with short boxed essays, such as those titled “People & the
Soil Food Environment” that focus on specific cases of human inter-
action with the natural environment, as well as boxes titled
▲ Figure 1-1 The elements of geography can be grouped into two broad
categories. Physical geography primarily involves the study of natural
“Energy for the 21st Century” that focus on the challenge
science, whereas human geography primarily entails the study of social of supplementing—and perhaps eventually replacing—
science. fossil fuels with renewable sources of energy. These essays
M01_HESS5421_12_SE_C01.indd 4 1/26/16 11:56 AM

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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McKnight’s Physical Geography: A

Landscape Appreciation 12th Edition,

Physical Geography A Landscape Appreciation

2. Dynamic Study Modules ensure you acquire, retain, and recall

Enrich Lecture with Dynamic Media

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MasteringGeography delivers engaging, dynamic learning opportunities—focusing on course

NEW! Geography Videos from such

NEW! Mobile Field Trip Videos

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NEW and UPDATED! GeoTutors are

NEW! Project Condor Quadcopter

UPDATED! Encounter (Google Earth)

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Hess, Darrel. | McKnight, Tom L. (Tom Lee). 1928–2004 Physical

ISBN 10: 0-134-19542-6; ISBN 13: 978-0-134-19542-1 (Student edition)

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2 Portraying Earth 9 The Hydrosphere Igneous Features

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1 Introduction to Earth 12 Soils https://goo.gl/iXSy3f

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Geoscience AnimationS xiv 2 Portraying Earth 28

Digital & Print Resources xxviii Maps and Globes 30

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Permanent Gases 57 Variations in Insolation by Latitude and Season 90

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Trade Winds 121 Condensation 149

6 Atmospheric LearningReview 171

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Midlatitude Cyclones 180 Polar and Highland Climates (Groups E and H) 226

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Biogeochemical Cycles 281 The Major Biomes 323

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12 Soils 342 Spodosols (Soils of Cool, Forested Zones) 367

Soil and Regolith 344

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Plate Boundaries 406 Weathering and Rock Openings 446

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Floodplains 486 Fluvial Erosion in Arid Lands 519

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Deposition by Ice Sheets 553 Stream Outflow 578

Learning Check Answers AK-1

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To the Student Acknowledgments

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Victoria Alapo, Metropolitan Community College Nick Polizzi, Cypress College

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For our nephews, Daniel, Kyle, and Nicholas

About Our Sustainability Initiatives

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Darrel Hess began teaching geography at City College of

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As you study this chapter, think about these KeyQuestions:

Mobile Mobile Field Trip videos,

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activities on the global environment: in the chapters on the

6 Atmospheric LearningReview 171