Lesson 8.

Atmospheric Chemistry
Outline
8.1 The Earth’s Atmosphere
8.2 Composition of Air
8.3 Air Pollutants
8.4 Air Quality Standards
8.5 Atmospheric Stability and Dispersion
8.6 Problems on Air Pollution

Atmospheric Chemistry
The earth is enveloped by a few vertical miles of atoms and molecules that compose the atmosphere- the
gaseous medium in which we exist. The atmosphere’s total mass is approximately 5.3 x 1015 metric tons and its
diameter is 12,740 km. There are 2 major chemicals in the atmosphere, the nitrogen and oxygen. The most
abundant gas is nitrogen (78%), followed by oxygen (21 %) and the rest are trace gases. The mixture of these
gases is called air. Due to the force of gravity, molecules making up the atmosphere are concentrated near the
earth’s surface.

Clean air is vital to sustain the delicate balance of life on earth. However, the quality of air can be affected by air
pollution. Air pollution occurs when certain gases and particles build up in the atmosphere to such levels that
they can cause harm to humans, plants, animals and the environment.

The big practical problems resulting from air pollution like photochemical smog, acid rain, climate change and
stratospheric ozone depletion are the main driving forces to study atmospheric chemistry.

This lesson discusses the air environment, atmospheric stability and dispersion, and practical problems resulting
from air pollution.

8.1 The Earth’s Atmosphere

The earth’s atmosphere is roughly divided into layers as shown in Figure 8.1. From the earth’s surface to about
10 km altitude, it is the region called troposphere; the temperature in this region is decreasing with increasing
altitude. It is also in this region that there is violent mixing of air and the biggest variations in moisture content
and temperature occurs which result to winds, clouds, storms and precipitation, a phenomenon we call as
weather. Seventy-five percent (75%) of the atmosphere’s mass is in the troposphere.

Just above the troposphere is the stratosphere layer which is about 12 -50 km above the earth surface. The
pressure in the stratosphere is extremely low and little air mixing occurs. Temperature profile in this region is
increasing with increasing altitude due to the absorption of ultraviolet radiation by ozone causing the air to be
heated. It is in this layer where the maximum ozone is found. The stratospheric ozone is important because it
prevents damaging ultraviolet radiation from reaching the earth’s surface; it absorbs the ultraviolet radiation of
about 95-99%. Ninety-nine point nine percent (99.9%) of the atmosphere’s mass is below 50 km, which means
in the troposphere and stratosphere.

Beyond the stratosphere lies the mesosphere, a layer where air mixes fairly readily, and above that the
thermosphere. The heating of the thermosphere is due to the absorption of solar energy by atomic oxygen.
Within the thermosphere is a relatively dense band of charged particles called the ionosphere.

82
 Figure 8.1 Vertical layers of the atmosphere

8.2 Composition of Air

Air is a mixture of gases. The most abundant gas is nitrogen followed by oxygen and the rest are trace gases.
Table 8.1 tells the composition of air.

Table 8.1 Composition of air

Gas % by Volume
Nitrogen 78.08
Oxygen 20.95
Argon 0.93
Carbon dioxide 0.0345
Neon 0.0018
Helium 0.00052
Methane 0.00014
Krypton 0.00010
Hydrogen 0.00005
Xenon 0.000009
Ozone variable

8.3 Air Pollutants

An air pollutant is any substance that degrades the air quality. Nature pollutes the air on a massive scale with
volcanic ash, sulfur oxides, mercury vapor, hydrogen chloride and hydrogen sulfide from volcanic eruptions,
reactive odorous organic compounds from plants, and decaying vegetation and animals that produces methane
gas. But automobiles, power plants, smelting plants, petroleum refining, metallurgical processes add significant
quantities of unwanted compounds in the atmosphere especially in heavy populated areas. Pollutants that
enter the atmosphere directly from source is called primary pollutants. While pollutants that are produced in
the atmosphere by the interactions of different primary pollutants is called secondary pollutant. Figure 8.2
shows the different air pollutants and sources.

83
 Figure 8.2 Air pollutants
(Source: Scottish Environment Protection Agency. Chemistry of Air Pollution.)

8.4 Air Quality Standards

Ambient Air Quality Standards
Ambient air quality standards are acceptable concentrations of pollution in the atmosphere. There are two
standards under the ambient air quality standards, namely: primary ambient air quality standards and
secondary ambient air quality standards.

Primary Ambient Air Quality Standards are required to be at levels that will protect public health and include
an “adequate margin of safety” regardless of whether the standards are economically or technologically
achievable. Primary standards must protect even the most sensitive individuals, including the elderly and those
with respiratory ailments.

Secondary Ambient Air Quality Standards are more stringent than primary standards. Secondary standards
are established to protect public welfare. Protection of public welfare means protection of public health,
animals, crops, and structure.

The established ambient air quality standard is for the six criteria pollutants: carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen
dioxide, ozone, sulfur dioxide, and particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter of less than or equal to 10 μm
(PM-10). This is shown in Table 8.2.

Table 8.2 Example of Ambient Air Quality Standards

Pollutant Averaging Time Standard
1. Carbon monoxide 8 hr 10 mg/m3 (9 ppm)
2. Nitrogen dioxide annual 100 µg/m3 (0.053 ppm)
3. Sulfur dioxide annual 80 µg/m3 (0.03 ppm)
4. Ozone 1 hr 235 µg/m3 (0.12 ppm)
5. PM-10 annual 50 µg/m3
6. Lead 3 months 1.5 µg/m3

84
Emission Standards
Aside from establishing the ambient air quality standards, the emission standards are also established for
industries, this is to control emissions of pollutants to the atmosphere from point sources. Emission standards
are allowable rates at which pollutants can be released from a source.

Clicker Exercise 1
1. Give the health and environmental effects of carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, ozone, PM-
10 and lead.

8.5 Atmospheric Stability and Dispersion

The air quality at a given site varies tremendously from day to day. The determining factors of air quality have
something to do with weather; how strong the wind; direction where the wind blows, sunlight, photochemical
reactions and how long since the last precipitation. Hence, air quality is dependent on the dynamics of the
atmosphere, the study of which is called meteorology.

Atmospheric stability is a crucial factor in the atmosphere’s ability to dilute pollutants. In stable atmosphere,
pollutants are not diluted, air quality is poor. In unstable atmosphere, pollutants are diluted, air quality is good.

Adiabatic and Ambient Lapse Rate

The ease in which pollutants can disperse vertically into the atmosphere is largely determined by the rate of
change on temperature with altitude. In some temperature profiles, the air is stable, that is the air at a given
altitude has physical forces acting on it that makes it want to remain at that elevation. Stable air discourages
dispersion and dilution of pollutants. For other temperature profiles, the air is unstable. In this case rapid vertical
mixing takes place that encourages pollutant dispersal and increases good air quality. Vertical stability of the
atmosphere is an important factor that helps determine the ability of the atmosphere to dilute emissions,
hence, it is crucial to air quality.

To understand the relationship between temperature and atmospheric stability, imagine a parcel of air that is
moving up and down with altitude (Figure 8.3), as this parcel of air moves up or down it will cause its temperature
to change by 9.76 °C/km or 1 °C/100 m. This value is based on calculations and is called the adiabatic lapse rate.

Weight of Pressure on
slice of air top
Altitude

dz

Pressure on
Z bottom

Area

Figure 8.3 A column of air in static equilibrium

(Source: Masters, G.M. (1991). Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science.)

But for a number of reasons like wind, sunlight, geographical features, the actual rate of change in temperature
of a parcel of air that is moving up and down with altitude called as ambient lapse rate is almost always different
from the adiabatic lapse rate (1 °C/100 m).

85
If the rising parcel of air at high elevation is colder than the surroundings, it will be denser than the surrounding
air and will sink back down again. The atmosphere is said to be stable.

If the rising parcel of air causes its temperature to be higher than the surrounding air, it will be less dense than
the surrounding air and it will experience bouyancy forces that will encourage it to keep moving upward. The
original motion upward will be reinforced and the air parcel will continue to climb. The atmosphere is said to be
unstable.

If the rising parcel of air either upward or downward results in change in temperature by the same amount as its
surrounding, the condition of the atmosphere is said to be neutrally stable.

Therefore, for ambient lapse rate greater than the adiabatic lapse rate, the atmosphere is unstable and vertical
motions are enhanced. For ambient lapse rate less than the adiabatic lapse rate, the atmosphere is stable and
vertical motions are suppressed. For ambient lapse rate that is equal to the adiabatic lapse rate, the atmosphere
is neutrally stable.

Tparcel air > Tsurrounding air

Tparcel air < Tsurrounding air

Tparcel air = Tsurrounding air
Mixing

Neutral
Unstable Sinking

Neutrally stable

Stable

Figure 8.4 Illustration of atmospheric stability

Temperature Inversion
Temperature inversion is an extreme case of atmospheric stability. There are so many causes of temperature
inversion, but on the standpoint of air quality, radiation inversion is the one important. Radiation inversion is
caused by nocturnal cooling of the earth’s surface especially on clear winter nights. It starts when the surface of
the earth cools down at night by radiating energy toward space. On clear nights, the earth’s surface readily
radiates energy to space, thus, the ground cools much more rapidly. As the ground cools, the air in contact with
the ground also cools. The temperature of the air just above the ground becomes colder than the air above it,
creating an inversion. As the evening progresses, the inversion extends to higher elevation. If there is traffic
build up, the cold air traps auto exhaust at ground level and causes elevated concentrations of pollutants. But,
on cloudy nights, the earth’s radiation tends to be absorbed by water vapor in the atmosphere, where it is
reradiated back to earth, making the earth warmer.

86
Atmospheric Dispersion
The dispersion of pollutants is related to the wind speed and to the extent to which emissions can rise into the
atmosphere. As the parcel of air moves upward it cools adiabatically at about 1°C/100m. If its temperature is
warmer than that of the surrounding air, it will continue to rise; if it is less, it will sink. At some point, if its
temperature becomes equal to that of the surrounding air, it will stop moving. If a temperature profile of the
atmosphere is available, then the elevation where the parcel of air will ascend can be determined. The product
of the maximum mixing depth (mixing height) and the average wind speed within the mixing depth is used as
indicator of the atmosphere’s dispersive capability. This product is called the ventilation coefficient (m2/s).
Ventilation coefficient less than 6000 m2/s is an indication of high pollution potential.

Ventilation coefficient = maximum mixing depth * average wind speed within the mixing depth

The maximum mixing depth is obtained by projecting the dry adiabatic lapse rate to the point of intersection
with the atmospheric temperature profile (Figure 8.5). Notice that the mixing depth does not necessarily
correspond to the layer of unstable air.

neutral Temperature Profile

stable
Height

Maximum Mixing Depth

unstable

Temperature Tmax
Figure 8.5 Maximum mixing depth

Example 1. Suppose the atmosphere temperature profile is isothermal (constant temperature) at 20 °C and the
estimated maximum daily surface temperature is 25 °C. The weather station anemometer is at a height of 10 m
in the city (rough terrain) and it indicates an average wind speed of 3 m/s. Estimate the mixing depth and the
ventilation coefficient.

Given: Temperature profile is isothermal at 20 °C

Max daily surface temperature is 25 °C
Anemometer height = 10m
Anemometer wind speed = 3 m/s
Required: a) mixing depth
b) average wind speed
c) ventilation coefficient

87
Solution:
a) Construct the temperature profile and determine the maximum mixing depth

Temperature Profile (isothermal)

500 m

Altitude, m Maximum mixing depth = 500 m

20 °C 25 °C Surface temperature
Temperature
m
b) Calculate the average wind speed (using the Power law expression)
Power law expression: u1/u2 = (z1/z2)p
where: u1, u2 = wind speed at the higher and lower elevation, respectively
z1, z2 = higher and lower elevation, respectively
p = dimensionless parameter that varies with atmospheric stability
(see Table 8.3 for values of p)

Calculating the average wind speed using power law expression

u1/u2 = (z1 /z2)p
u1 = u2 (z1/z2)p

Since the temperature profile is isothermal choose a slightly stable class and the average wind speed is
calculated at mid of maximum mixing depth.
u1 = 3 m/s (250 m/ 10 m)0.40
u1 = 3 m/s * 3.62
u1 = 10.86 m/s

c) Ventilation Coefficient = Max Mixing depth * average wind speed

Ventilation Coefficient = 500 m * 10.86 m/s
= 5,430 m2/s

A ventilation coefficient of 5,430 m2/s indicates high pollution potential.

Table 8.3 Wind profile exponent p for rough terrain

Stability Class Description Exponent, p
A Very unstable 0.15
B Moderately unstable 0.15
C Slightly unstable 0.20
D Neutral 0.25
E Slightly stable 0.40
F Stable 0.60
For smooth terrain, multiply p by 0.6
(Source: Masters, G.M. (1991). Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science.)

88
Clicker Exercise 2
1. Suppose the following atmospheric altitude versus temperature data have been collected:
Altitude (m) Temperature (ºC)
0 20
100 18
200 16
300 15
400 16
500 17
600 18

a) Construct the temperature profile and determine the mixing depth.

b) If the maximum daytime surface temperature is 22 ºC, and the weather station anemometer at 10 m height
shows winds averaging 4 m/s, what would be the ventilation coefficient? Assume stability class C and use the
wind at the height halfway to the maximum mixing depth.

8.6 Problems on Air Pollution

Photochemical Smog
Photochemical smog is a secondary pollutant, which is a result of the reactions of hydrocarbons and NOx.

Hydrocarbon + NOx + sunlight photochemical smog

Photochemical smog looks like a smoke or fog (Figure 8.6). It reduces visibility and it is also known to cause
many annoying respiratory effects such as coughing, shortness of breathing, airway constriction, headache,
chest tightness, and eye, nose and throat irritation.

Figure 8.6 Photochemical smog

(Source: Scottish Environment Protection Agency. Chemistry of Air Pollution.)

Acid Rain
Acid rain is a secondary pollutant formed when sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) react in the
atmosphere with water, oxygen and other chemicals to form various acidic compounds.
SO2 + OH- HSO3
HSO3 + O2 SO3 + HO2
SO3 + H2O H2SO4
89
 NO2 + OH- HNO3

These acidic compounds are transported in the air by the wind, until they fall to the ground in either wet or dry
form. When the compounds fall to the ground, they can cause damage to plants, including trees. They can also
increase the acidity levels of our soils, rivers, lochs and streams affecting the delicate balance of ecosystems
that live in these environments. Acid rain also accelerates the decay of irreplaceable buildings, statues, and
sculptures.

The pollutants that cause acid rain (sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide) can also be damaging to human
health. As these gases interact in the atmosphere, they can form fine sulphate and nitrate water droplets which
can irritate the air ways and cause irritation to eyes.

Stratospheric Ozone Depletion

Ozone in the stratosphere layer traps the UV radiation from the sun. The depletion of stratospheric ozone will
result to penetration of UV radiation to the earth’s surface. UV radiation causes illness like skin cancer and
destroys plant and animal cells that are sensitive to UV radiation.

However, the observations of scientist showed that the ozone layer has thinned over the higher altitudes and
this phenomenon is more severe over the Southern Hemisphere during spring time. The thinning of ozone in
the ozone layer is caused by ozone depleting substances like chloroflourocarbons (CFCs) and NOx. CFCs are
unreactive and are popular as refrigerants and blowing agents in mattresses, Styrofoam and insulation. CFC has
a very long life, hence, it can reach the stratosphere layer, thus, destroying the ozone.

The Chemistry of Ozone Depletion

In the atmosphere ozone (O3) is produced by photodissociation of oxygen (O 2) and O2 is produced back by
photodissociation of O3. If there are no interventions, this process continues, and there is a balance of O 2 and
O3.

○ O3 is produced by photodissociation of O 2
O2 + hv O +O
O + O2 O3 ]*2
3O2 2O3

○ O2 is produced back by photodissociation of O 3

O3 + hv O + O2
O + O3 2O2
2O3 3O2

○ When CFC is introduced to the atmosphere, CFC photodissociates and Cl is released

CFCl3 + hv CFCl2 + Cl

Cl attacks O3
Cl + O3 ClO + O2

ClO also attacks O3

ClO + O3 Cl + 2O2

With just 1 chlorine atom many ozone will be destroyed.

90
 Figure 8.7 Mechanism of ozone destruction

○ Why the ozone depletion is severe in the Southern Hemisphere and in spring time?
Ozone depletion is severe in the Southern Hemisphere because of the special condition found in the southern
hemisphere during winter. The very low temperature (-80 °C) in the polar region during winter leads to the
formation of polar vortex. This polar vortex traps the air that leads to the formation of polar stratospheric
clouds (PSC). Since the vortex is isolated, the PSC persists. The polar stratospheric clouds become a surface of
chemical reactions of chlorine monoxide with other pollutants in the atmosphere like NO2 & CH4.

ClO + NO2 ClONO3

chlorous nitrate

During winter, chlorine monoxide is trap in chlorous nitrate, but when spring time comes, where the sun rises,
chlorous nitrate photodissociates back to chlorine monoxide and destroying again ozone.

ClONO2 + hv ClO + NO2

ClO + O3 Cl + 2O2
Cl + O3 ClO + O2

The photo dissociation of trapped chlorous nitrate during spring time leads to severe ozone depletion.

Climate Change
Climate change is caused by enhanced greenhouse effect. What is greenhouse effect? The earth is considered
as a blackbody, it absorbs heat and releases heat. The energy absorbs by earth is short wavelength and the
energy radiated by earth is long wavelengths. Between 7 and 12 μm wavelengths, there is relatively clear sky
for outgoing thermal radiation, this is referred to as the atmospheric radiative window. At these wavelengths,
radiation easily passes through the atmosphere. However, there are radiatively active gases that absorb
wavelengths longer than 4 μm and these gases are called greenhouse gases. These greenhouse gases trap the
heat radiated from earth and re-radiates back to earth, making the earth warmer, this is known as greenhouse
effect (Figure 8.8). Greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon because some greenhouse gases are naturally
occurring in the atmosphere like carbon dioxide and water vapor. But, due to the increasing greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere from anthropogenic sources, the greenhouse effect is enhanced. Too much greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere results to greenhouse effect enhancement, which finally leads to Global
Warming/Climate Change.
91
 Figure 8.8 Greenhouse effect

○ Greenhouse Gases
1. Water vapor (H2O)
2. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
3. Nitrous oxide (N2O)
4. Methane (CH4)
5. Ozone (O3)

As proof that greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon, the energy balance of heat absorbed by earth and
energy released by earth showed that the effective earth temperature is 255K (-18 °C). But, the actual earth
temperature is not -18 °C, it is 288 (15 °C). There is a difference in effective temperature of earth surface and
actual temperature of earth surface of 33 °C. The higher actual temperature of earth surface is attributed to
natural greenhouse effect.

Energy Balance
Heat absorbed by planet earth = (1-a) πR2So
Heat radiated by planet earth = (4 π R2) δT4
where: So= solar radiative flux
a = albedo
R = radius
πR2 = area
δ = Boltzman constant

heat absorbed by planet earth = heat radiated by planet earth

(1-a) πR2So = (4 π R2) δT4
Te = [ (1-Aa)So/ 4 δ]1/4
Te = 255K (-18 °C)

○Consequences of greenhouse effect enhancement

Global warming/climate change
Biodiversity loss
Rising sea level
Flooding in low lying areas
92
Indoor Air Pollution
Most often attention is given to outdoor pollution, however, people tend to spend more time indoors than
outdoor, and in many circumstances, the air we breathe indoors is even more polluted than outdoor air.
Examples of pollutants that we can find indoors are carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides (from combustion of
fuels during cooking or heating water), ozone (emitted by photocopying machines), formaldehyde (emitted by
particle board, plywood, foam insulation, and various adhesives); and volatile organics (from household
cleaning materials).

Just like outdoor air, the amount of air available to dilute pollutants is an important indicator of contaminant
concentration. Indoor air can exchange with outdoor air by any of three mechanisms: infiltration, natural
ventilation and forced ventilation. Infiltration describes the natural air exchange that occurs between a building
and its environment when doors and windows are closed. This exchange of indoor and outdoor air is through a
leakage from various cracks and holes that exist in the building. Natural ventilation is the air exchange when
windows and doors are purposely opened to increase air circulation. Forced ventilation occurs when
mechanical air handling systems induce air exchange like using fans and blowers.

Pollution in the building is determined using a simple box model and basic mass balance (Figure 8.9).

Indoor concentration (C)

Volume (V) Exfiltration (I)
Infiltration (I)

S Decay rate (K)

Concentration (C)
Concentration (Ca) Source Sink

Figure 8.9 Box model for indoor air pollution

Rate of increase = Rate of pollution entering – Rate of pollution – Rate of decay

in the box the box leaving the box in the box

V dC/dt = S + Ca I V – CIV – KCV Equation 8.1

where: V = volume of conditioned space in the building (m3/air exchange)

I = air exchange rate (ach)
S = pollutant source strength (mg/hr)
C = indoor concentration (mg/m3)
Ca = ambient concentration (mg/m3)
K =pollution decay rate or reactivity (1/hr)

For a steady state system, set dC/dt = 0, Equation 8.1 results to

C (∞) = (S/V + CaI) / I + K Equation 8.2

A general equation for the concentration of pollutant at a certain time (t) is:
C(t) = [(S/V + CaI) / (1+K)] [1– e – (I+K)t] + C(0) e – (I+K)t Equation 8.3
93
 where: C(0)= initial concentration in the building

Hence conservative pollutants do not decay, K = 0. For special conservative pollutants, the ambient
concentration is zero (Ca = 0), and initial indoor concentration is zero, the Equation 8.3 becomes
C(t) = [S/VI] [1– e – It ] Equation 8.4

Example 2. An unvented, portable, radiant heater, fueled with kerosene, is tested under controlled laboratory
conditions. After running the heater for 2 hours in a test chamber with a 46 m 3 volume and an infiltration rate
0f 0.25 ach, the concentration of CO reaches 20 mg/m3. Initial CO in the laboratory is zero, and the ambient CO
level is negligible throughout the run. Treating CO as a conservative pollutant, find the rate at which the heater
emits CO. If the heater were to be used in a small home to heat 120 m 3 of space having 0.4 ach, predict the
steady state concentration.

Given: Volume of Lab chamber= 46 m3 Volume of small home = 120 m3

I = 0.25 ach I = 0.4 ach
t = 2 hrs C(t) = 20 mg/m3

Required: a. S
b. C(∞)

Solution:
a. Solve for S using Equation 8.4
C(t) = [S/VI] [1– e – It ]
S = [C(t)) VI] / [1– e – It ]
S = [ 20 mg/m3 * 46 m3/ach * 0.25 ach] / [1 – e – (0.25 /hr * 2 hr)
S =230 mg / (1-0.6065)
S =230 mg/ 0.3935
S = 584.49 mg

b. Solve for C(∞) using Equation 8.2 (CO is a conservative pollutant, K=0 and Ca is negligible)
C (∞) = (S/V + CaI) / I + K
C (∞) = S / VI
C (∞) = 584.49 mg / (120 m3/ach * 0.4 ach)
C (∞) = 12.176 mg/m3

The concentration of CO inside the home by using the said heater is 12.176 mg/m3 which is higher that
the ambient air quality standard for CO which is 10 mg/m 3. This implies that the home will be polluted
with CO by using this heater.

Example 3. Suppose the soil under a single story- house emits 1 pCi/m2-s of radon gas. As a worst case, assume
that all of this gas finds its way through the floor and into the house. The house has 250 m 2 of floor space, and
average ceiling height of 2.6 m, and an air exchange rate of 0.9 ach. Estimate the steady state concentration of
radon in the house, assuming ambient concentration is negligible. The decay constant of radon is 7.6 x 10 -3/hr.

Given: S = 1 pCi/m2-s I = 0.9 ach

Floor area = 250 m2 K = 7.6 x 10-3/hr
Height of ceiling = 2.6 m
Required: C (∞)
94
Solution:
Solve the steady state concentration (C (∞)) using Equation 8.2
C (∞) = (S/V + CaI) / I + K
C (∞) = [1 pCi/m2-s * 250 m2) / (250 m2*2.6 m)] / 0.9 /hr + 7.6 x 10-3/hr
C (∞) = [(1 pCi/m2-s * 250 m2) / 650 m3] / [0.9 /hr + 7.6 x 10-3/hr]
C (∞) = [250 pCi/s / 650 m3] / 0.9076/hr
C (∞) = [0.3846 pCi /m3-s] / [0.9076/hr * 1 hr/ 3600 s]
C (∞) = [0.3846 pCi /m3-s] / [2.52 x 10-4/s]
C (∞) = 1,526.19 pCi/m3 or 1.526 x 103 pCi/m3

Clicker Exercise 3
1. A single story- home with infiltration rate of 0.5 ach has 200 m 2 of floor space and a total volume of
500 m3. If 0.6 pCi/m2-s of radon is emitted from the soil and enters the house through the floor,
estimate the steady state indoor radon concentration. Assume that ambient concentration is zero and
the decay constant of radon is 7.6 x 10-3/hr.

2. Consider a “tight” 300 m3 home with 0.2 ach infiltration rate. The only source of CO in the home is
the gas range and the ambient concentration of CO is zero. Suppose there is no CO in the home at 6
pm, but then the oven and two burners are on for 1 hour. Assuming the air is well mixed in the house,
estimate the CO concentration in the home at 7 pm and again at 10 pm.

References
1. Masters, G.M. (1991). Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science. Prentice Hall, Inc.,
USA.
2. Manahan, S.E. (2000). Environmental Chemistry. CRC Press, LLC.
3. Scottish Environment Protection Agency. Chemistry of Air Pollution.

95