`LGlCU^TA62 28

Gctohgctfds FJ QOH Glahrj ]lr`a

Dfvf` Hjmfjhhrfjm (Alj Oljlrfl Rhjturc Qhdojl`lmfdc` Ttcth Xjfvhrsfty)

TtuAldu fs jlt spljslrha lr hjalrsha ey cjy dl``hmh lr ujfvhrsfty

Alwj`lcaha ey Bcrco Qohrhsh Cacrjc (bcrcocacrjcNmgcf`.dlg)
 `LGlCU^A62 28

GCQOHGCQFDT FJ QOH
GLAHUJ ]LU@A

ETDH 3E

Iu`fcj Ufkkf D. Uhyhs

Dcgf``h B`lrhs
Dyrfuz Ifghjhz
Mhrfgoch ^c`ca

Ihggfh
Ihwh` CjjhMuhsh
Mhjflsl
Khjjhto Cjmh`l Fjtc`
Kocyh Crdfcmc
Gfdoch` Tcg Dcerhrc
Gfkch`c Qu``cl
Jof`` Fvcj C`vfz
Ufdky Tujmc
Tocfrc Dl``cal
]hjah`` Mutfhrrhz

Gctohgctfds fj toh
toh Glahrj ]lr`a 3
 
Alwj`lcaha ey Bcrco Qohrhsh Cacrjc (bcrcocacrjcNmgcf`.dlg)
`LGlCU^A62 28

 
 DLXUTH LXQ@FJH9

 C.  Gctohgctfds fj lur Glahrj ]lr`a

3.  ^ctthrjs cja jugehrs fj jcturh cja toh wlr`a

5.  Bfeljcddf shquhjdh
4.  Olw Gctohgctfds Dcj Oh`p<
c.  Gctohgctfds oh`ps lrmcjfzh pctthrjs cja rhmu`crftfhs fj toh wlr`a
e.  Gctohgctfds oh`ps prhafdt toh ehocvflr lb jcturh lb pohjlghjc fj toh wlr`a
d.  Gctohgctfds oh`ps dljtrl` jcturh cja lddurrhjdhs fj toh wlr`a blr lur lwj hjas

E.  Gctohgctfdc` @cjmucmh cja Tygel`s

3.  Docrcdthrfstfds lb gctohgctfdc` `cjmucmh

5.  Hxprhssfljs vs shjthjdhs
4.  Blur ecsfd dljdhpts9 shts, bujdtfljs, rh`ctfljs, efjcry lphrctfljs
1.  H`hghjtcry `lmfd9 dljjhdtfvhs, qucjtfbfhrs, jhmctflj, vcrfce`hs

D.  ^rle`hg Tl`vfjm cja Uhcsljfjm

3.  Fjaudtfvh cja ahaudtfvh rhcsljfjm

5.  1-sthps fj prle`hg sl`vfjm
^l`yc‖s 1-sthps
4.  ^rle`hg sl`vfjm strcthmfhs
1.  Gctohgctfdc` prle`hgs fjvl`vfjm pctthrjs
8.  Uhdrhctfljc` prle`hgs usfjm gctohgctfds

A.  Actc Gcjcmhghjt

3.  Ghcsurhs lb Dhjtrc` Qhjahjdy9 Ghcj, Ghafcj, Glah

Gctohgctfds fj toh Glahrj ]lr`a 5

 
Alwj`lcaha ey Bcrco Qohrhsh Cacrjc (bcrcocacrjcNmgcf`.dlg)
`LGlCU^A62 28

GCQOHGCQFDT FJ LXU GLAHUJ ]LU@A

C. ^CQQHUJT CJA JXGEHUT FJ JCQXUH CJA QOH ]LU@A  

 E. BFELJCDDF THSXHJDH

Qoh Bfeljcddf shquhjdh fs phrocps toh glst bcglus shquhjdh fj gctohgctfds. Qofs shquhjdh wcs
afsdlvhrha ey Bfeljcddf (@hljcral ah ^fsc) fj dljjhdtflj wfto c prle`hg celut toh mrlwto lb c plpu`ctflj
lb rceefts. Qoh Bfeljcddf shquhjdh fs c shrfhs lb jugehrs wohrh c jugehr fs bluja ey caafjm up toh twl

jugehrs ehblrh ft. Bfeljcddf cssugha toct cj fjftfc` pcfr lb rceefts mcvh efrto tl ljh jhw pcfr lb rceeft
phr gljto, cja toct cbthr twl gljtos hcdo jhw pcfr ehocvha sfgf`cr`y. Qous toh jugehr b j lb pcfrs elrj
fj toh fj toh jto gljto fs b j∕3
j∕3 + b j
j∕5∕5, ehdcush c pcfr lb rceefts fs elrj blr hcdo pcfr elrj toh prhvflus gljto,
cja glrhlvhr hcdo pcfr elrj twl gljtos cml jlw mfvhs efrto tl c jhw pcfr.

Hxcgp`hs9

3.  Fb bfe (3) 7 3 cja bfe (5) 7 8, woct fs bfe (3>) cja bfe (38)<
Tl`utflj9
bfe (3) 7 3
bfe (5) 7 8
bfe (4) 7 3 + 8 7 2
bfe (1) 7 2 + 8 7 33
bfe (8) 7 33 + 2 7 3=
bfe (2) 7 3= + 33 7 5?
bfe (=) 7 5? + 3= 7 18
bfe (?) 7 18 + 5? 7 =4
bfe (6) 7 =4 + 18 7 33?
bfe (3>) 7 33? + =4 7 363
bfe (33) 7 363 + 33? 7 4>6
bfe (35) 7 4>6 + 363 7 8>>
bfe (34) 7 8>> + 4>6 7 ?>6
bfe (31) 7 ?>6 + 8>> 7 34>6
34> 6
bfe (38) 7 34>6 + ?>6 7 533?

5.  Bfja c`` bfe (38) fj toh bl``lwfjm shquhjdhs9

c.  3 , 5 , 4 , 8 , ? , 34 , 53 , 41 , 88, … 
…  bfe (38) 7 6?=
e.  3 , 3 , 5 , 4 , 8 , ? , 3 4 , 53 , 41,
41, … 
…  bfe (38) 7 23>
d.  3 , 4 , 1 , = , 33 , 3? , 56 , 1= , =2,
=2, … 
…  bfe (38) 7 36=1 
36=1 
a.  3 , 1 , 8 , 6 , 31 , 54 , 4= , 2> , 6=,
6=, … 
…  bfe (38) 7 3=13

Gctohgctfds fj toh
toh Glahrj ]lr`a 4
 
Alwj`lcaha ey Bcrco Qohrhsh Cacrjc (bcrcocacrjcNmgcf`.dlg)
`LGlCU^A62 28

Ml`ahj Uctfl lr Ml`ahj ^rlplrtflj

Ml`ahj ^rlplrtflj lr Ml`ahj Uctfl fs usuc``y ahjltha ey toh Mrhhk `htthr ^of (ς), fj `lwhr dcsh,
wofdo rhprhshjts cj frrctfljc` jugehr, 3.23?>446??=, cpprlxfgcth`y. Ehdcush lb fts ujfquh cja
gystfbyfjm prlphrtfhs, gcjy rhshcrdohrs cja gctohgctfdfcjs ocvh stuafha toh Ml`ahj Uctfl, c`sl kjlwj
cs Ml`ahj Thdtflj. Qoh Uhjcfsscjdh crtfsts usha toh Ml`ahj Ghcj hxthjsfvh`y fj tohfr pcfjtfjms cja
sdu`pturhs tl cdofhvh ec`cjdh cja ehcuty. @hljcral Ac Rfjdf usha ft tl ahbfjh c`` toh bujacghjtc`
prlplrtfljs lb ofs pcfjtfjm lb Qoh @cst Tupphr, brlg toh afghjsfljs lb toh tce`h, ct wofdo Dorfst cja toh
afsdfp`hs sct, tl toh prlplrtfljs lb toh
to h wc``s cja wfjalws fj toh ecdkmrluja. Qorlumolut ofstlry, toh rctfl
blr `hjmto tl wfato lb rhdtcjm`hs lb 3.23?>446??=16?61?1?5> ocs ehhj dljsfahrha toh glst p`hcsfjm tl
 toh hyh. Qofs rctfl wcs jcgha toh ml`ahj rctfl ey toh Mrhhks. Fj toh wlr`a lb gctohgctfds, toh jughrfd
vc`uh fs dc``ha "pof", jcgha blr toh Mrhhk sdu`ptlr ^ofafcs.

 +  
Ml`ahj Uctfl (ς)9  7  7 . 
 

  

Hxcgp`hs lb Ml`ahj Uctfl fj Glahrj Ahsfmjs

3.  MUFAT LU E@LDKT

Qoh squcrh drhctha ey toh `fjhs wlu`a eh ylur dljthjtdljthj t e`ldk. Qoh sgc``hr rhdtcjm`h wlu`a
eh c sfah lr jcvfmctflj ecr. Ljdh ylu ocvh bfmurha lut toh sfzh
lb ylur rhdtcjm`h, bfjafjm lut olw wfah ylur jcvfmctflj ecr
jhhas tl eh fs hcsy gcto.
Blr tofs hxcgp`h, wh‖`` scy ylur rhdtcjm`h fs 858 pfxh`s
ey ?8> pfxh`s. 858 fs c, cja ?8> fs (c + e)
e),, cja e wf`` eh toh wfato
lb ylur sfah ecr.
Ql bfja e, wh sfgp`y suetrcdt brlg (c + e), wofdo fs 458.
Qohrhblrh toh wfato lb ylur sfah ecr fs 458 pfxh`s. 
pfxh`s.  

(**Uhghgehr toct ylur rhdtcjm`h dcj eh b`fppha crluja tl suft ylur y lur purplshs, puttfjm toh sfahecr
ct toh tlp, elttlg, lr lpplsfth sfah. Cs `ljm cs toh rctfl ol`as, ylur ahsfmj wf`` bhh` ocrgljflus.**)

5.  QH_Q

Qohrh‖s c bcsthr wcy tl mht toh ghcsurhghjts ylu jhha cja ft dcj eh cpp`fha wfto thxt
dljthjt. @ht‖s scy ylur dljthxt thxt
dljthxt thxt fs sfzh 35. Gu`tfp`y 35 wfto 3.23?, toh ml`ahj rctfl, cja ylu‖``
mht 36.132. C ohcahr thxt sfzh
sf zh lb 36 lr 5> wlu`a d`lsh`y bl``lw toh ml`ahj rctfl.
Qoh ml`ahj rctfl fs c `cjmucmh ylur gfja ujahrstcjas, cja ey dlggujfdctfjm wfto ft, ylur
fahcs wf`` dlgh
dlgh cdrlss glrh hbbhdtfvh`y. Vlu alj‖t ocvh tl caohrh tl ft hxcdt`y; toh ecsfd prfjdfp`h
fs hjlumo. Cpp`yfjm toh rctfl tl fgcmh sfzhs, toh rh`ctfljsofp ehtwhhj thxt cja fgcmh p`cdhghjt
cja toh drhctflj lb sueafvfsfljs wftofj sfah ecrs crh c`` plssfe`h dljdhpts.

Gctohgctfds fj toh Glahrj ]lr`a 1

 
Alwj`lcaha ey Bcrco Qohrhsh Cacrjc (bcrcocacrjcNmgcf`.dlg)
`LGlCU^A62 28

Hxcgp`hs lb toh Bfeljcddf Thquhjdh cja Ml`ahj Uctfl fj Jcturh

3.  TOH@@T

Cs ylu gcy ocvh muhssha ey toh durvh fj toh elx hxcgp`h celvh,
soh``s bl``lw toh prlmrhssfvh prlplrtfljc` fjdrhcsh lb toh Bfeljcddf
shquhjdh. Toh``s crh prlece`y toh glst bcglus hxcgp`h lb toh shquhjdh
ehdcush toh `fjhs crh vhry d`hcj cja d`hcr tl shh. Qohy crh c`sl buj tl
dl``hdt cja afsp`cy. Cja tohj, tohrh ylu ocvh ft! Vlu'rh lwj `ftt`h pfhdh lb
gcto.

5.  QUHHT

]h shh trhhs hvhrywohrh, eut ocvh ylu hvhr trfha tl `llk cja
cjc`yzh toh strudturh lb olw toh ercjdohs mrhw lut lb ft cja wfto hcdo
 ltohr< Jl, ehdcush ylu rh jlrgc` cja ocvh ehtthr tofjms tl al. Eut fb ylu
afa, ylu wlu`a shh toh Bfeljcddf shquhjdh hvl`vh lut lb toh trujk cja
spfrc` cja mrlw toh tc``hr cja `crmhr toh trhh ehdlghs. Tlgh tru`y
gcihstfd trhhs crh fj hxfsthjdh tlacy, utf`fzfjm tofs pctthrj.

4.  B@L]HU ^FTQF@T

Qoh pcrt lb toh b`lwhr fj toh gfaa`h lb toh phtc`s (toh pfstf`)
bl``lws toh Bfeljcddf shquhjdh gudo glrh fjthjsh`y tocj ltohr pfhdhs lb
jcturh, eut toh rhsu`t fs cj fjdrhafe`h pfhdh lb crt. Qoh pctthrj blrgha ey
toh durvh toh shquhjdh drhcths usha rhphctha`y prlaudhs c `lvh`y cja
fjtrfdcth ahsfmj.

1.  B@L]HU ^HQC@T

B`lwhrs lb c`` kfjas bl``lw toh pctthrj, eut rlshs crh gy bcvlrfth
kfja tl ush cs cj hxcgp`h lb toh Bfeljcddf shquhjdh. F `fkh ft eh
ehdcush
dcush toh
phtc`s crhj't sprhca lut cja toh spfrc` fs glrh levflus cja d`hcr, `fkh
wfto toh soh``. Qoh phtc`s ujbl`a glrh cja glrh cja toh shquhjdh
fjdrhcshs. Ulshs crh ehcutfbu` (cja sl fs gcto).

8.  @HCRHT
@HCRHT  

@hcvhs bl``lw Bfeljcddf elto wohj mrlwfjm lbb ercjdohs cja

sthgs cja fj tohfr vhfjs. F, phrsljc``y, bfja toh vhfjs gudo glrh
fjthrhstfjm cja cgczfjm tl `llk ct. Tfgf`cr tl c trhh, `hcb vhfjs ercjdo lbb
glrh cja glrh fj toh lutwcra prlplrtfljc` fjdrhghjts lb toh Bfeljcddf
shquhjdh.

Gctohgctfds fj toh
toh Glahrj ]lr`a 8
 
Alwj`lcaha ey Bcrco Qohrhsh Cacrjc (bcrcocacrjcNmgcf`.dlg)
`LGlCU^A62 28

2.  TQLUGT

Tphdfbfdc``y ourrfdcjhs cja tlrjcalhs, gcjy stlrg systhgs

bl``lw toh Bfeljcddf shquhjdh. F supplsh tofs fs jlt ehcutfbu`, eut glrh
fjthrhstfjm. Lj c gcp, ct `hcst, ourrfdcjhs `llk dll`. F muhss wh dlu`a
scy tofs hxcgp`h prlvhs gcto dcj eh ehcutfbu` cja ahstrudtfvh.

=.  VLX
VLX  

Vhs! Vlu crh cj hxcgp`h lb toh ehcuty lb toh Bfeljcddf

shquhjdh. Qoh ougcj elay ocs vcrflus rhprhshjtctfljs lb toh
Bfeljcddf shquhjdh prlplrtfljs, brlg ylur bcdh tl ylur hcr tl ylur
ocjas cja ehylja! Vlu ocvh jlw ehhj prlvhj tl eh gctohgctfdc``y
mlrmhlus, sl ml blrto cja eh ehcutfbu`, cja gcyeh tofjk gcto fs c `ftt`h

eft ehtthr tocj ylu bfrst tolumot.

D. OL] GCQOHGCQFDT DCJ OH@^<

Gctohgctfds fs ljh lb glst fgplrtcjt csphdts fj lur acf`y `fbh, cja tohrh crh cesl`uth`y jughrlus
 rhcsljs woy ft fs sl. Gcto oh`ps us th`` tfgh, cssfsts us fj bfjcjdhs, gckhs us c ehtthr dllk, hjmcmhs us
wfto ehtthr prle`hg-sl`vfjm skf``s, cja oh`ps us ujahrstcja toh wlr`a ehtthr.

Gctohgctfds blr Lrmcjfzctflj

Blr c`` wh kjlw, gctohgctfds fs cj hxcdt sdfhjdh, wofdo ghcjs hvhry dc`du`ctflj toct mlhs
torlumo toh gctohgctfdc` prldhsshs wlu`a mht c ahbfjftfvh rhsu`t cja tohrh wf`` jhvhr eh cjy
cpprlxfgctfljs. Fj lur `fbh fjd`uafjm toh durrhjt stctus lb lur hjvfrljghjt cja lur wlr`a, wh crh mhttfjm
d`lshr tl toh erfjk lb ahstrudtflj. ]oy< Ehdcush lb lur ocsty cpprlxfgctfljs, mrhha, cja ah`fehrcth
gfsdc`du`ctfljs. Tl, olw alhs gctohgctfds oh`p us fj lrmcjfzfjm pctthrjs cja rhmu`crftfhs fj toh wlr`a<

Gctohgctfds fs toh cestrcdt sdfhjdh lb jugehr, qucjtfty, cja spcdh. Gctohgctfds gcy eh stuafha
fj fts lwj rfmot (purh gctohgctfds), lr cs ft fs cpp`fha tl ltohr afsdfp`fjhs sudo cs poysfds cja hjmfjhhrfjm
(cpp`fha gctohgctfds).

Lur wlr`a fs gcah up lb pctthrjs cja systhgctfd docls, wh bfja gcjy tofjms shhgfjm`y cesura,
eut ehofja ft fs c gctohgctfdc` pctthrj toct dcj eh sl`vha. Tlgh lb tohsh pctthrjs cja rhmu`crftfhs fj toh
wlr`a cs lrmcjfzha ey gctohgctfds crh toh glvhghjt lb wfja, whctohr systhgs, toh tfgh lb sujrfsh cja
sujsht, olw gcjy b`cps lb wfjms dcj c eutthrb`y dcj gckh fj fts wol`h `fbhtfgh, cja gcjy ltohr
ujfgcmfjce`y gctohgctfdc``y sl`vce`h tofjms. Tluja cja gusfd fs c`sl c gctohgctfdc` tofjm, tl kjlw
glrh celut roytogfd pctthrjs

Gctohgctfds fj toh Glahrj ]lr`a 2

 
Alwj`lcaha ey Bcrco Qohrhsh Cacrjc (bcrcocacrjcNmgcf`.dlg)
`LGlCU^A62 28

Gctohgctfds blr ^rhafdtflj

Gctohgctfds fs mlla ct glah`fjm toh rhc` wlr`a ehdcush tofjms fj toh rhc` wlr`a bl``lw pctthrjs
toct dcj eh glah`ha ey gctohgctfds cja sdfhjtfsts cja gctohgctfdfcjs ocvh ehhj ce`h tl rhdlmjfzh cja
blrgu`cth tolsh pctthrjs.

Hxcgp`hs lb ^rhafdtflj lb Gctohgctfds 

3.  HCUQOSXCKH

Hxphrts ush gcto tl bfja toh hpfdhjthr cja gcmjftuah lb hcrtoquckhs cja crh tohj ce`h
tl ahthrgfjh toh shvhrfty lb toh hcrtoquckh.

5.  QV^OLLJ

Qoh suphrdlgputhrs tohj p`um tohsh leshrvctfljs fjtl c shrfhs lb gctohgctfdc`

c`mlrftogs toct rhprhshjt toh poysfdc` prlphrtfhs lb toh ctglspohrh cja prhafdt woct wf`` ocpphj
m`lec``y up tl 32 acys fjtl toh buturh. Xsfjm leshrvctfljs lb toh ctglspohrh's durrhjt stcth
gcppha tl c glah` mrfa, toh hquctfljs oh`p prhafdt toh blrgctflj, fjthjsfty cja trcdk lb dl
dlgp`hx
gp`hx
whctohr systhgs, wofdo tckh fjtl cddlujt olw tohy fjb`uhjdh hcdo ltohr cja ujahr`yfjm
ctglspohrfd pctthrjs arfvfjm tohfr ehocvflr. Tgc``hr mrfa spcdfjm d`lshs toh mcp lj leshrvctfljs
fj tfgh cja spcdh, rhsu`tfjm fj ofmohr rhsl`utflj glah` lutput toct fs glrh cddurcth
cddur cth cja rh`fce`h.

Gctohgctfds blr Dljtrl`

Tdfhjdh fs toh ujahrstcjafjm lb olw toh wlr`a wlrks. Gctohgctfds mfvhs us c dljsfsthjt wcy lb
 fjthrprhtfjm olw toh wlr`a wlrks. Qorlumo gcto wh dcj ujahrstcja woy tofjms al woct tohy al, cja dcj
mfvh us dljsfsthjt cjswhrs tl quhstfljs fj toh wlr`a. Gctohgctfds oh`ps tl dljtrl` toh Gctohgctfds
prhafdtflj `fkh prhvhjtfjm cja dljtrl``fjm ft.

Gctohgctfds fj toh
toh Glahrj ]lr`a =
 
Alwj`lcaha ey Bcrco Qohrhsh Cacrjc (bcrcocacrjcNmgcf`.dlg)
`LGlCU^A62 28

GCQOHGCQFDC@
GCQOHGCQFDC@ @CJMXCMH CJA TVGEL@T

C. DOCUCDQHUFTQFDT LB GCQOHGCQFDC@ @CJMXCMH

Gctohgctfds ocs fts lwj `cjmucmh, gudo lb wofdo wh crh c`rhcay bcgf`fcr wfto. Blr hxcgp`h toh
afmfts >, 3, 5, 4, 1, 8, 2, =, ?, 6 crh pcrt lb lur hvhryacy `fvhs. ]ohtohr wh rhbhr tl > cs ‟zhrl‖, ‟jltofjm‖,
ghcjfjm.  
‟jlumot‖, lr ‟L‖ cs fj c th`hpoljh jugehr, wh ujahrstcja fts ghcjfjm.

Gctohgctfdc` Tygel`s

3.  ^LTFQFRH/CAA TFMJ (+)

]lras cssldfctha wfto tofs sygel` crh ‟p`us‖, ‟caa‖, ‟fjdrhcsh‖ cja ‟plsftfvh‖. Cs ft stcjas,
‟+‖ d`hcr`y ocs slgh slrt lb ghcjfjm, eut wh rhc``y jhha tl ujahrstcja ft wftofj c dljthxt. Tl, blr
hxcgp`h, fb wh shh toh + sygel` wrftthj fj toh sug 5+4wh ujahrstcja toct toh dljthxt fs ljh lb

caafjm toh twl jugehrs, 5cja 4, tl mfvh 8. Tl ohrh, toh sygel` + fs cj fjstrudtflj tl caa twl
jugehrs tlmhtohr.

5.  JHMCQFRH/TXEQUCDQ TFMJ (-)

]lras cssldfctha wfto tofs sygel` crh ‟gfjus‖, ‟suetrcdt‖, ‟tckh cwcy‖, ‟jhmctfvh‖ cja
‟ahdrhcsh‖.
‟ahdrhcsh‖. Tl, fb wh shh toh ∕ sygel` wrftthj fj toh sug
s ug 2 ∕ 1 wh kjlw tofs ghcjs 2 suetrcdt 1,
cja wh kjlw toh cjswhr fs 5. Fj c afbbhrhjt dljthxt, wh gfmot shh ∕8◢D, ghcjfjm c thgphrcturh
lb gfjus bfvh ahmrhhs Dh`sfus, toct fs bfvh ahmrhhs eh`lw zhrl.

4.  GX@QF^@V TFMJ (x)

]lras cssldfctha wfto tofs sygel` crh ‟gu`tfp`y‖, ‟`lts lb‖, cja ‟tfghs‖. Qofs fs rhc``y iust c
solrtocja blr caafjm. Blr hxcgp`h, fb wh shh 2+2+2+2+2 wh ocvh bfvh `lts lb sfx, lr bfvh sfxhs, cja
fj lur solrtocja wh dcj wrfth tofs cs 8 Ý 2.
 1.  AFRFTFLJ TFMJ (ý)

Afvfsflj fs sygel`fzha
sygel`fzha fj shvhrc` afbbhrhjt wcys. Blr hxcgp`h 3> ý 8, 3>/8 crh torhh
hqufvc`hjt wcys lb wrftfjm thj afvfaha ey 8. ]h gfmot c`sl rhca tofs cs ‐olw gcjy tfghs wf`` 8 ml
fjtl 3><‗
3><‗ 

8.  HSXC@ TFMJ (7)

Qoh 7 sfmj alhs jlt ghcj cjytofjm lj fts lwj - wh jhha c dljthxt. Blr hxcgp`h, fj toh
sug 3+57 4, woct wh crh scyfjm fs toct wocthvhr wh ocvh lj toh `hbt-ocja
`hbt -ocja sfah fs hxcdt`y hquc` tl
wocthvhr wh ocvh lj toh rfmot-ocja sfah.

Gctohgctfds fj toh Glahrj ]lr`a ?

 
Alwj`lcaha ey Bcrco Qohrhsh Cacrjc (bcrcocacrjcNmgcf`.dlg)
`LGlCU^A62 28

2.  RCUFCE@HT
RCUFCE@HT  

Qohsh crh usha wohj qucjtftfhs tckh afbbhrhjt vc`uhs.

=.  QOH MUHHK C@^OCEHQ

Blr hxcgp`h, toh Mrhhk `htthr ‟pf‖, wrftthj ώ, fs usha tl rhprhshjt toh jugehr 4.31386....
Qofs jugehr dljtfjuhs blrhvhr wftolut rhphctfjm. ]h lbthj ush γ (‟c`poc‖), ε (‟ehtc‖), cja ο
(‟tohtc‖) tl rhprhshjt cjm`hs. Qoh Mrhhk dcpftc` `htthr ‟sfmgc‖ lr Τ fs brhquhjt`y usha tl rhprhshjt
toh caaftflj lb shvhrc` jugehrs, cja ylu wf`` shh ft prlvfaha blr tofs purplsh lj toh tll`ecr lb
cjy sprhcasohht prlmrcg.

E. H_^UHTTFLJ RT THJQHJDH

Cj hxprhssflj
hxprhssflj fs
 fs toh gctohgctfdc` cjc`lmuh lb cj Hjm`fso jluj; ft fs c dlrrhdt crrcjmhghjt lb
gctohgctfdc` sygel`s usha tl rhprhshjt c gctohgctfdc` leihdt lb fjthrhst.

C gctohgctfdc` shjthjdh fs
shjthjdh fs toh cjc`lmuh lb cj Hjm`fso shjthjdh; ft fs c dlrrhdt crrcjmhghjt lb
gctohgctfdc` sygel`s toct stcths c dlgp`hth tolumot.

D. BLXU ECTFD DLJDH^QT9 THQT, BXJDQFLJT, UH@CQFLJT, EFJCUV L^HUCQFLJT

3.  THQ

Tht fs c dl``hdtflj lb wh`` ahbfjha leihdts wofdo crh afstfjdt brlg hcdo ltohr. Thts crh
usuc``y ahjltha ey dcpftc` `htthrs C E D , , ,K cja h`hghjts crh usuc``y ahjltha ey sgc`` `htthrs c
e d , , ,... . Fb c fs cj h`hghjt lb c sht C, tohj wh wrfth c C ∏ cja scy c eh`ljms tl C lr c fs fj C lr c
fs c ghgehr lb C. Fb c alhs jlt eh`ljms tl C, wh wrfth c C ∆ .

Hxcgp`hs9

c.  C 7 {tfmhr, `flj, pugc, dohhtco, `hlpcra, dlumcr, ldh`lt} (tofs

ldh`lt}  (tofs fs c sht lb `crmh sphdfhs lb
 dcts)
e.  C 7 {c, e, d, ..., z} (tofs
z}  (tofs fs c sht dljsfstfjm lb toh `lwhrdcsh `htthrs lb toh c`poceht)
d.  C 7 {-3, -5, -4, ...} (tofs
...}  (tofs fs c sht lb toh jhmctfvh
jhmc tfvh jugehrs)

Gctohgctfds fj toh
toh Glahrj ]lr`a 6
 
Alwj`lcaha ey Bcrco Qohrhsh Cacrjc (bcrcocacrjcNmgcf`.dlg)
`LGlCU^A62 28

Afbbhrhjt Qyphs lb Thts9

c.  Hgpty Tht lr Ju`` Tht

C sht wofdo alhs jlt dljtcfj cjy h`hghjt fs dc``ha cj hgpty sht, lr toh ju`` sht
s ht lr toh
vlfa sht cja ft fs ahjltha ey ∈ cja fs rhca cs pof. Fj rlsthr blrg, ∈ fs ahjltha ey {}. Cj hgpty
sht fs c bfjfth sht, sfjdh toh jugehr lb h`hghjts fj cj hgpty sht fs bfjfth, f.h., >.

Hxcgp`h9

Qoh sht lb wol`h jugehrs `hss tocj >.

D`hcr`y tohrh fs jl wol`h jugehr `hss tocj >. Qohrhblrh, ft fs cj hgpty sht. 
sht. 

e.  Tfjm`htlj Tht

C sht wofdo dljtcfjs lj`y ljh h`hghjt fs dc``ha c sfjm`htlj sht.

Hxcgp`hs9

C 7 {x 9 x fs jhftohr prfgh jlr dlgplsfth}

Ft fs c sfjm`htlj sht dljtcfjfjm ljh h`hghjt, f.h., 3. 
E 7 {x 9 x fs c wol`h jugehr, x 0 3}
Qofs sht dljtcfjs lj`y ljh h`hghjt > cja fs c sfjm`htlj sht.

d.  Bfjfth Tht

C sht wofdo dljtcfjs c ahbfjfth jugehr lb h`hghjts fs dc``ha c bfjfth sht. Hgpty sht fs
c`sl dc``ha c bfjfth sht.

Hxcgp`hs9 

Qoh sht lb c`` dl`lrs fj toh rcfjelw.

J 7 {x 9 x ∏ J, x 0 =}
^ 7 {5, 4, 8, =, 33, 34, 3=, ...... 6=}

a.  Fjbfjfth Tht9

Qoh sht wolsh h`hghjts dcjjlt eh `fstha, f.h., sht dljtcfjfjm

dlj tcfjfjm jhvhr-hjafjm h`hghjts
fs dc``ha cj fjbfjfth sht.

Hxcgp`hs9 
 Tht lb c`` plfjts fj c p`cjh
C 7 {x 9 x ∏ J, x : 3}
E 7 {x 9 x ∏ ], x 7 5j}

Gctohgctfds fj toh Glahrj ]lr`a 3>

 
Alwj`lcaha ey Bcrco Qohrhsh Cacrjc (bcrcocacrjcNmgcf`.dlg)
`LGlCU^A62 28

h.  Dcrafjc` Jugehr lb c Tht

Qoh jugehr lb afstfjdt h`hghjts fj c mfvhj sht C fs dc``ha toh dcrafjc` jugehr lb C.
Ft fs ahjltha ey j(C).

Hxcgp`hs9 

C {x 9 x ∏ J, x 0 8}
C 7 {3, 5, 4, 1}
Qohrhblrh, j(C) 7 1
E 7 sht lb `htthrs fj toh wlra C@MHEUC
E 7 {C, @, M, H, E, U}
Qohrhblrh, j(E) 7 2

b.  Hqufvc`hjt Thts 

Thts 

Qwl shts C cja E crh scfa tl eh hqufvc`hjt fb tohfr dcrafjc` jugehr fs scgh, f.h., j(C)
‟↑‖.  
7 j(E). Qoh sygel` blr ahjltfjm cj hqufvc`hjt sht fs ‟↑‖. 

Hxcgp`hs9 

C 7 {3, 5, 4} Ohrh j(C) 7 4

E 7 {p, q, r} Ohrh j(E) 7 4
Qohrhblrh,, C ↑ E 
Qohrhblrh E 

m.  Hquc` Thts

Qwl shts C cja E crh scfa tl eh hquc` fb tohy dljtcfj toh scgh h`hghjts. Hvhry
h`hghjt lb C fs cj h`hghjt lb E cja hvhry h`hghjt lb E fs cj h`hghjt lb C.

Hxcgp`hs9 

C 7 {p, q, r, s}
E 7 {p, s, r, q}

Qohrhblrh, C 7 E
 Gctohgctfds fj toh
toh Glahrj ]lr`a 33
 
Alwj`lcaha ey Bcrco Qohrhsh Cacrjc (bcrcocacrjcNmgcf`.dlg)
`LGlCU^A62 28

5-4. BXJDQFLJ UH@CQFLJ

Cj lrahrha pcfr 
pcfr fs c sht lb fjputs cja lutputs cja
rhprhshjts c rh`ctfljsofp ehtwhhj toh twl vc`uhs. C rh`ctflj fs c
sht lb fjputs cja lutputs, cja c bujdtflj fs c rh`ctflj wfto ljh
lutput blr hcdo fjput.
Tlgh rh`ctfljsofps gckh shjsh cja ltohrs alj‖t.
Bujdtfljs crh rh`ctfljsofps toct gckh shjsh. C`` bujdtfljs crh
rh`ctfljs, eut jlt c`` rh`ctfljs crh bujdtfljs.
C bujdtflj fs c rh`ctflj toct blr hcdo fjput, tohrh fs lj`y
ljh lutput.

Tphdfc` Bujdtfljs

Tphdfc` bujdtfljs cja tohfr hquctfljs ocvh rhdlmjfzce`h docrcdthrfstfds.

c.  Dljstcjt Bujdtflj 

Bujdtflj 

Qoh d-vc`uh dcj eh cjy jugehr, sl toh mrcpo lb c dljstcjt bujdtflj fs c olrfzljtc`
`fjh.

e.  Fahjtfty Bujdtflj

Blr toh fahjtfty bujdtflj, toh x-vc`uh fs toh scgh cs toh y-vc`uh. Qoh mrcpo fs c
afcmljc` `fjh mlfjm torlumo toh lrfmfj.

d.  @fjhcr Bujdtflj

Cj hquctflj wrftthj fj toh s`lph-fjthrdhpt blrg fs toh hquctflj lb c `fjhcr bujdtflj,

cja toh mrcpo lb toh bujdtflj fs c strcfmot `fjh.

a.  Cesl`uth Rc`uh Bujdtflj

Qoh cesl`uth vc`uh bujdtflj fs hcsy tl rhdlmjfzh wfto fts R-s

R-socpha
ocpha mrcpo. Qoh mrcpo fs
fj twl pfhdhs cja fs ljh lb toh pfhdhwfsh bujdtfljs.

h.  Fjvhrsh Bujdtfljs

Cj fjvhrsh bujdtflj rhvhrshs toh fjputs wfto fts lutputs.

Gctohgctfds fj toh Glahrj ]lr`a 35

 
Alwj`lcaha ey Bcrco Qohrhsh Cacrjc (bcrcocacrjcNmgcf`.dlg)
 `LGlCU^A62 28

Bujdtflj Lphrctfljs

3.  b(x) + m(x) 7 (b + m)(x)

5.  b(x) - m(x) 7 (b - m)(x)
4.  b(x) m(x) 7 (bm)(x)
1.  b(x)/m(x)}7 (b/m}(x)

1. EFJCUV L^HUCQFLJT 
L^HUCQFLJT 

Qoh wlra "efjcry" ghcjs dlgplsha lb twl pfhdhs. C efjcry lphrctflj fs sfgp`y c ru`h blr
dlgefjfjm twl vc`uhs tl drhcth c jhw vc`uh.
v c`uh. Qoh glst wfah`y kjlwj efjcry lphrctfljs crh tolsh
`hcrjha fj h`hghjtcry sdoll`9 caaftflj, suetrcdtflj, gu`tfp`fdctflj cja afvfsflj lj vcrflus shts lb
jugehrs. C efjcry lphrctflj lj c sht fs c dc`du`ctflj fjvl`vfjm twl h`hghjts lb toh sht tl prlaudh
cjltohr h`hghjt lb toh sht.
Qohrh crh twl dlgglj typhs lb lphrctfljs9 ujcry cja efjcry. Xjcry lphrctfljs fjvl`vh
lj`y ljh vc`uh, sudo cs jhmctflj cja trfmljlghtrfd bujdtfljs. Efjcry lphrctfljs, lj toh ltohr
ocja, tckh twl vc`uhs, cja fjd`uah caaftflj, suetrcdtflj, gu`tfp`fdctflj, afvfsflj,
cja hxpljhjtfctflj.

^rlphrtfhs lb Efjcry Lphrctflj  

c.  D`lsurh prlphrty9

prlphrty9 Cj lphrctflj * lj c jlj-hgpty sht C ocs d`lsurh prlphrty, fb c ∏ C, e ∏ C ⇕ 
c * e ∏ C.
e.  Caaftfljs crh toh efjcry lphrctfljs lj hcdo lb toh shts lb Jcturc` jugehrs ( J), Fjthmhr (Y (Y),
Uctfljc` jugehrs (S  (S ),
), Uhc` Jugehrs(U
Jugehrs(U), Dlgp`hx jugehr(D
jugehr(D).
d.  Qoh caaftfljs lj toh sht lb c`` frrctfljc` jugehrs crh jlt toh efjcry lphlphrctfljs.
rctfljs.
a.  Gu`tfp`fdctflj fs c efjcry lphrctflj lj hcdo lb toh shts lb Jcturc` jugehrs (J ( J), Fjthmhr (Y (Y),
Uctfljc` jugehrs (S  (S ),
), Uhc` Jugehrs(U
Jugehrs(U), Dlgp`hx jugehr(D
jugehr(D).
h.  Gu`tfp`fdctflj lj toh sht lb c`` frrctfljc` jugehrs fs jlt c efjcry lphrctflj.
b.  Tuetrcdtflj fs c efjcry lphrctflj lj hcdo lb toh shts lb Fjthmhr (Y ( Y), Uctfljc` jugehrs (S  ( S ),
), Uhc`
Jugehrs(U
Jugehrs( U), Dlgp`hx jugehr(D
jugehr(D).
m.  Tuetrcdtflj fs jlt c efjcry lphrctflj lj toh sht lb Jcturc` jugehrs (J (J).
o.  C afvfsflj fs jlt c efjcry lphrctflj lj toh sht lb Jcturc` jugehrs (J ( J), fjthmhr (Y
(Y), Uctfljc`
jugehrs (S (S ),
), Uhc` Jugehrs(U
Jugehrs(U), Dlgp`hx jugehr(D
jugehr( D).
f.  Hxpljhjtfc` lphrctflj (x, y) ↕ x  fs c efjcry lphrctflj lj toh sht lb Jcturc` jugehrs (J
y
( J) cja
jlt lj toh sht lb Fjthmhrs (Y
( Y).

Qyphs lb Efjcry Lphrctfljs

c.  Dlggutctfvh

C efjcry lphrctflj * lj c sht C fs dlggutctfvh fb c * e 7 e * c, blr c`` (c, e) ∏ C (jlj-

hgpty sht). @ht caaftflj eh toh lphrctfjm efjcry lphrctflj blr c 7 ? cja e 7 6, c + e 7 3= 7 e + c.

Gctohgctfds fj toh
toh Glahrj ]lr`a 34
 
Alwj`lcaha ey Bcrco Qohrhsh Cacrjc (bcrcocacrjcNmgcf`.dlg)
`LGlCU^A62 28

 
 e.  Cssldfctfvh

Qoh cssldfctfvh prlphrty lb efjcry lphrctfljs ol`a fb, blr c jlj-hgpty sht C, wh dcj wrfth
(c * e) *d 7 c*(e * d). Tupplsh J eh toh sht lb jcturc` jugehrs cja gu`tfp`fdctflj eh toh efjcry
lphrctflj. @ht c 7 1, e 7 8 d 7 2. ]h dcj wrfth (c Ý e) Ý d 7 35> 7 c Ý (e Ý d).

d.  Afstrfeutfvh

@ht * cja l eh twl efjcry lphrctfljs ahbfjha lj c jlj-hgpty sht C. Qoh efjcry
lphrctfljs crh afstrfeutfvh fb c*(e l d) 7 (c * e) l (c * d) lr (e l d)*c 7 (e * c) l (d * c). Dljsfahr *
tl eh gu`tfp`fdctflj cja l eh suetrcdtflj. Cja c 7 5, e 7 8, d 7 1. Qohj, c*(e l d) 7 c Ý (e ∕ d) 7 5 Ý
7  (c Ý e) ∕ (c Ý d) 7 (5 Ý 8) ∕ (5 Ý 1) 7 3> ∕ 2 7 5. 
(8 ∕ 1) 7 5. Cja (c * e) l (c * d) 7  5.  

a.  Fahjtfty

Fb C eh toh jlj-hgpty sht cja * eh toh efjcry lphrctflj lj C. Cj h`hghjt h fs toh fahjtfty
h`hghjt lb c ∏ C, fb c * h 7 c 7 h * c. Fb toh efjcry lphrctflj fs caaftflj (+), h 7 > cja blr * fs
gu`tfp`fdctflj
gu`tfp`fdct flj (Ý), h 7 3.

h.  Fjvhrsh

Fb c efjcry lphrctflj * lj c sht C wofdo sctfsbfhs c * e 7 e * c 7 h, blr c`` c, e ∏ C. c-3 fs

fjvhrtfe`h fb blr c * e 7 e * c7 h, c -3 7 e. 3 fs fjvhrtfe`h wohj * fs gu`tfp`fdctflj.

Gctohgctfds fj toh Glahrj ]lr`a 31

 
Alwj`lcaha ey Bcrco Qohrhsh Cacrjc (bcrcocacrjcNmgcf`.dlg)
`LGlCU^A62 28

A. H@HGHJQCUV @LMFD

3.  ^rlplsftfljs cja Dljjhdtfvhs

 C ^rlplsftflj (lr stcthghjt) fs c shjthjdh toct fs hftohr truh lr bc`sh (wftolut
caaftfljc` fjblrgctflj). Qoh `lmfdc` dljjhdtfvhs crh ahbfjha ey truto tce`hs (eut ocvh
Hjm`fso `cjmucmh dlujthrpcrts).
dlujthrpcrts).

5.  Xjfvhrsc` cja Hxfsthjtfc` qucjtfbfhrs

^rhafdcths
C prhafdcth fs jlt c prlplsftflj, ft alhs jlt C prhafdcth (lphj shjthjdh)
ocvh c truto vc`uh. Ljh dcj olwhvhr ush qucjtfbfhrs fs c shjthjdh dljtcfjfjm ljh
tl gckh prlplsftfljs celut prhafdcths. Blr fjstcjdh, lr glrh vcrfce`hs wofdo
toh ujfvhrsc` qucjtfbfhr (⍫) fs usha tl scy toct c mfvhj  ehdlghs c prlplsftflj uplj
prhafdcth fs truh blr c`` plssfe`h vc`uhs lb fts
f ts vcrfce`hs. rhp`cdhghjt lb toh vcrfce`hs.
Qofs fs c prlplsftflj, sfjdh ft fs hftohr truh lr bc`sh. Hxcgp`hs9
Tfgf`cr`y, toh hxfsthjtfc` qucjtfbfhr ( ᴵ) fs usha tl scy Qoh fjthmhr x fs hvhj.
toct tohrh fs slgh vc`uh lb toh vcrfce`hs wofdo gckhs y 7 8.
toh prhafdcth c truh stcthghjt. Qrfcjm`h CED fs fslsdh`hs.

4.  @lmfdc` Crmughjts 

Crmughjts  

Ttcrtfjm wfto ljh lr glrh stcthghjts toct crh cssugha tl eh truh (toh
prhgfshs), c docfj lb rhcsljfjm wofdo `hcas tl c stcthghjt (toh dljd`usflj) fs dc``ha c
vc`fa crmughjt. Jlth toct tofs fs c `lmfd dljdhpt, ft fs lj`y toh "`lmfdc` blrg" lb toh
stcthghjts cja jlt tohfr "ghcjfjm" wofdo fs fgplrtcjt.

1.  Jhmctflj

Tlghtfghs fj gctohgctfds ft's fgplrtcjt tl ahthrgfjh woct toh lpplsfth lb c

mfvhj gctohgctfdc` stcthghjt fs. Qofs fs usuc``y rhbhrrha tl cs "jhmctfjm" c stcthghjt.
Ljh tofjm tl khhp fj gfja fs toct fb f b c stcthghjt fs truh, tohj fts jhmctflj fs bc`sh (cja
fb c stcthghjt fs bc`sh,
bc` sh, tohj fts jhmctflj fs truh).

Gctohgctfds fj toh
toh Glahrj ]lr`a 38
 
Alwj`lcaha ey Bcrco Qohrhsh Cacrjc (bcrcocacrjcNmgcf`.dlg)
`LGlCU^A62 28

^ULE@HG TL@RFJM CJA UHCTLJFJM

C. FJAXDQFRH CJA AHAXDQFRH UHCTLJFJM

3.  FJAXDQFRH UHCTLJFJM

Qohlry
 Oypltohsfs
Leshrvctflj
Dljbfrgctflj

Fjaudtfvh rhcsljfjm gckhs erlca mhjhrc`fzctfljs brlg sphdfbfd leshrvctfljs. Ecsfdc``y,

tohrh fs actc, tohj dljd`usfljs crh arcwj brlg toh actc. Qofs fs dc``ha fjaudtfvh `lmfd, cddlrafjm
tl Xtco Ttcth Xjfvhrsfty.
"Fj fjaudtfvh fjbhrhjdh, wh ml brlg toh sphdfbfd tl toh mhjhrc`. ]h gckh gcjy
leshrvctfljs, afsdhrj c pctthrj, gckh c mhjhrc`fzctflj, cja fjbhr cj hxp`cjctflj lr c tohlry,"
]csshrtohf`-Tgl``hr tl`a @fvh Tdfhjdh. "Fj sdfhjdh, tohrh fs c dljstcjt fjthrp`cy ehtwhhj fjaudtfvh
fjbhrhjdh (ecsha lj leshrvctfljs) cja ahaudtfvh fjbhrhjdh (ecsha lj tohlry), ujtf` wh mht d`lshr
cja d`lshr tl toh 'truto,' wofdo wh dcj lj`y cpprlcdo eut jlt csdhrtcfj wfto dlgp`hth dhrtcfjty."

Hxcgp`hs

Qoh dlfj F pu``ha brlg toh ecm fs c phjjy.

Qoct dlfj fs c phjjy. C tofra dlfj brlg toh ecm
ec m fs c phjjy. Qohrhblrh, c`` toh dlfjs fj toh
ecm crh phjjfhs.

Hvhj fb c`` lb toh prhgfshs crh truh fj c stcthghjt, fjaudtfvh rhcsljfjm c``lws blr ttoh
oh
dljd`usflj tl eh bc`sh.

"Ocrl`a fs c mrcjabctohr.
Ocrl`a fs ec`a. Qohrhblrh, c`` mrcjabctohrs crh ec`a. Qoh dljd`usflj alhs jlt bl``lw
`lmfdc``y brlg toh stcthghjts.

Gctohgctfds fj toh Glahrj ]lr`a 32

 
Alwj`lcaha ey Bcrco Qohrhsh Cacrjc (bcrcocacrjcNmgcf`.dlg)
`LGlCU^A62 28

5.  AHAXDQFRH UHCTLJFJM

Fjblrgctflj

^ctthrj

Qhjtctfvh Oyp
Oypltohsfs
ltohsfs

Qohlry

Ahaudtfvh rhcsljfjm fs c ecsfd blrg lb vc`fa rhcsljfjm. Ahaudtfvh rhcsljfjm, lr ahaudtflj,

stcrts lut wfto c mhjhrc` stcthghjt, lr oypltohsfs, cja hxcgfjhs toh plssfef`ftfhs tl rhcdo c
sphdfbfd, `lmfdc` dljd`usflj, cddlrafjm tl Dc`fblrjfc Ttcth Xjfvhrsfty.
 Qoh sdfhjtfbfd ghtola ushs ahaudtflj tl thst oypltohshs cja tohlrfhs. "Fj ahaudtfvh
fjbhrhjdh, wh ol`a c tohlry cja ecsha lj ft wh gckh c prhafdtflj lb fts dljshquhjdhs. Qoct fs, wh
prhafdt woct toh leshrvctfljs solu`a eh fb toh tohlry whrh dlrrhdt. ]h ml brlg toh mhjhrc` ‑ 
toh tohlry ‑ tl toh sphdfbfd ‑ toh leshrvctfljs," scfa Ar. Ty`vfc ]csshrtohf`-Tgl``hr, c rhshcrdohr
rhsh crdohr
cja prlbhsslr hghrftc ct C`ehrt Hfjsthfj Dl``hmh lb Ghafdfjh.
Ahaudtfvh rhcsljfjm usuc``y bl``lws sthps. Bfrst, tohrh fs c prhgfsh, tohj c shdlja
prhgfsh, cja bfjc``y cj fjbhrhjdh. C dlgglj blrg lb ahaudtfvh rhcsljfjm fs toh sy``lmfsg, fj
wofdo twl stcthghjts ‑ c gcilr prhgfsh cja c gfjlr prhgfsh ‑ rhcdo c `lmfdc` dljd`usflj. Blr
hxcgp`h, toh prhgfsh "Hvhry C fs E" dlu`a eh bl``lwha ey cjltohr prhgfsh, "Qofs D fs C." Qolsh
stcthghjts wlu`a `hca tl toh dljd`usflj "Qofs D fs E." Ty``lmfsgs crh dljsfahrha c mlla wcy tl
thst ahaudtfvh rhcsljfjm tl gckh surh toh crmughjt fs vc`fa.

E. ^L@VC‖T 1 TQH^T FJ ^ULE@HG TL@RFJM 

Mhlrmh ^l`yc, kjlwj cs toh bctohr lb glahrj prle`hg sl`vfjm afa hxthjsfvh cja wrlth
jughrlus gctohgctfdc` pcphrs cja torhh ellks celut prle`hg sl`vfjm.

Tthp 39 XJAHUTQCJA

Xjahrstcjafjm toh prle`hg ehblrh sl`vfjm fs c gust. Tlghtfghs prle`hg sl`vfjm `fhs fj
ujahrstcjafjm toh prle`hg. Fb ylu mht toh wrljm plfjt, ylu wf`` mht toh wrljm rhsu`t. Fj lrahr tl
ujahrstcja toh prle`hg ylu, lb dlursh, jhha tl rhca ft dcrhbu``y. Qohj tckh alwj jlth tolsh
actc toct crh mfvhj lr fjvl`vh. 
fjvl`vh.  

Tthp 59 ^@CJ

]ohj ylu ahvfsh c p`cj ylu dcgh up tl toh wcy tl sl`vh toh prle`hg. Fj shttfjm up c
wcy tl sl`vh toh prle`hg tohrh crh, blrgu`c, hquctflj, afcmrcg, docrt cja htd. fjvl`vh c`` lb
tohg crh wcy tl sl`vh toh prle`hg c`` ylu jhha
jh ha tl al fs tl dollsh toh eh
ehtthr
tthr cja cpprlprfcth.

Gctohgctfds fj toh
toh Glahrj ]lr`a 3=
 
Alwj`lcaha ey Bcrco Qohrhsh Cacrjc (bcrcocacrjcNmgcf`.dlg)
`LGlCU^A62 28

Tthp 49 CDQ QOH ^@CJ

Fj lrahr tl sl`vh toh prle`hg ylu jhha tl al woct ylu p`cjjha, ylu jhha tl sl`vh ft
cddlrafjm tl ylur p`cj.

Tthp 19 DOHDK CJA FJQHU^UHQ

Cbthr toh 4 sthps ylu jhha tl dohdk fb ylu usha c`` toh fgplrtcjt actc cja fb ylur cjswhr
gckhs shjsh.

Hxcgp`hs9

3.  Qwfdh toh afbbhrhjdh lb c jugehr cja 3 fs 1 glrh tocj toct jugehr. Bfja toh jugehr.

TL@XQFLJ
Gckh surh toct ylu rhca toh quhstflj dcrhbu``y shvhrc`
tfghs. Tfjdh wh crh `llkfjm blr c jugehr, wh wf`` `ht x 7 c
jugehr
Qwfdh toh afbbhrhjdh lb c jugehr 3 cja fs 1 glrh tocj
toct jugehr. 5(x-3) 7 x+1 
x+1 
 5. Ljh jugehr fs 4 `hss tocj cjltohr jugehr.
jugehr. Fb toh sug l
lbb toh twl jugehrs fs 3==, bfja
hcdo jugehr.

TL@XQFLJ
Gckh surh toct ylu rhca toh quhstflj dcrhbu``y shvhrc`
tfghs. ]h crh `llkfjm blr twl jugehrs, cja sfjdh wh dcj wrfth
toh ljh jugehr fj thrgs lb cjltohr jugehr, wh wf`` `ht x 7
cjltohr jugehr
Ljh jugehr fs 4 `hss tocj cjltohr jugehr9
x - 4 7 ljh jugehr

Gctohgctfds fj toh Glahrj ]lr`a 3?

 
Alwj`lcaha ey Bcrco Qohrhsh Cacrjc (bcrcocacrjcNmgcf`.dlg)
`LGlCU^A62 28

D. ^ULE@HG TL@RFJM TQUCQHMFHT FJ GCQOHGCQFDT

Qohrh crh c jugehr lb strcthmfhs toct dcj eh usha tl sl`vh gctos prle`hgs, cs bl``lws9

3.  @llk blr c pctthrj

Bfja toh sug lb toh bfrst 3>> hvhj plsftfvh jugehrs.

Qoh sug lb toh bfrst 3 hvhj plsftfvh jugehrs fs 5 lr 3(3+3) 7 3(5).
Qoh sug lb toh bfrst 5 hvhj plsftfvh jugehrs fs 5 + 1 7 2 lr 5(5+3) 7 5(4).
Qoh sug lb toh bfrst 4 hvhj plsftfvh jugehrs fs 5 + 1 + 2 7 35 lr 4(4+3) 7 4(1).
Qoh sug lb toh bfrst 1 hvhj plsftfvh jugehrs fs
f s 5 + 1 + 2 + ? 7 5> lr 1(1+3) 7 1(8).
@llk blr c pctthrj9
Qoh sug lb toh bfrst 3>> hvhj plsftfvh jugehrs fs 5 + 1 + 2 + ... 7 < lr 3>>(3>>+3)
7 3>>(3>3) lr 3>,3>>.

 
5. Gckh cj lrmcjfzha `fst
Bfja toh ghafcj lb toh bl``lwfjm thst sdlrhs9 =4, 28, ?5, =?, cja 64.
Gckh c `fst brlg sgc``hst tl `crmhst9 28, =4, =?, ?5, 64
Tfjdh =? fs toh gfaa`h jugehr, toh ghafcj fs =?.

4.  Muhss cja dohdk

]ofdo lb toh jugehrs 1, 8, lr 2 fs c sl`utflj tl (j + 4)(j - 5) 7 42<

Tuestftuth hcdo jugehr blr ‐j‗ fj toh hquctflj. Tfx
Tfx fs
 fs toh sl`utflj sfjdh (2 + 4)(2 - 5) 7 42.
 1.  Gckh c tce`h
# lb sfahs # lb
Olw gcjy afcmljc`s alhs c 34-mlj ocvh< afcmljc`s
@llk blr c pctthrj. Ofjt9 Fb j fs toh jugehr lb sfahs, tohj j(j-4)/5 4 >
fs toh jugehr lb afcmljc`s. Hxp`cfj fj wlras woy tofs wlrks. C 1 5
34-mlj wlu`a ocvh 34(34-4)/5 7 28 afcmljc`s. 8 8
2 6
= 31
? 5>

8.  ]lrk ecdkwcras

C gcj afha cja `hbt toh bl``lwfjm fjstrudtfljs blr ofs blrtujh, oc`b tl ofs wfbh; 3/= lb woct
wcs `hbt whjt tl ofs slj; 5/4 lb woct wcs `hbt whjt tl ofs eut`hr; toh gcj‖s pht pfm mlt toh
rhgcfjfjm $5>>>. Olw gudo gljhy afa toh gcj `hcvh ehofja c`tlmhtohr<
$5>>>.  
Qoh pfm rhdhfvha $5>>>. 
3/4 lb < 7 $5>>> 
$5>>>  
$2>>> 
< 7 $2>>> 
2/= lb < 7 $2>>> 
$2>>>  
< 7 $=>>> 
$=>>> 
3/5 lb < 7 $=>>> 
$=>>>  

Gctohgctfds fj toh
toh Glahrj ]lr`a 36
 
Alwj`lcaha ey Bcrco Qohrhsh Cacrjc (bcrcocacrjcNmgcf`.dlg)
`LGlCU^A62 28

< 7 $31,>>>

2.  Xsh `lmfdc` rhcsljfjm

Ct toh Khhp fj Tocph D`ue, 48 phlp`h swfg, 51 p`cy

thjjfs, cja 5= ilm. Lb tohsh phlp`h, 35 swfg cja
p`cy thjjfs, 36 p`cy thjjfs cja ilm, cja 34 ilm cja
swfg. Jfjh phlp`h al c`` torhh cdtfvftfhs. Olw
gcjy ghgehrs crh tohrh c`tlmhtohr<
Ofjt9 Arcw c Rhjj Afcmrcg wfto 4 fjthrshdtfjm
dfrd`hs.  
dfrd`hs.

=.  Arcw c afcmrcg

?.  Tl`vh c sfgp`hr prle`hg 

prle`hg 

Fj c ah`fdcthsshj, ft dlsts $5.16 blr c oc`b pluja lb s`fdha rlcst ehhb. Qoh phrslj ehofja
toh dlujthr s`fdhs >.84 pluja. ]oct solu`a ft dlst<
Qry c sfgp`hr prle`hg. Olw gudo wlu`a ylu pcy fb c oc`b pluja lb s`fdha rlcst ehhb dlsts
$5 cja toh phrslj s`fdhs 4 plujas< Fb c oc`b pluja dlsts $5, tohj ljh pluja wlu`a dlst 5 x
$5 lr $1. Gu`tfp`y ey toh jugehr lb plujas jhhaha tl mht toh tltc`9 4 x $1 7 35.  
Jlw try toh lrfmfjc` prle`hg9 Fb c oc`b pluja dlsts $5.16, tohj ljh pluja wlu`a dlst 5 x
$5.16 lr $1.6?. Gu`tfp`y ey toh jugehr lb plujas jhhaha tl mht toh tltc`9 .84 x $1.6? 7
$5.2461 lr $5.21.

6.  Uhca toh prle`hg dcrhbu``y

Kjlw toh ghcjfjm lb c`` wlras cja sygel`s fj toh prle`hg. 
prle`hg.  

@fst toh thj sgc``hst plsftfvh dlgplsfth jugehrs.

Tfjdh plsftfvh ghcjs mrhcthr tocj > cja c dlgplsfth jugehr fs c jugehr wfto glrh tocj
twl wol`h jugehr bcdtlrs, toh sl`utflj fs 1, 2, ?, 6, 3>, 35, 31, 38, 32, 3?. Blr hxcgp`h, 1
 ocs torhh bcdtlrs, 3, 5, cja 1.

Gctohgctfds fj toh Glahrj ]lr`a 5>

 
Alwj`lcaha ey Bcrco Qohrhsh Cacrjc (bcrcocacrjcNmgcf`.dlg)
`LGlCU^A62 28

A. UHDUHCQFLJC@ ^ULE@HGT XTFJM GCQOHGCQFDT

Tlgh phlp`h tofjk lb gctohgctfds cs toh prldhss lb caafjm cja gu`tfp`yfjm `lts lb jugehrs
tlmhtohr. Ltohrs shh ft cs c efm dl``hdtflj lb ru`hs cja blrgu`cs toct jhha tl eh ghglrfzha cja
rhmurmftctha
rhmurmftc tha wohj jhdhsscry tl ffija ‐Qoh Cjswhr.‗ Qohrh Qohrh crh c`sl phlp`h wol vfhw gctohgctfds ghrh`y
cs c tll` toct gust eh usha fj lrahr tl mht ushbu` tofjms aljh fj sdfhjdh, hjmfjhhrfjm, ghafdfjh, cja sl
lj.
Uhdrhctfljc` gctohgctfds fs
gctohgctfds fs gctohgctfds aljh blr rhdrhctflj lr cs c oleey cja fjthjaha tl eh
buj. Qypfdc``y ft fjvl`vhs mcghs lr puzz`hs toct rh`cth tl gctohgctfds, c`tolumo toh thrg dcj dlvhr ltohr
gcthrfc`. Qypfdc``y, rhdrhctfljc` gctohgctfds fjvl`vhs mhjhrc` `lmfdc` cja `cthrc` tofjkfjm skf``s, cs
lpplsha tl cavcjdha gctohgctfdc` dljdhpts, sl toct toh cvhrcmh phrslj fs ct `hcst ce`h tl ujahrstcja
cja cpprhdfcth c rhdrhctfljc` prle`hg cja fts sl`utflj. Uhdrhctfljc` puzz`hs dcj c`sl fjdrhcsh phlp`h's
cpprhdfctflj lb gctohgctfds cs c wol`h.
Uhdrhctfljc` gctohgctfds dcj eh surprfsfjm`y plpu`cr, wfto gf``fljs lb phlp`h ct ljh tfgh lr
cjltohr ocvfjm hjilyha Uuefk's Dueh, brcdtc`s, Tualku, `lmfd prle`hgs, dhrtcfj typhs lb `cthrc` tofjkfjm
puzz`hs, cja gcjy ltohr afvhrsfljs. Ltohr gctohgctfdc` rhdrhctfljs fjd`uah gctohgctfdc` puzz`hs,
gctohgctfdc` dohss puzz`hs, Dljwcy's Mcgh lb @fbh, tcjmrcgs, cja glrh.
Olwhvhr, ft solu`a jlt eh cssugha toct rhdrhctfljc` gctohgctfds fs wftolut cjy prcdtfdc` ush.
Uhdrhctfljc` gctohgctfds ocs spurrha toh ahvh`lpghjt lb shvhrc` bfh`as lb gctohgctfds; tl tckh ljh
hxcgp`h, toh prle`hg lb toh Kòjfmsehrm Erfamhs fjb`uhjdha toh ahvh`lpghjt lb toh bfh`a lb mrcpo tohlry.
Cj hjilyce`h cja fjthrhstfjm wcy lb stuayfjm prle`hg sl`vfjm fj mhjhrc` fs tl dljsfahr rhdrhctfljc`
prle`hg fj pcrtfdu`cr.
Uhdrhctfljc` prle`hgs cja mcghs ocvh ehhj c slurdh lb cgushghjt cja fjthrhst blr oujarhas
lb yhcrs. C`tolumo toh lrfmfj lb gcjy prle`hgs dcj eh trcdh ecdk tl cjdfhjt tfgh, prlece`y toh bfrst
fgplrtcjt dl``hdtflj lb prle`hgs fs c Mrhhk Cjtol`lmy cttrfeutha tl Ghtrlalrus (d. 8>>\). Gcjy ltohr
dl``hdtflj bl``lwha.
Ft wcs jlt ujtf` toh `cth jfjhthhjto cja hcr`y twhjtfhto dhjturfhs, tolumo, toct rhdrhctfljc`
gctohgctfds cdqufrha mrhct plpu`crfty. Jlt whrh gcjy ellks lj toh sueihdt sueihd t pue`fso ct toct tfgh, eut toh
jhwspcphr dl`ugjs lb Tcg @lya fj Cghrfdc cja O. H. Auehjhy fj Hjm`cja oh`p tl erfjm rhdrhctfljc`
puzz`h tl toh ctthjtflj lb toh mhjhrc` pue`fd. Qoh ahdcahs sfjdh ocvh ehhj c dljtfjuctflj lb tofs trhja9
Qoh jhwspcphr dl`ugjs lb Ouehrt ^of``fps
^of ``fps (‟‖Dc`fecj‖‖) fj Hjm`cja, toh Eh`mfcj ilurjc` Tpofjx9 Uhvhjuh
ghsuh``h ahs quhstfljs rhdrhctfvhs, toh Cghrfdcj Gctohgctfdc` Gljto`y, cja gcjy ellks dljtfjuh tl
supp`y c wfah sh`hdtflj lb rhdrhctfljc` prle`hg.
Durrhjt ahvh`lpghjts gcy eh bl``lwha fj toh Ilurjc` lb Uhdrhctfljc` Gctohgctfds, fj toh ellks
lb Gcrtfj Mcrajhr, cja fj ofs dl`ugjs fj Tdfhjtfbfd Cghrfdcj.
C`tolumo slgh gctohgctfdc` ecdkmrluja fs rhqufrha tl sl`vh dhrtcfj prle`hg, gcjy prle`hg lb
rhdrhctfljc` gctohgctfds dcj eh sl`vha wfto `ftt`h glrh tocj bujacghjtc` rhcsljfjm skf``s, c plwhr lb