New PPL Bifa Proflight

BALI INTERNATIONAL FLIGHT ACADEMY –TRAINING CENTRE
Airart International
The study of Meteorology is important for the pilot
because the atmosphere is the medium through
which the aircraft moves
Reasons for Studying Meteorology

To gain a better understanding of meteorologists’ deductions.
To gain a better understanding of meteorologists’ decumentation.
To gain a better understanding of in-flight hazards.
To gain a better understanding of data and its collection
To gain a better understanding of self-forecasting
PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Due to the extent of the volume of air,
variations are found both horizontally and
vertically in the following properties:

Pressure
Temperature
Density
Humidity

"Meteorology" is the scientific study of the atmosphere
and the physical processes occurring in it
Weather" refers to the state of the

atmosphere at a given time and
place.
"Climate" is an aggregate of
weather conditions, the sum of all
statistical weather information that
helps describe a place or region.
WEATHER PHENOMENON
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
WIND
VISIBILITY
HUMIDITY
CLOUD
OTHERS Airart International

BRIEFING METEO
WEATHER DEPARTURE
WEATHER ENROUTE
WEATHER DESTINATION
( TERMINAL FORECAST )
WEATHER ALTERNATE DESTINATION

( ALTERNATE FORECAST )
METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES
TAFOR
QAM ARFOR
METAR
SPECI
ROFOR
FIFOR
What can weather do to you? Temperature, wind, and
moisture combine to
varying degrees to create conditions that affect pilots. The
range of possible combinations is nearly infinite, but weather
really affects pilots in just three ways.
Specifically, the three basic weather elements can:

• Reduce visibility
• Create turbulence
• Reduce aircraft performance
WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW ABOUT WEATHER
ATMOSPHERE
The Atmosphere
THE ATMOSPHERE
The mixture of
gases which
surrounds
the earth
• Although the atmosphere reach up
to 1000 km above sea level, It is the
lowest 60,000 ft of the atmosphere
that is of most interest to the pilot.
within this layer that aircraft fly
COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE
Oxygen (O2) Other Gases 1%

21% Water Vapor (H2O)
Argon
Carbon Dioxide
Hydrogen
Nitrogen (N2) Neon
78% Helium (He)
Methane (CH4)
• These gases are mixed in constan proportions up to 260,000 ft
except for water vapour. It may be up to 7 % of the volume of
the atmosphere or 3 % of total mass at different times.
• Dry air…Moist air (dry air and water vapour)
• Water vapour is lighter than the other molecules in the

atmosphere so moist air is less dense than dry air.
• The amount of water vapour is generally highest near the

earth”s surface and in low latitudes, such as areas near the
equator.
• At typical atmospheric temperatures water may occur in liquid,

solid and gaseous form.
Earth's Atmosphere is
• A mixture of gases with some suspended
solids and liquids.
• Three common solids in atmosphere:
»Ice
»Dust
»Salt - from ocean spray
• Current Composition
– Permanent Gases: Those that are found in that concentration
anywhere in the atmosphere.
• Current Composition
– Variable Gases: Those that vary in concentration
depending upon where you are.
WARM AIR COLD AIR
( NOT AS MANY MOLECULES ) ( MORE MOLECULES )
Structure of the Earth's atmosphere
• Troposphere
• Tropopause
• Stratosphere
• Stratopause
• Mesosphere
• Mesospause
• Thermosphere
Layers of the atmosphere:
(From the ground out to space.)
• Troposphere- approx. ground to 10 kilometers ( approx 7 miles up)

– The closest layer to the Earth. The temperature generally decreases
with height (lapse rate) typically 2° per 1,000 ft (there are
exeptions to this, they are called inversion).
– Most of the water vapour and where the rising of warm air and
decending of cold air takes place. Thus, most of weather affecting
aviation is within this layer.
– Contains 75% of our atmospheres gases
– Weather clouds and smog occur in the troposphere
– The troposphere is heated by terrestrial long-wave radiation plus
turbulent mixing of latent and sensible heat, see terrestrial radiation
– and the pressure decreases at a rate of about 1 inch per 1,000 feet of
altitude gain.
• Winds increase with height up to the jet stream
• The moisture concentration decreases with height up to the tropopause.
Tropopause ,At the top of the troposphere is a boundary known as the
tropopause, which traps moisture, and the associated weather, in the
troposphere. The altitude of the tropopause varies with latitude and with
the season of the year;
height over poles 8-10 km, over equator 16-18 km, the temperature of
the tropopause surrounding the equator is less than that over the poles.
The tropopause is not continuous…
Location of the tropopause is important because it is commonly

associated with the location of the jetstream and possible clear
air turbulence
Stratosphere – this layer above the tropopause and extends up to

around 50 km. temperature remains constant at first then
increases with height up to the stratopause
-The ozone layer is located here
-the jet stream is located here
-Little or no water
• Mesosphere - approximately 80 km high
– the coldest part of the atmosphere about - 90°C. up to the level of
the mesopause the atmospheric composition is almost constant
• Thermosphere - approximately 85 km -to 500 km (50 miles and up)
– Warmest layer of the atmosphere.
• lower layer of thermosphere is called the IONOSPHERE
» Ionosphere made of electronically charged particles.
» reflects radio waves
» In the daytime this layer interferes with radio waves
since suns energy charges the particles to much and
causes problems a lot of static.
» At night it is less charged. This is why it is easier to hear
AM radio late at night
• Exosphere - approximantly 500 kilometers and beyond
– Outer most layer of our atmosphere
– Very very few air molecules in this layer
– No clear boundary between this layer and space
• Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere (Ionosphere)
THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
Continual fluctuations of temperature and pressure

in our restless atmosphere create some problems
for engineers and meteorologists who require
a fixed standard of reference.
It is the standard for calibrating

the pressure altimeter and developing aircraft
performance data.
INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA)
The conditions of the atmosphere are constantly changing. This causes problems for aviation,
especially with the calibration of pressure instruments. For this reason, the International Standard
Atmosphere (ISA) was devised. It is a purely hypothetical atmosphere that represents an average
picture of the actual atmosphere.
ISA has been in use since 1964 and is the most widely used hypothetical atmosphere. It possesses
the characteristics laid out below:
The chart shows that the ISA temperature is constant above 36,090 ft in the aviation atmosphere.
DENSITY AND HYPOXIA
Thus, air near the surface is much more

dense than air at high altitudes. This decrease of
density and pressure with height
The decrease in air density with increasing
height
has a physiological effect which we cannot
ignore.
The atmosphere is about one-fifth oxygen, so

the oxygen pressure is about one-fifth the total
pressure at any given altitude
since air pressure decreases

as altitude increases, the oxygen pressure
also decreases. A pilot continuously gaining altitude
or making a prolonged flight at high altitude
without supplemental oxygen will likely suffer from
HYPOXIA-a deficiency of oxygen.
When flying at or above 10,000 feet, force
yourself to remain alert. Any feeling of drowsiness
or undue fatigue may be from hypoxia. If you do not have oxygen,
descend to a lower altitude.
If fatigue or drowsiness continues after descent, it is

caused by something other than hypoxia.
A safe procedure is to use auxiliary oxygen during
prolonged flights above 10,000 feet and for
even short flights above 12,000 feet. Above about
40,000 feet, pressurization becomes essential.
Atmospheric oxygen
Altitude O² pressure Max. exposure
• Interpolating from the
• .
Sea level 210 hPa — pressure gradient graph
above, oxygen partial
7000 feet 165 hPa — pressure at selected altitudes
is shown below. The
10 000 feet 150 hPa —
decreasing partial pressure of
15 000 feet 120 hPa 30+ minutes
oxygen as an aircraft climbs
past 10 000 – 12 000 feet has
18 000 feet 105 hPa 20–30 minutes critical effects on aircrew; the
maximum exposure time for
25 000 feet 80 hPa 3–5 minutes a fit person, without inspiring
supplemental oxygen, is
30 000 feet 65 hPa 1–3 minutes shown in the right hand
column. Exposure beyond
35 000 feet 50 hPa 30–60 seconds these times leads to
unconsciousness..
40 000 feet 30 hPa 10–20 seconds
HYPOXIA
ATMOSPHERIC HEATING
Solar Radiation
55%
reflected
SOLAR
RADIATION
45%
absorbed
Northern Hemisphere Summer)
– Although it is warmer in the

summer than in the winter, it
still does not get very warm.
– The reason is that although the
sun is above the horizon, it still
isn't very far above the horizon.
• At 66 ½°N, the sun is only 90° –
66 ½° = 23 ½° above the
horizon.
– This means the sunlight must

pass through a very thick layer
of air at 66 ½°N even though at
23 ½°N the thickness of air is at
a minimum.
ATMOSPHERIC HEATING
SOLAR RADIATION
1. RADIATION
TERRESTERIAL RADIATION
ABSORBING
REFLECTIN
TRANSMITTING
2. CONDUCTION
ADVECTION
3. MASS TRANSFER
CONVECTION
The atmosphere is heated by five
different processes:

Solar radiation
Terrestrial radiation.
Conduction.
Convection.
Latent heat of condensation.
A sixth process, advection, is responsible for
the horizontal transfer of heat
Latent Heat of Condensation

When heat is used to alter temperature it is
called sensible heat. Heat used to alter the
state of a substance is referred to as latent
heat (latent meaning hidden), as no
temperature change occurs.
RADIATION
SOLAR RADIATION ( SR )
IS THE RADIATION EMITTED FROM THE SUN THIS IS

SHORT-WAVE RADIATION AND HIGH
FREQUENCY
MUCH OF THE SR IS ABSORBED AND REFLECTED IN

THE ATMOSPHERE. ONLY 43 % REACHES THE
EARTH.
SR THAT DOES REACH THE EARTH’S SURFACE IS ALSO

REFLECTED, THE AMOUNT OF REFLECTION
DEPENDS OF THE TYPE OF SURFACE, EG. WATER
COMPARED WITH LAND.
THE PRESENTAGE OF RADIATION

RECEIVED THAT IS REFLECTED IS
CALLED THE ALBEDO. DIFFERENT
SURFACES HAVE DIFFERENT ALBEDO
VALUES
CONDUCTION
• Conduction is the transfer of heat
within a substance, molecule by
molecule. The heat is being
transfered from the warm end to
the cold end.
• AIR IS POOR CONDUCTOR OF HEAT.

SO CONDUCTION WITHIN THE
ATMOSPHERE IS NOT AN IMPORTANT
PROCESS, HOWEVER AIR AT THE
SURFACE OF THE EARTH CAN GAIN
OR LOSE HEAT BY CONDUCTION.

MASS TRANSFER
• MASS TRASFER OCCURS WHEN A GAS OR LIQUID MOVES FROM ITS

ORIGINAL RESTING STATE.
ADVECTION
THIS IS WHERE THE GAS OR LIQUID TRAVEL ACROSS THE
HORIZONTAL PLANE OF THE SURFACE.
CONVECTION
THIS IS WHERE THE GAS OR LIQUID RISE UPWARDS OR VERTICALLY
FROM A SURFACE (THE AIR HEATED BY CONDUCTION BECAUSE CONTACT
WITH THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH) NOW RISES CARRYING HEAT TO
HIGHER LEVELS
Advection
• Advection is the transfer of heat
in the horizontal
(north/east/south/west)
direction. In meteorology, the
wind transports heat by
advection. This happens all the
time on Earth, heat is transported
in many ways. For example, wind
blowing over a body of water will
pick up evaporated water
molecules and carry them
elsewhere, when the air with
these water molecules cools, the
water will condense and release
latent heat. The heat is being
transfered by the wind.
Advection is very similar to
Convection, however, it is in the
horizontal and not vertical
Convection
• Convection is heat transfer by the mass
movement of a fluid in the vertical
(up/down) direction. This type of heat
transfer takes place in liquids and gases.
This occurs naturally in our atmosphere.
• Warm air is less dense than cold air,
making cold air heavier than warm air. On
a sunny day, the surface of the Earth is
heated by radiation from the Sun. The thin
layer of molecules touching the surface
are heated by conduction. We know air is
a poor conductor of heat, so this warm
mass of air near the surface can not
immediately transfer its heat away from
the surface by conduction. This warm air
mass is buoyant and wants to rise upward
because it is less dense, the heavy cold air
takes the place of the warm bubble. This
rising warm light air is called a thermal in
meteorology.
• it cools at a rate of 9.8°C/km as it rises.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
AND ALTIMETRY
Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area

exerted by the weight of the atmosphere
•Weather services and the aviation community use two types of barometers in
measuring pressure-the mercurial and aneroid
MERCURY BAROMETER AND ANEROID BAROMETER
Measuring pressure
PRESSURE
Air Pressure
Pressure is measured in term of force acting upon a unit area
• ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE = THE WEIGHT OF
THE COLUMN OF THE AIR ABOVE ANY AREA
OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE
• AS WE GO HIGHER IN THE
ATMOSPHERETHERE IS LESS AIR ABOVE US SO
PRESSURE DECREASES
MEASURE AND UNIT IN USE
PRESSURE VARIATION
WITH ALTITUDE
• Not immediately
apparent from the ISA
table is that the pressure
lapse rate is about one
hPa per 30 feet up to the
850 hPa level, then
slowing to 40 feet per hPa
at the 650 hPa level, 50
feet at the 450 hPa level,
75 feet at the 300 hPa
level and so on, however,
this provides a useful rule
of thumb:
• Rule of Thumb #1
"An altitude change of

30 feet per hPa can be
assumed for operations
below 10 000 feet."
• THE RATE OF DECREASE OF PRESSURE IS
ABOUT 1 hPa/mb per 30 feet
• THE FORMULA FOR CALCULATING THE

PRESSURE LAPSE RATE IS = 96 T/P
T = TEMPERATURE EXPRESSED IN ° KELVIN
P = PRESSURE EXPRESSED IN hPa/mb
EXAMPLE ; T = 27 C ; P = 1000 hPa ……96 X (27 + 273 )/1000 =…

Pentingnya tekanan atmosfir
• Berat 1 inci persegi dari atmosfir adalah 14.7 lbs
• Di permukaan laut, lapisan atmosfir memberikan
tekanan pada bumi sebesar14,7 pounds per inci
persegi. Artinya, sepetak udara seluas 1 inci
persegi, mulai dari permukaan sampai ke batas
atmosfir yang paling tinggi, mempunyai berat
14,7 pound. Seorang yang berdiri di ketinggian
permukaan laut juga akan merasakan tekanan
yang sama dari atmosfir. Tapi sebenarnya
tekanan ini tidak berupa tekanan dari atas ke
bawah, tapi akan dirasakan pada seluruh
permukaan kulitnya.
• Tekanan sebenarnya di sebuah tempat dan pada
satu waktu akan berbeda tergantung pada
ketinggian, suhu dan kerapatan udara (air
density). Kondisi ini juga berpengaruh pada
kinerja pesawat, terutama yang berhubungan
dengan lepas landas, rate of climb (kemampuan
mendaki) dan mendarat.
PRESSURE VARIATION
Pressure varies horizontally, diurnally, and vertically.
Horizontally
Pressure varies from place to place and also changes over time. Horizontal
pressure differences lead to movement of air and hence, weather
Diurnally In one day there are two peak pressure values, which occur at
around 1000 and 2200 hors. There are two lows, one at around 1600 and another
at 0400 hours
Vertically
Pressure always decreases

with increase of height. In
the ISA we assume that the
surface pressure is 1013.25
hPa. From this we can
calculate the pressure for
any height
THE RELATION BETWEEN PRESSURE AND PERATURE
• Cold air is denser than warm air

and tends to sink. Therefore, the
same pressure is found at a lower
height in the cold column. The
pressure decreases more quickly
with height than in the ISA column.
•
• Conversely, warm air is less dense
and risese. The same pressure is
found at a higher height than the
colder columns. The pressure
decreases less quickly with height
than in the ISA column.
• .
The temperature of the air affects the rate that pressure decreases as you
move upward in the atmosphere. Colder air is denser. The molecules of air
are more closely packed. As a result, pressure decreases more rapidly as you
ascend through cold air than in warmer temperatures.
Now imagine your airplane flying at a constrant height from a polar to a tropical
region. You start in cold polar air at 250 mb. When you arrive over your warm
destination you will notice that your pressure has to be somewhere between 250 and
500 mb (350 mb). You have moved into an area of low pressure aloft.
This indicates increasing heights on a constant pressure surface are equivalent to

increasing pressure at a constant altitude.
The above reasoning for high and low pressure applies only to upper air pressure
systems. Near the surface, colder air is associated with high pressure and warmer air
with low pressure. To make sense of this imagine extending both columns from 1000
mb to the surface of the earth using equal volumes of cold and warm air. Because
the cold air is denser and heavier, it will exert a larger pressure (1030 mb) on the
surface below it than the warm air (1020 mb). As a result, the pattern of high and
low pressure is reversed from the pattern aloft.
ISOBAR
ISOBAR S ON A SYNOPTIC CHART

PRESSURE SYSTEM
AND ASSOSIATED
WEATHER
PRESSURE SYSTEM
Regions of sinking air are called highs, high

pressure regions or anticyclones. Clear skies
and fair weather usually occur in these
regions.
Regions of rising air are called lows, low

pressure regions, depressions or cyclones.
Clouds rain and strong winds often occur in
these regions.
a) Low or cyclone. A roughly circular area with a lower sea
level pressure in the centre as compared to the surrounding
region.
b) High or anticyclone. A location where the sea level

pressure is high compared to the surroundings.

c) Ridge. An elongated region of relatively high pressure.

d)Trough. An elongated region of relatively low pressure.

e) Col. The neutral area between two highs and two lows.
Notice how the sinking air spirals outward in an anticlockwise direction, in the high
pressure region (only in the southern hemisphere).
In the low pressure region the rising air spirals inward, in a clockwise direction (only
in the southern hemisphere)
This animation shows how a small part of the air may flow across the isobars
from high to low pressure
This animation shows how air can come from other nearby pressure systems
or go to other nearby pressure systems.
Depression Weather
Due to the lifting at the centre of the low, cloud will form and there will be associated precipitation. The
mechanisms of this are described in later chapters. Typical weather is described in the table below:
Anticyclonic Weather
When anticyclonic weather is present, air is descending, which prevents cloud from forming and gives
generally good weather. There may be some cloud and precipitation at the edge of the system.
Temperature inversions are possible due to the cubsidence.
The table below shows typical weather associated with an anticyclone:

Trough Weather
Col Weather
In summer, extended contact with the hot ground can lead to instability cloud and thunderstorms. In
winter, extended contact with the cold ground can result in the froamtion of fog or low stratus.
MOVEMENT OF PRESSURE SYSTEMS
Anticyclones tend to be long-lasting (up to 6 months) and move quite slowly. Depressions move more
quickly and generally only last about 2 weeks. Cols generally get quickly absorbed into other systems,
lasting only a few days.
MOVEMENT OF PRESSURE SYSTEMS
• Anticyclones tend to be long-lasting (up to 6

months) and move quite slowly. Depressions
move more quickly and generally only last
about 2 weeks. Cols generally get quickly
absorbed into other systems, lasting only a
few days.
•
TEMPERATURE
• Temperature is one of the most important variables that

affect the atmosphere. The temperature changes that occur
on the Earth’s surface initiate both vertical air movement
(leading to cloud development) and horizontal air movement
(wind).
•
• Temperature normally decreases with height. If there is an
increase with height, this is called an inversion.
•
• If temperature stays the same with change in height, this is
called an isothermal layer.
AIR TEMPERATURE
Scale of Temperature
 Centigrade Scale
0° C = 273.16° K
0° K = - 273.16° C
 Fahrenheit Scale
Melting point of ice = + 32° F
Boiling point of water = 212° F
 Conversion
F = 9/5 x °C + 32°
C = 5/9 x (°F - 32°)
Temperature
Measurement methods
- Using a thermometer
- Pilot ------ be aware the temperature on aerodrome will often be higher than that
recorded ---
due todirect solar radiation (insolation) and radiation from runways.
Change temp. with height
-ISA Condition – temp falls at constan rate of 1,98 oC / 1000 ft up to 36.000 ft

-To make easier – the fall in temp with gain in height (lapse rate) ft 2 oC / 1000 ft up to
36.000 ft (tropopouse), at which point the temp is assumed to be constan at – 57
o
C
How to determine ISA temp. at any specified height.

As ISA Temp. at sea level is 15 oC, the temp. at 5000 Ft will be (15 oC – 10 oC) = +5 oC
ISA Temp= ( +15 – (2x ft in thousands) oC
Example: What is ISA temp at 9,500 ft

(+ 15 – (2 x 9.5) = 15 -19 = -4 oC
SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN TEMPERATURE
• In tropical regions the mean temperature only

varies by about 5Cº throughout the year. This is
more apparent over large ocean areas. The largest
temperature variations are found over the large
land masses such as Northern USA and Siberia.
•
• In the Southern Hemisphere the lack of large land
masses mean little temperature variation
throughout the year.
AIR TEMPERATURE
Seasonal Variation
SPRING SUMMER FALL W INTER

22 Jun
Tropic Of Cancer
23 Sep
Equator
21 Mar
Tropic Of Capricorn
22 Des
FALL W INTER SPRING SUMMER
AIR TEMPERATURE
Diurnal Variation
Daily maximum (about 15:00)
00:00 06:00 12:00 18:00 24:00
Mean
temperature
Daily minimum (about 05:00)
FACTORS THAT CAUSE DIURNAL
VARIATION OF TEMPERATURE
CLOUDS COVER
cloud cover
WIND
TYPE OF SURFACE AND ITS ALBEDO
EFFECT OF CLOUD COVER
• Cloud cover affects
temperature and
relative humidity by
reflecting incoming
sunlight during the day,
and intercepting
outgoing long-wave,
terrestrial radiation at
night.
The Effect of Wind on Diurnal Variation
• During the day, wind causes surface air to be mixed with cooler air
above. The amount of time that any air is in contact with the
warm ground is short, so the maximum temperature the air near
the surface reaches is lower compared to calm conditions.
•
• During the night, terrestrial radiation leads to a reduction in air
temperature close to the ground. Any wind causes mixing of the
cold surface air with warmer air above. Therefore, the minimum
temperature of the above the surface at night is not as low as it
would be in calm conditions.
•
• The overall effect is to reduce diurnal variation
TYPE OF SURFACE AND ITS ALBEDO
• How much a surface heats up when exposed to insolation depends on its

specific heat. The specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of the surface by 1ºC
• Those surfaces that take a long time to heat up also lose their heat very
slowly, so the diurnal variation over the sea is minimal but is much
greater over the land.
•
• Not only does water have a much higher specific heat than land, but due
to the movement of the sea surface, the energy is spread to a depth of
several metres, whereas solar radiation only heats the top few inches of
the land surface.
•
Specific heat
•Specific Heat of the ocean does not vary

Temperature
greatly from day to night
• Water 1.00
• Desert
Air 0.24area varies greatly from day to night
• Granite 0.19
• Cloud cover has on reducing the variation of
Sand 0.19
• temp. from day to night
Iron 0.11
ALBEDO
Factors that cause temperature to vary from place to place
(1) differential heating of land and water;

(2) ocean currents;
(3) altitude;
(4) geographic position; and
(5) cloud cover and albedo.
• Daily Temperature Variations (Daytime Warming)
– In clear skies, the temperature maximum occurs
between 3 and 5pm.
– In areas with afternoon cloudiness or hazy skies,
the temperature maximum occurs an hour or two
earlier.
– In the cases where the temperature maximum
occurs earlier in the day, the maximum may be
lower.
WARM AIR COLD AIR
( NOT AS MANY MOLECULES ) ( MORE MOLECULES )
SURFACE TEMPERATURE
• Thermometers found inside
the instrument shelter are
mounted approximate 1.5
meters above the ground
surface. The top
thermometer contains
alcohol and is used to
determine daily minimum
temperatures. The lower
thermometer uses mercury
to determine the daily
maximum temperature.
The Greenhouse Effect
SUMMARY
• The aircraft thermometer is subject to inaccuracies no matter how good
the instrument and its installation. Position of the aircraft relative to the
sun can cause errors due to radiation, particularly on a parked aircraft.
At high speeds, aerodynamical effects and friction are basically the
causes of inaccuracies.
• High temperature reduces air density and reduces aircraft performance
(chapter 3).
• Diurnal and topographical temperature variations create local winds
(chapter 4).
• Diurnal cooling is conducive to fog (chapter 5).
• Lapse rate contributes to stability (chapter 6), cloud formation (chapter
7), turbulence (chapter 9), and thunderstorms (chapter 11).
• An inversion aloft permits warm rain to fall through cold air below.
Temperature in the cold air can be critical to icing (chapter 10).
• A ground based inversion favors poor visibility by trapping fog, smoke,
and other restrictions into low levels of the atmosphere (chapter 12).
THE E
THE ND
END
DENSITY
Density
Is the concentration of molecules of air (oxygen, nitrogen,

hydrogen etc. + vapour molecules) in a given volume (kg/m³)
ρ = P/RT
ρ = density
P = pressure in mb
T = temperature in °Kelvin
R = constant
R = the gas constant = 2.87
Atmospheric density
• The average density of dry air in temperate climates is about 1.225 kg/m³ at mean sea level,
decreasing with altitude.
There are several gas laws and equations which relate the temperature, pressure, density
and volume of a gas. However the equation most pertinent to aeronautical needs is the
equation of state:
r = P/RT where:
r (the Greek letter rho) = density in kg/m³
P = the static air pressure in hectopascals
R = the gas constant = 2.87
T = the temperature in Kelvin units = °C + 273
• We can calculate the ISA standard sea level air density, knowing that standard sea level
pressure = 1013 hPa and temperature = 15 °C or 288 K
i.e. Air density = 1013 / (2.87 × 288) = 1.225 kg/m³
However if the air temperature happened to be 30 °C or 303 K at the same pressure then
density would = 1013 / (2.87 × 303) = 1.165 kg/m³ or a 5% reduction.
By restating the equation of state: P = RrT it can be seen that if density remains constant,
pressure increases if temperature increases.
Comparison of the Density of Cold/Warm Air
DENSITY
Density vs Temperature
Temperature Density
Temperature Density
Factor affecting Air Density decreases:
• With Air Temperature Increase

• With Altitude Increase
• With Humidity Increase
• With Barometric Pressure Decrease
With lower air density:
The engine develops less power.

The propeller produces less thrust.
The wings produce less lift.
This results in:

Longer takeoff run
Poorer climb performance
Longer landing distance
Density
Significance of density
The density of the atm is the mass of air contained in the unit volume
Under ISA condition, the density at mean sea level is 1.225 gran per cubic metre
Air density is importan to pilot becouse
• The lift force supporting the aeroplane is weight is generated by the flow of air arround the
wings.
• Engine power is generated by burning fuel and air.
• We need to breathe air in order to live.
If the air is more dense:
• The required lift force can be generated at the lower true airspeed;
• Greater engine power is available becouse of the greather mass of each fuel / air charge taken
into the cylinders; and
• Breathing is easier, since a greather mass of oxygen is taken into the lungs during each breath.
Effects of humidity on density

The ISA value of density assumes dry air and varies with pressure and temperature. However,
water vapour is always present in the air., and this has an effect on the air density.
And it is sufficient to state that moist air has a lower density than dry air at the same
temperature and pressure. Since a lower density reduces aeroplane performance, we can see
why performancce is reduce in the humidity of tropics.
Density of Moist Air
Effects of humidity on density
The ISA value of density assumes dry air and varies
with pressure and temperature. However, water
vapour is always present in the air., and this has an
effect on the air density.
And it is sufficient to state that moist air has a lower
density than dry air at the same temperature and
pressure. Since a lower density reduces aeroplane
performance, we can see why performancce is
reduce in the humidity of tropics.
DENSITY ALTITUDE
• Density altitude simply is the altitude in the standard atmosphere where air density
is the same as where you are.
• Pressure, temperature, and humidity determine air density. On a hot day, the air
becomes “thinner” or lighter, and its density where you are is equivalent to a
higher altitude in the standard atmosphere—thus the term “high density altitude.”
On a cold day, the air becomes heavy; its density is the same as that at an altitude
in the standard atmosphere lower than your altitude—“low density altitude.”
• High density altitude is a real hazard since it reduces
aircraft performance (1) It reduces power because
the engine takes in less air to support combustion.
(2) It reduces thrust because the propeller gets less
grip on the light air or a jet has less mass of gases to
spit out the exhaust. (3) It reduces lift because the
light air exerts less force on the airfoils.
Here are some of the effects of density changes on
an aircraft's performance.
· High density altitude conditions reduce an airplane's performance because:
· there are less molecules in the air, the lighter air exerts less force on the
wings which result in reduced lift;
· reduced thrust and lift means more runway length is needed for takeoff
and more clearance area at the end of the runway is needed because of
a reduced climb rate.
· Low-density altitude conditions increase an airplane's performance because

of:
· greater thrust than normal due to a greater number of molecules in the
air with which propellers and jet engines can interact;
· greater lift force as heavier air exerts more force on the wings;
· faster speed and faster climb rate as thrust and lift are increased.
Effect of density altitude on takeoff and climb. High density
altitude lengthens takeoff roll and reduces rate of climb.

• CONTOH
AERODROME ELEVASI
5000 FT TEMP 40 C
SETELAH DIHITUNG
DENSITY
ALTITUDENYA 8800 FT
INI ARTINYA
PESAWAT YANG ADA
DI AERODROME TSB
HARUS DIBERI
TENAGA YANG
SETARA KALAU
BERADA DITEMPAT
YANG MEMPUNYAI
ELEVASI 8800FT
EFEK KETINGGIAN PADA PENERBANGAN
Density Altitude -AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
• when the air temperature increases, the density of the air
decreases. Also, as altitude increases, the density of the air
decreases.
• The density of the air can be described by referring to a
corresponding altitude; therefore, the term used to describe
air density is density altitude. To avoid confusion, remember
that a decrease in air density means a high density altitude;
and an increase in air density means a lower density altitude.
• Density altitude is determined by first finding pressure
altitude, and then correcting this altitude for nonstandard
temperature variations.
• It is important to remember that as air density decreases
(higher density altitude), airplane performance decreases;
and as air density increases (lower density altitude), airplane
performance increases.
EFEK KETINGGIAN PADA PENERBANGAN
• Ketinggian mempengaruhi setiap aspek penerbangan dari pesawatnya

sendiri dan kinerja manusia. Do tempat yang tinggi, dimana tekanan
atmosfir berkurang, jarak untuk lepas landas dan mendarat akan
bertambah, begitu juga kemampuan untuk mendaki akan berkurang.
• Sewaktu pesawat lepas landas, gaya lift harus dikumpulkan dengan aliran
udara di sekitar sayap. Jika udaranya tipis, maka pesawat butuh bergerak
lebih cepat lagi untuk mendapatkan lift yang cukup untuk terbang, maka
pesawat butuh landasan yang lebih panjang. Sebuah pesawat yang
membutuhkan landasan sepanjang 1000 kaki di ketinggian yang sama
dengan permukaan laut, akan membutuhkan hampir dua kali lipat pada
landasan yang mempunyai ketinggian 5000 kaki. Juga pada ketinggian
yang lebih tinggi, dikarenakan berkurangnya kerapatan udara, maka
efisiensi mesin pesawat dan baling-baling akan berkurang. Ini akan
mengakibatkan pengurangan rate of climb (kemampuan mendaki) dan
landasan yang lebih panjang untuk lepas landas dan menghindari
halangan (obstacle) yang ada di darat.
SUMMARY
• Pressure decreases with increasing altitude. The altimeter is an aneroid barometer graduated in increments of
altitude in the standard atmosphere instead of units of pressure. Temperature greatly affects the rate of
pressure decrease with height; therefore, it influences altimeter readings. Temperature also determines the
density of air at a given pressure (density altitude). Density altitude is an index to aircraft performance. Always
be alert for departures of pressure and temperature from normals and compensate for these abnormalities.
• Beware of the low pressure-bad weather, high pressure-good weather rule of thumb. It frequently fails.
Always get the complete weather picture.
• When flying from high pressure to low pressure at constant indicated altitude and without adjusting the
altimeter, you are losing true altitude.
• When temperature is colder than standard, you are at an altitude lower than your altimeter indicates. When
temperature is warmer than standard, you are higher than your altimeter indicates.
• When flying cross country, keep your altimeter setting current. This procedure assures more positive altitude
separation from other aircraft.
• When flying over high terrain in cold weather, compute your true altitude to ensure terrain clearance.
• When your aircraft is heavily loaded, the temperature is abnormally warm, and/or the pressure is abnormally
low, compute density altitude. Then check your aircraft manual to ensure that you can become airborne from
the available runway. Check further to determine that your rate of climb permits clearance of obstacles
beyond the end of the runway. This procedure is advisable for any airport regardless of altitude.
• When planning takeoff or landing at a high altitude airport regardless of load, determine density altitude. The
procedure is especially critical when temperature is abnormally warm or pressure abnormally low. Make
certain you have sufficient runway for takeoff or landing roll. Make sure you can clear obstacles beyond the
end of the runway after takeoff or in event of a go-around.
• Sometimes the altimeter setting is taken from an instrument of questionable reliability. However, if the
instrument can cause an error in altitude reading of more than 20 feet, it is removed from service. When
altimeter setting is estimated, be prepared for a possible 10- to 20-foot difference between field elevation and
your altimeter reading at touchdown.
THE E
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END
HUMIDITY
SATURATION
Dewpoint
“Dewpoint is the temperature to which air

must be cooled to become saturated.”
DRY BULB AND WET BULB
HUMIDITY
Relative Humidity
Is the percentage degree of saturation.
The ratio of (actual water vapour pressure to the saturation

water vapour pressure) x 100 at the same temperature
RH = 100% Saturated
RH < 100% Dry
WARM AIR IS ABLE TO SUPPORT MORE WATER VAPOUR
THAN COLD AIR.
IF THE TEMPERATURE OF THE AIR FALLS, IT IS CAPABLE

OF HOLDING LESS WATER VAPOUR, AND SO WILL BE
CLOSER TO BEING SATURATED, .. ITS RELATIVE
HUMIDITY WILL RISE.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY INCREASE GREATLY WITH A

DECREASE IN TEMPERATURE.
relative humidity
Humidity -Airplane Performance
• Because of evaporation, the atmosphere always
contains some moisture in the form of water vapor.
This water vapor replaces molecules of dry air and
because water vapor weighs less than dry air, any
given volume of moist air weighs less—is less dense
—than an equal volume of dry air.
• Usually during the operation of small airplanes, the
effect of humidity is not considered when
determining density altitude; but keep in mind that
high humidity will decrease airplane performance
which, among other things, results in longer takeoff
distances and decreased angle of climb.
• PERBEDAAN TEMPERATURE THERMOMETER BOLA
KERING DENGAN TEMPERATURE THERMOMETER
BOLA BASAH MENUNJUKKAN BESARNYA
KELEMBABAN………… BEDA KECIL MENUNJUKKAN
KELEMBABAN TINGGI DAN SEBALIKNYA
• THE WET BULB TEMPERATURE ALWAYS EXCEEDS THE

DEW POINT (EXCEPT WHEN AIR IS SATURATED ,
TEMP WET BULB AND DEW POINT ARE ALL EQUAL )
hygrometer
THE E
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END
ALTIMETRY
• ALTIMETER ADALAH BAROMETER

LOGAM. PADA BAROMETER LOGAM
SKALANYA ADALAH SKALA TEKANAN
UDARA SEDANG ALTIMETER
SKALANYA ADALAH SKALA TINGGI
YANG SETARA DNG NILAI TEKANAN
DALAM ARAH VERTIKAL MENURUT
STANDARD ATMOSFER.
• JADI ALTIMETER ADALAH ALAT

PENGUKUR KETINGGIAN YANG
BEKERJA BERDASARKAN PENURUNAN
TEKANAN UDARATRHADAP
BERTAMBAHNYA KETINGGIAN.
ALTITUDE
• Indicated altitude is the reading

on the altimeter! Note that in the
warm air, you fly at an altitude
higher than indicated. In the cold
air, you are at an altitude lower
than indicated.
• Absolute altitude is the height of

the aircraft above the terrain over
which it is flying. Also referred to
feet/metres Above Ground Level
(AGL).
• True altitude is the elevation

above mean sea level
True altitude absolutealtitude
Indicated altitude
Indicated altitude
Pressure Altitude
• Pressure altitude is the altitude in the standard

atmosphere where pressure is the same as
where you are
• You can always determine pressure altitude
from your altimeter whether in flight or on the
ground. Simply set your altimeter at the
standard altimeter setting of 29.92 inches, and
your altimeter indicates pressure altitude
PRESSURE ALTITUDE
That altitude in standard air that corresponds to

the existing air pressure (the altitude above sea level)
Mean Sea Level
Altimeter Setting
• HEIGHT and QFE
In general, HEIGHT is the vertical distance of an aircraft above
whatever SURFACE (buildings, mountains, a lake, etc.).
HEIGHT is expressed in feet AGL (Above Ground Level).
By setting the QFE value of an airport, the pressure altimeter

will show the HEIGHT above that airport. On the ground, the
altimeter will show 0 (zero). The QFE is the atmospheric
pressure measured at the airport. The higher the airport
elevation, the lower the QFE.
Flight Level is the altitude (at standard QNH) in feet, without

the two zero's at the end (20.000 feet becomes FL200)
Altimeter Setting
• ALTITUDE and QNH - ELEVATION
An ALTITUDE (ALT) is the vertical distance of an aircraft above
the MEAN SEA LEVEL (MSL). For objects and obstacles on the
surface of the earth, the word ELEVATION (ELEV) is used
instead of altitude. ALTITUDES and ELEVATIONS are expressed
in feet AMSL (Above Mean Sea Level).
When a QNH is set on the aircraft's altimeter, the

word ALTITUDE is used. On the ground at an airport, the
altimeter will (approximately) show that airport ELEVATION
when the aerodrome QNH is set on the aircraft's altimeter.
Pengesetan altimeter
• Ada 3 istilah yang sering digunakan untuk mengatakan tinggi dalam
penerbangan, yakni ketingian (height), altitude, dan elevasi (elevation)
• Misalkan di suatu Bandar udara elevasinya 3000 kaki dan tekanan barometer 930 hPa (tekanan
sebenarnya yang tidak dikoreksi dengan permukaan laut = QFE). Maka dengan menggunakan
kriteria atmosfer baku ICAO diperoleh :
(1) Ketinggian tekanan (PH) = 1013,25 – 930 = 83,25 hPa.
(2) Ketinggian tekanan 83,25 hPa setara dengan ketinggian H = 2331 kaki. Nilai tersebut dihitung
dengan cara seperti berikut :
Dalam atmosfer baku ICAO untuk ketinggian dibawah 5000 kaki 1 hPa setara dengan 28 kaki.
Maka ketinggian tekanan 83,25 hPa tersebut setara dengan 83,25 x 28 = 2331 kaki.
(3) QNH dihitung dengan rumus:
QNH = Pml + (HICAO – E)/28
dengan HICAO = tinggi setara tekanan dalam atmosfer baku ICAO

E = elevasi Bandar udara.
Dengan rumus tersebut diperoleh :

QNH = 1013,25 + (2331 – 3000)/28
= 1037,142 hPa.
Dari perhitungan tersebut maka pengesetan altimeter dilakukan dengan
menempatkan skala altimeter nol pada 1037,142 hPa. Pengsetan tersebut
diperlukan agar pendaratan pesawat terbang dapat dilakukan dengan tepat.
• An aircraft is flying at a constant
true altitude of 6000 ft.
aerodrome withan elevation of -
162 ft reports a QFE of 1037 hPa.
Assuming ISA temperature
• ft is: 162 ft ÷ 27 ft/hPa = 6 hPa
• The airfield is below MSL, making the QNH:
1037 hPa – 6 hPa = 1031 hPa
• The change of altitude equivalent to 18 hPa
is: 18 hPa x 27 ft/hPa = 486 ft
• Since the altimeter setting (1013 hPa) is lower
than the QNH (1031 hPa), the
• altimeter pressure reference level is closer to
the aircraft than MSL making the
• indicated altitude lower than the true
altitude.
• The indicated altitude is: 6000 ft – 486 ft =
5514 ft
• Using QFE and omitting

calculating via QNH, the
calculatioThe change of altitude
equivalent to: 24 hPa x 27
ft/hPa = 648 ft
• The indicated altitude is: 6000
ft – (648 ft – 162 ft) = 5514 ft
Untuk mengetahui ketinggian terbang, pesawat terbang umumnya dilengkapi dengan
altimeter tekanan, ialah altimeter yang bekerjanya berdasarkan pengukuran tekanan
udara. Tetapi pesawat terbang modern, selain dilengkapai dengan altimeter tekanan
juga dilengkapi dengan altimeter radio atau radar. Dengan prinsip pemantulan
gelombang radio, altimeter radio dapat menunjukkan ketinggian pesawat terbang di
atas permukaan bumi. Oleh karena itu altimeter radio dikenal sebagai altimeter
mutlak, sedangkan altimeter tekanan menunjukkan ketinggian nisbi, yaitu altitud atau
ketinggian dari permukaan laut. Apabila pesawat terbang di atas laut altimeter
tekanan dan altimeter radio menunjukkan ketinggian yang sama. Tetapi bila terbang
di atas daratan, altimeter tekanan menunjukkan ketinggian lebih tinggi dibandingkan
dengan altimeter radio.
Bagi pesawat terbang yang hanya dilengkapi dengan altimeter tekanan, pengesetan
altimeter sangat penting dan harus dilakukan dengan cermat agar pesawat terbang
dapat didaratkan dengan tepat diatas landasan pacu. Pengesetan dilakukan dengan
menyesuaikan skala altimeter pada besarnya tekanan di Bandar udara yang dikoreksi
dengan tekanan permukaan laut (QNH).
Altimeter, atau pengukur altitude cara kerjanya adalah dengan merasakan perbedaan tekanan udara yang di
dapat oleh static source (biasanya di letakkan di samping badan pesawat yg tidak terkena angin langsung).
Tekanan udara di setiap daerah pasti berbeda beda, oleh karena itu perlu di buat suatu acuan tekanan udara
agar alat Altimeter di dunia ini bisa seragam penghitungannya. Oleh karena itu ICAO merumuskan suatu
acuan yg intinya adalah pada Mean Sea Level suhu udara 15C dengan tekanan 29.92 inHg dan setiap kenaikan
1000 ft suhu akan berkurang 2C (tepatnya 1,98C) dan tekanan akan berkurang 1 inHg.
Nah semua altimeter yang di gunakan di pesawat di dunia ini harus mengacu terhadap satuan yg di tetapkan
oleh ICAO di atas. Sehingga ketika kita berada di suatu airport dan ada instruksi dari ATC untuk mengeset kita
ke Altimeter setting tertentu maka kita harus segera mematuhinya, jadi semua pesawat yg berada di airport
tersebut akan memiliki setting altimeter yang sama, gunanya apa? Gunanya untuk traffic separation. Karena
semua pesawat akan membaca altimeter yang seragam.
Coba bayangkan misalnya tidak seragam, pasti ada yg membaca ketinggian 3000ft (Indicated Altitude) tetapi
True Altitudenya bisa cuma 2000, dan sebaliknya... Dan ini sangat berbahaya bagi keamanan penerbangan.
Lantas kapan kita mengeset Altimeter kita ke 29.92 inHG atau 1013mb?
Ketika kita sudah mencapat Transition Level maka kita harus segera merubah altimeter setting kita ke
standard, kenapa? Ini sekali lagi untuk traffic separation, jadi pada ketinggian FL (di Indonesia 13000 ftke atas)
pesawat sudah tidak mungkin lagi untuk terus menerus merubah altimeter sesuai altimeter local, maka hal
ini di permudah dengan pengesetan standard pressure.
Apabila udara lebih panas daripada rata-ratanya pesawat akan lebih tinggi dari yang ditunjukkan oleh
altimeternya.
Apabila udara lebih dingin daripada rata-ratanya pesawat akan lebih rendah daripada yang ditunjukan
altimeternya.
Apabila temperatur menurun selama perjalanan pesawat, pesawat akan lebih rendah daripada ketinggian
yang ditunjukan altimeternya.
Apabila temperatur naik selama perjalanannya, pesawat akan lebih tinggi daripada yang ditunjukkan
altimeternya.
The effects of temperature changes on
an aircraft's altitude:
· When air is warmer than average the airplane will be higher

than the altimeter indicates
· When air is colder than average the airplane will be lower
· When temperature lowers en route, the airplane is lower
· When temperature rises en route, the airplane is higher than
the altimeter indicates
When the air is warmer than the standard, the altimeter reads lower than the
airplane's true altitude.
When the air is colder than the standard, the altimeter reads higher than the
airplane's true altitude.
THE E
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WIND
Differences in temperature create

differences in pressure
Wind:
What makes it blow?
• Wind is the movement of air from a region of

high pressure to a region of lower pressure.
These areas of high and low pressure are
created from temperature differences caused
by the sun heating the earth.
WIND
Horizontal movement of the
air and has a vector quantity
because has SPEED and
DIRECTION
SPEED IN KNOT
( MIL / HOURS )
DIRECTION IN DEGREES
A wind
vane
shows
wind
direction
but an
anemo -
meter can
measure
wind
speed too.
SURFACE WIND = 10 M
Beaufort Speed Speed Description Effects on the Environment
Code Miles Kilometers
per Hour per Hour
0 <1 <1 calm smoke rises vertically

1 2-3 1-5 light air smoke drifts slowly
2 4-7 6 - 11 light breeze leaves rustle, wind can be felt, wind vanes move
3 8 - 12 12 - 19 gentle breeze leaves and twigs on trees move
4 13 - 18 20 - 29 moderate breeze small tree branches move, dust is picked up from
the ground surface
5 19 - 24 30 - 38 fresh breeze small trees move

6 25 - 31 39 - 51 strong breeze large branches move, telephone and power
overhead wires whistle
7 32 - 38 51 - 61 near gale trees move, difficult to walk in the wind

8 39 - 46 62 - 74 gale twigs break off from trees
9 47 - 54 75 - 86 strong gale branches break off from trees, shingles blown off
roofs
10 55 - 63 87 - 101 whole gale trees become uprooted, structural damage on
buildings
11 64 - 74 102 - 120 storm widespread damage to buildings and trees
12 > 75 > 120 hurricane severe damage to buildings and trees
SKALA BEAUFORT
BUYS BALLOT’S LAW
• IF YOU STAND WITH YOUR BACK TO THE WIND IN THE NORTHERN
HEMISPHERE, LOW PRESSURE IS ON YOUR LEFT
• IF YOU STAND WITH YOUR BACK TO THE WIND IN THE SOUTHERN

HEMISPHERE LOW PRESSURE IS ON YOUR RIGHT
• BUYS BALLOT’S LAW THUS MEAN THAT IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

THE WIND FLOWS CLOCKWISE AROUND AN ANTICYCLONE (HIGH
PRESSURE AREA), AND ANTICLOCKWISE AROUND A CYCLONE (LOW
PRESSURE)
THIS IS REVERSED IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
BUYS BALLOT’S LAW BREAK DOWN IN THE TROPIC, IT IS OF

LITTLE OR NO VALUE WITHIN ABOUT 20° OF THE EQUATOR
Buys ballot’s law
summarize this concept for both hemispheres
W
I
N
D
S
P
L
O
T
T
I
N
G
• FOR EXAMPLE IF THE WIND IS REPORTED AS
360 ° AT 15 KNOTS THE WIND IS
COMING FROM THE NORTH (360 °)
AND HAS A STRENGHT OF 15 KNOTS
• HOW ABOUT 250° AT 50 KNOTS ?

Gusts and Lulls
A gust is a sudden increase in wind speed, often with a change in direction. It lasts only for a few
seconds and is very local.
A lull is a sudden decrease in wind speed.
A gust factor is sometimes used to indicate the amount of gustiness.
e.g. With gusts up to 60 kts and lulls of 30 kts; the mean windspeed must be 45 kts.
Squalls
A squall is a sudden increase in wind speed, often with a change in direction. It lasts for some minutes
and can cover a wide area. It is associated with cumulo nimbus cloud and cold fronts.
Gales
A gale is a condition where the wind speed exceeds 33 kts, or if the wind gusts exceed 42 kts.
Hurricanes
A hurricane (Typhoon, Cyclone) means a wind speed exceeding 63 kts.

Wind:
What makes it blow?
• Wind is the movement of air from a region of

high pressure to a region of lower pressure.
These areas of high and low pressure are
created from temperature differences caused
by the sun heating the earth.
THE BASIC FORCES OF WIND
• PRESSURE GRADIENT
• CORIOLIS FORCE
• FRICTION FORCE
PRESSURE
Pressure Gradient
PRESSURE GRADIENT
Isobar spacing and the
magnitude of the pressure
gradient
can The magnitude of the
pressure gradient be
assessed by noting the
spacing of the isobars....
if the isobars are close
together, the pressure
gradient is large
if the isobars are far apart,
the pressure gradient is
small
Pressure Gradient
Force
Air flows from high pressure

to low pressure
wind speed depends on

“steepness” of pressure gradient
isobar spacing shows steepness

of pressure gradient
G
R
A
D
I
E
N
T
W
I
N
D
The Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)
Direction - the pressure gradient

force direction is ALWAYS directed
from high to low pressure and is
ALWAYS perpendicular to the
isobars
Pressure Gradient Force

Coriolis Effect
wind is deflected to the right

(Northern hemisphere)
Due to earth’s rotation
Effect greater with greater wind

speed
Effect greatest at poles,

decrease to zero at equator
Coriolis Effect
Coriolis Force
Coriolis effect
• . In the top diagram, two

forces are assumed to be
acting on moving wind, a
pressure gradient force
(PGF) moving from higher
to lower pressure states,
and the Coriolis force (CF)
in the northern
hemisphere. The
resultant curving path is
shown in green
Cyclonic and Anticyclonic winds in
Airart International northern hemisphere
Cyclonic & Anticyclonic Air Flow
Frictional Force
“Friction causes wind to shift directions when near

the earth’s surface.”
Surface Winds - Friction
surface winds experience
friction force
friction force depends on

terrain
inflow (convergence)
around a Low
outflow (divergence)
around a High
FRICTION
• Near the Earth's surface,

friction of moving wind
accross terrain or open
water becomes a factor.
Here the resultant wind
direction is a vectorial sum
of the PGF, CF, and FF
(frictional force). At some
altitude, where friction is
nil, in this case a
geostrophic wind has
evolved
Friction
• FRICTION HAS THE EFFECT OF REDUCING THE WIND SPEED AND CHANGING ITS
DIRECTION.
• FRICTION IS VERY SIGNIFICANT AT LOW LEVELS BUT CAN SAFELY NEGLECTED AT

ABOUT 2000 FEET OVER THE SEA AND 3000 FEET OVER LAND (EXCEPT WHERE THE
LAND IS VERY RUGGED).
WINDS IN THE FRICTION LAYER ARE OFTEN TURBULENT AND GUSTY.
FRICTION CAUSE THE LOW LEVEL WIND TO BLOW AT A CROSS ISOBAR ANGLE
TOWARDS LOWER PRESSURE
THE CROSS ISOBAR ANGLE OF THE SURFACE WIND IS TYPICALLY ABOUT 20

DEGREE OVER THE SEA AND 35 DEGREES OVER A LAND SURFACE OF AVERAGE
ROUGHNESS
THE CROSS ISOBAR ANGLE IS GREATEST WHEN THERE IS A RUGGED LAND

SURFACE, THE LATITUDE IS LOW AND THE STABILITY IS HIGH
THE SURFACE WIND HAS TYPICALLY ABOUT 2/3 OF THE GRADIENT WIND SPEED
OVER THE SEA AND ABOUT HALF THE GRADIENT WIND SPEED OVER LAND
• FRICTION HAS THE EFFECT OF REDUCING THE WIND SPEED AND CHANGING ITS
DIRECTION.
• FRICTION IS VERY SIGNIFICANT AT LOW LEVELS BUT CAN SAFELY NEGLECTED AT

ABOUT 2000 FEET OVER THE SEA AND 3000 FEET OVER LAND (EXCEPT WHERE THE
LAND IS VERY RUGGED).
WINDS IN THE FRICTION LAYER ARE OFTEN TURBULENT AND GUSTY.
FRICTION CAUSE THE LOW LEVEL WIND TO BLOW AT A CROSS ISOBAR ANGLE
TOWARDS LOWER PRESSURE
THE CROSS ISOBAR ANGLE OF THE SURFACE WIND IS TYPICALLY ABOUT 20

DEGREE OVER THE SEA AND 35 DEGREES OVER A LAND SURFACE OF AVERAGE
ROUGHNESS
THE CROSS ISOBAR ANGLE IS GREATEST WHEN THERE IS A RUGGED LAND

SURFACE, THE LATITUDE IS LOW AND THE STABILITY IS HIGH
THE SURFACE WIND HAS TYPICALLY ABOUT 2/3 OF THE GRADIENT WIND SPEED
OVER THE SEA AND ABOUT HALF THE GRADIENT WIND SPEED OVER LAND
TYPES OF WIND
GEOSTROPHIC WIND
GRADIENT WIND
LOCAL WIND
• Sea / Land Breeze
• Katabatic Wind
• Anabatic Wind
• Fohn Wind
• Gust and Squalls
Geostrophic winds
The horizontal air pressure gradient causes air parcels to accelerate
across isobars from areas of high pressure toward areas of low
pressure.
The Coriolis effect then deflects air parcels to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere. As the wind gains speed, the Coriolis effect
increases in magnitude until it balances the pressure gradient
force.
The result is an unaccelerated horizontal wind blowing parallel to

isobars that is called the geostrophic wind
Curved Flow and the Gradient Wind
wind flow (Northern hemisphere):
clockwise around a High - anticyclone
counterclockwise around a Low - cyclone

• THE GRADIENT WIND IS STRONGER THAN THE
GEOSTROPIC WIND AROUND AN ANTICYCLONE
(HIGH PRESSURE ) BUT WEAKER THAN THE
GEOSTROPIC WIND AROUND A DEPRESSION
(CYCLONIC /LOW PRESSURE )
• SO THE GRADIENT WIND IS THE WIND WHICH

BLOWS PARALEL AROUND CURVED ISOBARS
Surface Wind
During the day, surface heating causes turbulent mixing and an increase in wind speed at the surface.
During night the air cools down, turbulence ceases, and the friction has full effect.
Over land from night to day the surface wind approximately doubles and veers by about 15º. Wind
speeds are highest at around 1500 hours as this is when there is greatest surface heating. Wind
speeds are lowest at around 0600 hours when temperatures are lowest.
• WHEN THE PRESSURE GRADIENT IS SLIGHT WE MAY SOMETIMES WILL
EXPERIENCE SIGNIFICANT WIND. THYE CAUSED BY LOCAL FACTORS
RATHER THAN THE SYNOPTIC SCALE OR LARGE SCALE PATTERNS
• TYPICALLY THE WIND SPEED IN THE SEA BREEZE IS ABOUT 10 TO 20 KNOTS
• OVER NARROW PENINSULA THERE IS TH EPOSSIBILITY OF TWO SEA BREEZES, ONE FROM EACH
COAST ,CONVERGING. WHERE THIS OCCURS A LINE OF RAIN SHOWERS MY DEVELOP.
• THE SEA BREEZE CAN ALSO COMBINE WITH THE GRADIENT WIND , EXAMPLE THE GRADIENT WIND
DIRECTION IS WESTERLY, THEN THE SEA BREZE EFFECT ON WEST COAST WILL ENHANCE THE GRADIENT
WIND EFFECT CAUSING STRONGER WINDS FROM WESTERLY QUARTER AT THE SURFACE. HOWEVER IF THE
GRADIENT WIND IS WESTERLY THE SEA BREEZE EFFECT ON AN EAST COAST MAY CANCEL THE GRADIENT
WIND EFFECT SO THERE IS LITTLE SURFACE WIND.
• IF SEA BREEZE DEVELOPS UNDER WEAK PRESSURE GRADIENT INCREASE DURING THE DAY
THERE IS A POTENTIALLY HAZARDOUS SITUATION. THE SEA BREEZE MAY STILL EXIST AT THE
SURFACE BUT A WIND BASED ON THE INCREASING PRESSURE GRADIENT MAY EXIST JUST
ABOVE. A STRONG WIND SHEAR MAY RESULT.
• SOMETIMES UNDER FAVOURABLE HUMIDITY CONDITION, THE RISING AIR AT THE SEA BREEZE
FRONT FORMS CLOUDS WITH SHOWERS. THE LEADING EDGE OF THE SEA BREEZE CAN ALSO
BE AN AREA OF SIGNIFICANT TURBULENCE.
• THE LAND BREEZE TEND TO BE LIGHTER THAN THE SEA BREEZE AND IN MOST CASES ITS
ONSET IS GRADUAL. WHEN THE LAND BREEZE COMBINES WITH FUNNELLING EFFECT IN
VALLEYS IT MAY BE QUITE STRONG
Valley Breeze
Mountain Breeze
Katabatic winds occur at night when cool air sinks down
mountain slopes and valleys.
Anabatic winds occur when sun-warmed air rises and gently
flows up mountain slopes and valleys.
SANTA ANNA RIVER
SEASONAL WINDS
Chinook Wind
• A Chinook is produced by a downsloping wind. As air downslopes it
warms adiabatically and decreases in relative humidity. The Chinook is
common in the northern plains of the United States in winter.
FOHN WIND
– Dust storms and sandstorms
form in dry regions, where
strong winds are able to lift
and fill the air with particles
of fine dust.
– One such storm is known as
a haboob.
– The haboob forms as cold
downdrafts along the
leading edge of a
thunderstorm lift up dust
and sand into a huge,
tumbling dark cloud.
– Common in the African
Sudan and SW US (S.
Arizona).
Effect of Wind on Airplane Performance
• Wind has a direct effect on airplane performance. During takeoff, a

headwind will increase the airplane performance by shortening the
takeoff distance and increasing the angle of climb. However, a tailwind will
decrease performance by increasing the takeoff distance and reducing the
angle of climb. The decrease in airplane performance must be carefully
considered by the pilot before a downwind takeoff is attempted.
• During landing, a headwind will increase airplane performance by
steepening the approach angle and reducing the landing distance. A
tailwind will decrease performance by decreasing the approach angle and
increasing the landing distance. Again, the pilot must take the wind into
consideration prior to landing.
• During cruise flight, winds aloft have somewhat an opposite effect on
airplane performance. A headwind will decrease performance by reducing
groundspeed, which in turn increases the fuel requirement for the flight. A
tailwind will increase performance by increasing the groundspeed, which
in turn reduces the fuel requirement for the flight
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STABLE AND UNSTABLE AIR
proses adiabatik adalah sistem yang tidak melakukan
pertukaran panas dengan lingkungannya. Ini berarti ketika
sistem melakukan usaha – apakah gerakan atau kerja mekanik
– itu idealnya tidak menjadikan lingkungan sekitarnya hangat
atau dingin
An adiabatic process is a process in which no

heat is transferred. This can happen if the
process happens so quickly that there is no
time to transfer heat, or if the system is very
well insulated from its surroundings.
TEMPERATURE LAPSE RATE AND INVERSION
STANDART LAPSE RATE

( 1.98 ° C / 1000 Feet )
ENVIRONMENTAL LAPSE RATE ( ELR )

( The actual measured Lapse Rate )
DRY ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE ( DALR )

( 3 ° C / 1000 Feet )
SATURATED ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE

( 1.5 ° C / 1000 Feet )
LAPSE RATE PROFILE
UNSATURATED AIR
• Unsaturated air moving

upward and downward
cools and warms at
about 3.0° C per 1,000
feet. This rate is the “dry
adiabatic rate of
temperature change”
• Adiabatic warming of
downward moving air
produces the warm
Chinook wind.
SATURATED AIR
• Condensation occurs
when saturated air
moves upward. Latent
heat released through
condensation
• the saturated adiabatic
rate of cooling is slower
than the dry adiabatic
rate
• In the above diagram, the moist air parcel is initially 7&degC at the surface. It is initially unsaturated
and cools according to the dry adiabatic lapse rate. At the LCL it is saturated and cools according to
the moist adiabatic lapse rate. The diagram shows that the parcel is warmer than the surrounding air
both above and below the LCL; thus, the entire layer illustrated by this diagram is categorized as
unstable. As we have pointed out, in an unstable layer, the initial lifting force is only needed to get to
the parcel going upwards. Immediately after the lifting begins, the parcel is buoyant and convection
will continue on its own. Unstable environments are common in the afternoons during the summer
and are often responsible for producing late afternoon thunderstorms. A typical set of conditions is
depicted in this diagram.
Atmospheric Stability
• Stability-the atmosphere’s resistance to
vertical motion.
“Stability of an air mass is decreased by

warming from below.”
Lapse rate– the rate of change of temperature to

change in altitude. 2 C or 3.5 F per 1000 feet.
Atmosphere Stability
• “The actual lapse rate can be used

to determine the stability of the
atmosphere”
CLOUDS—STABLE OR UNSTABLE
• Stratiform Clouds
clouds in stable air form
in horizontal, sheet-like
layers or “strata.” within
a stable layer, clouds
are stratiform
• Cumuliform Clouds
within an unstable layer,
clouds are cumuliform
• Flying Conditions Unstable Air
A pilot flying in unstable conditions is likely to encounter
clouds of the heap or cumuliform type, possibly containing
quite violent down draughts, the flight will be bumpy and
there is likely to be showers and possibly thunderstorms.
• Flying Conditions Stable Air

A pilot flying in stable conditions will have a smooth flight and
any cloud encountered will be of the layer type. The weather
will usual y be fine although drizzle cloud may occur. Surface
visibility will be moderate to poor owing to the concentration
of atmospheric impurities beneath the stable layer.
Often fog or mist or haze could be experienced in these
conditions. Visibility above an inversion layer or above cloud
will be good, but remember it is illegal to operate a microlight
above cloud.
STABILITY
Summary
ELR > DALR - Unstable in all circumstances
ELR = DALR - Neutral if unsaturated; unstable if saturated
ELR < DALR but > SALR - Stable if unsaturated; unstable if saturated
ELR = SALR - Stable if unsaturated; neutral if saturated
ELR < SALR - Stable in all circumstances
ELR is negative - Stable in all circumstances
Stable : ELR < SALR < DALR

Unstable : ELR > SALR > DALR
Conditionally : ELR > SALR < DALR
Stable
STABILITY
General Wx
Stable Air Unstable Air
Clouds Stratiform Comuliform
Visibility Poor Good
Precipitation Light continuous Showery
Flying
Smooth Turbulence
condition
inversion
TYPES OF INVERSION
The three most common forms of inversion

are:
– Surface (radiation) inversion;
– Subsidence inversions; and
– Frontal or sea breeze inversions.
1. Surface (radiation) inversion
The Physical Environment

SURVACE (RADIATION) INVERSION
Conditions recuired for surface

inversion:
– Clear sky at night ( absence of
cloud);
– Calm or light wind; and
– Suitable surface to promote
radioation cooling (land)
Characterristics of surface
inversions:
– Very shallow, normally only
a few hundred feet thick;
– Ussualy very intense
– Small temperature rise
through it (about 10 oC).
Temperature Inversions
• “A surface-based temperature
inversion is often produced by
terrestrial radiation on clear, cool
nights when the air is relatively
calm.”
2. Subsidence inversions
• Subsidence inversions
form when subsiding air
undergoes adiabatic
heating aloft, while air
in contact with
the surface remains
cooler

SUBSIDENCE INVERSION
SUBSIDENCE INVERSION
Subsidence inversions are characteristic of
anticyclones ( or areas of high pressure). As we
will discuss later, subsidence of air is part of the
formation process of anticyclone. The air in the
top layers of the tropopouse tends to subside
more, with greater adiabatic warming, than the
air in the lower levels. The result is relatively
warm air overlying the lower layer.
Typicaly, subsidence inversions occur at heights

of 2 to 6,000 ft in mid-latitudes, they are most
pronoounced and lowest near the centre of a
high pressure system.
conditions required for subsidence inversion:
– The existence of an anticyclone.
Characteristic of a subsidence inversion:
– Lies between 2,000 ft and 6,000 ft above
the surface;
– Is frequently quite strong 9up to 15 oC
temperatures rise);
– May be up to 500 ft deep.
SUBSIDENCE LAYER
• Los Angeles is notorious for its smog layers. The combination of hot air
coming from the desert, off the mountains and into the Los Angeles
Basin that is then underridden by cool air off the ocean produces this
common condition;
3. Frontal or sea breeze inversion

SIGNIFICANCE OF INVERSIONS
The significance of an inversion to us as pilots is:

– The atmosphere is very stable , and vertical movement of
the air will be resisted;
– They may limit the vertical development clouds; and
– Becouse there will be warm air overlying cold, there may
be a windshear when flying through an inversion.
Temperature Inversions
• “A smooth, stable layer of air and a

temperature increase with altitude are
features of a temperature inversion.
Visibility in an inversion is usually poor due
to trapped pollutants. In addition, high
humidity beneath a low-level temperature
inversion can contribute to the formation of
fog, haze, or low clouds
FLAYING CONDITIONS IN INVERSIONS
The general flying conditions which can be experienced with inversions can be
summarized as follows
– Vertical windshear. There is nearly always a more-or-less sudden change in the wind
vector when climbing or descending through an inversion..
– Density Change. An inversion marks the boundary between layers of air having sharply
contrasting temperatures. This literally results in an aeroplane gaining lift, thrust and
power while descending into an inversion. The reserve happens when climbing throught
an inversion.
– Turbulence. Becouse of an existence of windshear and the density chnage., an aircraft
which flies in the vicinity of an inversion may expect to experience turbulence of varying
degrees. On occations, this turbulence may be quite severe, and force the pilots to
consider changing level to avoid it.
– Climb Performance. The sudden change the air density may be considered a bonus to an
aircraft descending into an inversion, but it could be a serious problem to an aircraft
climbing our in critical conditions. The sudden loss of lift, thrust and power could cause
an aeroplane to level out whilst climbing. If the associated windshear results in picking
up a tail wind as well, the result could be truly disastrous if departing from an
aerodrome in country confined by terrain or costacles early in the morning.
– Cloud and visibility, visibility beneath as inversion is worse than that above it
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Clouds
“Clouds, fog, or dew always form when water vapor
condenses.”
“A small and decreasing temperature/dewpoint spread

indicates conditions are favorable for the formation of fog.”
THE CLOUD TYPE/CLOUDS OCCUR IN THREE LEVELS
• HIGH LEVEL CLOUD (CIRRIFORM CLOUD)

( 21000 ft --up )
• MEDIUM LEVEL CLOUD (ALTO CLOUD)

(6000 - 21000 ft )
•LOW LEVEL CLOUD

( From Ground up to 6.000 ft at all region )
VER
VERTICAL CLOUD From low level –high level cloud
High clouds
CI Cirrus: (L.=curl) White
patches, banners or
delicate filaments.
CC Cirrocumulus: Thin white

patch, sheet or layer with small
CS Cirrostratus: Transparent, regularly arranged elements in
amorphous whitish veil of the form of grains or ripples.
May merge into CS and
fibrous or smooth appearance produced by turbulence aloft,
over much of the sky. Halos often associated with a front or
about the sun or moon. upper level disturbance.
Medium level clouds
• AS Altostratus:
Greyish/bluish sheet,
possibly 8 oktas, of
uniform, often striated
or fibrous
• AC Altocumulus:
White/grey patch,
bands or sheet of
regularly arranged
globular elements NS
• Nimbostratus:
Dense grey/dark thick
layer, often with ragged
or diffused base, with
continuous
precipitation.
• Altocumulus (Ac). A layer
or series of patches of
rounded masses of cloud
that may lie in groups or
lines. Sometimes they
indicate the approach of a
front but usually they have
little value as an indication
of future weather
developments.(right)
• Altostratus (As). A thick veil
of grey cloud that generally
covers the whole sky. At
first, the sun or moon may
be seen through the cloud,
but they disappear as the
cloud gets thicker. The
presence of altostratus
indicates the near approach
of a warm front. Some light
rain or snow may fall from
thick altostratus. Icing may
occur in this cloud. (right)
• Nimbostratus (Ns). A low
layer of uniform, dark grey
cloud. When it gives
precipitation, it is in the
form of continuous rain or
snow. The cloud may be
more than 15,000 feet thick.
It is generally associated
with warm fronts.(right).
Ns actually occur in the
middle level but extend
upwards and downwards
into other two levels
Low level clouds
ST Stratus: (L. = spread, laid

down) Grey uniform layer with
fairly even base from which drizzle
may descend. Sun outline may be SC Stratocumulus: Grey/whitish
visible. patch, sheet or layer of separate or
partly merged globular masses or
rolls with dark shading and
generally irregular appearance.
CU Cumulus: (L. = heap) White

heaped tops, generally gey
horizontal bases. Usually sharp
outline but may be ragged. Vertical
development varies greatly with
atmospheric buoyancy and bases
can be at low or medium levels.
Formed by convection or possibly
orographic ascent.
CLOUDS OF VERTICAL DEVELOPMENT
• The bases of this type of cloud may form as
low as 1500 feet up into higher levels.
• They are composed of water droplets when
the temperature is above freezing and of ice
crystals and supercooled water droplets when
the temperature is below freezing.
• moderate turbulence
• Cumulus (Cu). Dense clouds
of vertical development.
They are thick, rounded and
lumpy and resemble cotton
balls. They usually have flat
bases and the tops are
rounded. They cast dense
shadows and appear in
great abundance during the
warm part of the day and
dissipate at night. When
these clouds are composed
of ragged fragments, they
are called cumulus fractus.
(left*)
Clouds with Vertical Development
• Cumulus Clouds
Vertical cloud development and turbulence result from the lifting of

unstable air
• Towering Cumulus (TCu).
Cumulus clouds that build
up into high towering
masses. They are likely to
develop into
cumulonimbus. Rough air
will be encountered
underneath this cloud.
Heavy icing may occur in
this cloud type.(right*)
•
Towering Cumulus
• Cumulonimbus (Cb).
Heavy masses of
cumulus clouds that
extend well above the
freezing level. The
summits often spread
out to form an anvil
shaped top that is
characteristic of
thunderstorm.(left*)
• Cumulonimbus Clouds
Vertically developed clouds
• CB Cumulonimbus:
• Heavy, dense cloud

with massive vertical
development, bases at
low or medium levels
with tops possibly
reaching the
tropopause. Base
usually very dark with
lighter inflow areas,
heavy showers or
virga, frequently low
ragged turbulence
cloud mixed with it.
Produced by vigorous
convection. [Virga is
precipitation which
evaporates before
reaching the surface.]
Forms of cloud
1. CUMULIFORM CLOUD
FLUFFY OR LUMPY CLOUD RISING UP INTO THE
ATMOSPHERE. THEY ARE USUALLY SPACED APART
FROM EACH OTHER AND CREATED BY UNSTABLE
CONDITIONS.
2. STRATIFORM CLOUD
FLAT OR SHEET-LIKE CLOUD THAT COVER A LARGE
PART OF THE SKY AND CREATED BY STABLE
CONDITIONS
AMOUNT OF CLOUD
• SKC – sky clear, no cloud.
• FEW – few clouds, one to two oktas cover.
• SCT – scattered, 3 – 4 oktas cover. Clear
intervals between clouds
predominate.
• BKN – broken, 5 – 7 oktas. Cloud masses
predominate.
• OVC – overcast, 8 oktas. Continuous, no
clear intervals.
T
H
E
C
L
O
U
D
C
O
V
E
R
SPECIAL REPORTS OF CB CLOUD COVER
ON TAFOR USED FORMAT :

FEW ; SCT ; BKN
( FEW 017 CB , SCT 018 CB )
ON ROFOR ( SIG WX CHARTS ) USED FORMAT :

ISOL ; FRQ ; OCNL ; EMBD
( ISOL CB , OCNL CB )
CONDENSATION LEVELS
• THE LIFTING CONDENSATION LEVEL (LCL) IS

THE LEVEL TO WHICH A PARCEL OF AIR
WOULD NEED TO BE LIFTED TO BECOME
SATURATED
Calculating cloud base
• The dewpoint decreases at about 0.5 C/1000

ft
• Cloud base in feet =

(air temperature – dewpoint ) X 400
example..T = 17 C Td (dewpoint) = 12 C
cloud base = (17 – 12 ) x 400 = ..2000 ft
THE CAUSED OF CLOUD/ Lifting Forces
• CONVECTION
• FRONTAL SYSTEM
• TURBULENCE AND MIXING
• OROGRAPHIC UPLIFT
• CONVERGENCE
Lifting sources
• There are four
main processes
which provide the
lifting source for
moist air to form
cloud:
• Convection
• Front
• Orographic
• convergence
Front
• The boundary between

two contrasting air masses
is called a Front
Types of front
• Cold fronts
• Warm fronts
• Occluded fronts
• Stationary fronts
Cold Front
Warm Front
Occluded Fronts
Turbulence Cloud
Cloud formation other than through lifting
• If air near the ground is cooled in calm

condition dew forms
• If there is a light wind a shallow layers of air
near the ground becomes cooled to saturation
and we got fog
• With more wind of some surface heating the
layer may not be saturated at the ground but
at some level above the ground, thus stratus is
formed
CLOUD DISSIPATION
SUBSIDENCE
PRECIPITATION
MIXING WITH DRIER AIR
Cloud base
• Cloud base in weather reports and terminals is given as the
height above the airfield level. In route forecasts it is given as
the height above mean sea level.
KINDS OF CLOUDS
NUCLEI
THE CONDENSATION PROCESS MAY BE DELAYED IF
THERE ARE INSUFFICIENT CONDENSATION NUCLEI IN
THE AIR, OR CONVERSELY, CERTAIN TYPE OF
CONDENSATION NUCLEI MAY INDUCE
CONDENSATION SHORTLY BEFORE 100% RELATVE
HUMIDITY IS REACHED.
TYPICAL CONDENSATION NUCLEI ARE SMALL

PARTICLES OF HYGROSCOPIC (DUST, SALT, ETC)
SUPERCOOLED WATER
• Water droplets colder than 0° C are

supercooled
• supercooled water can result in aircraft icing
• Supercooled water drops very often are in
clouds at temperatures between 0° C and −15°
C with decreasing amounts at colder
temperatures.
INTI KONDENSASI
THE ACTUAL VALUE OF THE DEWPOINT
TEMPERATURE FOR A PARTICULAR PARCEL OF AIR
VARIES, DEPENDING UPON THE AMOUNT OF WATER
VPOUR IT CONTAINS. IF THE AIR IS MOIST (FOR
INSTANCE OVER A TROPICAL OCEAN), THE
DEWPOINT MAY BE QUITE HIGH, SAY 25* C, IF THE
AIR IS DRY , THE DEWPOINT TEMP. MAY BE QUITE
LOW.
IF THE AIR TEMP FALLS TO A DEWPOINT TEMP WHICH
IS ABOVE FREEZING , THE WATER VAPOUR WILL
CONDENSE AS LIQUID WATER DROPLETS AND E
BECOME VISIBLE AS CLOUD, FOG, OR DEW, IF THE
DEWPOINT TEMP IS BELOW FREEZING, THE EXESS
WATER VAPOUR MAY CHANGE TO ICE CRISTAL.
IF THE AIR IN WHICH CLOUDS FORM IS UNABLE TO

SUPPORT THE WATER DROPLETS (IF THEY BECOME
TO LARGE AND HEAVY), THEN THE DROPS WILL FALL
AS PRECIPITATION (RAIN, HAIL OR SNOW )
Precipitation Processes (Collision and Coalescence)
virga
INTENSITY OF PRECIPITATION
• In a stable cloud such as stratus, there is very little
vertical motion, not even enough to sustain small
water droplets. They frequently escape and drift
slowly to the earth. This form of precipitation is
called drizzle
• large drops and heavy precipitation are an indication
of strong vertical motion.
• Steady precipitation falls from a layer of stratus
cloud. A shower, a sudden heavy burst of
precipitation, falls from a well developed cumulus or
cumulonimbus cloud, which may be embedded in a
stratus layer. Precipitation may take many forms.
TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
• DRIZZLE
Precipitation in the form of very small drops of water which appears to float is
called drizzle. At temperatures at or below the freezing level, drizzle will freeze
on impact with objects and is known as freezing drizzle.
• RAIN
Precipitation in the form of large water droplets (radius more than 0,5 mm) is
called rain. Freezing rain is composed of supercooled water droplets that freeze
immediately on striking an object which is itself at a temperature below freezing.
SNOW
• In the formation of snow, the invisible water vapor in the air sublimates directly
into ice crystals, without passing through any intermediate water stage. Snow
flakes are formed of an agglomeration of ice crystals and are usually of a
hexagonal or star like shape. Snow grains are tiny snow crystals that have
acquired a coating of rime. They fall from non-turbulent clouds.
• HAIL
Small balls of ice (hailstone), with diameter ranging from 5-50 mm
Sleet and Freezing Rain
– Consider a falling snowflake, as
it falls into warmer air it begins
to melt.
– However, if there is a
subfreezing layer of air near the
surface, the partially melted
snowflake or cold raindrop turns
back into ice, not as a
snowflake, but as a tiny ice
pellet called sleet.
– If the cold surface layer is too

shallow to refreeze raindrops as
they fall, they reach the surface
as supercooled liquid drops.
Upon striking objects at the
surface, they almost
immediately refreeze.
Dew on plant and webs
Hail
KIND OF PRECIPITATION
Why Hail Can be Bad
.
Clouds to be at least 4,000 feet thick when significant
precipitation is reported. The heavier the precipitation, the
thicker the clouds are likely to be.
Icing on your aircraft when flying through liquid clouds or
precipitation with temperature freezing or colder.
Comulonimbus cloud Heavy precipitation –short time
Stratiform cloud light precipitation long time

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VISIBILITY
HORIZONTAL VISIBILITY
SLANT VISIBILITY
RVR
Define (meteorological) ‘visibility
• Jarak penglihatan mendatar suatu benda yang masih
dapat terlihat dengan jelas(yang dilaporkan adalah
jarak penglihatan mendatar yg terdekat), kalau
malam hari dengan cahaya lampu yang dapat terlihat
jelas
In meteorology, visibility is a measure of

the distance at which an object or light can
be clearly discerned
VISIBILITY FACTORS
Precipitation
Mist or Fog
Wind Blown Sea Spray
Smoke , Salt
Blown Snow
Dust or Stand
Pollutant
• Visibility in cloud
in cumulus or cumulonimbus it may be down to 10
metres, and 1000 metres in cirrus
Heavy tropical rain visibility 50- 500 metres
Heavy rain in midle latitude less than 1000 m, moderate
range 3 to 10 km.
In drizzle the visibility is consistenly lower, especially if
fog is present
Snow also reduce visibility more than rain , in moderate
snow is 1000 m or even less, heavy snow 50-200 m
In general solid particles, by refraction be said to reduce
visibility more than liquid water in the same
concentration.
• Visibility in smoke depends on the :
- rate of introduction …to be greatest in
densely populated or industrial areas
- rate of dispersal must be considered

vertically and horizontally.. The faster the
wind the faster the dispersal. The lighter the
wind , especially combined with an
inversion, the more serious the visibility
reduction becomes.
- distance from the source

The distance at which the pilot of an incoming aircraft can see the runway, the slant
range, this can differ widely from meteorological horizontal visibility since:
a) The oblique visibility may be better or worse: Day -- good down-sun, poor up-sun
in haze and similarly at night;
b) The visual range of high-powered runway light is usually greater than the
meteorological visibility.
The view of the ground seen by a pilot from the air is sometimes not representative
of what he will see on the final phases of approach. An example of this is when the
airfield has a fairly shallow layer of fog reducing horizontal visibility to say 500
meters.

The implications are clear for pilots: when the official report says the visibility is low in fog,
mist, or haze it is unwise to place too much weight on an inviting view of the runway from
above. Air to ground visibility is vitally important from the navigational aspect, especially for
the pilot flying under the Visual Flight Rules (VFR). For example, duststorms in the drier parts
of Kenya, Northern Kenya, can affect large areas of the region making visual navigation
impossible.

Cloud, precipitation, dust, smoke, and haze reduce in-flight visibility. Sometimes an
awareness of the causes of these lowered visibility situations can lead to a safer and more
pleasant flight. Visibility can be very poor in snow.

At most modern airports visibility along the runway (about 2 meters above ground) is
measured by instruments and this is available to the pilots. This visibility is called the
Runway Visual Range (RVR).

Clouds -There is an extremely wide range of visibility within cloud and particularly in
thick fog when it is less than 200 m. Low rain-bearing clouds are the densest with
visibility down to a few meters.
Precipitation - In rain, the number of particles (rain drops) in a given volume at any
one time is relatively small. Thus, moderate rain does not reduce visibility to below 4
km and heavy rain rarely below 1000 m (fog threshold). But snow is a most effective
agent in reducing visibility.
( When relative humidity reaches almost 100% and
visibility is reduced to less than 1000m )
Fog is a surface based cloud
What Causes Fog
• Fog is a cloud that touches the ground.
Visibility less than 1000 m
• Fog forms when the air at ground level is
cooled enough to reach its saturation point.
This is also known as Relative Humidity that
equals 100%.
• Mist is a cloud that touches the ground.
Visibility more than 1000 m
Types of Fog
• Radiation or Ground Fog
Radiation fog is relatively shallow fog. Radiation fog is also known as
ground fog. It is produced near the ground. It is formed by the cooling of
land after sunset by thermal (infrared) radiation in calm conditions with
a clear sky. The cool ground produces condensation in the nearby air by
heat conduction.
• Ideal condition for radiation fog
high relative humidity
sky clear in the night
light wind ( not a complete calm)
low soil temperature
If moderate winds… the result may be stratus
The depth .. Height of person to hundreds of metres
Radiation fog may form any time in the night, sometimes after
down and will generally clear by mid morning because of solar
radiation. It can occurs persist into the day when a cloud
sheet develops above the fog.
Radiation Fog
Fog
“Radiation fog forms in moist air over low, flat areas on

clear, calm nights.”
RADIATION FOG
• Radiation fog is relatively shallow

fog “Ground fog” is a form of
radiation fog
• Terrestrial radiation cools the
ground; in turn, the cool ground
cools the air in contact with it.
When the air is cooled to its dew
point, fog forms.
• Conditions favorable for radiation
fog are clear sky, little or no wind,
and small temperature-dew point
spread (high relative humidity).
• Ground fog usually “burns off”
rather rapidly after sunrise
• illustrates ground fog as
seen from the air
ADVECTION FOG
• Advection fog forms when

warm moist air moves over
colder ground or water/sea
• It usually requires only a

moderate wind. In stronger
wind…. likely have cloud
than fog
• Advection fog does not

necesssarily during the day
ADVECTION FOG
• Advection fog is
created when warm
moist air passes over a
cool surface
Advection fog
• Advection fog is created when warm moist air passes over a
cool surface, and the air is cooled. As the air is cooled it
reaches its relative humidity saturation point and fog is
formed. This kind of fog is common as a warm front passes
over an area with significant snow pack.
Fog
Advection Fog
“Advection and upslope fog requires wind for formation. Both

types of fog commonly occur along coastlines where sea
breeze transport air from warm water to the cooler land
surfaces.”
Steaming Fog
Steaming fog occurs when cold air moves over a warm water
surface
Steaming fog common in the Artic where air flows from the land or
ice to open sea
steaming fog forming over a lake as cool air flows over the warm water.
Steam fog
UPSLOPE FOG
• Upslope fog forms

when winds blow air
up a slope. This flow
upwards causes the
warm air to cool as it
rises, which causes the
moisture in it to
condense and form fog.
Upslope fog
Valley fog
• Valley fog forms in mountain valleys, often during the fall, winter and
early spring. It is the result of a temperature inversion caused by heavier
cold air settling into in a valley, with warmer air passing over the
mountains above. It is essentially radiation fog confined by local
topography, and can last for several days in calm conditions.
Valley fog
Precipitation fog
• Cloud extending to the ground formed from
evaporation of rain
• Evaporation of water from wet warm ground

after a shower
HAZE AND SMOKE
• Haze is a concentration of
salt particles or other dry
particles
• horizontal visibility is good.
However, downward
visibility from above a haze
layer is poor, especially on a
slant
• illustrates smoke trapped
under a temperature
inversion.
Slant visibility
THE E
THE ND
END
THUNDERSTORMS
THUNDERSTORM
• BADAI GUNTUR ADALAH GUNTUR YANG TERJADI BERULANG-ULANG ,
FREKWENSI GUNTUR MENUNJUKKAN INTENSITAS DARI TS TERSEBUT
DIKATAKAN :
---RINGAN JIKA DALAM 1 MENIT GUNTUR TERJADI 1 KALI ATAU KURANG

---SEDANG GUNTUR TERJADI RATA-RATA 2 KALI TIAP MENIT
---HEBAT GUNTUR TERJADI RATA-RATA 3 KALI ATAU LEBIH PER MENIT
TS SERING DISERTAI ENDAPAN TETAPI ADAKALANYA TIDAK, ENDAPANNYA

ADALAH JENIS SHOWERS SERING DISERTAI HAIL. DALAM BERITA CUACA
DIBERITAKAN TSRA (KALAU DISERTAI HUJAN) DAN TS SAJA KALAU TIDAK ADA
ENDAPAN.
Ordinary Cell
Multi-cell Cluster
Multi-cell Line (Squall Line)
Supercell Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms
• Needed for development of thunderstorms

– Unstable conditions
– Lifting force
– High moisture levels
Life Cycle
• Cumulus /Initial stage is characterized by

continuous updrafts.”
• Mature stage characterized by updrafts and
downdrafts , Thunderstorms reach the greatest
intensity during the mature stage which is
signaled by the beginning of precipitation.”
• Dissipating thunderstorm is characterized by
downdrafts.”
Cumulus Stage
• Lifting action begins the vertical movement
• Continuous updrafts
• Condensation creates clouds, releases latent
heat which continues vertical development
• No precipitation falls
• 3000’/minute updrafts
• Grows rapidly into towering cumulus
• 15 minutes
Dissipating Stage
• 15 to 30 minutes after precip begins

• Characterized by downdrafts
• Weakens
• Stratiform appearance, gradually dissipates
• Anvil lasts longer – ice cloud
HAZARDS OF THUNDERSTORM
Generally associated with the Thunderstorm
as the developmentof CB cloud
with unpleasant weather
The phenomenon of Thunderstorm usually
associated by :
Heavy Rain
Hail
Gusty/Squall
DOWN BURST
Microburst
Windshear / Turbulance
Tornado
LIGHTNING
ICING

• What is a
microburst?
• A microburst is a severe
downdraft from a
thunderstrorm..It is
conffined to a small
area,, less than 4km
(2..5miles) in diameter
from the initial point of
downdraft impact..
• The average microburst
lasts for ten minutes..
• Microburst
Types - Wet
• Wet Microburst – A
downdraft
accompanied by heavy
• precipitation and
severe winds at the
surface..
• Microburst
Types – Dry
• Dry Microburst –
A downdraft
accompanied
• by little to no
precipitation alog
with severe
winds at the
surface.
DOWNDRAFT
TORNADO
WATERSPOUT
DI DOKUMEN PELAYANAN METEO BANYAKNYA AWAN CB YANG DIPRAKIRAKAN DI
PAKAI ISTILAH:
ISOL = ISOLATED YAITU CB TUNGGAL

OCNL= OCCASIONAL = BEBERAPA CB YANG JARAKNYA AGAK JAUH
FRQ = FREQUENSI = BEBERAPA CB YANG JARAKNYA
BERDEKATAN/ HAMPIR TIDAK ADA JARAK
EMBD= EMBEDDED = AWAN CB DENGAN AWAN LAIN YANG
BASISNYA BERBEDA
DI WILAYAH INDONESIA YANG PALING BANYAK MENGALAMI TS YAITU DAERAH

BOGOR DAN BAGIAN TIMUR SUMSEL SEDANG YANG PALING SEDIKIT DI
DAERAH NTB DAN MALUKU UTARA
THUNDERSTORM PADA RADAR
RADAR CUACA MENDETEKSI BUTIR-BUTIR ENDAPAN AIR YANG ADA DI UDARA. SEMAKIN RAPAT ATAU BESAR BUTIR-
BUTIR ENDAPAN SEMAKIN TEBAL GEMANYA TERGAMBAR. HAIL GEMANYA PALING KUAT DISUSUL SHOWERS DAN YANG
PALING LEMAH HUJAN RINGAN.
SELAIN DARI GEMANYA , TS DAPAT DIKENALI DARI BENTUKNYA , SKALA HORIZONTAL DAN VERTIKALNYA
• Use of airborne radar to avoid heavy precipitation and turbulence. When
echoes are extremely intense, avoid the most intense echoes by at least
20 miles. You should avoid flying between these very intense echoes
unless they are separated by at least 40 miles. Hazardous turbulence and
hail often extend several miles from the storm centers.
The Squall Line
Frequently you will see lines of thunderstorms like this
on the radar.
THUNDERSTORM DAN PENERBANGAN
TS DAPAT BERPINDAH DAN BERKEMBANG DENGAN CEPAT JATUHNYA HAIL DAPAT TERJADI SAMPAI
JARAK BEBERAPA MIL DARI AWAN CB DAN DAERAH BAHAYA TURBULENSI DAPAT MELUAS SAMPAI 20
MIL ATAU LEBIH. OLEH SEBAB ITU AWAN CB YANG TERLIHAT DI LAYAR SEDAPAT MUNGKIN DIHINDARI
SEKURANG-KURANGNYA 20 MIL.
SUATU PENERBANGAN DAPAT MENEMBUS CUACA YANG GEMANYA TERGAMBAR DI LAYAR RADAR
TERGANTUNG DARI INTENSITAS GEMA , JARAK ANTARA GEMA, KEMAMPUAN PESAWAT DAN
PENERBANG, NAMUN JANGAN MENGANGGAP RINGAN SUATU TS WALAUPUN GEMANYA PADA LAYAR
RADAR TAMPAK RINGAN
BEBERAPA HAL YANG PERLU DILAKUKAN ATAU TIDAK DILAKUKAN UNTUK MENGHINDAR DARI
THUNDERSTORM
1. JANGAN MENDARAT /TINGGAL LANDAS DIDEPAN ARAH MENDEKATNYA TS. PERUBAHAN ARAH
DAN KECEPATAN ANGIN (WIND SHEAR) YANG MENDADAK ATAU TURBULENSI LAPISAN BAWAH DAPAT
MENYEBABKAN KEHILANGAN KONTROL
2. JANGAN MENCOBA MENEROBOS DIBAWAH AWAN TS WALAUPUN SISI LAINNYA TERLIHAT .
TURBULENSI DIBAWA AWAN TSB BERBAHAYA (DOWN BURST)
3. JANGAN MENCOBA MENGELILINGI TS YANG DERAJAT PENUTUPANNYA 5/8 ATAU LEBIH
4. HINDARI SEKURANG-KURANGNYA 20 MIL SUATU TS YANG DI IDENTIFIKASIKAN SEBAGAI TS HEBAT
ATAU GEMANYA KUAT DI LAYAR RADAR
• 5. MENGHINDARI TS LEWAT DIATAS PUNCAK AWAN TS HAL INI AKAN MELEBIHI KEMAMPUAN
KETINGGIAN KEBANYAKAN PESAWAT.
• 6. KILAT YANG TERANG BENDERANG DAN BERULANG KALI MENUNJUKKAN TS YANG HEBAT BIASANYA
PUNCAKNYA MENCAPAI 35,000 FT ATAU LEBIH.
• APABIAL PENEROBOSAN THUNDERSTORM TIDAK DAPAT DIHINDARKAN, BEBERAPA HAL YANG PERLU
DILAKUKAN SEBELUM MENEROBOS TS TERSEBUT.
1. PAKAI SABUK PENGAMAN , PAKAI SHOULDER HARNESS, AMANKAN BENDA-BENDA LEPAS

2. RENCANAKAN JALUR LINTASAN YANG MEMERLUKAN WAKTU PENEROBOSAN PALING SINGKAT
DAN TETAP DITEMPAT TSB.
3. UNTUK MENGHINDARI CRITICAL ICING YANG HEBAT TETAPKAN KETINGGIAN PENEROBOSAN
DIBAWAH FREZZING LEVEL ATAU DI ATAS LAPISAN - 15 C
4. ON KAN PITOT HEAT DAN CARBURATOR ATAU JET INLET HRAT. ICING DAPAT MENGURANGI
POWER ATAU KECEPATAN.
5. TETAPKAN POWER SETTING PENETRATION AIR SPEED YANG DISARANKAN DALAM BUKU MANUAL
UNTUK MENGURANGI TURBULENSI
6. MAXIMUMKAN LAMPU COCKPIT UNTUK MENGHINDARI BAHAYA KEBUTAAN SESAAT KARENA KILAT
7. JIKA MENGGUNAKAN AUTOMATIC PILOT BEBASKAN ALTITUDE DAN SPEED HOLD MODE KARENA
PENGGUNAANYA AKAN MENAMBAH MANUVER PESAWAT
BEBERAPA HAL YANG PERLU DAN TIDAK PERLU DILAKUKAN
SELAMA MENEROBOS TS
1. TETAP ARAHKAN MATA KE INSTRUMENT , MELIHAT

KELUAR DAPAT MENAMBAH BAHAYA KEBUTAAN SESAAT
AKIBAT KILAT.
2. JANGAN UBAH POWER SETTING , PERTAHANKAN SIKAP,
BIARKAN PESAWAT MENGARUNGI GELOMBANG
3. JANGAN BERBALIK SURUT, TERUS MENEROBOS TS AKAN
LEBIH CEPAT KELUAR DARI BAHAYA, DAN LAGI PERUBAHAN
MANUVERS MENAMBAH STRESS PADA PESAWAT
DI BAGIAN DASAR BIASANYA
TERDAPAT ROLL/SQUALL CLOUD
YANG MEMPUNYAI KECEPATAN 300-
600 KM/JAM
TURBULENSI DALAM TS DISEBABKAN

OLEH DRAFT DAN GUST, DRUFT
KEATAS DISEBABKAN KEKUATAN
DORONG AKIBAT PERBEDAAN
KERAPATAN UDARA DENGAN
SEKITARNYA, KECEPATANNYA DAPAT
MENCAPAI 3000 FT/MENIT.
KECEPATAN DRAFT KEATAS HAMPIR
SAMA DENGAN DRAFT KEBAWAH
YANG PADA UMUNYA DAPAT
MENCAPAI PERMUKAAN TANAH
LALU MENYEBAR MERUPAKAN ARUS
DINGIN DAN GUST
(GUST YANG KUAT BIASANYA
TERJADI PADA DAERAH BATAS
UDARA DINGIN DAN PANAS)
INFORMASI METEOROLOGI PENERBANGAN
INFORMASI METEOROLOGI PENERBANGAN TERBAGI ATAS :
1. Sebelum mengudara ( befor take off ) / Pre- flight antara lain

dalam bentuk briefing / display dan dokumen tertulis sepanjang
route penerbangan ( Flight Doc ) dan kedaan cuaca bandara tujuan
untuk penerbangan ( TAF )
2. Selama dalam penerbangan ( in flight ) antara lain : informasi berita berita cuaca /
forecast yang disebarkan melalui radio ( broadcast )
3. Setelah mendarat, antara lain : debriefing oleh awak pesawat tentang keadaan
cuaca yang dialami selama penerbangan kepada petugas meteorologi untuk
diteruskan kepada pemakai lain.
Jenis-Jenis Informasi Meteorologi untuk Penerbangan antara lain :
I. Local Routine Report ( Met Report ) And Local Special Report

( Special ) atau yang lebih dikenal dengan QAM
II. Aerodrome Weather Report – METAR dan SPECI
III. Aerodrome Forecast – TAFOR
IV. Area Forecast – ARFOR
V. Route Forecast – ROFOR
VI. Significant Meteorologi – SIGMET
VII. Flight Documentation
VIII. Air Report ( AIREP )
IX. Pilot Report ( PIREP )

Contoh Met Report dalam Pengiriman via AFTN ( Denpasar ) :
DD WADDYMYX
220855 WADDYMYO
METAR WADD 0900Z 23007KT 7000 FBLRAIN FEW015CB SCT020 29 / 24 1015
29,78 1009 29,68 , CB TO WEST NOSIG =
II. AERODROME WEATHER REPORT - METAR
Ketentuan Umum :
1. Aerodrome Weather reports atau METAR adalah nama sandi laporan cuaca rutin untuk
penerbangan yang dibuat setiap jam atau 1/2 jam sekali pada jam penuh atau jam
tengahan.
2 Metar mempunyai format penyandian yang standar/ baku dan dapat ditambahkan satu
seksi berisikan TREND FORECAST
3 Berita Metar dikirimkan melalui fasilitas komunikasi bandara ( AFTN )

untuk dipertukarkan antar bandara dan di broadcast melalui ATIS.
4. TREND adalah prakiraan kecendrungan perubahan cuaca yang memenuhi

kriteria tertentu , diluar kriteria tersebut diganti dengan kata NOSIG.
TREND dibuat oleh Forecaster.
5. Pengamatan unsur cuaca dalam METAR hampir sama dengan Met Report
6. Unsur-Unsur cuaca yang dilaporkan dalam METAR adalah :
- Wind – Arah ( Derajat ) dan Kecepatan angin ( Knot )
- Visiblity – Penglihatan mendatar
- Runway visual Range – Penglihatan mendatar di sepanjang

landasan
- Present Weather – Kondisi Cuaca
- Cloud – Keadaan Awan
- Temperatur dan Titik Embun
- Altimeter Setting – Tekanan Udara ( di atas permukaan laut dan di

atas landasan )
- Remarks – Informasi tambahan atau TREND

Trend forecast ditambahkan melengkapi pelaporan METAR/SPECI dan
hanya dibuat oleh forecaster on duty.
Trend dibuat apabila diprakirakan akan terjadi perubahan cuaca yang

bermakna dalam periode prakiraan 2 jam kedepan yang meliputi
elemen – elemen cuaca : Angin permukaan , Visibility, Kondisi awan,
dan phenomena Cuaca seperti Hujan, Guntur Kabut
NOSIG dipakai jika tidak ada perubahan cuaca yang berarti maka
trend forecast disandi NOSIG. ( berarti tidak ada cuaca yang buruk/
significant ).
Format Sandi Trend Forecast : TTTT TTGGgg atau NOSIG
Indikator perubahan cuaca dinyatakan dengan sandi : TEMPO ( Temporary ) , BECMG

( Becoming ).
Kelompok waktu perubahan TTGGgg disandi dengan diawali penunjuk

waktu perubahan dan tidak dipisahkan dalam sandi : FM ( from ), TL
( until ) dan AT ( at ).
Contoh METAR dengan sandi ( tanpa Trend ) adalah :
METAR cccc YYGGggZ dddff VVVV TT/TdTd QPHPHPHPH TTTT/

NsNsNs hshshs
TREND
METAR WIMM 070630Z 12004KT 8000 FEW017CB SCT017 31/23 Q1008 NOSIG
Penjelasan :
Metar Bandara Denpasar ( WADD) yang dikeluarkan tanggal 7 pukul
0630 UTC,Arah angin 120° ; Kecepatan angin 4 knots ; visibility 8 km
Few CB 1700 feet Scattered 1700 feet ; Temperatur 31° C ; suhu
titik embun 23°C ; QNH 1008 hectopascals ; Trend forecast tidak
ada krena tidak ada perubahan yang significant 2 jam ke depan.
( NOSIG ).
Contoh METAR dengan sandi Trend :
METAR WADD 080630Z 06004KT 6000 FEW017B SCT018 30/25 Q1008

TEMPO FM 0800 3000 TSRA SCT015CB BKN016=
Penjelasan :
Metar Bandara Polonia ( WIMM ) yang dikeluarkan tanggal 8 pukul
0630 UTC,Arah angin 060° ; Kecepatan angin 4 knots ; visibility 6km ;
Few CB 1700 feet Scattered 1700 feet ; Temperatur 30°C ; suhu titik
embun 25° C; QNH 1008 hectopascals ; TEMPO dari pukul 08.00 UTC
visibility 3000 meter , cuaca hujan guntur dan awan Scattered
Cumulonimbus ( CB ) 1500 feet; broken 1600 feet.
CONTOH METAR DENGAN CUACA BURUK :
METAR WIMM 180900Z 25010KT 1000 +TSRA SCT015CB BKN017 27/26

Q1008 BECMG TL 0915 20006KT 3000 -TSRA=
METAR WIMM 120100Z 00000KT 0500 +FU ///003 25/24 Q1006 TEMP0
FM 0210 1000=
CONTOH METAR DENGAN CUACA BAIK :
METAR WIMM 120330Z 00000KT 9999 WXNIL SCT020 29/26 Q1009 NOSIG
CAVOK ( Ceiling and Visibility OK ) dipakai untuk menggantikan group Sandi Visibility
( VIS ), Weather ( WX ) dan Awan ( Cloud ) pada berita METAR dan SPECI . Kondisi tersebut
terjadi bersamaan apabila :
Visibility 10 km atau lebih
Tidak ada awan dibawah 1500 meter ( 5000 feet ), dan tidak ada awan Cumulonimbus
( CB ).
Tidak ada cuaca buruk seperti hujan , guntur dan Kabut.
CONTOH METAR DENGAN SANDI CAVOK :
METAR WIMM 110200Z 06004KT CAVOK 28/26 Q1009 NOSIG=

METAR AUTO (provided by Automatic Weather Stations (AWS))
METAR NZNS 011400Z AUTO 35004KT 310V010 29KMNDV -SHRA OVC048/// 19/16
Q1021
Routine Meteorological Aerodrome Report for

Nelson aerodrome, issued at 1400 UTC on the 1st of
METAR NZNS 011400Z AUTO
the month. Observation made by an Automatic
Weather Station.
Surface wind: 350 degrees true, 4 knots. Wind
35004KT 310V010 direction varying between 310 degrees true and 010
degrees true.
Visibility: 29 kilometres, and no directional variation
29KMNDV
is reported.
-SHRA Weather: Light shower of rain.
Cloud: Overcast cloud (8 oktas) with a base at 4800

feet above aerodrome. The three strokes (///) indicate
OVC048///
that no TCU or CB cloud could be identified by the
Automatic Weather Station.
Temperature: 19 degrees Celsius, Dew Point: 16
19/16
degrees Celsius.
Q1021 QNH: 1021 hectoPascals.
• Notes about METAR AUTO Reports:
• At aerodromes where METAR AUTO are issued, no SPECI observations are
provided.
• METAR AUTO are issued routinely every 30 minutes, on the hour and half-
hour, day and night.
• Lightning data from an independent lightning detection network will be
added to METAR AUTO to provide additional observational data.
• METAR AUTO will not include directional visibility variations, “vicinity” (VC)
present weather, or cloud type (ie, TCU and CB).
• When the weather sensor is unable to detect weather, either because the
weather is clear or because the current weather condition is not detectable,
two strokes (//) are inserted in the present weather field.
• When no cloud is detected by the cloud sensor, NCD (No Cloud Detected) is
used instead of SKC (sky clear).
• When cloud is detected, three strokes (///) are placed at the end of each
cloud layer group, to indicate that the AWS could not identify TCU or CB.
Format Lengkap Sandi Metar/Speci Dan Trend
METAR
Or CCCC (YYGGggZ) (AUTO)
SPECI
KMH or
dddffGfmfm KT or dndndn Vdxdxdx
MPS
RDRDR/VR VR VR VRi
VVVVDV VXVXVXVXDY Or
Or RDRDR/VR VR VR VR VVR VR VR VR
CAVOK
NSNSNS hshshs
or
w’ w’ VV hshshs T’T’ / T’d T’d QPn PnPn Pn
or
SKC
WS RWYDRDR
Rew’w’ or (RMK…..)
WS ALL RWY
KMH or
(TTTTT TTGGgg dddffGfmfm KT or
or MPS
( NOSIG) NS NS NS hs hs hs
or
TABEL SANDI 4678 (Publikasi WMO No. 306)
WEATHER PHENOMENA
QUALIFIER
Intensity or Descriptor Precipitation Obsuration Other

proximity
- FBL (Light) MI Shallow DZ Drizzle BR Mist PO Dust /

BC Paches RA Rain FG Fog Sand
Whirl
Moderate PR Partial (covering part SN Snow FU Smoke SQ Squall

(no qualifier) of the aerodrome)
DR Low Drifting SG Snow VA Volcanic

grain Ash
+ HVY( Heavy ) BL Blowing IC Ice DU Widespre FC Funnel
( well developed in SH Shower (s) Crystal Ad dust Clouds
the case of dust / PE Ice Pellets SA Sand (tornado
sand whirl and or water spout)
funnel clouds) SS Sand
Storm
TS Thunder Storm GR Hail
VC In FZ Freezing (supercool) GS Small HZ Haze DS Dust

the vicinity hail Storm
and/or
snow
pellets
Singkatan-singkatan yang biasa dipakai :
Altocumulus ISOL Isolated SCT Scattered
AC
AM Amend KT Knots (s) SEV Severe
D
AS Altostratus M Minus SIG Significant
BK Broken (5-7/8) MS Minus SKC Sky clear
N
CB Cumulonimbus MOD Moderate ST Stratus
CC Cirrocumulus NOSI No sifnificant change T Temperature (to
g follow)
CI Cirrus N North TAF Aerodrome
forecast
CS Cirrostratus NS Nimbostratus TCU Towering cumulus
CL Cloud OCNL Occasional TTF Trend-type
D forecast
CU Cumulus OVC Overcast TURB Turbulence
E East PROB Probability VIS Visibility

FM From PS Plus W West
FT Feet Q QNH to follow WX Weather
G Gusts RF Rainfall (to follow) Z UniversalTime
Coordinate
HP Hectopascals S South
a
CONTOH : METEOROLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL AGENCY
LOCAL ROUTINE REPORT( MET REPORT ) and LOCAL SPECIAL REPORT
Indentification of the Type of Report Met Report

Location Indicator WIMM
Time of Observation 220900z
Surface Wind, Direction, Speed and 230/07 KT

Significant Variation
Horizontal Visibility 7 KM
Runway Visual Range -
Present Weather FBL/Light Rain
Cloud Amount, Type and height of Base Few 1500 CB, Sct 2000 ft
Air Temperature and Dew Point temperature 29 °C / 25 °C
QNH 1011 Hpa
Pressure value QNH 29,80 InHg
QFE 1008 Hpa

Pressure value QFE 29,77 InHg
Suplementary Information CB IN APCH WS RWY05

Trend Type Landing Forecast NOSIG
Time of Issue : 08.55 Z Observer : Maas,S
3. AVIATION SELECTED SPECIAL WEATHER REPORT/Special Report- SPECI
Ketentuan Umum :
SPECI dibuat apabila terjadi perubahan cuaca yang significant(membaik /memburuk ) bila
terjadi seperti :
1. Wind Shift yaitu perubahan arah angin 45° atau lebih dalam selang waktu kurang dari 15
menit sedang kecepatan angin 10 knots atau lebih
2.Jika terjadi kecepatan angin berubah 10 knot atau lebih dari kecepatan angin sebelumnya
sedang kecepatan angin dan atau sesudah terjadi perubahan telah mencapai 30 knot atau
lebih.
3. Jarak penglihatan berkurang sampai kurang dari , atau jika di bawah, atau bertambah
menjadi : 5000 m, 3000 m , 1500 m .
4. Jika Runway Visual Range kurang dari 800 meter.
5. Cuaca bermakna ( Significant) dilaporkan setiap saat bila terjadi :

Awal dan berakhirnya Thunderstorm
Awal dan berakhirnya Hujan
Ketika berlangsungnya Squalls ( Angin Kencang )
6. Awan dilaporkan jika lapisan paling rendah Jumlahnya BKN atau OVC , tinggi dasar awan
berubah menjadi atau melampaui batas ketinggian 1000 feet ( 300 meter )
7. Jika jumlah awan dari lapisan dengan tinggi dasar kurang dari 1500 feet ( 450 m ) berubah
dari FEW atau SCT menjadi BKN atau OVC
8. Jika langit kabur, dan vertikal visibility berubah menjadi atau melampaui batas ketinggian
100, 200, 500 atau 1000 feet.
9. Temperatur dilaporkan jika terjadi perubahan suhu udara sebesar 2° C atau lebih dari
laporan yang terakhir.
Contoh Speci dengan Sandi :

SPECI WIMM 090635z 06004KT 6000 -RA FEW016CB SCT017
30/25 Q1007 TEMPO TL 0700 3000 TSRA SCT015CB BKN016=
Penjelasan :
SPECIAL REPORT WIMM 090635z 060/04kt VIS 6000 WX FBL RA CLOUD FEW CB 1600FT
SCT1700FT T30 DP25 QNH 1007 TEMPO TL 0700 VIS 3000 WX MOD TSRA CLOUD SCT CB
1500FT BKN 1600FT.
CONTOH SPECI PADA CUACA BURUK :
SPECI WIMM 111238Z 27020G35KT 0600 +TSRA SCT015CB OVC015
26/25 Q1007 TEMPO TL 1300 21007KT 1800 TSRA=
SPECI WIMM 100010Z 00000KT 0400 +FG SCT010

26/26 Q1007 BECMG 0040 1200=
IV.3 AERODROME FORECAST – TAF
Ketentuan Umum :
1. Terminal Aerodrome Forecast ( TAF ) adalah prakiraan cuaca bandara
yang dibuat oleh forecaster on duty dengan validity standar 24 jam (
ROBEX ) dan dibuat4 kali sehari yaitu : TAF 0024, 0606, 1212, 1818
UTC dan validitas 9 jam untuk lokal yaitu : TAF 0009, 0312, 0615 ,
0918. 1221, 1500, 1803 , 2106 UTC.
2. Dibuat dalam bentuk sandi maupun bahasa jelas ( plain Language ) dan
dikeluarkan paling lambat 2 jam sebelum validitasnya.
3. Tafor dikirimkan melalui fasilitas komunikasi bandara ( AFTN ) dan

diteruskan ke pusat colecting Tafor Regional untuk dipertukarkan
dengan bandara lain.
4. Tafor dapat dibuat Amandemen ( Amd ) jika terjadi perubahan cuaca

yang significant dalam periode prakiraan.
CONTOH :Format Sandi Lengkap TAFOR
KMH or
TAF YYGGggZ CCCC dddffGfmfm KT or

G1 G1 G2 G2 MPS
VVVV w’w’ NsNsNs hshshs

or or V V hshshs or
CAVOK NSW SKC or NSG
TTTTT GGGeGe
PROBC2C2 GGGeGe or
TTGG
Contoh TAFOR dengan Sandi
CCCC YYGGggZ YYG1G1/YYG2G2 dddff VVVV ww NsNsNs hshshs
TAF WIMM 130230Z 1306/1406 25005KT 5000 HZ FEW017CB

SCT018
TTTT yyGG/yyGeG2 dddff vvvv ww

TEMPO 1308/1312 36010kt 2000 TSRA
NsNsNs hshshs NsNsNs hshshs
FEW015CB BKN016=
Penjelasan : Tafor Rutin Bandara Polonia Medan ( WIMM ) yang dikeluarkan tanggal
13 pukul 0230 UTC, berlaku tgl 13 jam 06 utc s/d 14 06.00 utc; arah angin
250° ; kecepatan angin 5 knot ; visibility 5 km ; Cuaca haze; awan FEW
CB 1700 feet; Scattered 1800 feet; perubahan cuaca temporary antara
1308 utc dan 1312 utc arah angin permukaan 360°; kecepatan angin 10 knot visibility
2000 meter; cuaca hujan sedang disertai guntur
; awan FEW CB 1500 FEET; awan BROKEN 1600 feet.
Contoh :
ARFOR VALID 220600/221200 MEDAN
SFC WSPD : 050/10KT
SFC VIS : TEMPO 1012 3000M
SIGWX : TEMPO 1012 ISOL TS
SIGCLD : TEMPO 1012 ISOL TCU 1500/12000FT
FZLVL : 15000 FT
WIND/TEMP : FL050 27010KT PS07, FL100 12015KT PS05
FL170 09020KT MS04=
VI. ROUTE FORECAST ( ROFOR )
Ketentuan Umum :
1. Rofor adalah nama sandi prakiraan cuaca untuk penerbangan antara

dua aerodrome tertentu atau lebih.
2. Keterangan pada METAR / SPECI dan TAFOR juga berlaku dalam

Rofor
3 Dibuat oleh Stasiun Meteorologi klas I untuk disebarkan ke stasiun

yang berada dalam pengawasannya. ( Klas II dan Klas III ).
4. Pembuatan laporan disesuaikan dengan kondisi pesawat yang

beroperasi di daerah kawasan prakiraan. ( Jet, propeller atau Heli )
Contoh Berita Rofor :
ROFOR 170820Z 0012 KT WIMM WIBB 8000 TEMPO 0912 LOC MON
3000 TSRA ISOLEMBDCB015 7370155 SCT017 7110XXX
4050XX 16010 4100XX 32015 4185M07 07015 4245M18
08020 4295M30 08030=
Penjelasan :
Route Fcst tgl 17 valid 0012 utc, KT, pengenal satuan Kecepatan angin.
Route fcst Medan – Pekanbaru.
Vis 8000 m
Local ( mountain area ) 3000 m.
Cuaca significant TSRA ( Hujan guntur ) , isolated embdCB , tinggi dasar
awan CB 1500 feet, puncak CB 37000 feet.
Tinggi freezing level ( 0° C ) 15500 feet, scattered CU base 1700 feet dengan puncak
11000 feet.
FL050 ( 5000 feet ) suhu + , angin 160° / 10KT

FL100 ( 10000 feet) suhu + , angin 320° / 15KT
FL185 ( 18500 feet ) suhu – 07°C , angin 070° / 15KT
FL245 ( 24500 feet ) suhu – 18°C , angin 080° / 20KT
FL295 ( 29500 feet) suhu – 30°C , angin 080° / 30KT
VII. SIGNIFICANT METEOROLOGICAL ( SIGMET )
Ketentuan Umum :
1. Informasi SIGMET dikeluarkan oleh kantor meteorologi pengawas
MWO ( Meteorological Watch Office ) bila terjadi atau diharapkan
terjadi salah satu atau lebih phenomena seperti :
- Active Thunderstorm area

- Squall line
- Turbulence
- Mountain wave
- Volcanic Ash
- Icing
- Duststorm
- Sandstorm
- Hail
Contoh :
WSSR20 WSSS 211830
WSSS SIGMET 04 VALID 211830/220030 UTC EMBD CB/TS OBS
WITHIN SINGAPORE FIR E OF LONG 112E QUASI STNR INTST
NC=
3. File flight dokument ini harus disimpan oleh otoritas Meteorologi dalam bentuk
kopian paling kurang 30 hari dari tanggal dikeluarkannya untuk keperluan
investigasi jika terjadi kecelakaan pesawat ( Crash )
• INFORMASI YANG DITERIMA DARI PESAWAT / PENERBANG
a. AIR REPORT ( AIREP ) :
Laporan berisi informasi cuaca yang dikirimkam oleh pesawat terbang dalam
posisi – posisi tertentu.
contoh : UAPS01 NZKL 080100

AIREP
ANZ23 3448S 17142E 0044 F340 MS51 210/38=
UAE412 3712S 16906E 0020 F350 MS53 226/45=
QFA55A 3606S 16300E 0051 F350 MS52 250/100=
THT087 0442S 16730W 0032 F370 MS50 202/04=
b. PILOT REPORT ( PIREP )

Laporan yang berisi informasi tentang cuaca buruk yang ditemui
selama dalam penerbangan
Contoh : UAJP71 RJCC 080057
PIREP
MOD TURB OBS AT 0057 50NM N OF HPE FL350 BY B777 =
Penjelasan :
Sigmet ke – 4 untuk FIR Singapore berlaku tgl 211830 s/d 220030
utc.Area CB/TS terjadi di daerah FIR Singapore sebelah timur
bujur 112°E dalam kondisi stasioner ( tetap ) intensitas tidak
berubah.
VIII. FLIGHT DOCUMENTATION
1. Flight document merupakan dokumen tertulis yang berisi informasi

meteorologi dalam bentuk chart, form untuk keperluan penerbangan
yang harus diberikan secepatnya kepada awak pesawat atau FOO
sebelum keberangkatan pesawat.
2. Flight document secara garis besar terdiri dari dua macam yaitu
informasi kondisi sepanjang penerbangan dan informasi kondisi
meteorologi di bandara. Informasi tersebut adalah :
- Aerodrome forecast ( Dep, Arr, ALT – TAFOR )

- Upper Wind / Temp, ( Pictural )
- SigWx – Prog Chart
- Tabular forecast of en – route condition ( Low Level )
- Satellite Image ( Long Distance )
• KEPUTUSAN TERBANG ATAU TIDAK
- Setelah penerbang melakukan pengkajian cermat hasil prakiraan
cuaca , informasi cuaca , laporan penerbang dan setelah melakukan
diskusi dengan petugas Meteorologi / ATC baik langsung atau me
lalui jalur komunikasi lainnya , maka keputusan terus terbang atau
tidak , tergantung di tangan penerbang.
- Oleh karena itu penerbang yang bijaksana adalah penerbang yang
selalu menjadikan informasi cuaca sebagai bahan pertimbangan
utama agar terhindar dari hal-hal yang membahayakan.
- Khusus untuk kondisi weather minima ( cuaca buruk ) sesuai
Keputusan Direktorat Perhubungan Udara berlaku ketentuan ;
- Visibility kurang dari 800 meter pesawat tidak bisa landing baik
VFR maupun IFR dan yang telah aproach harus divert.
SOAL LATIHAN :
Interprestasikan berita / informasi meteorologi di bawah ini !!! :
a. MET REPORT WIMM 120900Z 25008KT 1000 HVYTSRA SCTW015CB OVC015

26/25 1009 29,76 1006 29,66 TEMPO FM 0920 3000 RA FEW017CB
BKN018=
b. METAR WIMM 151200Z 27010KT 1000 TSRA FEW017CB BKN017 26/25
Q1007 BECMG TL1310 5000 FEW018CB SCT020=
c .METAR WITT 170300Z 00000KT 9999 SCT025 30/27 Q1010 NOSIG=
d. SPECI WIMM 190910Z 28010KT 2000 FEW017CB BKN017 28/26 Q1008=
d. TAF WIMM 120230Z 12061306 07007KT 8000 FEW018CB SCT020
TEMPO 12101214 3000 TSRA FEW017CB BKN017 BECMG 1416
00000KT 5000=
Automatic Weather Stations
• Most automatic weather stations have [1][5]
• Thermometer for measuring temperature
• Anemometer for measuring wind speed
• Wind vane for measuring wind direction
• Hygrometer for measuring humidity
• Barometer for measuring pressure
• Some of them even have [4]
• Ceilometer for measuring cloud height
• Rain gauge for measuring rainfall
• Present weather sensor and/or visibility sensor
• Unlike manual weather stations, automatic
weather stations cannot report the class and
amount of clouds. Also, precipitation
measurements are difficult, especially for snow
as the gauge must empty itself between
observations. For present weather, all
phenomena which do not touch the sensor, such
as fog patches, remain unobserved
Landing (TREND) Forecast
Changes to the Aerodrome
Forecast (TAF) Format
• TAF YABC 302255Z 0100/0206 01015KT 9000 RA SCT015
BKN100 TX17/0106Z TN08/0119Z INTER 0100/0107 23018KT
6000 SH BKN030 PROB30 0117/0201 0400 FG
• TAF AMD YABC 302255Z

0100/0206 01015KT CAVOK FM011000 22015KT
8000 SHRA BKN100 FM020000 4000 BR SCT020
TAF YABC 302255Z 0118/0224
01005KT 9999 NSW SCT050
TX27/0205Z TN08/0119Z
BECMG 0122/0124 24015KT
8000 SHRA BKN050
• TAF COR YABC 302255Z

0118/0224 01005KT 9999 NSW SCT050 BECMG
0122/0124 24015KT 9999 SHRA BKN050
YANG LAMA
• TAF EGLL 152230Z 160606 13018KT 9999

BKN020 BECMG 0608 SCT013CB BKN020
TEMPO 0812 17025G45KT 3000 TSRA
BKN008CB BECMG 1214 20015KT FEW020
TEMPO 0306 4000 BR=
YANG BARU
• TAF EGLL 160505Z 1606/1712 13018KT 9999
BKN020 BECMG 1606/1608 SCT013CB BKN020
TEMPO 1608/1612 17025G45KT 3000 TSRA
BKN008CB BECMG 1612/1614 20015KT
FEW020
TEMPO 1703/1706 4000 BR TEMPO
1709/1712 BKN012=
• TAF XXXX 160505Z 1606/1712 13018KT 9999
BKN020 BECMG 1606/1608 SCT015CB
BKN020 TEMPO PROB40
1608/1612 17025G45KT 3000 TSRA
SCT010CB BKN020 FM161230 15015KT 9999
BKN020 TEMPO 1703/1706 4000 BR TEMPO
1709/1712 BKN012
TAF
TAF NFFN 300453Z 3006/3106 VRB03KT 9999 −RA FEW006 SCT030 BKN100
TEMPO 3006/3102 34015G25KT 5000 TSRA BKN012 FEW018CB
BECMG 3104/3106 VRB03KT=
TAF NTAA 300500Z 3006/3112 VRB02KT 9999 SCT020

BECMG 3018/3019 20010KT
TEMPO 3018/3104 05015KT PROB30
TEMPO 3018/3104 05015G25KT 3000 SHRA FEW016CB SCT018 BKN040
BECMG 3104/3105 VRB02KT=
TAF NZAA 300501Z 3006/3106 23010KT 9999 BKN030

BECMG 3008/3010 VRB02KT
BECMG 3020/3022 22010KT=
TAF NZWN 300501Z 3006/3106 20010KT 9999 FEW025

TEMPO 3010/3016 BKN009
BECMG 3016/3018 18020G30KT
TEMPO 3016/3020 6000 RADZ BKN009=
TAF YBAS 300425Z 3006/3106 22008KT CAVOK=
TAF YBBN 300427Z 3006/3112 17014KT 9999 −SHRA SCT030 SCT050

FM301000 20009KT 9999 −SHRA SCT020 BKN045
FM310000 15014KT 9999 −SHRA SCT030 BKN050
INTER 3006/3112 3000 SHRA BKN010=
TAF
TAF NZCH 102232Z 1100/1124 20008KT 9999 FEW012 SCT017

TEMPO 1100/1108 BKN012
BECMG 1108/1110 06010KT
TEMPO 1108/1121 6000DZ BKN012
Aerodrome forecast for Christchurch International, issued at 2232

TAF NZCH 102232Z 1100/1124 UTC on the 10th of the month, valid from 0000 UTC on the 11th
to 2400 UTC on the 11th of the month.
20008KT Surface wind: 200 degrees true, 8 knots.
9999 Visibility: 10 kilometres or more.
Cloud: few cloud (1-2 oktas) with a base at 1200 feet above
FEW012 SCT017 aerodrome level, scattered cloud (3-4 oktas) with a base at 1700
feet above aerodrome level.
Temporarily, between 0000 and 0800 UTC on the 11th, broken
TEMPO 1100/1108 BKN012
cloud (5-7 oktas) with a base of 1200 feet above aerodrome level.
Becoming, between 0800 and 1000 UTC on the 11th, wind 060
BECMG 1108/1110 06010KT
degrees true, 10 knots.
Temporarily, between 0800 and 2100 UTC on the 11th, visibility
TEMPO 1108/1121 6000DZ BKN012 will reduce to 6000 metres in drizzle, with broken cloud (5-7
oktas) at 1200 feet above aerodrome level.
ARFOR
• FANZ67 NZKL 282227
ARFOR ST VALID 2200 TO 1100 UTC
1000 15015
3000 14010
5000 08010 PS08
7000 08010 PS05
10000 10010 ZERO
FZL: 10000
VIS: 15KM REDUCING TO 4000M IN SHRA
CLD: AREAS BKN ST 400 ESPECIALLY VC COOK STRAIT
BKN CUSC 4500 TOPS 9000
WX: OCNL SHRA, MAINLY VC COOK STRAIT, EASING ABT
WELLINGTON LATE AFTERNOON
ICE NIL
TURB: NIL
ROFOR
VALID

102000/1106
00
ROUTE
NZRO/NZC
H
ZONE FL100 FL180 FL300 FL340 FL360
NZRO/TM 23006M03 25017M19 25054M45 25065M54 26062M56
TM/
24004M03 24017M19 25055M46 25065M54 26063M56
MEVAX
MEVAX/NS 27003M03 24018M19 26060M46 26068M55 26063M57
NS/PEAKS 26006M03 25016M20 26048M48 26062M56 26060M57
PEAKS/YW 25008M03 24015M21 25040M49 26057M56 26055M57
YW/NZCH 25009M04 24015M21 25037M49 26053M56 26052M57
• ROFOR VALID 102000/110600Route forecast valid from 2000 UTC on
the 10th day of the month until 0600 UTC on the 11th day of the
month.
• ROUTE NZRO/NZCHRoute: Rotorua to Christchurch ZONEThis
column lists the route (NZRO/NZCH) from waypoint to waypoint, eg,
NZRO/TM is for that part of the route from Rotorua to waypoint TM.
FL100 FL180 FL300 FL340 FL360 These columns list the forecast
winds and temperatures at FL100, FL180, FL300, FL340 and FL360,
for each of the zones shown in the “Zone” column. 23006M03 The
forecast winds and temperatures are shown in the following format:
wind direction in degrees true, wind speed in knots, and
temperature in degrees Celsius, eg, in the Zone NZRO/TM, for FL100,
the wind direction is 230 degrees true, wind speed 6 knots and
temperature minus 3 degrees Celsius. Note: The winds and
temperatures represent the average values for the zone concerned,
eg, for the zone NZRO/TM, the winds and temperatures are the
average between NZRO and TM. They are not the winds at NZRO
and TM.
ROFOR
• ROF 100012 WARR - WAOO/WALL9999 LOC
4000 IN TSRA ISOL018CB 7340155 BKN020
7110XXX 405018 30005KT 410011 25005KT
414005 4180M04 28010KT BEC 2000KT
4240M14 29010KT BEC 02010KT 4300M28
4340M38 34010KT BEC 10015KT==
• TAF WSSS 102300Z 1100/1206 VRB05KT 9999 FEW018CB SCT020TEMPO
1103/1109 3000 TSRA SCT012CB BKN015=
• TAF WSAP 102300Z 1100/1206 VRB05KT 9999 FEW018CB SCT020TEMPO
1103/1109 3000 TSRA SCT012CB BKN015=
• TAF WSSL 102300Z 1100/1206 VRB05KT 9999 FEW018CB SCT020TEMPO
1103/1109 3000 TSRA SCT012CB BKN015=
• TAF WAAA 102300Z 1100/1206 12004KT 7000 SCT002BECMG 1101/1103 30010KT
9999TEMPO 1105/1109 5000 TSRA FEW017 SCT019BECMG 1111/1113 11004KT
7000BECMG 1200/1202 32010KT 9999=
• TAF WABB 102300Z 1100/1206 18005KT 9999 SCT018TEMPO 1100/1104 6000 RA
FEW017CBBECMG 1110/1112 00000KTTEMPO 1115/1119 7000 -RA
FEW017CBBECMG 1200/1202 15005KT 9999=
• TAF WADD 102110Z 1100/1124 11010KT 9999 FEW017CB SCT018TEMPO
1100/1103 6000 TSRA FEW017CB BKN017BECMG 1114/1116 VRB05KT=
• TAF WARR 101855Z 1100/1124 10008KT 9999 FEW020TEMPO 1105/1108
FEW018CBBECMG 1109/1111 VRB05KT 8000TEMPO 1116/1119 5000 TSRA
SCT018 FEW018CBBECMG 1120/1122 00000KT=
• TAF WIMM 102222Z 1100/1124 28005KT 7000 SCT017BECMG 1104/1106 36008KT
6000 BKN017TEMPO 1106/1110 4000 TSRA FEW015CB BKN016BECMG 1112/1114
00000KT 5000 HZ SCT017=
• TAF VTBD 102300Z 1100/1206 12005KT 9999 FEW020 SCT120 BKN300
BECMG 1103/1105 20008KT FEW020 BKN300 TEMPO 1106/1111
FEW020CB BKN300 BECMG 1121/1123 14005KT BECMG 1202/1204
18008KT=
• TAF VTBS 102300Z 1100/1206 14005KT 9999 FEW020 SCT120 BKN300
BECMG 1103/1105 18010KT FEW020 BKN300 TEMPO 1107/1111
FEW020CB BKN300 BECMG 1121/1123 14005KT BECMG 1202/1204
18010KT=
• TAF VTBU 102130Z 1100/1124 19006KT 9999 FEW020 BKN300 TEMPO 11
02/1107 VRB10KT 6000 TSRA FEW018CB SCT035 BKN110 BECMG
1108/1110 19008KT=
• TAF VTCC 102300Z NIL=TAF VTSS 102300Z 1100/1124 00000KT 8000
FEW020 SCT120 BKN300 BECMG 1101/1103 21010KT 9999 SCT020
TEMPO 1106/1112 VRB12KT 2000 TSRA FEW016CB BKN020 OVC110
BECMG 1116/1118 00000KT 9000 FEW020 SCT120=
• TAF VGZR 102200Z 1100/1206 16012KT 4000HZ SCT012 BKN100 BECMG
1106/1108 20015KT 5000 HZ SCT015 BKN100 BECMG 1118/1120
18015KT 4500 HZ SCT015 BKN100 BECMG 1205/1206 20015KT 5000
HZ SCT015 BKN100 TEMPO 1100/1118 30030G40KT 2000 RA/TSRA
BKN006 FEW025CB OV080=
• TAF YPAD 102224Z 1100/1206
• 22017KT 9999 -SHRA SCT035 SCT050 • TAF AMD YMML 102238Z 1100/1206
• FM110300 21017KT 9999 SCT040 SCT050 • 26015G25KT 9999 -SHRA SCT020 BKN030
• FM110900 19010KT 9999 -SHRA SCT030 BKN050
• FM111900 VRB05KT 9999 -SHRA FEW025 BKN045
• FM111200 25012KT 9999 -SHRA SCT020
• FM120200 23008KT 9999 FEW035 BKN040 BKN030
• RMK= • FM120000 23014KT 9999 -SHRA SCT030
BKN045
• TAF YBBN 102211Z 1100/1206
• 21006KT 9999 FEW030 • PROB30 INTER 1102/1108 25022G35KT 3000
• FM110200 02008KT 9999 -SHRA SCT035 TSRAGS BKN010 SCT035CB
• FM111100 33007KT 9999 FEW040 • RMK FM110000 MOD TURB BLW 5000FT
• FM111700 25007KT CAVOK
• FM120200 18012KT CAVOK
TILL110800=
• RMK=
• TAF YPDN 102253Z 1100/1206
• 08010KT 9999 FEW030
• RMK=
• TAF YPPH 102213Z 1100/1206
• 08014G26KT CAVOK
• TAF AMD YMML 102238Z 1100/1206 •
•
FM110200 05007KT CAVOK
26015G25KT 9999 -SHRA SCT020 BKN030
• FM111200 25012KT 9999 -SHRA SCT020 BKN030 • FM111600 01014KT CAVOK
• FM120000 23014KT 9999 -SHRA SCT030 BKN045 • RMK
• PROB30 INTER 1102/1108 25022G35KT 3000 TSRAGS BKN010
SCT035CB • FM110000 MOD TURB BLW 3000FT TILL110200=
• RMK FM110000 MOD TURB BLW 5000FT TILL110800=
• TAF YPPH 102213Z 1100/1206

• TAF YSSY 102240Z 1100/1206
• 08014G26KT CAVOK • 30015G25KT CAVOK
• FM110200 05007KT CAVOK • FM110800 25015G25KT 9999 SCT040
• FM111600 01014KT CAVOK
• RMK • FM120000 22020G30KT 9999 SCT035
• FM110000 MOD TURB BLW 3000FT TILL110200= • RMK FM110000 MOD TURB BLW 5000FT=
• METAR WBGB 180500Z 33007KT 9999 FEW016 SCT300 34/26
Q1009=
• METAR WBGR 180500Z 31008KT 9999 SCT014 BKN300 32/25
Q1009=
• METAR WBGS 180500Z 17002KT 9999 SCT016 BKN300 33/24
Q1009=
• METAR WBGY 180500Z 29003KT 9999 BKN023 SCT150 34/25
Q1009=
• METAR WBKL 180500Z 01010KT 9999 FEW014 BKN300 31/25
Q1009=
• METAR WBKS 180500Z 04007KT 9999 FEW016 BKN270 30/24
Q1011=
• METAR WBKT 180500Z 09005KT 9999 FEW016 BKN270 31/24
Q1011=
• METAR WBKW 180500Z 04010KT 9999 FEW017 BKN300
33/24 Q1009=
• T A F O R TAF WAAA 091100Z 0912/1018 12004KT 7000 SCT020 SCT100 TEMPO 0920/0923 BKN090
BECMG 1001/1003 30010KT 9000 TEMPO 1006/1009 8000 FEW018CB BECMG 1012/1014 12004KT 7000=
• TAF WAOO 082300Z 0900/0924 15008KT 9999 FEW018 BECMG 0905/0906 SCT018 BECMG 0911/0912 00000KT 8000=
• TAF WALL 090500Z 24006KT 9000 SCT020 BECMG 0910/0912 8000 TEMPO 0920/0923 FEW018CB BECMG 1000/1002 9000
TEMPO 1005/1008 20008G16KT=
• TAF WADD 090857Z 0912/1012 11010KT 9999 SCT018=
• TAF WARR 090300Z 0906/1006 10010KT 9999 FEW020 BECMG 0915/0917 25003KT 8000
TEMPO 0921/1001 00000KT 4000 HZ BECMG 1001/1003 09010KT=
• TAF WARS 090300Z 0906/1006 13010KT 9000 SCT022 TEMPO 0909/0912 7000 FEW017CB SCT018 BECMG 0915/0917
SCT017 BECMG 0920/0922 00000KT 9000 SCT020 BECMG 0902/0904 13010KT=
• TAF WIHH 090400Z 0906/1006 09008KT 7000 HZ SCT018 TEMPO 0909/0910 4000 RA BKN018
BECMG 0912/0914 5000 HZ SCT020 TEMPO 0921/0923 3000 BR SCT018=
• TAF WIII 091000Z 0912/1018 22005KT 8000 FEW018CB SCT020 PROB30 TEMPO 0912/0915 15005KT 5000 -RA FEW018CB
BECMG 0916/0918 00000KT 4000 BR SCT020 BECMG 1000/1002 08006KT 7000 FEW020 BECMG 1004/1006 33010KT 9000
SCT020=
• TAF WIPP 091030Z 0912/1012 15007KT 9999 SCT017 BECMG 0916/0918 7000 HZ SCT015 TEMPO 0920/0924 00000KT 2000
HZ SCT012 BECMG 1001/1003 17008KT 9999 SCT015 TEMPO 1008/1012 10010KT 7000 -RA FEWCB020 SCT016=
• TAF WIDD 090300Z 0906/1006 20010KT 9999 SCT016 TEMPO 0908/0911 6000 -TSRA FEW017CB SCT015 BECMG 0910/0912
19005KT 9000 SCT017 BECMG 0913/0915 00000KT 8000 BECMG 1000/1002 21010KT 9999 SCT016=
Aviation Weather Reports (METAR)
METAR CYYC 071500Z 04010KT 11/2SM -RAFGFU FEW003 OVC007 05/04 A2983 RMK SF2 ST6 VIS 1 SW SLP
115
Station identification
115
Date and Time of Issue

115
Wind
115
Winds are reported with the first three numbers indicating the direction (rounded to the nearest 10°), while
the last two numbers indicate speed; therefore, in this example the wind is 040° at 10 KTS.

Calm winds are indicated by “00000KT.” Gusty winds are indicated by “G”—24015G20KT—where the winds
are 15 KTS gusting to 20 KTS. Where the winds are light and variable, the abbreviation VRB appears—
220VRB. If variable winds during the ten minutes before the observation varied more than 60° and the mean
(average) speed exceeded 3 KTS, the wind is reported as follows: 030V140.

Remember that wind direction is indicated in degrees TRUE, not magnetic (remember, the only time wind
direction is given as magnetic is when provided by the tower during landings and takeoffs). Wind speed is
always in KTS.
Prevailing Visibility
METAR CYYC 071500Z 04010KT 11/2SM -RAFGFU FEW003 OVC007 05/04 A2983 RMK
SF2 ST6 VIS 1 SW SLP 115
Runway Visual Range

METAR CYYC 071500Z 04010KT 1SM RW34/5000FT/D -RAFGFU FEW003 OVC007 05/04
A2983 RMK SF2 ST6 VIS 1 SW SLP 115
Runway Visual Range (RVR) is used for IFR operations when the prevailing visibility is
well below VFR limits.
Present Weather
Sky Opacity
Temperature, Dew Point, Altimeter Setting Pressure

Special Weather Reports (SPECI)
SPECI appear for reporting stations whenever there is a
significant change in the weather that occurs between scheduled
hourly transmissions. In particular, a SPECI will be issued if any
of the following occur:
ICING
Normal Conditions/ With Icing
Icing may occur
• - in-flight
• or at the surface:
- ground icing.
• One might also categorize icing into:
-airframe icing
-engine icing.
Normally, forecasts of icing are for airframe icing
only.
HAZARDS TO AEROPLANE FROM ICING
THERE THREE BASIC CLASSES OF ICING WHICH PRESENT HAZARD TO

AEROPLANES = AIRFRAME , ENGINE AND CARBURETTOR, ENGINE AND
CARBURETTOR
- ICE BUILD UP ON THE AIRFRAME STRUCTURE CAN MODIFY THE AIR

FLOW PATERN ( WINGS, PROPELLER, BLADE ETC), LEADING TO A SERIOUS
LOSS OF LIFT AND INCREASING IN DRAG.
- A WEIGHT INCREASE AND A CHANGE IN THE POSITION OF THE CENTRE OF

GRAVITY OF THE AEROPLANE, PERHAPS CAUSING SEVERE VIBRATION
AND/OR CONTROL DIFFICULTIES.
- DEGRADATION IN RADIO COMMUNICATION AND RADIO NAVIGATION IF ICE

FORMS ON ANTENNAS AND LOST OF VISIBILITY IF ICE FORMS ON THE
WINDSCREEN.
CONDITION FOR ICE TO FORM
- THERE MUST BE VISIBLE MOISTURE

- THE TEMPERATURE MUST BE AT OR BELOW FREEZING ( 0 C)
- THE AIRFRAME TEMPERATURE MUST BE LESS THAN 0 C
- The aircraft must be flying through visible supercooled liquid, i.e. cloud,
rain or drizzle
- The airframe temperature, at the point where the liquid strikes the
surface, must be sub-zero.
TEMPERATURE USUALLY DECREASE AS YOU CLIMB. THE ALTITUDE WHERE THE TEMPERATURE 0 C
IS KNOWN AS THE FREEZING LEVEL, AND IT IS POSSIBLE TO ESTIMATE.
AS WE KNOW STANDARD LAPSE RATE IS 2 C PER 1000 FT.
FOR INSTANCE, IF TEMPERATURE IS 8 C AT 5000 FT MSL, THEN YOU WOULD NEED TO CLIMB
APPROXIMATELY 4000 FT FOR THE TEMPRTURE FALL TO 0 C, SO THE FREEZING LEVEL IN THIS
CASE IS AT 9000 FT MSL.
The intensity of icing is defined as follows
• Light Accumulation rate may create a problem if

flight in this environment exceeds 1 hour.
• Moderate Rate of accumulation is such that even
short encounters are potentially hazardous. Anti-
icing equipment must be used.
• Severe Rate of accumulation is such that use of anti-
icing equipment fails to reduce or control the hazard.
Immediate diversion from the region is necessary.
Icing accumulation in relation to wing cross-section
• the rate of ice build-up on the airframe also depends on the

characteristics of the aircraft. Fast aircraft with thin wing cross-sections
are more susceptible to deteriorating aerodynamics, and hence are more
susceptible to ice accretion.
• Helicopters are particularly vulnerable to icing, since build-up of ice on the
rotors can lead to imbalance, de-stabilising the aircraft.
•
The larger supercooled droplets in convective cloud tend to
freeze more slowly when disturbed by the aircraft;
spreading over the surface and forming glossy clear or
glaze ice . In unstable air moderate to severe icing may
form where the OAT is in the range –4 °C to –20 °C . Where
temperature is between –20 °C and –40 °C the chances of
moderate or severe icing are small except in CB i.e newly
developed cells. Icing is normally most severe between –4
°C and –7 °C where the concentration of free supercooled
droplets is usually at maximum, i.e. the minimum number
have turned to ice crystals.. Mixed rime and clear ice can
build into a heavy, rough conglomerate.
types of airframe icing
Ch 13 - Icing
– Temperature – icing types and critical outside air
temperatures include
• Clear (0 to -5 degrees Celsius
• Clear or mixed (-5 to -10 degrees Celsius)
• Mixed or rime (-10 to -15 degrees Celsius)
• Rime (-15 to -20 degrees Celsius)
ICING ON ANTENNAS AND WINGS
ICING ON NOSE AND ON PITOT TUBE
ICING ON PROPELLER
ICING ON CARBURETOR
• Ice frequently forms in the

air intake of an engine
robbing the engine of air to
support combustion. This
type icing occurs with both
piston and jet engines, and
almost everyone in the
aviation community is
familiar with carburetor
icing
The degree and type of ice formation in cloud genera are
• Ci, Cs and Cc; icing is rare but will be light should it

occur
• Ac, As and St; usually light to moderate rime
• Sc; moderate rime
• Ns; moderate to severe rime, clear ice or mixed ice.
As the vertical extent of Ns plus As may be 15 000 or
20 000 feet the tops of the cloud may still contain
supercooled droplets at temperatures as low as –25
°C
• TCu and Cb; rime, clear or mixed ice, possibly severe.
STRUCTURAL ICING
• Two conditions are necessary for structural icing

in flight: (1) the aircraft must be flying through
visible water such as rain or cloud droplets, and
(2) temperature at the point where the moisture
strikes the aircraft must be 0° ; C or colder.
TEMPERATURE USUALLY DECREASE AS YOU CLIMB. THE ALTITUDE WHERE
THE TEMPERATURE 0 C IS KNOWN AS THE FREEZING LEVEL, AND IT IS
POSSIBLE TO ESTIMATE.
AS WE KNOW STANDARD LAPSE RATE IS 2 C PER 1000 FT.

FOR INSTANCE, IF TEMPERATURE IS 8 C AT 5000 FT MSL, THEN YOU WOULD
NEED TO CLIMB APPROXIMATELY 4000 FT FOR THE TEMPRTURE FALL TO 0 C,
SO THE FREEZING LEVEL IN THIS CASE IS AT 9000 FT MSL.

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BALI INTERNATIONAL FLIGHT ACADEMY –TRAINING CENTRE

Reasons for Studying Meteorology

Weather" refers to the state of the

OTHERS Airart International

WEATHER ALTERNATE DESTINATION

Specifically, the three basic weather elements can:

Oxygen (O2) Other Gases 1%

• Water vapour is lighter than the other molecules in the

• The amount of water vapour is generally highest near the

• At typical atmospheric temperatures water may occur in liquid,

• Troposphere- approx. ground to 10 kilometers ( approx 7 miles up)

Location of the tropopause is important because it is commonly

Stratosphere – this layer above the tropopause and extends up to

Continual fluctuations of temperature and pressure

It is the standard for calibrating

Thus, air near the surface is much more

The atmosphere is about one-fifth oxygen, so

since air pressure decreases

If fatigue or drowsiness continues after descent, it is

– Although it is warmer in the

– This means the sunlight must

Latent Heat of Condensation

IS THE RADIATION EMITTED FROM THE SUN THIS IS

MUCH OF THE SR IS ABSORBED AND REFLECTED IN

SR THAT DOES REACH THE EARTH’S SURFACE IS ALSO

THE PRESENTAGE OF RADIATION

• AIR IS POOR CONDUCTOR OF HEAT.

• MASS TRASFER OCCURS WHEN A GAS OR LIQUID MOVES FROM ITS

• it cools at a rate of 9.8°C/km as it rises.

Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area

Pressure is measured in term of force acting upon a unit area

"An altitude change of

• THE FORMULA FOR CALCULATING THE

EXAMPLE ; T = 27 C ; P = 1000 hPa ……96 X (27 + 273 )/1000 =…

Pressure always decreases

• Cold air is denser than warm air

This indicates increasing heights on a constant pressure surface are equivalent to

ISOBAR S ON A SYNOPTIC CHART

Regions of sinking air are called highs, high

Regions of rising air are called lows, low

b) High or anticyclone. A location where the sea level

Temperature inversions are possible due to the cubsidence.

The table below shows typical weather associated with an anticyclone:

MOVEMENT OF PRESSURE SYSTEMS

• Anticyclones tend to be long-lasting (up to 6

• Temperature is one of the most important variables that

Change temp. with height

-ISA Condition – temp falls at constan rate of 1,98 oC / 1000 ft up to 36.000 ft

How to determine ISA temp. at any specified height.

ISA Temp= ( +15 – (2x ft in thousands) oC

Example: What is ISA temp at 9,500 ft

• In tropical regions the mean temperature only

SPRING SUMMER FALL W INTER

Daily minimum (about 05:00)

TYPE OF SURFACE AND ITS ALBEDO

• How much a surface heats up when exposed to insolation depends on its

•Specific Heat of the ocean does not vary

(1) differential heating of land and water;

Is the concentration of molecules of air (oxygen, nitrogen,

R = the gas constant = 2.87

• With Air Temperature Increase

The engine develops less power.