1 ST Y E A R 2 ND S E M E S T E R

C O U R S E C OD E : 5 1111 7 CREDITS : 3

AERODYNAMICS
 TEXT AND REF BOOKS:

• 1. Mechanics of flight – Kermode, Publisher - A C Wheeler and Co.

• 2. Aerodynamics – L J Chancy, Longnan.
• 3. AP - 3456A
• 4. Theoretical Aerodynamics – Thomson L MM, Publisher – Mac Millan.
• 5. The Aerodynamic design of Aircraft – D Kucheman, Publisher – Pergamon Press.
• 6. Higher approximation in Aerodynamic Theory – M J Light Hill, Publisher – Poinaton University.
• 7. High Speed Wing theory – R. T Jones, Publisher – Princeton University.

•BOOK= Big Ocean Of Knowledge .

 AERODYNAMICS
• aerodynamics as the science describing body’s movement in an air. Thus it is a branch of dynamics which deals
with the motion of air and other gases, with the forces acting upon an object in motion through the air, or with an
object which is stationary in a current of air. In effect, in aviation aerodynamics is concerned with three distinct
parts. These parts may be defined as the aircraft, the relative wind, and the atmosphere.

• A branch of dynamics that deals with the motion of air and other gaseous fluids, and with the forces acting on
bodies in motion relative to such fluids
THE ATMOSPHERE
 THE ATMOSPHERE
• 1) The atmosphere is the term given to the layer of air which surrounds the Earth and extends upwards from
the surface to about 500 miles. The flight of all objects using fixed or moving wings to sustain them, or air-
breathing engines to propel them, is confined to the lower layers of the atmosphere. The properties of the
atmosphere are therefore of great importance to all forms of flight.

• 2. The Earth’s atmosphere can be said to consist of four concentric gaseous layers. The layer nearest the surface
is known as the troposphere, above which are the stratosphere, the mesosphere and the thermosphere. The
boundary of the troposphere, known as the tropopause, is not at a constant height but varies from an average of
about 25,000 ft at the poles to 54,000 ft at the equator. Above the tropopause the stratosphere extends to
approximately 30 miles. At greater heights various authorities have at some time divided the remaining
atmosphere into further regions but for descriptive purposes the terms mesosphere and thermosphere are used
here. The ionosphere is a region of the atmosphere, extending from roughly 40 miles to 250 miles altitude, in
which there is appreciable ionization. The presence of charged particles in this region, which starts in the
mesosphere and runs into the thermosphere, profoundly affects the propogation of electromagnetic radiations of
long wavelengths (radio and radar waves).
• 3. Through these layers the atmosphere undergoes a gradual transition from its characteristics
at sea level to those at the fringe of the thermosphere, which merges with space. The weight
of the atmosphere is about one millionth of that of the Earth, and an air column one square
metre in section extending vertically through the atmosphere weighs 9,800 kg. Since air is
compressible, the troposphere contains much the greater part (over three quarters in middle
latitudes) of the whole mass of the atmosphere, while the remaining fraction is spread out
with ever-increasing rarity over a height range of some hundred times that of the
troposphere.
• 4. Average representative values of atmospheric characteristics are shown in Fig . It will be
noted that the pressure falls steadily with height, but that temperature falls steadily to the
tropopause, where it then remains constant through the stratosphere, but increasing for a
while in the warm upper layers. Temperature falls again in the mesosphere and eventually
increases rapidly in the thermosphere. The mean free path (M) in Fig is an indication of the
distance of one molecule of gas from its neighbours, thus, in the thermosphere, although the
individual air molecules have the temperatures shown, their extremely rarefied nature results
in a negligible heat transfer to any body present.
THE ATMOSPHERE
 PHYSIC AL PROPERTIES OF AIR

• 5. Air is a compressible fluid and as such it is able to flow or change its shape when subjected
even to minute pressures. At normal temperatures, metals such as iron and copper are highly
resistant to deformation by pressure, but in liquid form they flow readily. In solids the
molecules adhere so strongly that large forces are needed to change their position with
respect to other molecules. In fluids, however, the degree of cohesion of the molecules is so
small that very small forces suffice to move them in relation to each other. A fluid in which
there is no cohesion between the molecules, and therefore no internal friction, and which is
incompressible would be an 'ideal' fluid - if it were obtainable.

• 6. Fluid Pressure. At any point in a fluid the pressure is the same in all directions, and if a
body is immersed in a stationary fluid, the pressure on any point of the body acts at right
angles to the surface at that point irrespective of the shape or position of the body.
 COMPOSITION OF AIR
• Since air is a fluid having a very low internal friction it can be considered, within limits, to be an ideal fluid. Air is a mixture of
a number of separate gases, the proportions of which are:

• For all practical purposes the atmosphere can be regarded as consisting of 21% oxygen and 78% nitrogen by volume. Up to a
height of some five to six miles water vapour is found in varying quantities, the amount of water vapour in a given mass of air
depending on the temperature and whether the air is, or has recently been, over large areas of water. The higher the
temperature the greater the amount of water vapour that the air can hold.
 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE
• Temperature can be measured against various scales:
• a. The Celsius scale (symbol º C) is normally used for recording atmospheric temperatures
and the working temperatures of engines and other equipment. On this scale, water freezes at
0º C and boils at 100º C, at sea level.
• b. On the Kelvin thermodynamic scale, temperatures are measured in kelvins (symbol K - note
there is no degree sign) relative to absolute zero. In the scientific measurement of
temperature, 'absolute zero' has a special significance; at this temperature a body is said to
have no heat whatsoever. Kelvin zero occurs at –273.15º C.
• c. On the Fahrenheit scale (symbol º F), water freezes at 32º F and boils at 212º F, at sea level.
This scale is still used, particularly in the USA.

• Conversion Factors. A kelvin unit equates to one degree C, therefore to convert º C to

kelvins, add 273.15. To convert º F to º C, subtract 32 and multiply by 5 9 ; to convert º C to º
F, multiply by 9 ,5 and add 32.
 STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

• The values of temperature, pressure and density are never constant in any given layer of the atmosphere, in fact, they are all
constantly changing. Experience has shown that there is a requirement for a standard atmosphere for the comparison of
aircraft performances, calibration of altimeters and other practical uses. A number of standards are in existence but Britain
uses the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
• The ISA assumes a mean sea level temperature of +15º C, a pressure of 1013.25 hPa* (14.7 psi) and a density of 1.225 kg/m3
. The temperature lapse rate is assumed to be uniform at the rate of 1.98º C per 1,000 ft (6.5º C per kilometre) up to a
height of 36,090 ft (11 km), above which height it remains constant at – 56.5º C
ICAO Standard Atmosphere
 LAPSE RATE

• The rate of change in temperature observed while moving upward through the Earth’s
atmosphere.

• • The lapse rate is considered positive when the temperature decreases with elevation,

• • Zero when the temperature is constant with elevation, and negative when the temperature
increases with elevation.

• • The lapse rate is highly variable, being affected by radiation, convection, and condensation.
•
• • a=temperature (k)/ altitude (m)
 DENSITY
• Density (symbol rho (ρ)) is the ratio of mass to volume, and is expressed in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3 ). The
relationship of density to temperature and pressure can be expressed thus:

Effects of Pressure on Density. When air is compressed, a greater amount can occupy a given volume; i.e. the mass, and
therefore the density, has increased. Conversely, when air is expanded less mass occupies the original volume and the density
decreases. From the formula in para 12 it can be seen that, provided the temperature remains constant, density is directly
proportional to pressure, ie if the pressure is halved, so is the density, and vice versa.
Effect of Temperature on Density. When air is heated it expands so that a smaller mass will occupy a given volume,
therefore the density will have decreased, assuming that the pressure remains constant. The converse will also apply. Thus the
density of the air will vary inversely as the absolute temperature: this is borne out by the formula in para 12. In the atmosphere,
the fairly rapid drop in pressure as altitude is increased has the dominating effect on density, as against the effect of the fall in
temperature which tends to increase the density.
 EFFECT OF HUMIDITY ON DENSITY

• The preceding paragraphs have assumed that the air is perfectly dry. In the atmosphere some
water vapour is invariably present; this may be almost negligible in certain conditions, but in
others the humidity may become an important factor in the performance of an aircraft. The
density of water vapour under standard sea level conditions is 0.760 kg/m3 . Therefore water
vapour can be seen to weigh 0.760/1.225 as much as air, roughly ⅝ as much as air at sea
level. This means that under standard sea level conditions the portion of a mass of air which
holds water vapour weighs (1 − ⅝), or ⅜ less than it would if it were dry. Therefore air is
least dense when it contains a maximum amount of water vapour and most dense when it is
perfectly dry.
 ALTITUDE

• Pressure Altitude. Pressure altitude can be defined as the vertical distance from the 1013.25 hPa pressure
level. When the term 'altitude' appears in Operating Data Manuals (ODMs) and performance charts, it refers
strictly to pressure altitude. Therefore, when the sea level pressure is other than 1013.25 hPa, aerodrome and
obstacle elevations must be converted to pressure altitude before use in performance calculations. ODMs
normally contain a conversion graph. Pressure altitude can be obtained by setting the sub-scale of an ICAO
calibrated altimeter to 1013.25 hPa and reading altitude directly from the instrument. Alternatively, the
approximate pressure altitude can be calculated. At sea level, 1 hPa difference in pressure is equivalent to
approximately 27 ft of height change; at 20,000 ft, 1 hPa equates to approximately 50 ft. Thus, for calculations
close to sea level, it can be assumed that 1 hPa = 30 ft. Pressure altitude at any point can therefore be
determined by the formula:
 DENSITY ALTITUDE
• For aircraft operations, air density is usually expressed as a density altitude. Density altitude is the pressure
altitude adjusted to take into consideration the actual temperature of the air. For ISA conditions of temperature
and pressure, density altitude is the same as pressure altitude. Knowledge of the density altitude can be of
particular advantage in helicopter operations. Density altitude can be determined by the formula:
density altitude = pressure altitude + 120t
Example: To determine the density altitude where t is the actual air temperature minus the standard (ISA)
temperature for that pressure altitude. elevation 1,700 ft, if sea level pressure is 1003 hPa ,

p = 1013 – 1003 = 10 hPa (where p is 1013 minus the sea level pressure at that point)
∴ airfield pressure altitude ≏ 1,700 + (30 × 10) ft ≏ 2,000 ft
if the actual air temperature at the airfield elevation was +13º C (ISA temp for 2,000 ft is +11º C),
then the density altitude would be: 2,000 ft + 120 (13º C – 11º C) = 2,000 ft + 120 (2) = 2,240 ft
 DYNAMIC PRESSURE
• Because it possesses density, air in motion must possess energy and therefore exerts a pressure on any object in
its path. This dynamic pressure is proportional to the density and the square of the speed. The energy due to
movement (the kinetic energy (KE)) of one cubic metre of air at a stated speed is given by the following formula:
KE = ½ρV2 joules
where ρ is the local air density in kg/m3 and
V is the speed in metres per second (m/s)
If this volume of moving air is completely trapped and brought to rest by means of an open-ended tube the total
energy remains constant. In being brought to rest, the kinetic energy becomes pressure energy (small losses are
incurred because air is not an ideal fluid) which, for all practical purposes, is equal to ½ρV2 newtons/m2 , or if the
area of the tube is S m2 , then:
total pressure (dynamic + static) = ½ρV2S newtons.
The term ½ρV2 is common to all aerodynamic forces and fundamentally determines the air loads imposed on an
object moving through the air. It is often modified to include a correction factor or coefficient. The term stands for
the dynamic pressure imposed by air of a certain density moving at a given speed, which is brought completely to
rest. The abbreviation for the term ½ρV2 is the symbol 'q'. Note that dynamic pressure cannot be measured on its
own, as the ambient pressure of the atmosphere (known as static) is always present. The total pressure (dynamic +
static) is also known as stagnation or pitot pressure .
It can be seen that: total pressure − static pressure = dynamic pressure
 MEASUREMENT OF SPEED

• Method of Measuring Air Speed

It is essential that an aircraft has some means of measuring the speed at which it is passing through the air. The
method of doing this is by comparing the total pressure (static + dynamic) with static pressure. An instrument
measures the difference between the two pressures and indicates dynamic pressure in terms of speed, the
indicated speed varying approximately as the square root of the dynamic pressure. This instrument is known as an
air speed indicator (ASI) .
Relationships Between Air Speeds
The general term 'air speed' is further qualified as:
a. Indicated Air Speed (IAS)(VI). Indicated air speed is the reading on the ASI, and the speed reference by
which the pilot will normally fly
b. Calibrated Air Speed (CAS)(Vc). When the IAS has been corrected by the application of pressure error
correction (PEC) and instrument error correction, the result is known as calibrated air speed (CAS). PEC can
be obtained from the Aircrew Manual or ODM for the type. When the PEC figures for individual instruments
are displayed on the cockpit, they include the instrument error correction for that particular ASI (Note: In
practice, any instrument error is usually very small and can, for all practical purposes, be ignored.). CAS was
once termed RAS (Rectified Air Speed), a term still found in old texts and etched on some circular slide rules.
• c. Equivalent Air Speed (EAS)(Ve). Equivalent air speed is obtained by adding the compressibility error
correction (CEC) to CAS.
• True Air Speed (TAS)(V). True air speed is the true speed of an aircraft measured relative to the undisturbed
air mass through which it is moving. TAS is obtained by dividing the EAS by the square root of the relative air
density.
• The ASI can be calibrated to read correctly for only one density/altitude. All British ASIs are calibrated for ICAO
atmosphere conditions. Under these conditions and at the standard sea level density (ρo) the EAS (Ve) is equal
to the TAS (V). At any other altitude where the density is ρ, then:
where σ is the relative density.

Thus, at 40,000 ft where the standard density is one quarter of the sea level value, the EAS will be ½ × TAS.
Although all the speeds have their own importance, the two most significant, in terms of aerodynamics, are EAS
and TAS. The TAS is significant because it gives a measure of the speed of a body relative to the undisturbed air and
the EAS is significant because the aerodynamic forces acting on an aircraft are directly proportional to the dynamic
pressure and thus the EAS.
 MACH NUMBER
• Small disturbances generated by a body passing through the atmosphere are transmitted as pressure waves,
which are in effect sound waves, whether audible or not. In considering the motion of the body, it is frequently
found convenient to express its velocity relative to the velocity of these pressure waves. This ratio is Mach
number (M).

• where V = TAS and a = local speed of sound in air ,

which varies as the square root of the absolute temperature of the local air mass.
 AEROFOIL
• Aerofoil. An aerofoil is an object which, as a result of its shape, produces an aerodynamic reaction perpendicular
to its direction of motion. All aerofoils are subject to resistance in their direction of motion. This resistance is
known as 'drag', while the perpendicular aerodynamic reaction is known as 'lift'. The cross-sectional profile of an
aerofoil is referred to as an 'aerofoil section’

• Mean Camber Line or Mean Line. The mean camber line is a line equidistant from the upper and lower
surfaces of an aerofoil section. The points where the mean camber line meets the front and back of the section
are known as the 'leading edge' (LE) and 'trailing edge' (TE) respectively.
• Chord Line. The chord line is a straight line joining the leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil.
• Chord. The chord is the distance between the leading and trailing edge measured along the chord line.
• Mean Chord. The mean chord of a wing is the average chord, ie the wing area divided by the span.
• Maximum Camber. Maximum camber is usually expressed as:

Positive Camber. Where the mean camber line lies above the chord line, the aerofoil is said to have positive
camber . If the mean camber line is coincident with the chord line, the aerofoil is symmetrical.
Wing Span. Wing span is the maximum lateral dimension of a wing (wingtip to wingtip).
Wing Area. The wing area is the planform area of the wing (as opposed to surface area), including those parts of
the wing where it crosses the fuselage.
Angle of Attack. The angle of attack (α) is the angle between the chord line and the flight path or relative airflow
(RAF)
• Angle of Incidence. The angle of incidence is that angle at which an aerofoil is attached to the fuselage
(sometimes referred to as the 'rigger’s angle of incidence'). It can be defined as the angle between the chord line
and the longitudinal fuselage datum. The term is sometimes used erroneously instead of angle of attack.
• Thickness/Chord Ratio. The maximum thickness or depth of an aerofoil section, expressed as a percentage of
chord length, is referred to as the thickness/chord (t/c) ratio.
• Aspect Ratio. Aspect ratio is the ratio of span to mean chord, ie

• Wing Loading. Wing loading is the weight of the aircraft divided by its wing area, ie the weight per unit area.
• Load Factor. Load Factor (n or g) is the ratio of total lift divided by weight, ie:

Note that engineers tend to use 'n' to denote load factor, whereas pilots usually refer to it as 'g’.
 SHAPE OF THE AIRFOIL
• The shape of a wing consequently affects the efficiency of the wing.

• Airfoil section properties differ from wing or aircraft properties because of the effect of the wing planform. A wing may have
various airfoil sections from root to tip, with taper, twist, and sweepback. The resulting aerodynamic properties of the wing
are determined by the action of each section along the span.
• Efficiency of a wing is measured in terms of the lift over drag (L/D) ratio. This ratio varies with the angle of attack but reaches
a definite maximum value for a particular angle of attack. At this angle, the wing has reached its maximum efficiency. The shape
of the airfoil is the factor which determines the angle of attack at which the wing is most efficient; it also determines the
degree of efficiency.
• High-lift wings and high-lift devices for wings have been developed by shaping the airfoils to
produce the desired effect. The amount of lift produced by an airfoil will increase with an
increase in wing chamber. Camber refers to the curvature of an airfoil above and below the
chord line surface. Upper chamber refers to the upper surface, lower camber to the lower
surface, and mean camber to the mean line of the section. Camber is positive when departure
from the chord line is outward, and negatives when it is inward. Thus, high-lift wings have a
large positive camber on the upper surface and a slight negative camber on the lower surface.
Wing flaps cause an ordinary wing to approximate this same condition by increasing the upper
chamber and by creating a negative lower chamber. It is also known that the larger the
wingspan as compared to the chord, the greater the lift obtained. This comparison is called
aspect ratio. The higher the aspect ratio, the greater the lift In spite of the benefits from an
increase in aspect ratio, it was found that definite limitations were of structural and drag
considerations.
 LIFT AND DRAG
• Total Reaction. The total reaction (TR) is the resultant of all the aerodynamic forces acting on the wing or
aerofoil section
• Centre of Pressure. The centre of pressure (CP) is the point, usually on the chord line, through which the TR
may be considered to act.
• Lift. Lift is the component of the TR which is perpendicular to the flight path or RAF.
• Drag. Drag is the component of the TR which is parallel to the flight path or RAF.
• Free Stream Flow. The free stream flow is the air in a region where pressure, temperature and relative
velocity are unaffected by the passage of the aircraft through it . It is also sometimes called relative airflow (RAF).
• Streamline. Streamline is the term given to the path traced by a particle in a steady fluid flow .

• Ideal Fluid. An ideal fluid is one with no viscosity, ie no shearing resistance to motion.
• Incompressible Fluid. An incompressible fluid is one in which the density is constant.
• Boundary Layer. The boundary layer is the layer of a fluid close to a solid boundary along which it is flowing. In
the boundary layer, the velocity of flow is reduced from the free stream flow by the action of viscosity.
• Laminar or Viscous Flow. Laminar (or viscous) flow is a type of fluid flow in which adjacent layers do not mix, except on a
molecular scale.
• Turbulent Flow. Turbulent flow is a type of fluid flow in which the particle motion at any point varies rapidly in both
magnitude and direction. Turbulent flow gives rise to high drag, particularly in the boundary layer.
• Transition Point. The transition point is that point within the boundary layer at which the flow changes from being laminar
to being turbulent.
AIRCRAFT BODY AXES - NOTATION
 REYNOLDS NUMBER
• Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity that is used to determine the type of flow pattern as laminar or
turbulent while flowing through a pipe. Reynolds number is defined by the ratio of inertial forces to that of
viscous forces.

• Reynolds Number Formula :

• Where,
• Re is the Reynolds number
• ρ is the density of the fluid
• V is the velocity of flow
• L is the length
• μ is the viscosity of the fluid
• The Reynolds Number can be used to determine if flow is laminar, transient or turbulent. The flow is
• laminar - when Re < 2300
• transient - when 2300 < Re < 4000
• turbulent - when Re > 4000
• In practice laminar flow is only actual for viscous fluids - like crude oil, fuel oil and other oils.
 EXAMPLE - CALCULATE REYNOLDS
NUMBER
A Newtonian fluid with a dynamic or absolute
viscosity of 0.38 Ns/m2 and a specific
gravity of 0.91 flows through a 25 mm diameter pipe
with a velocity of 2.6 m/s.

Density can be calculated from the specific

gravity of the fluid and the density of the specific
gravity reference water 1000 kg/m3 - as
ρ = 0.91 (1000 kg/m3)
= 910 kg/m3
Reynolds Number can then be calculated using
• Re = ρ u L / μ
• = ρ u2 / (μ u / L)
• =uL/ν

Re = (910 kg/m3) (2.6 m/s) (25 mm) (10-3 m/mm) /

(0.38 Ns/m2)
= 156 ((kg m / s2)/N)
= 156 ~ Laminar flow
1 (N) = 1 (kg m / s2)
 TYPES OF FLOW
• Steady Streamline Flow. In a steady streamline flow the flow parameters (eg speed, direction, pressure etc)
may vary from point to point in the flow but, at any point, are constant with respect to time. This flow can be
represented by streamlines and is the type of flow which it is hoped will be found over the various components
of an aircraft. Steady streamline flow may be divided into two types:

a. Classical Linear Flow. Fig illustrates the flow found over a conventional aerofoil at low angle of attack, in which
the streamlines all more or less follow the contour of the body, and there is no separation of the flow from the
surface.
• b. Controlled Separated Flow or Leading Edge Vortex Flow. This is a halfway stage
between steady streamline flow and unsteady flow described later. Due to boundary layer
effects, generally at a sharp leading edge, the flow separates from the surface, not breaking
down into a turbulent chaotic condition but, instead, forming a strong vortex which, because of
its stability and predictability, can be controlled and made to give a useful lift force. Such flows,
illustrated in Fig , are found in swept and delta planforms, particularly at the higher angles of
attack
• Unsteady Flow. In an unsteady flow, the flow parameters vary with time and the flow cannot be represented by streamlines

Two-dimensional Flow. If a wing is of infinite span, or, if it completely spans a wind tunnel from wall to wall, then
each section of the wing will have exactly the same flow pattern round it, except near the tunnel walls. This type of
flow is called two-dimensional flow since the motion in any one plane parallel to the free stream direction is
identical to that in any other, and there is no cross-flow between these planes.
 LAMINAR FLOW
• Laminar flow is also referred to as streamline or viscous flow. These terms are descriptive of the flow
because, in laminar flow, layers of fluid flowing over one another at different speeds with virtually no
mixing between layers, fluid particles move in definite and observable paths or streamlines, and the
flow is characteristic of viscous (thick) fluid or is one in which viscosity of the fluid plays a significant
part.
• The fluid flow in which the adjacent layers of the fluid do not mix with each other and moves parallel to
each other is called laminar flow.
• In the laminar flow, the fluid layer moves in straight line.
• The laminar flow always occurs when the fluid flow with low velocity and in small diameter pipes.
• The fluid flow having Reynolds number less than 2000 is called laminar flow.
• The fluid flow is very orderly i.e. there is no mixing of adjacent layers of the fluid and they move parallel
to each other and also with the walls of the pipe.
• Shear stress in laminar flow depends only on the viscosity of the fluid and independent of the density.
 TURBULENT FLOW
• Turbulent flow is characterized by the irregular movement of particles of the fluid. There is no definite frequency as
there is in wave motion. The particles travel in irregular paths with no observable pattern and no definite layers.

• The fluid flow in which the adjacent layers of the fluid cross each other and do not move parallel to each other is
called turbulent flow.
• In turbulent flow the fluid layers do not move in a straight line. They move randomly in a zigzag manner.
• The turbulent flow occurs when the velocity of the fluid is high and it flows through larger diameter pipes.
• The fluid flow having Reynolds number greater than 4000 is called turbulent flow.
• The fluid does not flow in a definite order. There is a mixing of different layers and they do not move parallel to
each other but cross each other.
• The shear stress in turbulent flow depends upon its density.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LAMINAR AND TURBULENT
FLOW
 THE EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
• The Equation of Continuity states basically that mass can neither be created nor destroyed or, simply stated, air
mass flow rate is a constant.
Consider the streamline flow of air through venturi (essentially, a tube of varying cross-sectional area). The air mass
flow rate, or mass per unit time, will be the product of the cross-sectional area (A), the flow velocity (V) and the
density (ρ). This product will remain a constant value at all points along the tube, i.e. AVρ = constant.
This is the general equation of continuity which applies to both compressible and incompressible fluids .
When considering compressible flow it is convenient to assume that changes in fluid density will be insignificant at
Mach numbers below about 0.4 M. This is because the pressure changes are small and have little effect on the
density. The equation of continuity may now be simplified to:
A × V = constant, or
from which it may be seen that a reduction in the tube’s cross-sectional area will result in an increase in velocity and
vice versa. This, combined with Bernoulli’s theorem , is the principle of a venturi. The equation of continuity enables
the velocity changes round a given shape to be predicted mathematically
 BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
• Consider a gas in steady motion. It possesses the following types of energy:
• a. Potential energy due to height.
• b. Heat energy (ie kinetic energy of molecular motion).
• c. Pressure energy.
• d. Kinetic energy due to bulk fluid motion.
n addition, work may be done by or on the system and heat may pass into or out of the system. However, neither
occurs in the case of flow around an aerofoil.

Daniel Bernoulli’s work demonstrated that in the steady streamline flow outside the boundary layer, the sum of the
energies present remained constant. It is emphasised that the words in bold represent the limitations of Bernoulli’s
experiments. In low subsonic flow (< 0.4 M), it is convenient to regard air as being incompressible, in which case
the heat energy change is insignificant. Above 0.4 M, however, this simplification would cause large errors in
predicted values and is no longer permissible.
• Bernoulli’s Theorem may be simplified still further by assuming changes in potential energy to be insignificant. For
practical purposes therefore,
in the streamline flow of air round a wing at low speed: pressure energy + kinetic energy = constant
It can be shown that this simplified law can be expressed in terms of pressure, thus p + ½ρV 2 = constant,
where p = static pressure,
ρ = density,
V = flow velocity.
The significance of this law will be recognized if it is translated into words: static pressure + dynamic pressure is a
constant. The constant is referred to as total pressure, stagnation pressure or pitot pressure. The dynamic pressure,
½ρV 2 , is sometimes designated by the letter q
It has already been stated that the flow velocity is governed by the shape of the aircraft. From Bernoulli’s Theorem
(simplified) it is evident that an increase in velocity causes a decrease in static pressure and vice versa
 WING GEOMETRY
• The planform of a wing is the shape of the wing seen on a plan view of the aircraft. Figure illustrates this and
includes the names of symbols of the various parameters of the planform geometry. Note that the root ends of
the leading and trailing edges have been connected across the fuselage by straight lines. An alternative to this
convention is that the leading and trailing edges, if straight, are produced to the aircraft centre-line.
• Wing span
The wing span is the dimension b, the distance between the extreme wingtips. The distance, s, from each tip to the
centre-line, is the wing semi-span.

Chords
The two lengths CT and co are the tip and root chords respectively; with the alternative convention, the root chord
is the distance between the intersections with the fuselage centre-line of the leading and trailing edges produced.
The ratio c=/c0 is the taper ratio A. Sometimes the reciprocal of this, namely co/c~, is taken as the taper ratio. For
most wings CT/Q < 1.

Wing area
The plan-area of the wing including the continuation within the fuselage is the gross wing area, SG. The unqualified
term wing area S is usually intended to mean this gross wing area. The plan-area of the exposed wing, i.e. excluding
the continuation within the fuselage, is the net wing area, SN.
• Mean chords
• Aspect ratio

• Sweep-back
The sweep-back angle of a wing is the angle between a line drawn along the span at: a constant fraction of the
chord from the leading edge, and a line perpendicular to the centre-line. It is usually denoted by either A or 4.
Sweep-back is commonly measured on the leading edge (ALE or $LE), on the quarter-chord line, i.e. the line of the
chord behind the leading edge (A1/4 or $I/& or on the trailing edge (ATE or &E).
 DIHEDRAL ANGLE
• The upward inclination of the wing to the plane through the lateral axis

If an aeroplane is looked at from directly ahead, it is seen that the wings are not, in general, in a single plane (in the geometric
sense), but are instead inclined to each other at a small angle. Imagine lines drawn on the wings along the locus of the
intersections between the chord lines and the section noses, as in Fig. Then the angle 2r is the dihedral angle of the wings. If the
wings are inclined upwards, they are said to have dihedral, if inclined downwards they have anhedral.
 ANHEDRAL ANGLE

• The downward inclination of the wing to the plane through the lateral axis
• Incidence, twist, wash-out and wash-in
When an aeroplane is in flight the chord lines of the various wing sections are not normally parallel to the direction
of flight. The angle between the chord line of a given aerofoil section and the direction of flight or of the undisturbed
stream is called the geometric angle of incidence, a. Carrying this concept of incidence to the twist of a wing, it may
be said that, if the geometric angles of incidence of all sections are not the same, the wing is twisted. If the incidence
increases towards the tip, the wing has wash-in, whereas if the incidence decreases towards the tip the wing has
wash-out.
 PITOT TUBE: MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED

• a Pitot tube is the most common device for measuring flight

velocities of airplanes.

Consider a flow with pressure p1 moving with velocity V1,

as sketched at the left of Figure . Let us consider the significance
of the pressure p1 more closely. the pressure is associated with
the time rate of change of momentum of the gas molecules
impacting on or crossing a surface; that is, pressure is clearly related to the motion of the molecules. This motion is
very random, with molecules moving in all directions with various velocities. Now imagine that you hop on a fluid
element of the flow and ride with it at the velocity V1. The gas molecules, because of their random motion, will still
bump into you, and you will feel the pressure p1 of the gas. We now give this pressure a specific name: the static
pressure. Static pressure is a measure of the purely random motion of molecules in the gas; it is the pressure you
feel when you ride along with the gas at the local flow velocity. All pressures used in this book so far have been
static pressures; the pressure p appearing in all our previous equations has been the static pressure. In engineering,
whenever a reference is made to “pressure” without further qualification, that pressure is always interpreted as the
static pressure.
• Furthermore, consider a boundary of the flow, such as a wall, where a small hole is drilled perpendicular to the
surface. The plane of the hole is parallel to the flow, as shown at point A in Figure . Because the flow moves over
the opening, the pressure felt at point A is due only to the random motion of the molecules; that is, at point A,
the static pressure is measured. Such a small hole in the surface is called a static pressure orifice, or a static
pressure tap. In contrast, consider that a Pitot tube is now inserted into the flow, with an open end facing directly
into the flow. That is, the plane of the opening of the tube is perpendicular to the flow, as shown at point B in
Figure . The other end of the Pitot tube is connected to a pressure gage, such as point C in Figure (i.e., the Pitot
tube is closed at pointC). For the first few milliseconds after the Pitot tube is inserted into the flow, the gas will
rush into the open end and will fill the tube. However, the tube is closed at point C; there is no place for the gas
to go, and hence after a brief period of adjustment, the gas inside the tube will stagnate; that is, the gas velocity
inside the tube will go to zero. Indeed, the gas will eventually pile up and stagnate everywhere inside the tube,
including at the open mouth at point B. As a result, the streamline of the flow that impinges directly at the open
face of the tube sees this face as an obstruction to the flow. The fluid elements along streamline DB slow down
as they get closer to the Pitot tube and go to zero velocity right at point B. Any point in a flow where V = 0 is
called a stagnation point of the flow; hence, point B at the open face of the Pitot tube is a stagnation point, where
VB = 0. In turn, from Bernoulli’s equation we know the pressure increases as the velocity decreases. Hence, pB >
p1. The pressure at a stagnation point is called the stagnation pressure, or total pressure, denoted by p0. Hence,
at point B, pB = p0.
 HOW IS THE PITOT TUBE USED TO MEASURE FLOW VELOCITY?

• the total pressure p0 exerted by the flow at the tube inlet (point B) is impressed throughout the tube (there is
no flow inside the tube; hence, the pressure everywhere inside the tube is p0). Therefore, the pressure gage at
point C reads p0. This measurement, in conjunction with a measurement of the static pressure p1 at point A,
yields the difference between total and static pressure, p0 − p1,
and it is this pressure difference that allows the calculation of V1
via Bernoulli’s equation. In particular, apply Bernoulli’s equation
between point A, where the pressure and velocity are p1 and V1,
respectively, and point B, where the pressure and velocity are p0 and V = 0, respectively:
• Equation (3.34) allows the calculation of velocity simply from the measured
difference between total and static pressure. The total pressure p0 is obtained
from the Pitot tube, and the static pressure p1 is obtained from a suitably placed static pressure tap. It is possible to
combine the measurement of both total and static pressure in one instrument, a Pitot-static probe, as sketched in
Figure . A Pitot-static probe measures p0 at the nose of the probe and p1 at a suitably placed static pressure tap on
the probe surface downstream of the nose.
• It is important to keep in mind that Equation (3.35) comes from Bernoulli’s equation, and thus holds for
incompressible flow only. For compressible flow, where Bernoulli’s equation is not valid, the pressure difference
p0− p1 is not equal to q1. Moreover, Equation (3.34) is valid for incompressible flow only. The velocities of
compressible flows, both subsonic and supersonic, can be measured by means of a Pitot tube, but the equations
are different from Equation (3.34). At this stage, it is important to repeat that Bernoulli’s equation holds for
incompressible flow only, and therefore any result derived from Bernoulli’s equation also holds for
incompressible flow only, such as Equations (3.26), (3.32), and (3.34). Experience has shown that some students
when first introduced to aerodynamics seem to adopt Bernoulli’s equation as the gospel and tend to use it for all
applications, including many cases where it is not valid. Hopefully, the repetitive warnings given above will squelch
such tendencies.
 ALTITUDE

• The primary altitude measurement device for a pilot is an altimeter. The altimeter measures the
atmospheric air pressure outside of the airplane and gives the pilot an idea of how high they are flying.
It’s up to the pilot to calibrate the altimeter because atmospheric pressure changes often due to the
weather.

Altimeter Work
• Altimeters measure changes in atmospheric pressure as the plane climbs or descends. It has no reference to the
ground or even sea level. When correctly set, the altimeter reads height above mean sea level, known as MSL.
• The altimeters found in aircraft are barometric sensitive altimeters. They are simple devices that measure
changes in air pressure. They cannot reference the ground in any way, so it is impossible for them to accurately
indicate height above ground level (AGL) without the pilot making some careful calculations.
• The altimeter’s case is connected to the aircraft’s static instrument system, so it is exposed to an
accurate reading of outside air pressure. A stack of evacuated sealed aneroid chambers inside the
altimeter tries to expand while air pressure tries to compress them. As a result, they change their
shape as atmospheric pressure changes, and the needles are calibrated to show that change in feet
or meters.
• A barometric altimeter is calibrated using the standard lapse rate for pressure, which decreases
1.00” Hg (inch of mercury) for every 1,000 feet altitude increases. For example, if an airplane
departed a sea-level field on a standard day (29.92 inches of mercury or 1013.2 millibars) and
climbed until the altimeter senses the pressure of 28.92″ Hg, then the altimeter should indicate 1,000
feet. It is up to the pilot to set the current altimeter setting into the Kollsman window on their
altimeter for the indicated altitude to be accurate. Failure to set the correct altimeter setting will
result in significant errors.
• For this reason, altimeter settings are frequently provided in aviation. Whenever a pilot contacts a
new air traffic controller or gets the weather for any airport, the altimeter setting is one of the
essential pieces of information received.
• Altimeter settings are always corrected to sea level. With all airports and all pilots using sea level as
a reference, all altimeters should be indicating the height above sea level or MSL. When on the
ground at the airport, an altimeter should be equal to the field’s elevation above sea level.
 HOW DO YOU READ AN ALTIMETER?
• An altimeter is read much like a clock. It has a big hand and a little hand, and like a clock, the hands move
between digits gradually. When reading a clock that says it’s 2:30, the big hand lies half-way between the two
and the three.
• On an altimeter, the big hand indicates thousands of feet and the little hand points to feet, each number
indicating 100 feet. There are small dashes to indicate 20 feet each, five per every 100 feet.

There is also an outer needle that is easy to miss. It points to tens of thousands of feet and is only used when
above 10,000 feet.
 FOUR FORCES OF FLIGHT
• There are four forces that act on things that fly. These are weight, lift, thrust, and drag. Each of these plays a key
role in keeping an aircraft in the air and moving forward.
• Weight
Weight is a force that is always directed toward the center of the earth. The magnitude of the weight depends on
the mass of all the airplane parts, plus the amount of fuel, plus any payload on board (people, baggage, freight,
etc.). The weight is distributed throughout the airplane. But we can often think of it as collected and acting through
a single point called the center of gravity. In flight, the airplane rotates about the center of gravity.
• Flying encompasses two major problems; overcoming the weight of an object by some opposing force, and
controlling the object in flight. Both of these problems are related to the object's weight and the location of the
center of gravity. During a flight, an airplane's weight constantly changes as the aircraft consumes fuel. The
distribution of the weight and the center of gravity also changes. So the pilot must constantly adjust the controls to
keep the airplane balanced, or trimmed.
• Lift
To overcome the weight force, airplanes generate an opposing force called lift. Lift is generated by the motion of
the airplane through the air and is an aerodynamic force. "Aero" stands for the air, and "dynamic" denotes
motion. Lift is directed perpendicular to the flight direction. The magnitude of the lift depends on
several factors including the shape, size, and velocity of the aircraft. As with weight, each part of the aircraft
contributes to the aircraft lift force. Most of the lift is generated by the wings. Aircraft lift acts through a single point
called the center of pressure. The center of pressure is defined just like the center of gravity, but using
the pressure distribution around the body instead of the weight distribution.
• The distribution of lift around the aircraft is important for solving the control problem. Aerodynamic surfaces are
used to control the aircraft in roll, pitch, and yaw.
• Drag
As the airplane moves through the air, there is another aerodynamic force present. The air resists the motion of the
aircraft and the resistance force is called drag. Drag is directed along and opposed to the flight direction. Like lift,
there are many factors that affect the magnitude of the drag force including the shape of the aircraft,
the "stickiness" of the air, and the velocity of the aircraft. Like lift, we collect all of the individual components' drags
and combine them into a single aircraft drag magnitude. And like lift, drag acts through the aircraft center of
pressure.
• Thrust
To overcome drag, airplanes use a propulsion system to generate a force called thrust. The direction of the thrust
force depends on how the engines are attached to the aircraft. In the figure shown above, two turbine engines are
located under the wings, parallel to the body, with thrust acting along the body centerline. On some aircraft, such
as the Harrier, the thrust direction can be varied to help the airplane take off in a very short distance. The
magnitude of the thrust depends on many factors associated with the propulsion system including the type of
engine, the number of engines, and the throttle setting.
• For jet engines, it is often confusing to remember that aircraft thrust is a reaction to the hot gas rushing out of the
nozzle. The hot gas goes out the back, but the thrust pushes towards the front. Action <--> reaction is explained by
Newton's Third Law of Motion.
• The motion of the airplane through the air depends on the relative strength and direction of the forces shown
above. If the forces are balanced, the aircraft cruises at constant velocity. If the forces are unbalanced, the aircraft
accelerates in the direction of the largest force.
MODES OF FLIGHT
• Take-Off
• Takeoff is the phase of flight in which an aircraft goes through a transition from moving along the ground (taxiing) to flying
in the air, usually starting on a runway. Usually the engines are run at full power during takeoff. Following the taxi motion,
the aircraft stops at the starting line of the runway. Before takeoff, the engines, particularly piston engines, are routinely
run up at high power to check for engine-related problems. This makes a consid- erable noise. When the pilot releases
the brakes, the aircraft starts accelerating rapidly until the necessary speed for take-off is achieved.
• The takeoff speed required varies with air den- sity, aircraft weight, and aircraft configuration (flap and/or slat position, as
applicable). Air density is affected by factors such as field ele- vation and air temperature.
• Operations with transport category aircraft employ the concept of the takeoff V-Speeds, V1 and V2. These speeds are
determined not only by the above factors affecting takeoff perform- ance, but also by the length and slope of the runway.
Below V1, in case of critical failures, the takeoff should be aborted; above V1 the pilot continues the takeoff and returns
for land- ing. After the co-pilot calls V1, Then, V2 (the safe takeoff speed) is called. This speed must be maintained after
an engine failure to meet per- formance targets for rate of climb and angle of climb.
• The speeds needed for takeoff are relative to the motion of the air (indicated airspeed). A head wind will reduce the
ground speed needed for takeoff, as there is a greater flow of air over the wings. This is why the aircrafts always take off
against the wind. Side wind is not preferred as it would disturb the stability of the aircraft. Typical takeoff air speeds for
jetliners are in the 130–155 knot range (150–180 mph, 240–285 km/h). For a given aircraft, the takeoff speed is usually
directly proportional to the aircraft weight; the heavier the weight, the greater the speed needed. Some aircraft have
difficulty generating enough lift at the low speeds encountered during takeoff. These are therefore fitted with high-lift
devices, often including slats and usually flaps, which increase the camber of the wing, making it more effective at low
speed, thus creating more lift. These have to be deployed from the wing before performing any maneuver.
• At the beginning of the climb phase, the wheels are retracted into the aircraft and the undercarriage doors are closed.
This operation is audible by the passengers as a noise coming from below the floor.
• Climb
• Following take-off, the aircraft has to climb to a certain altitude (typically 30,000 ft or 10 km) before it
can cruise at this altitude in a safe and economic way. A climb is carried out by increasing the lift of
wings supporting the aircraft until their lifting force exceeds the weight of the aircraft. Once this occurs,
the aircraft will climb to a higher altitude until the lifting force and weight are again in balance. The
increase in lift may be accomplished by increasing the angle of attack of the wings, by increasing the
thrust of the engines to increase speed (thereby increasing lift), by increasing the surface area or shape
of the wing to produce greater lift, or by some combination of these techniques. In most cases, engine
thrust and angle of attack are simultaneously increased to produce a climb.
• Because lift diminishes with decreasing air density, a climb, once initiated, will end by itself when the
diminishing lift with increasing altitude drops to a point that equals the weight of the aircraft. At that
point, the aircraft will return to level flight at a constant altitude. During climb phase, it is normal that the
engine noise diminishes. This is because the engines are operated at a lower power level after the take-
off. It is also possible to hear a whirring noise or a change in the tone of the noise during climb. This is
the sound of the flaps that are retracting. A wing with retracted flap produces less noise.
• Cruise
• Cruise is the level portion of aircraft travel where flight is most fuel efficient. It occurs between ascent
and descent phases and is usually the majority of a journey. Technically, cruising consists of heading
(direction of flight) changes only at a constant airspeed and altitude. It ends as the aircraft approaches
the destination where the descent phase of flight commences in preparation for landing.
• For most commercial passenger aircraft, the cruise phase of flight consumes the majority of fuel. As
this lightens the aircraft considerably, higher altitudes are more efficient for additional fuel economy.
However, for operational and air traffic control reasons it is necessary to stay at the cleared flight level.
Typical cruising speed for long-distance commercial passenger flights is 475-500 knots (878-926 km/h;
547-578 mph).
• Commercial or passenger aircraft are usually designed for optimum performance at their cruise speed.
There is also an optimum cruise altitude for a particular aircraft type and conditions including payload
weight, center of gravity, air temperature, humidity, and speed. This altitude is usually where the drag is
minimum and the lift is maximum. As in any phase of the flight, the aircraft in cruise mode is always in
communication with an Air Traffic Control (ATC) station. Although the general tendency is to follow a
straight line towards the destination, there may be some deviations from the flight plan for weather,
turbulence or air traffic rea- sons, after receiving clearance from ATC.
• Descent
• A descent during air travel is any portion where an aircraft decreases altitude. Descents are an
essential component of an approach to landing. Other partial descents might be to avoid traffic, poor
flight conditions (turbulence or bad weather), clouds (particularly under visual flight rules), to see
something lower, to enter warmer air (in the case of extreme cold), or to take advantage of wind
direction of a different altitude. Normal descents take place at a con- stant airspeed and constant angle
of descent (3 degree final approach at most airports). The pilot controls the angle of descent by varying
engine power and pitch angle (lowering the nose) to keep the airspeed constant.
• At the beginning of and during the descent phase, the engine noise diminishes further as the engines
are operated at low power settings. However, towards the end of the descent phase, the passenger can
feel further accelerations and an increase in the noise. This is to realize the “final approach” before
taking “landing posi- tion”.
Landing
• Landing is the last part of a flight, where the aircraft returns to the ground. Aircraft usually land at an
airport on a firm runway, generally constructed of asphalt concrete, concrete, gravel or grass. To land,
the airspeed and the rate of descent are reduced to where the object descends at a slow enough rate
to allow for a gentle touch down. Landing is accomplished by slowing down and descending to the
runway. This speed reduction is accomplished by reducing thrust and/or inducing a greater amount of
drag using flaps, landing gear or speed brakes. As the plane approaches the ground, the pilot will
execute a flare (roundout) to induce a gentle landing. Although the pilots are trained to perform the
landing operation, there are “Instrument Landing Systems” in most of the airports to help pilots land
the aircrafts. An instrument landing system (ILS) is a ground-based instrument approach system that
provides precision guid- ance to an aircraft approaching and landing on a runway, using a combination
of radio signals and, in many cases, high-intensity lighting arrays to enable a safe landing during
instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), such as low ceilings or reduced visibility due to fog, rain,
or blowing snow.
• At the beginning of the landing phase, the pas- sengers will hear the opening of the doors of the
landing gears. As the landing gears are deployed, they will create an additional drag and an additional
noise. Immediately after touch-down, the passengers can hear a blowing sound, sometimes with
increasing engine sound. This is the engine’s thrust reverses, helping the aircraft to slow down to taxi
speeds by redirecting the airflow of the engines for- ward. Once the aircraft is decelerated to low
speed, it can taxi to the terminal building.
 ANGLE OF ATTACK
• The angle of attack is the angle at which an airfoil passes through the air. This angle is measured between the
chord of the airfoil and the relative wind, as shown in figure . The chord is an imaginary line from the leading
edge to the trailing edge of an airfoil. Increasing the angle of attack deflects the airstream and causes an upward
pressure on the underside of the airfoil. This in turn increases the speed of the airflow over the topside of the
airfoil. As air-flow-speed increases, pressure on the foil's top side is further reduced. The upward pressure on the
foil's underside and pressure reduction on the top side combine to furnish lift.

• The angle of attack and angle of incidence are measured angles. Angle of incidence (fixed-wing aircraft) is the
angle between the airfoil chord line and the longitudinal axis or other selected reference plane of the aircraft.
Angle of incidence (rotary-wing aircraft) is the angle between the chord line of a main or tail rotor blade and the
plane of rotation (tip path plane). It is usually referred to as the blade pitch angle. For fixed airfoils, such as
vertical fins or elevators, the angle of incidence is the angle between the chord line of the airfoil and a selected
reference plane of the helicopter.
 STALL
• As the angle of attack is increased, lift is also increased up to a certain angle. Beyond this angle airflow can no longer follow
the contour of the airfoil's upper surface, as shown in the sequences in figure . After the burble point the airfoil goes full stall.
 AIRFOIL GEOMETRY
• If a horizontal wing is cut by a vertical plane parallel to the centre-line, such as X-X in Fig. 1.4, the shape of the
resulting section is usually of a type shown in Fig. 1.6

• This is an airfoil section. For subsonic use, the airfoil section has a rounded leading edge. The depth increases
smoothly to a maximum that usually occurs between f and 4 way along the profile, and thereafter tapers off
towards the rear of the section.
• If the leading edge is rounded it has a definite radius of curvature. It is therefore possible to draw a circle of this
radius that coincides with a very short arc of the section where the curvature is greatest. The trailing edge may
be sharp or it, too, may have a radius of curvature, although this is normally much smaller than for the leading
edge. Thus a small circle may be drawn to coincide with the arc of maximum curvature of the trailing edge, and a
line may be drawn passing through the centres of maximum curvature of the leading and trailing edges. This line,
when produced to intersect the section at each end, is called the chord line. The length of the chord line is the
aerofoil chord, denoted by c.
• The point where the chord line intersects the front (or nose) of the section is used as the origin of a pair of
axes, the x-axis being the chord line and the y-axis being perpendicular to the chord line, positive in the upward
direction. The shape of the section is then usually given as a table of values of x and the corresponding values of y.
These section ordinates are usually expressed as percentages of the chord, (lOOx/c)% and (lOOy/c)%.
• Camber : At any distance along the chord from the nose, a point may be marked mid-way between the upper
and lower surfaces. The locus of all such points, usually curved, is the median line of the section, usually called the
camber line. The maximum height of the camber line above the chord line is denoted by S and the quantity
lOOS/c% is called the percentage camber of the section. Aerofoil sections have cambers that are usually in the
range from zero (a symmetrical section) to 5%, although much larger cambers are used in cascades, e.g. turbine
blading. It is seldom that a camber line can be expressed in simple geometric or algebraic forms, although a few
simple curves, such as circular arcs or parabolas, have been used.
• Thickness distribution
Having found the median, or camber, line, the distances from this line to the upper and lower surfaces may be measured at any
value of x. These are, by the definition of the camber line, equal. These distances may be measured at all points along the chord
and then plotted against x from a straight line. The result is a symmetrical shape, called the thickness distribution or symmetrical
fairing.
An important parameter of the thickness distribution is the maximum thickness, or depth, t. This, when expressed as a fraction
of the chord, is called the thickness/ chord ratio. It is commonly expressed as a percentage 100t/c%. Current values in use range
from 13% to 18% for subsonic aircraft down to 3% or so for supersonic aircraft.
The position along the chord at which this maximum thickness occurs is another important parameter of the thickness
distribution. Values usually lie between 30% and 60% of the chord from the leading edge. Some older sections had the maximum
thickness at about 25% chord, whereas some more extreme sections have the maximum thickness more than 60% of the chord
behind the leading edge
It will be realized that any aerofoil section may be regarded as a thickness distribution plotted round a camber line. American
and British conventions differ in the exact method of derivation of an aerofoil section from a given camber line and thickness
distribution. In the British convention, the camber line is plotted, and the thickness ordinates are then plotted from this,
perpendicular to the chord line. Thus the thickness distribution is, in effect, sheared until its median line, initially straight, has
been distorted to coincide with the given camber line. The American convention is that the thickness ordinates are plotted
perpendicular to the curved camber line. The thickness distribution is, therefore, regarded as being bent until its median line
coincides with the given camber line.
Since the camber-line curvature is generally very small the difference in aerofoil section shape given by these two conventions is
very small.
 AERODYNAMIC FORCE AND MOMENT
• Air flowing past an aeroplane, or any other body, must be diverted from its original path, and such deflections lead to changes
in the speed of the air. Bernoulli’s equation shows that the pressure exerted by the air on the aeroplane is altered from that of
the undisturbed stream. Also the viscosity of the air leads to the existence of frictional forces tending to resist its flow. As a
result of these processes, the aeroplane experiences a resultant aerodynamic force and moment. It is conventional and
convenient to separate this aerodynamic force and moment into three components each, as follows.
• Lift, L(-Z) : This is the component of force acting upwards, perpendicular to the direction of flight or of the undisturbed
stream. The word ‘upwards’ is used in the same sense that the pilot’s head is above his feet. Figure 1.7 illustrates the meaning
in various attitudes of flight. The arrow V represents the direction of flight, the arrow L represents the lift acting upwards and
the arrow W the weight of the aircraft, and shows the downward vertical. Comparison of (a) and (c) shows that this upwards
is not fixed relative to the aircraft, while (a), (b), and (d) show that the meaning is not fixed relative to the earth. As a general
rule, if it is remembered that the lift is always a component perpendicular to the flight direction, the exact direction in which
the lift acts will be obvious, particularly after reference to Fig. 1.7. This may not apply to certain guided missiles that have no
obvious top or bottom, and the exact meaning of ‘up’ must then be defined with care .
• Drag, D(-X): This is the component of force acting in the opposite direction to the line of flight, or in the same
direction as the motion of the undisturbed stream. It is the force that resists the motion of the aircraft. There is
no ambiguity regarding its direction or sense.
• Cross-wind force,Y : This is the component of force mutually perpendicular to the lift and the drag, i.e. in a
spanwise direction. It is reckoned positive when acting towards the starboard (right-hand to the pilot) wing-tip.
• Pitching moment, M : This is the moment acting in the plane containing the lift and the drag, i.e. in the vertical
plane when the aircraft is flying horizontally. It is positive when it tends to increase the incidence, or raise the
nose of the aircraft upwards (using this word in the sense discussed earlier).
• Rolling moment, LR : This is the moment tending to make the aircraft roll about the flight direction, i.e.
tending to depress one wing-tip and to raise the other. It is positive when it tends to depress the starboard wing-
tip.
• Yawing moment, N : This is the moment that tends to rotate the aircraft about the lift direction, i.e. to swing
the nose to one side or the other of the flight direction. It is positive when it swings, or tends to swing, the nose
to the right (starboard).
• The relation between these components is shown in Fig. 1.8. In each case the arrow shows the direction of the
positive force or moment. All three forces are mutually perpendicular, and each moment acts about the line of one
of the forces. The system of forces and moments described above is conventionally used for performance analysis
and other simple problems. For aircraft stability and control studies, however, it is more convenient to use a
slightly different system of forces.
 FORCE AND MOMENT COEFFICIENTS

When the body in question is a wing the area S is almost invariably the planform area . For the drag of a body such as a fuselage,
sphere or cylinder the area S is usually the projected frontal area, the maximum cross-sectional area . The area used for
definition of the lift and drag coefficients of
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION ON AN AIRFOIL
 PITCHING MOMENT
• The pitching moment on a wing may be estimated experimentally by two principal methods: direct measurement
on a balance, or by pressure plotting. In either case, the pitching moment coefficient is measured about some
definite point on the aerofoil chord, while for some particular purpose it may be desirable to know the pitching
moment coefficient about some other point on the chord. To convert from one reference point to the other is a
simple application of statics.
• a
AERODYNAMIC CENTER
• a
 CENTRE OF PRESSURE
• The aerodynamic forces on an aerofoil section may be represented by a lift, a drag, and a pitching moment. At each value of the
lift coefficient there will be found to be one particular point about which the pitching moment coefficient is zero, and the
aerodynamic effects on the aerofoil section may be represented by the lift and the drag alone acting at that point. This special
point is termed the centre of pressure.
• Whereas the aerodynamic centre is a fixed point that always lies within the profile of a normal aerofoil section, the centre of
pressure moves with change of lift coefficient and is not necessarily within the aerofoil profile. Figure 1.11 shows the forces on
the aerofoil regarded as either
 TYPES OF DRAG
• Total drag : This is formally defined as the force corresponding to the rate of decrease in momentum in the
direction of the undisturbed external flow around the body, this decrease being calculated between stations at
infinite distances upstream and downstream of the body. Thus it is the total force or drag in the direction of the
undisturbed flow. It is also the total force resisting the motion of the body through the surrounding fluid. There
are a number of separate contributions to total drag. As a first step it may be divided into pressure drag and skin-
friction drag.
• Skin- friction drag (or surface- friction drag): This is the drag that is generated by the resolved
components of the traction due to the shear stresses acting on the surface of the body. This traction is due
directly to viscosity and acts tangentially at all points on the surface of the body. At each point it has a
component aligned with but opposing the undisturbed flow (i.e. opposite to the direction of flight). The total
effect of these components, taken (i.e. integrated) over the whole exposed surface of the body, is the skin-friction
drag. It could not exist in an invisicid flow.
• Pressure drag : This is the drag that is generated by the resolved components of the forces due to pressure
acting normal to the surface at all points. It may itself be considered as consisting of several distinct contributions:
(i) Induced drag (sometimes known as vortex drag);
(ii) Wave drag; and
(iii) Form drag (sometimes known as boundary-layer pressure drag).
• Induced drag (or vortex drag) :t induced drag depends on lift, does not depend directly on viscous effects, and can be
estimated by assuming inviscid flow.
• Wave drag : This is the drag associated with the formation of shock waves in high-speed flight.
• Form drag (or boundary-la yer pressure drag): This can be defined as the difference between the profile drag and the
skin-friction drag where the former is defined as the drag due to the losses in total pressure and total temperature in the
boundary layers. But these definitions are rather unhelpful for giving a clear idea of the physical nature and mechanisms behind
form drag, so a simple explanation is attempted below.
 THE WAKE
• Behind any body moving in air is a wake, just as there is a wake behind a ship. Although the wake in air is not
normally visible it may be felt, as when, for example, a bus passes by. The total drag of a body appears as a loss of
momentum and increase of energy in this wake. The loss of momentum appears as a reduction of average flow
speed, while the increase of energy is seen as violent eddying (or vorticity) in the wake. The size and intensity of
the wake is therefore an indication of the profile drag of the body. Figure 1.17 gives an indication of the
comparative widths of the wakes behind a few bodies.
 INDUCED DRAG
Consider what is happening at some point y along the wing span (Fig. 1.21). Each of the trailing vortices produces a downwards
component of velocity, w, at y, known as the downwash or induced velocity . This causes the flow over that section of the wing
to be inclined slightly downwards from the direction of the undisturbed stream V (Fig. 1.22) by the angle E, the induced angle of
incidence or downwash angle. The local flow is also at a slightly different speed, q.

If the angle between the aerofoil chord line and the direction of the undisturbed stream, the geometric angle of incidence, is a, it
is seen that the angle between the chord line and the actual flow at that section of the wing is equal to a-E, and this is called the
effective incidence am. It is this effective incidence that determines the lift coefficient at that section of the wing, and thus the
wing is lifting less strongly than the geometric incidence would suggest. Since the circulation and therefore w and E increase
with lift coefficient, it follows that the lift of a three-dimensional wing increases less rapidly with incidence than does that for a
two-dimensional wing, which has no trailing vortices.
 BOUNDARY LAYER
• Figure 2.12, Boundary Layer Flow, shows laminar and turbulent flow and the transition point in between. The
boundary layer is the air close to the aircraft wings' upper surfaces. In the forward portion of the boundary layer,
the air flows in layers, or separate sheets, called laminae. These layers slide over one another with little mingling of
the air particles. However, behind the leading edge there is a transition point where the layer thickens, the airflow
becomes turbulent, and one layer mixes with another. This results in increased drag. To aid in preventing boundary-
layer turbulence, fences are installed as shown in figure 2.13
 LIFT-TO-DRAG RATIO
• There are four forces that act on an aircraft in flight: lift, weight, thrust, and drag. Forces are vector quantities having
both a magnitude and a direction. The motion of the aircraft through the air depends on the relative magnitude and
direction of the various forces. The weight of an airplane is determined by the size and materials used in the
airplane's construction and on the payload and fuel that the airplane carries. The weight is always directed towards
the center of the earth. The thrust is determined by the size and type of propulsion system used on the airplane and
on the throttle setting selected by the pilot. Thrust is normally directed forward along the center-line of the
aircraft. Lift and drag are aerodynamic forces that depend on the shape and size of the aircraft, air conditions, and
the flight velocity. Lift is directed perpendicular to the flight path and drag is directed along the flight path.
• Because lift and drag are both aerodynamic forces, the ratio of lift to drag is an indication of the aerodynamic
efficiency of the airplane. Aerodynamicists call the lift to drag ratio the L/D ratio, pronounced "L over D ratio." An
airplane has a high L/D ratio if it produces a large amount of lift or a small amount of drag. Under cruise
conditions lift is equal to weight. A high lift aircraft can carry a large payload. Under cruise conditions thrust is equal
to drag. A low drag aircraft requires low thrust. Thrust is produced by burning a fuel and a low thrust aircraft
requires small amounts of fuel be burned. As discussed on the maximum flight time page, low fuel usage allows an
aircraft to stay aloft for a long time, and that means the aircraft can fly long range missions. So an aircraft with a
high L/D ratio can carry a large payload, for a long time, over a long distance. For glider aircraft with no engines, a
high L/D ratio again produces a long range aircraft by reducing the steady state glide angle at which the glider
descends.
• As shown in the middle of the slide, the L/D ratio is also equal to the ratio of the lift and drag
coefficients. The lift equation indicates that the lift L is equal to one half the air density r times the
square of the velocity V times the wing area A times the lift coefficient Cl:
L = .5 * Cl * r * V^2 * A
Similarly, the drag equation relates the aircraft drag D to a drag coefficient Cd:
D = .5 * Cd * r * V^2 * A
Dividing these two equations give : L/D = Cl/ Cd
Lift and drag coefficients are normally determined experimentally using a wind tunnel. But for some
simple geometries, they can be determined mathematically.
 THE VORTEX SYSTEM
• Lanchester’s contribution was essentially the replacement of the lifting wing by a theoretical model consisting of
a system of vortices that imparted to the surrounding air a motion similar to the actual flow, and that sustained a
force equivalent to the lift known to be created. The vortex system can be divided into three main parts: the
starting vortex; the trailing vortex system; and the bound vortex system. Each of these may be treated separately
but it should be remembered that they are all component parts of one whole.
• The starting vortex : When a wing is accelerated from rest the circulation round it, and therefore the lift, is
not produced instantaneously. Instead, at the instant of starting the streamlines over the rear part of the wing
section are as shown in Fig. 5.1, with a stagnation point occurring on the rear upper surface. At the sharp trailing
edge the air is required to change direction suddenly while still moving at high speed. This high speed calls for
extremely high local accelerations producing very large viscous forces and the air is unable to turn round the
trailing edge to the stagnation point. Instead it leaves the surface and produces a vortex just above the trailing
edge. The stagnation point moves towards the trailing edge, the circulation round the wing, and therefore its lift,
increasing progressively as the stagnation point moves back. When the stagnation point reaches the trailing edge
the air is no longer required to flow round the trailing edge. Instead it decelerates gradually along the aerofoil
surface, comes to rest at the trailing edge, and then accelerates from rest in a different direction (Fig. 5.2). The
vortex is left behind at the point reached by the wing when the stagnation point
• reached the trailing edge. Its reaction, the circulation round the wing, has become stabilized at the value
necessary to place the stagnation point at the trailing edge (see Section 4.1.1).* The vortex that has been left
behind is equal in strength and opposite in sense to the circulation round the wing and is called the starting
vortex or initial eddy.
 THE TRAILING VORTEX SYSTEM
• The pressure on the upper surface of a lifting wing is lower than that of the surrounding atmosphere, while the pressure on
the lower surface is greater than that on the upper surface, and may be greater than that of the surrounding atmosphere.
Thus, over the upper surface, air will tend to flow inwards towards the root from the tips, being replaced by air that was
originally outboard of the tips. Similarly, on the undersurface air will either tend to flow inwards to a lesser extent, or may
tend to flow outwards. Where these two streams combine at the trailing edge, the difference in spanwise velocity will cause
the air to roll up into a number of small streamwise vortices, distributed along the whole span. These small vortices roll up
into two large vortices just inboard of the wing-tips. This is illustrated in Fig. 5.3. The strength of each of these two vortices
will equal the streagth of the vortex replacing the wing itself. The existence of the trailing and starting vortices may easily be
verified visually. When a fast aeroplane pulls out of a dive in humid air the reduction of pressure and temperature at the
centres of the trailing vortices is often sufficient to cause some of the water vapour to condense into droplets, which are
seen as a thin streamer for a short distance behind each wing-tip (see frontispiece). To see the starting vortex all that is
needed is a tub of water and a small piece of board, or even a hand. If the board is placed upright into the water cutting the
surface and then suddenly moved through the water at a moderate incidence, an eddy will be seen to leave the rear, and
move forwards and away from the ‘wing’. This is the starting vortex, and its movement is induced by the circulation round the
plate.
 THE BOUND VORTEX SYSTEM
• Both the starting vortex and the trailing system of vortices are physical entities that can be explored and seen if conditions
are right. The bound vortex system, on the other hand, is a hypothetical arrangement of vortices that replace the real physical
wing in every way except that of thickness, in the theoretical treatments given in this chapter. This is the essence of finite
wing theory. It is largely concerned with developing the equivalent bound vortex system that simulates accurately, at least a
little distance away, all the properties, effects, disturbances, force systems, etc., due to the real wing. Consider a wing in steady
flight. What effect has it on the surrounding air, and how will changes in basic wing parameters such as span, planform,
aerodynamic or geometric twist, etc., alter these disturbances? The replacement bound vortex system must create the same
disturbances, and this mathematical model must be sufficiently flexible to allow for the effects of the changed parameters. A
real wing produces a trailing vortex system. The hypothetical bound vortex must do the same. A consequence of the
tendency to equalize the pressures acting on the top and bottom surfaces of an aerofoil is for the lift force per unit span to
fall off towards the tips. The bound vortex system must produce the same grading of lift along the span. For complete
equivalence, the bound vortex system should consist of a large number of spanwise vortex elements of differing spanwise
lengths all turned backwards at each end to form a pair of the vortex elements in the trailing system. The varying spanwise
lengths accommodate the grading of the lift towards the wing-tips, the ends turned back produce the trailing system and the
two physical attributes of a real wing are thus simulated. For partial equivalence the wing can be considered to be replaced
by a single bound vortex of strength equal to the mid-span circulation. This, bent back at each end, forms the trailing vortex
pair. This concept is adequate for providing good estimations of wing effects at distances greater than about two chord
lengths from the centre of pressure.
 THE HORSESHOE VORTEX
• The total vortex system associated with a wing, plus its replacement bound vortex system, forms a complete vortex ring that
satisfies all physical laws . The starting vortex, however, is soon left behind and the trailing pair stretches effectively to infinity
as steady flight proceeds. For practical purposes the system consists of the bound vortices and the trailing vortex on either
side close to the wing. This three-sided vortex has been called the horseshoe vortex . Study of the completely equivalent
vortex system is largely confined to investigating wing effects in close proximity to the wing. For estimation of distant
phenomena the system is simplified to a single bound vortex and trailing pair, known as the simplified horseshoe vortex .
 LAWS OF VORTEX MOTION
• The theoretical modelling of the flow around wings was discussed in the previous section. There the use of an equivalent
vortex system to model the lifting effects of a wing was described. In order to use this theoretical model to obtain
quantitative predictions of the aerodynamic characteristics of a wing it is necessary first to study the laws of vortex motion.
These laws also act as a guide for understanding how modern computationally based wing theories may be developed. In the
analysis of the point vortex it was considered to be a string of rotating particles surrounded by fluid at large moving
irrotationally under the influence of the rotating particles. Further, the flow investigation was confined to a plane section
normal to the length or axis of the vortex. A more general definition is that a vortex is a flow system in which a finite area in
a normal section plane contains vorticity. Figure 5.5 shows the section area S of a vortex so called because S possesses
vorticity. The axis of the vortex is clearly always normal
• to the two-dimensional flow plane considered previously and the influence of the so-called line vortex is the
influence, in a section plane, of an infinitely long, straight-line vortex of vanishingly small area. In general, the
vortex axis will be a curve in space and area Swill have finite size. It is convenient to assume that S is made up of
several elemental areas or, alternatively, that the vortex consists of a bundle of elemental vortex lines or
filaments. Such a bundle is often called a vortex tube (c.f. a stream tube which is a bundle of streamlines), being a
tube bounded by vortex filaments. Since the vortex axis is a curve winding about within the fluid, capable of
flexure and motion as a whole, the estimation of its influence on the fluid at large is somewhat complex and
beyond the present intentions. All the vortices of significance to the present theory are fixed relative to some
axes in the system or free to move in a very controlled fashion and can be assumed to be linear. Nonetheless,
the vortices will not all be of infinite length and therefore some three-dimensional or end influence must be
accounted for.Vortices conform to certain laws of motion. A rigorous treatment of these is precluded from a
text of this standard but may be acquired with additional study of the basic references.
 GROUND EFFECT
• s air flow in and out of ground effect. Notice the information in A and B that is printed close to the sketches.
Ground effect is a condition of improved performance found when hovering near the ground. The best height is
approximately one-half the main rotor diameter. The improved lift and airfoil efficiency while operating in ground
effect are due to the following effects. First and most important, the main rotor-tip vortex is reduced. When
operating in ground effect, the downward and outward airflow reduces the vortex. A vortex is a flow involving
rotation about an axis or center. This makes the outward portion of the main rotor blade more efficient.
Reducing the vortex also reduces the turbulence caused by recirculating the vortex swirl, as shown in figure .
Second the angle of the air is reduced as it leaves the airfoil. When the airfoil angle is reduced the resultant lift is
rotated slightly forward, making it more vertical. Reduction of induced drag permits lower angles of attack for
the same amount of lift and reduces the power required to drive the blades.
 AIRCRAFT STATIC STABILITY
• Static stability is generally defined as the initial tendency of an airplane, following a perturbation from a steady-state flight
condition, to develop aerodynamic forces or moments that are in a direction to return the aircraft to the steady-state flight
condition. This somewhat complex definition can be simply illustrated with an example. If each of the balls in Fig. 5.1 begin in
steady

state equilibrium or a trimmed condition (as illustrated by the dotted ball), then the direction of the resulting force that
develops after the ball is perturbed from the trim condition determines the type of static stability the system has. In the first
case, the ball is perturbed from the bottom of the bowl, and the resulting force tends to return it to the steady-state condition;
thus, the situation demonstrates positive static stability or simply static stability. In the second case, when the ball is perturbed
on a flat surface, no restoring force develops and the situation demonstrates neutral static stability. The third case illustrates
negative static stability or static instability because when the ball is perturbed, the resulting force tends to make the ball further
diverge from the trimmed position.
• For an aircraft, static stability is generally evaluated relative to a steadystate trimmed flight condition. If the
aircraft is perturbed or displaced from the trimmed flight condition with a gust, for example, then the initial
aerodynamic moment that results will determine the type of static stability that the aircraft has. As illustrated in
Fig. 5.2, if a gust produces a perturbation from the trimmed angle of attack, and an aerodynamic moment results
that would rotate the aircraft back toward the trimmed condition, then we have positive static stability. If no
aerodynamic moment results, we have neutral static stability. Finally, if an aerodynamic moment results that tends
to increase the perturbation, we have negative static stability or static instability. Because pitching or longitudinal
motion is depicted Fig. 5.2, we would refer to the aircraft as having longitudinal static stability, neutral longitudinal
static stability, or negative longitudinal static stability. An arrow in flight is another example of static stability. An
arrow with fins on the back will always produce an aerodynamic restoring moment when perturbed from its
trimmed angle of attack (which is normally near zero). That is why an arrow is very stable when flying through
the air. However, removal of the fins will result in a statically unstable situation where the arrow tumbles.
 STABILITY, CONTROL POWER, AND CROSS -CONTROL DERIVATIVES ,
AND CONTROL DEFLECTION SIGN CONVENTION

• The first step in evaluating the static stability of an aircraft involves developing an expression for the applied
aerodynamic forces and moments that act
 AIRCRAFT DYNAMIC STABILITY
• Aircraft dynamic stability focuses on the time history of aircraft motion after the aircraft is disturbed from an
equilibrium or trim condition. This motion may be first order (exponential response) or second order
(oscillatory response), and will have either positive dynamic stability (aircraft returns to the trim condition as
time goes to infinity), neutral dynamic stability (aircraft neither returns to trim nor diverges further from the
disturbed condition), or dynamic instability (aircraft diverges from the trim condition and the disturbed condition
as time goes to infinity). The study of dynamic stability is important to understanding aircraft handling qualities
and the design features that make an airplane fly well or not as well while performing specific mission tasks. The
differential equations that define the aircraft equations of motion (EOM) form the starting point for the study of
dynamic stability
 REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS

• The system that connects the pilot’s stick (or yoke) and rudder pedals to the aircraft flight
control surfaces can affect the stability and control characteristics of the aircraft. Two broad
categories of flight control system connections will be discussed to illustrate the important
differences
 REVERSIBLE FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
• In a reversible flight control system, the cockpit controls are directly connected to the aircraft flight control surfaces through
mechanical linkages such as cables, pushrods, and bellcranks. There is no hydraulic actuator is this path and the muscle to
move the control surfaces is provided directly by the pilot. Figure 10.64 provides an illustration of a reversible flight control
system. With no hydraulic or electrical power on the aircraft, a reversible flight control system will have the following
characteristics: movement of the stick and rudders will move the respective control surface, and hand movement of each
control surface will result in movement of the respective cockpit control—hence the name ‘‘reversible.’’ A quick check to
determine if a system is reversible can be accomplished by simply walking up to an aircraft and moving the trailing edge of
the elevator up and down by hand. If the pilot’s stick moves back and forth, the system is reversible. Of course, the ailerons
and rudder should be checked in the same manner. Reversible flight control systems are normally used on light general
aviation aircraft such as those produced by Cessna, Beachcraft, and Piper. They have the advantage of being relatively simple
and ‘‘pilot feel’’ is provided directly by the airloads on each control surface being transferred to the stick or rudder pedals.
They have the disadvantage of increasing stick and rudder forces as the airspeed of the aircraft increases. As a result, the
control forces present may exceed the pilot’s muscular capabilities if the aircraft is designed to fly at high speed. Of course,
the definition of ‘‘high speed’’ depends on the size of the
• control surface and the size of the aircraft because these also directly effect pilot control forces. When high pilot control
forces become a problem, it is generally time to incorporate a hydraulically boosted or irreversible flight control system into
the design of the airplane. Two types of static stability must be considered with reversible flight control systems. Stick-fixed
stability implies that the control surfaces are held in a fixed position by the pilot during a perturbation Stick-fixed stability
provides the largest magnitude for derivatives such as Cma and Cnb . Stick-free stability implies that the stick and rudder
pedals are not held in a fixed position by the pilot but rather left to seek their own position during a flight perturbation. In
other words, this is the situation where the pilot lets go of the stick (and pedals). For example, a positive perturbation from
the trim angle of attack will result in the elevator floating up (or a negative change in de) for the stick-free condition because
of the resulting aero loads on the elevator. This situation provides less restoring moment back toward trim and reduced
static stability, as illustrated in Fig. 10.65.
 IRREVERSIBLE FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
• In an irreversible flight control system, the cockpit controls are either directly or indirectly connected to a controller that
transforms the pilot’s input into a commanded position for a hydraulic or electromechanical actuator. The most common
form of an irreversible flight control system connects the pilot’s displacement or force command from the stick or rudder
pedals to a control valve on a hydraulic actuator. The control valve positions the hydraulic actuator that, in turn, moves the
flight control surface. Irreversible systems were first implemented to provide the hydraulic muscle needed to move flight
control surfaces at high speeds. Nearly all high speed aircraft flying today have irreversible flight control systems. These
generally include all aircraft outside the general aviation category. Figure 10.67 illustrates an irreversible flight control system.
• Such a system is called irreversible because manual movement of a control surface (only possible when the
hydraulic power is off) will not be transferred to movement of the stick or rudder pedals. Movement of the
control surface will move the hydraulic actuator but will not be transferred back through the control valve.
Irreversible flight control systems behave as essentially a stickfixed system when the aircraft undergoes a
perturbation because the hydraulic actuator holds the control surface in the commanded position—even if the
pilot has let go of the stick. Thus, the stick-free concepts discussed with reversible flight control systems are not
applicable to irreversible systems. Irreversible flight control systems are also ideal for incorporation of automatic
flight control system (AFCS) functions such as inner-loop stability and outer-loop autopilot modes (Reference
Chapter 9) because the AFCS actuator only has to reposition the actuator control valve and not the heavily air-
loaded control surface. A disadvantage of irreversible flight control systems is that artificial pilot feel must be
designed into the stick and rudder pedals because the air loads on the control surfaces are not transmitted back.
Artificial pilot feel is normally accomplished with a combination of springs and a bobweight (for longitudinal feel)
on the stick, and springs on the rudder pedals. Flight test development is normally required to optimize the
design of any artificial feel system.
 THANKYOU ALL

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