Module 08 - Aerodynamics

Basic Aerodynamics
Preliminary Module 8 Physics of the Atmosphere

Notes 8.1 8.1.1 - HO - 1
Physics of the Atmosphere
The Atmosphere
Introduction
The atmosphere is a mass of air which surrounds the earth and extends from the
earth’s surface out to several hundreds of kilometers with no definite outer boundary.
The atmosphere is teh basis of all life on our planet and a prerequisite for flight,
because it allows the generation of lift.
Gravity holds the atmosphere against the earth’s surface and forces it to follow its
rotation. Its pressure and density decrease with increasing height.
There are four separate areas known in the atmosphere:

V the troposphere
V the stratosphere
V the ionosphere
V the exosphere.
Refer to Figure 1.
Commonly, the atmosphere is considered to consist of those two layers of air which lie
closest to the earth’s surface, namely the troposphere and the stratosphere. Most
conventional flying takes place within these two layers.
The Troposphere
The troposphere extends from the earth’s surface to a height of 16,800 m above the
equator and up to 8,500 m above the poles. The height difference results from
temperature and gravity differences. The troposphere represents only 1 % of the
atmosphere but contains 75 % of its mass. All weather changes occur within this
layer. There is a constant drop in temperature of 6.5 °C for every rise in height of
1 km.
Note: The zone where the troposphere ends and the stratosphere begins is called the
tropopause. There is no clear separation between the two layers as they tend to
overlap.
The Stratosphere
The stratosphere extends to a height of 85 km above the earth’s surface. Up to a

height of approx. 27 km its temperature remains constant at --56.5 °C. Then the
temperature starts to rise again.
Note: The stratosphere is a rather ’quiet’ portion of the atmosphere generally character-
ised by an absence of weather and smooth flying conditions.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.1 8.1.1 - HO - 2
The Ionosphere
The ionosphere extends to a height of approx. 400 km. The atmospheric gases
within this layer are ionised and possess an enormous electrical conductivity.
The Exosphere
The exosphere is the last layer and extends into space. It consists of atomised
hydrogen and helium, whereas hydrogen is the predominating element.
Composition of the Atmosphere
Refer to Figure 2.
Air is a mixture of gases in relatively uniform proportions throughout most of the

atmosphere. A given volume of dry air at sea--level consists of
V 78 % nitrogen
V 21 % oxygen
V 1 % inert and other gases (e.g. argon, neon, helium, carbon dioxide, water
vapour)
V various contaminants.
From a height of approx. 20 km the amount of oxygen decreases at a rate of 0.3 %

per 1 km. At a height of approx. 60 km and above no more oxygen is found.
The lower levels of the atmosphere also contain water vapour. The amount of water
vapour which the air can ’hold’ depends on the temperature. Generally it can be said
that the higher the temperature is the more water vapour can be retained by the air.
Water Vapour
As stated before the amount of water vapour in the air depends on the air tempera-
ture and, to a lesser extent, on the air pressure.
Example: 1 m3 of saturated air at a temperature of 20 °C contains 17.2 grams of water

vapour. If the air temperature falls to 10°C, then half of this water vapour will be
’squeezed’ out of the air in the form of water droplets, resulting either in cloud
formation or rainfall.
Humidity
The term ’humidity’ describes the amount of water which is present in the air. The
term ’relative humidity’ gives an indication of how much of its total capacity to absorb
water has been taken up.
Example: ’0 % relative humidity’ indicates that the air is ’perfectly dry’, i.e. it contains no
water at all. This is an unlikely condition outside a laboratory.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.1 8.1.1 - HO - 3
’100 % relative humidity’ (i.e. saturated air), however, is not uncommon. It means that
the air has absorbed all the water it is able to do. It is rather like a sponge which is
’absolutely full’.
The degree of humidity affects the air density to a great extent. A high relative
humidity decreases the density of the affected air mass, low relative humidity
increases its density.
Water vapour is considered to be the lightest component of air, thus, the greater
concentration of water vapour arises the ’lighter’ (less dens) the air will be.
Atmospheric Pressure
The atmospheric pressure is the weight of the air over a given area. If we can
imagine a column of air having a base area of 1 cm2 and stretching to the outer limits
of the atmosphere then the total weight of this volume of air acts upon 1 cm2 of the
earth’s surface.
The higher we ascend in the atmosphere, the less will be the weight of air remaining
above, and therefore the less will be the pressure. This occurs because the air mass
near the earth’s surface is compressed by the air above it, and as we go higher the
air pressure becomes less. Atmospheric pressure varies also with the temperature,
the density of the air and its humidity (the amount of water vapour).
It can be seen that there are considerable variations in the properties of the
atmosphere, i.e. in pressure, temperature, density and humidity.
To allow for comparison of e.g. flight performance data which have probably been
obtained under different atmospheric conditions a ’standard atmosphere’ for
reference is needed. Therefore the so--called international standard atmosphere
(ISA) has been defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) which
is used as a reference for variations in the atmosphere at different latitudes and
altitudes.
International Standard Atmosphere

Meteorological records collected over many years allowed the calculation of
averages for typical atmospheric conditions for a standard day. These values are
used for universal comparison of aircraft/engine performance and documented by
ICAO as the international standard atmosphere (ISA). Temperature, pressure,
density, temperature gradient, humidity and altitude are referred to as per their ISA
equivalents. The altitude ’zero’ is the water mark reference of Amsterdam/Nether-
lands, also called mean sea level (MSL).
At mean sea level the international standard atmosphere is defined by the following
figures:
V air temperature t: +15 °C
V air pressure p: 1,013.25 hectoPascal (hPa)
V air density Ã: 1.249 kg/m3
V temperature gradient: --6.5 °C per 1,000 m (or: --2.0 °C per
1.000 feet) from MSL up to an altitude of
approx. 11 km
V relative humidity Ô: 0 %.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.1 8.1.1 - HO - 4
The following table states the standard atmospheric temperatures and pressures at
various altitudes as defined by ICAO.
Altitude (m) Temperature (°C) Pressure (hPa)
0 15.0 1,013.25
1,000 8.5 898.73
5,000 --17.5 540.15
10,000 --50.0 264.31
11,000 --56.5 226.32
15,000 --56.5 120.44
20,000 --56.5 54.75
Above 11,000 m the temperature remains constant at --56.5 °C up to a height of

approx. 20,000 m after which the temperature begins to increase again because of
the influence of the sun.
Application to Aerodynamics
Aircraft performance and behavior is affected by changes in air temperature and

pressure.
To determine whether or not an aircraft and its engine are performing as the
manufacturer designed them, engineers have agreed upon conditions that constitute
a so--called ’standard day’, based on the ISA. Aircraft and engine performance can
be reduced to the performance they would have under these standard conditions.
By converting all data to this standard, the effect of variables such as temperature
and pressure can be eliminated and aircraft performance meaningfully compared.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.1 8.1.1 - HO - 5
400 km
85 km
8.5 km
8,500 m
16,800 m
TROPOSPHERE
TROPOPAUSE
STRATOSPHERE
G 0247
EXOSPHERE
Figure 1 Layers of the Atmosphere

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.1 8.1.1 - HO - 6
Atmosphere
Earth
diameter
12,756 km
Equator
G 0248
The atmosphere contains from sea level to 20 km height:

78% Nitrogen
21% OxygenArgon
0.9% Carbon dioxide
0.03% Neon
0.0012% Water vapour
0.0010% Helium
0.0004%
Figure 2 Gases in the Atmosphere

Basic Aerodynamics
Preliminary Module 8 Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 1
Aerodynamics
Fundamentals of Aerodynamics
Introduction
’Aerodynamics’ is the study of the interaction between the air and solid bodies
moving in it. It can be described as ’a rare example of the matching together of
theoretical physics, pure mathematics and creative engineering’.
Newton’s third law of motion states that for every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction. Aircraft, helicopters, gliders and autogyros produce their lift by
pushing down on a mass of air. They are supported in the air when they force down
an amount of air equal to their own weight. This is determined basically by the
density of the air through which they are flying and the speed with which they pass
through the air.
Today, ’aerodynamics’ is normally restricted to the study of dynamic flight, i.e. the
behaviour of aircraft that are heavier than air. For the first time the idea that a
heavier--than--air vehicle basically faces two major problems was clearly defined and
documented by Sir George Cayley (1773--1857). In his papers and notes he
separated the problem of sustenation (lift) from the problem of drag which, according
to him, must be compensated by propulsion in order to maintain level flight.
Kinetic, Potential and Total Energy
Kinetic energy is that energy which is associated with motion. Speeding up the
movement of air or any object increases its kinetic energy.
Potential energy is the energy possessed by a body because of its position or its
configuration. The potential energy of air relates to its pressure, and increasing its
pressure increases its potential energy.
The total energy of the air is the sum of the kinetic and the potential energy.
Bernoulli’s Principle
To explain the theory of flow, we do not say that ’a body moves through the air’ but
that ’the air flows over the body’.
Refer to Figure 1.
The relationship between kinetic and potential energy in the air is explained by
Bernoulli’s principle. This principle states that if the total amount of energy in the air
remains constant, any increase in kinetic energy will cause an equal decrease in
potential energy as shown in Figure 1.
According to Bernoulli’s principle the volume of air entering the tube must be the
same as the volume of air leaving it over the same given period. Therefore the air in
the center of the tube has to accelerate in order to pass through the smaller diameter
if the same volume is to leave the tube. This acceleration through the narrow part
causes a decrease in pressure.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 2
Note: A tube as shown in Figure 1 is called a ’venturi tube’. Such a tube and the
principle behind may be used for various purposes.
Bernoulli’s theorem for the continuity of incompressible flow can mathematically be

expressed as:
p1 + 1 Ãc2 = p + 1 Ãc2 = constant

2 1 2 2 2
with: p1 = pressure at station 1
p2 = pressure at station 2
Ã = density of gas
c1 = velocity of gas at station 1
c2 = velocity of gas at station 2.
Air Pressure
Refer to Figure 2.
Static Pressure
As already stated, the weight of the air in the atmosphere creates a pressure. This is
called the static pressure, i.e. the pressure caused by still air. The static pressure
acts equally into all directions. Therefore the forces caused by the static pressure
and which act on any object are balanced. There is no resultant force at all acting on
the object. At sea level the ICAO standard atmosphere defines the static pressure as
being 1,013.25 hPa.
Dynamic Pressure
Air in motion possesses additional energy due to its speed. If this moving air is
brought to rest on a surface the energy released causes an increase in pressure in
addition to the atmospheric pressure. The additional pressure registered on this
surface is known as dynamic pressure.
Note: For aerodynamic observations it is insignificant whether a body is moving through

still air or the air is moving around a motionless body.
Any object in still air will experience equal pressures in all directions, but an object in
moving air will experience an additional pressure in the direction of the motion of air.
At low speeds the dynamic pressure is small compared with the static pressure.
However, at high speeds the dynamic pressure increases considerably.
The dynamic pressure can mathematically be expressed as:
pd = 1 Ãc2
2
with: pd = dynamic pressure
Ã = density of gas
c = velocity of the gas.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 3
Total Pressure
The total pressure is the sum of the static pressure and dynamic pressure. It can
mathematically be expressed as:
pt = ps + pd
with: ps = static pressure
pd = dynamic pressure.
Considering the relation between local values of p and c and those in free stream,
i.e. in an incompressible flow (p and c are then denoted by the suffix oo), Bernoulli’s
equation gives:
p∞ + 1 Ãc∞
2
= p + 1 Ãc2
2 2
therefore:
p − p ∞ = 1 Ã c 2∞ − c 2
2
It is useful to express the local pressure in terms of a pressure coefficient cp, which
is a non-dimensional measure of the difference between local and free stream
pressure. It is defined by:
p − p∞ c 2
cp =
1
=1 − c
2 Ãc 2 ∞
Aerodynamics of the Airfoil
Refer to Figure 3.
An airfoil, whether being a wing of an aircraft, a rotor of a helicopter or the blade of a

propeller, is a specially shaped body designed to react on the flow of air that passes
over it.
This reaction (or, actually: a combination of reactions) is known as aerodynamic lift

and drag. It is determined to a great extend by the shape of the surface. Figure 3
shows that the narrow part of the Venturi tube has a shape which is similar to that of
a typical subsonic airfoil.
Refer to Figure 4.
Subsonic aerodynamics consider the airflow to be noncompressible, and the airfoils

actually used for aircraft are similar to those in Figure 4. They all have a round
leading edge and a maximum thickness at approx. one third of the distance between
the leading and the trailing edge. From that point they taper smoothly to the trailing
edge.
Subsonic airfoils may be asymmetrical or symmetrical in shape. A symmetrical airfoil

has the same curve on each side of the chord line, but the shapes of the top and the
bottom of an asymmetrical airfoil are different to each other, with the upper side being
larger than the lower.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 4
Boundary Layer
Refer to Figure 5.
If the surface of an airfoil could be perfectly smooth and the air flowing over it was
not viscous the air would pass smoothly without any friction drag. But this is not the
case: air is viscous and tends to stick to anything over which it flows. At the very
surface of the airfoil the air velocity is near zero, and because of surface roughness
caused by dirt, rivets, frost etc. local turbulence is created which causes the airflow
on the surface to flow in a random pattern, sometimes even reversing its direction.
This randomly flowing air is called ’boundary layer’ and it is important that it is kept as
thin as possible.
When the boundary layer is smooth, and the air flows in layers, it is said to have
’laminar flow’. If the surface is rough, however, or if the air slows down, it will no
longer flow smoothly but will become turbulent.
Refer to Figure 6.
Lift can be increased by increasing the angle of attack. As a rough guide it can be
said: if the angle of attack is doubled then the lift is doubled (likewise the drag). The
angle of attack however cannot be increased indefinitely. For most airfoils the
maximum angle of attack lies between 15° -- 20°. Above this point total separation of
the boundary layer occurs and the airfoil loses lift dramatically. This condition is
known as ’stall’ which is one of the most serious flying conditions. If a stall were to
occur during take--off or landing it will have disastrous results.
Different Types of Drag
Drag is the force of resistance experienced by a body moving through the air. It is the
resistance to motion through a fluid, i.e. an aircraft in flight. The drag experienced by
an aircraft in flight arises in several different ways. If the aircraft were moving along at
an angle of attack such that the wing would no longer produce lift, there would still be
drag. This is called ’profile drag’. When the wings are producing lift the drag is
increased, and this additional drag is called ’induced drag’. Therefore the total drag
of an aircraft consists of ’profile drag plus induced drag’.
Profile Drag
Refer to Figure 7.
The profile drag is a two--dimensional drag of a body excluding that due to lift. It is
the sum of the surface friction and the form drag.
Note: The term ’parasite drag’ may be used for all types of profile drag.
The profile drag on an aircraft can be further divided into form drag, skin friction drag
and interference drag.
To reduce these types of drag the elongation of the trailing edge becomes as
important as the rounding of the leading edge.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 5
Form Drag
Form drag is the difference obtained when induced drag is subtracted from pressure
drag.
Refer to Figure 8.
It is that portion of the resistance which occurs when a viscous fluid flows against a
solid object. Vortices are formed and there is no longer a smooth streamline flow.
The extreme example of this type of resistance is a flat plate placed at right angles to
the wind. The resistance is very large and is almost entirely due to the formation of
vortices, the skin friction being negligible in comparison.
Experiments show that the pressure in front of the plate is greater than the atmos-
pheric pressure and the pressure behind is less than that of the atmosphere. This
causes a kind of ’sucking’ effect on the plate.
Refer to Figure 7 again.
Form drag can be considerably reduced by streamlining.
If a flat plate and a sphere of the same diameter are placed in the airflow, it can be
observed that the sphere has a much lower drag than the plate (approx. 50 %). This
is because the air separates more smoothly round the front face of the sphere (and
the air is slowed down less). Additionally the air follows the surface of the sphere for
some way around the rear before it separates. The turbulent wake region is thus
much narrower than that behind the flat plate.
If a streamlined shape with the same frontal area to the airflow as the sphere is
placed in the airflow at the same speed, the drag is found to be even lower than that
of the sphere. This is because the more gradual taper on the tail allows the airflow to
remain attached to the surface almost until reaching the trailing edge before
separation occurs. This gives a very low drag and a narrow wake.
Skin Friction Drag
As the airflow passes over the aircraft, it tends to ’stick’ to the aircraft skin. This is
called skin friction drag. This can be reduced by having smooth streamlined surfaces
on the aircraft.
As the air flows over the surface of an airfoil it is slowed down due to the friction of
the air with the aircraft skin. This slowing down takes place within the boundary layer.
The slowing down of the air in the boundary layer occurs because the air is viscous,
each layer being slowed down less, similar to a pack of playing cards being thrown
onto a table. Where the layer of the air is no longer slowed down the limit of the
boundary layer is reached.
The drag caused by a laminar boundary layer is lower than that of a turbulent layer. It
is most desirable to keep the boundary layer laminar over as much of the surface as
possible to obtain low drag.
Additionally, the laminar flow can be maintained over a greater distance if the
pressure gradient is favourable. When the airflow passes the point of maximum
curvature of the upper surface of the airfoil the dynamic pressure begins to decrease
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 6
and the static pressure to increase. Because the static pressure is increasing further
back along the wing the airflow is disturbed and turbulence is set up thereby
thickening the boundary layer thickens. This is called ’adverse pressure gradient’.
The skin friction drag also depends on the roughness of the surface. A rough surface
causes the transition from smooth flow to turbulence to occur sooner thereby
increasing the drag. Roughness in a region of flow which is already turbulent will also
cause an increase in drag.
Interference Drag
Interference drag is caused by air flowing over one portion of the airframe interfering
with the smooth flow of air over another portion. Interference drag is minimised by
the installation of fairings and fillets where the two surfaces or components join at an
angle.
On a complete aircraft, total drag is found to be greater than the sum of the drags of
the individual parts. This is the result of the interference flow at the junction of the
wing and other components to the fuselage which modifies the pressure variations
around the components and which causes earlier separation. Interference drag can
be reduced by fairing the junctions between the components.
Induced Drag
When the wing is producing lift additional drag is also caused proportional to the lift
being produced. This drag is known as ’induced drag’.
Refer to Figure 9.
The induced drag is associated with the wing tip vortices which are formed because
of the pressure difference between the upper and the lower wing surfaces. This
pressure difference causes a flow of air around the wing tip. The existence of the
vortices shows that energy is being lost in creating the swirling motion of air in the
vortices. Therefore additional drag is associated with the formation of the vortices.
If the lift being produced is increased (this is brought about by creating a larger
pressure difference between the top and the bottom surfaces) a stronger vortex is
produced. The strength of the vortex and the related induced drag caused by this
vortex are proportional to the lift.
Pressure Drag
Pressure drag is the sum of all the aerodynamic forces normal to the surface. It is the
sum of form drag and induced drag.
Wave Drag
Wave drag is the drag caused by the generation of shock waves on an aircraft.
Upwash/Downwash
During flight, the air just ahead of the wing has an upward component. This is called
the ’upwash’. The degree of upwash is dependant on the angle of attack, and
increases with an increase in the angle of attack.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 7
Refer to Figure 10.

Similarly, the movement of the air just behind the wing has a downward component,
which is called the ’downwash’.
Vortices
The travelling speeds and the pressures of the air masses flowing along the upper an
bottom surfaces of the wings are different. When both air streams come together
again at the wing tips and the trailing edges, the air masses start a circular move-
ment. Such a bunch of air circulating around itself is called ’vortex’. The axis around
which the air is rotating is called a vortex line.
Refer to Figure 11.
During the take--off run, a bound vortex, i.e. a mass of air which seems to circulate
around the wing, develops. The first portion of it, the so--called starting vortex, is
shed after take--off, while the bound vortex continues to circulate behind the trailing
edge. This effect is caused and further increased by the downwash.
It is mathematically impossible for a vortex line to have loose ends. Therefore, at the
wing tips the vortex spills off each wing tip.
Each wing forms a trailing vortex (or: wake vortex) that extends for miles behind the
aircraft. These trailing vortices are the continuation of the bound vortex.
Refer to Figure 12.
Far behind the aircraft, possibly all the way back to the place where the aircraft left
the ground, the two trailing vortices join up with the starting vortex to form an
unbroken vortex line.
Stagnation
Refer to Figure 13.

An important line on an airfoil is the line where the airflow separates so that some of
it can pass over the top and the rest along the bottom of the wing. This line is called
’stagnation line’.
The stagnation line runs along the leading edge and extends over the length of the
wing. Its movement is very important for warning of an impending stall. At moderate
to high angles of attack the stagnation line is found well below and aft of the leading
edge.
There is another stagnation line running spanwise along the trailing edge. It marks
the place, where the air that has passed above the wing rejoins with the air from
below the wing.
Wing Aspect Ratio
Refer to Figure 14.

The most important characteristics of a wing’s form are the wing aspect ratio and the
taper ratio. The aspect ratio is the ratio of the length (or: span) b of a wing to its width
(or: chord) C:
Λ = b/C.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 8
With all other details being equal, an increase in aspect ratio decreases the drag,
especially at high angles of attack. A glider, for example, is a high--performance
sailplane with high--aspect wings so it can operate at relatively slow airspeeds and
high angles of attack.
Taper Ratio
Refer to Figure 15.
A common form of wing is the tapered wing. The taper ratio is the ratio of the wing
width at the wing root (or: root chord) to the width at the wing tip (or: tip chord):
CT
taper = .
CR
A wing with a moderate taper has many of the advantages of an elliptical wing but is
less costly to construct. Its stall characteristics are similar to those of the elliptical
wing. When the taper is increased, the stall characteristics become adverse, with the
stall beginning at the tip and progressing inboard. This progression causes the loss
of aileron effectiveness, and thus a loss of lateral control, while lift is still produced at
the inboard portion of the wing.
Fineness Ration
The ratio of length to breadth (or: diameter) of a streamlined shape is called the
’fineness ratio’ of this body. For best results it should be approx. 4 to 1, but it actually
depends on the design airspeed. The higher the speed, the greater should be the
fineness ratio. However, experiments show that there is not much variation in the
drag for a large range of fineness ratios.
Airfoil Shape and Related Factors
Aerodynamic lift depends on the shape of the airfoil and the airfoil surface area.
Various airfoil shapes have been developed depending on the type of aircraft and the
designed speed range. To describe the shape of an airfoil the following terms are
essential:
Mean Camber Line
Refer to Figure 16.
The mean camber is a line drawn in the middle between the upper and the lower
cambers. Its curvature is one of the most important factors in determining the
aerodynamics characteristics of an airfoil.
Mean Chord Line

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 9
’Mean chord line’ means the geometric mean chord length of a wing. It is always a
straight line. The length of the mean chord CM can be calculated by dividing the wing
area S by the wing span b.
If the mean camber and the mean chord lines are identical, i.e. if the mean camber
line is straight like the mean chord line, the wing is a symmetrical wing.
Mean Aerodynamic Chord
The mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) is that chord on a wing where, mathematically
seen, all aerodynamic and gravitational forces act upon, i.e. the chord through the
geometrical center of the wing. It is used for aerodynamic calculations and as
reference for center--of--gravity calculations.
Refer to Figure 17.
If the wing geometry, the shape of the airfoil and the angle of incidence remain
constant over the full span of the wing, the MAC can be determined geometrically as
follows:
1. find the center of the chord at the wing root CR
2. find the center if the chord at the wing tip CT
3. connect both centers by a line
4. add CT to CR in the aft direction
5. add CR to CT in the front direction
6. connect both ’new’ ends by a line
7. the MAC is found in the point where this line intersects with the line found in
step 3.
If the wing is pointed at the tip and has a straight trailing edge (’delta wing’) the MAC
will be 2/3 of CR.
Center of Pressure
Refer to Figure 18.
The center of pressure (CP) is the point on the chord line of an airfoil at which all of
the aerodynamic forces are concentrated. The lift vector acts from the center of
pressure in a direction that is perpendicular to the relative wind, and the drag vector
acts from this same point in a direction parallel to the relative wind. The relation
between the lift and drag vectors determines the direction and size of the resultant
force.
The center of pressure of a subsonic airfoil is typically located at approx. 30% to 40%
of the mean chord line back from the leading edge.
On an asymmetric airfoil, the CP moves forward as the angle of attack increases,

and backwards as it decreases.
On a symmetric airfoil, the CP does not move, but remains in almost the same
location when the angle of attack changes.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 10
Angle of Attack

The angle of attack (AOA) is the angle between the chord line of an airfoil and the
direction of the air that strikes the airfoil. Any increase in the angle of attack
increases the lift of the airfoil.
The angle of attack can be increased until the designed airfoil--specific critical AOA is
reached. This critical AOA is typically between 15° to 20°. At any further increase
beyond this point, the air ceases to flow smoothly over the top of the wing, and the
wing stalls.
Wash In/Wash Out
’Wash in’ and ’wash out’ are terms referring to the angle of incidence of the wing tip
versus the wing root. Wash in is a twist in the wing that increases its angle of
incidence near the tip. Wash out is a twist that decreases the angle of incidence near
the wing tip.
The twisting of the wing tip typically occurs as a result of aerodynamic forces on
wings that lack torsional rigidity, such as highly swept wings. Swept--back wings
experience a wash out and a decrease of lift at their tips, whereby forward--swept
wings experience a wash in and an increase of lift.
The wing tip twisting can also bea corrective rigging measure ona small strut--
braced aircraft that flies with a heavy wing. By shortening the length of the rear strut
the twist of the wing can be changed to increase the wash in, in order to generate
additional lift on this wing.
Thrust, Weight, Aerodynamic Resultant
In flight, with unchanged power setting, thrust increases as weight decreases. At the
same time, the amount of lift required to keep the aircraft in level flight decreases as
the weight decreases.
During normal flight, an additional centrifugal force occurs during a turn and when
levelling out after a descent. Besides the weight of the aircraft, this force adds to the
total downward force. It results from the centrifugal force Fc and is referred to as the
load factor expressed in multiples of the gravitational force g. During normal flight the
g load (or: g factor) equals 1. During a turn the g load increases with the bank angle.
The additional weight resulting from the g load has to be compensated by additional
lift to prevent the aircraft from descending.
Aerodynamic Lift and Lift Equation
Aerodynamic lift is the upward force induced by the airflow over the airfoil. Lift directly
opposes the weight of the aircraft.
Refer to Figure 19.
As the air flows over an airfoil it speeds up when passing the upper surface and
slows down along the bottom surface. This increase in speed on the upper surface
causes a pressure drop and the decrease in speed along the bottom surface causes
a pressure increase. It is this pressure difference which causes the airfoil to be lifted.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 11
Refer to Figure 20.

Lift is distributed over the whole airfoil but is largest near the leading edge, where the
air accelerates fastest because of the round edge. The airfoil is said to achieve 65 %
of the lift from the upper surface because of the lower pressure and 35 % from the
lower surface because of the higher pressure occurring there.
However, the sum of all lifting forces are considered to act upon an imaginary point
known as the center of pressure (CP). The sum of the lifting forces is called the
’resultant lift’ and acts upward and backwards from the center of pressure.
The center of pressure is, for most airfoils, usually at a distance of approx. 25 % of
the chord length from the leading edge, but varies with the angle of attack.
The resultant lift acting on the airfoil does not act vertically upwards but slightly
towards the trailing edge. If this force is split into its vertical and horizontal compo-
nents the vertical force is representing the lift and the horizontal force the drag (or, to
be more precise: the induced drag).
The amount of lift produced by aerodynamic action is determined by three factors:
V the surface area of the airfoil
V the lift coefficient of the airfoil
V the dynamic pressure of the air (speed of air passing over the airfoil).
Airfoil Surface Area
This is the most obvious of the three factors: the larger the airfoil, the greater will be
the lift if all other factors remain the same.
Lift Coefficient
A coefficient is a dimension-less number used in a formula to express the action of a

variable. The lift coefficient CL is determined by two variables: the shape of the airfoil
and the angle at which the air strikes the airfoil.
When an airfoil is designed, its shape is mathematically conceived, and a test section
is made and placed in a wind tunnel; then measurements are made of the lift and
drag at various angles of attack. The results are plotted as a family of curves. There
are hundreds of airfoil shapes. Each shape has its own set of curves.
The coefficient of lift for any airfoil section varies with the angle of attack, which is the
angle between the chord line of the section and the relative wind.
As the angle of attack increases, the coefficient of lift increases. At a certain point it
peaks out and drops. This is the critical angle of attack because, beyond this angle
the air flowing over the surface of the airfoil breaks away and no lift can be produced
any longer, the drag increases and the airfoil stalls.
Dynamic Pressure of the Air
The dynamic pressure may be mathematically calculated to determine the mass of

air the airfoil can force down. To make this calculation we must consider the density
of the air and the speed of the air over the airfoil. This calculation is the potential lift
of the airfoil, e.g. if an aircraft wing moving through the air, forces down 1,000 kg of
air, the equal and opposite reaction will force up 1,000 kg of aircraft.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 12
Lift Equation
The amount of lift L produced by a wing depends on the following factors:

V the lift coefficient CL, which is a dimensionless number for a specific airfoil at
a certain AOA
V the dynamic air pressure q, which is the product of the relative air density Ã
and the square of the velocity V, divided by two
V the airfoil surface S.
Applying these factors, the lift equation can be established:
L = CL · 1/2 · Ã · V2 · S.
Note: The lift is affected by the square of the airspeed. This means that doubling the
airspeed will increase the lift by a factor of four.
Drag Equation
The induced drag is also closely related to the generation of lift on a wing. The
amount of induced drag D produced by a wing depends on the following factors:
V the drag coefficient CD, which is a dimensionless number for a specific airfoil
at a certain angle of attack
V the dynamic air pressure q, which is the product of the relative air density Ã
and the square of the velocity V, divided by two
V the airfoil surface S.
Applying these factors, the drag equation can be established:
D = CD · 1/2 · Ã · V2 · S.
Note: The induced drag is also affected by the square of the airspeed. This means that
doubling the airspeed will increase the induced drag by a factor of four.
Polar Diagrams
Refer to Figure 21.
Polar diagrams are the results of wind tunnel tests performed on individual airfoils.
Each polar curve shows the performance of a profile at certain angles of attack.
The Lilienthal polar diagram combines lift and drag coefficients to show the lift and
drag relation at certain angles of attack. The most significant points are
V the maximum lift coefficient CL max
V the minimum lift coefficient CL min
V the minimum drag coefficient CD min
V the best glide angle γ (by use of a tangent from the zero point).
In order to present a clearer picture of the polar curve the drag scale is usually 5 to
10 times larger than the lift scale. To be able to read the lift coefficient and the drag
coefficient directly over the angle of attack the information contained in the Lilienthal
polar diagram can be shown as two separate diagrams, the lift diagram and the drag
diagram, respectively.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 13
Stall
The lift coefficient of an airfoil increases smoothly with the angle of attack until the
critical angle is reached. At an AOA of approx. 14° the airflow starts to break away
from the surface at the trailing edge. This is called ’separation’.
Refer to Figure 22.
At this point, the air ceases to flow smoothly over the upper surface of the airfoil, and
lift is lost. As the AOA is further increased, the point of separation moves towards the
leading edge until the so--called stall point is reached. At this point, the remaining lift
is no longer enough to keep the aircraft airborne. This condition is called ’stall’.
The form of a wing has a pronounced effect on the stall progression. By looking at
some basic wing forms it can be seen how a stall progresses.
The rectangular wing has the most desirable stall progression. The stall begins at the
wing root and progresses outward, so the air still flows smoothly over the ailerons
when the wing already loses enough lift to cause the aircraft nose to drop.
The elliptical wing has the most efficient form, because it produces the least amount
of induced drag for a given aspect ratio. But it has two disadvantages that prevents
its wide acceptance: it is difficult and expensive to construct, and the stall pro-
gression is inferior to that of a rectangular wing.
Airfoil Contamination
Forms of Ice
Clear ice is usually a product of temperature inversions at a temperature range from

0 °C to --15 °C. It can also be encountered in cumulus clouds or on the upslope side
of mountains. The water droplets remain liquid for a relatively long time and, before
freezing, spread evenly over hte aircraft surfaces without air inclusions. This causes
the transparent, smooth surface of clear ice. Clear ice usually accumulates faster
than other forms of ice because of larger water droplets. It is quite difficult to be
removed with de--icing boots. Despite of causing less drag than rime ice, the weight
increase is more substantial.
Rime ice has a very rough surface and causes a much greater increase in drag than
clear ice. It is usually encountered in stratus clouds at temperatures below --15 °C.
Supercooled water droplets freeze instantly, but maintain their spherical shape upon
impact with the airfoil. This leads to air inclusions which causes the milky appearance
and roughness of the surface. The liquid water content is low and accumulation
usually slow. Rime ice can be removed easily with de--icing boots.
Mixed ice may be encountered in all icing conditions, but typically between 0 °C and
--15 °C. Formation of mixed ice is caused by small supercooled and large cold water
droplets in clouds. The rough rime ice crystals are covered by clear ice. Bizarre ice
formations, called ’ice crowns’, are quite common. Mixed ice weighs more than rime
ice and produces more drag than clear ice.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 14
Icing Factors
There are four factors determining the accumulation of ice on an aircraft:

V temperature
V the size of the water droplets
V airfoil size
V speed.
Temperature and droplet size influence the type of ice formation.
Airfoil size is an important factor since larger airfoils are able to divide the airflow
between upper and lower surface ahead of the airfoil, causing the water droplets to
by--pass the airfoil rather than impacting and freezing on it. Ice collects more
efficiently on smaller airfoils. Ice collection is usually more on tail surfaces than on
the wing surfaces.
Airspeed is also a factor, since the friction between airfoil and air causes a tempera-
ture rise. Therefore, the higher the airspeed, the lesser the ice build--up. But it must
be kept in mind that ice accumulation will vary for any given weather situation and
aircraft.
Frost Contamination
Test data indicate that ice, snow or frost having a thickness and roughness similar to
medium or coarse sandpaper on the leading edge and upper surface of a wing can
reduce the lift by as much as 30% and increase the drag by up to 40%.
The roughness of frost is the primary danger to the aircraft surface. The frost may not
look very threatening when compared to ice, but the added drag of a thin coating of
frost slows the airflow over the airfoil and thereby degrades the lifting performance.
One tenth of an inch of evenly distributed frost on the aircraft wing may increase the
stall speed by 35%. This roughly doubles the required take--off run.
Effects of Icing
Refer to Figure 23.
On general aviation aircraft the stall warning device is activated before the aircraft
reaches the critical angle of attack. With only 0.1 inch of frost contamination the lift
coefficient and the critical AOA are already lower than the preset warning value. This
means the aircraft will stall before the warning is activated.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 15
p1 p2
Increased velocity
and
decreased pressure
c1 c2
G 0394 A
Figure 1 Airflow through a Venturi Tube

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 16
Static pressure
In still air
Dynamic pressure
In moving air
G 0203 B
Figure 2 Static Pressure and Dynamic Pressure

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 17
G 0204
Figure 3 An Airfoil Cross-- Section Compared to

the Venturi Tube
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 18
Asymmetrical Airfoil
Chord line
Leading edge Trailing edge
Chord line G 0205 B
Symmetrical Airfoil
Figure 4 Typical Airfoil Cross-Sections

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 19
Layers of undisturbed air
Layers of disturbed air
Lift
Low --pressure area
High-- pressure area
Boundary Layer
Velocity at free flow

Distance from object to air layer
Friction
Thickness of layer is
usually a few millimeters,
but can be up to 500 mm
on very large aircraft.
FG 0206 C
Figure 5 Airflow over an Airfoil

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 20
4° 8°
1 2
10° 14°
3 4
16° 20°
G 0249
5 6
Figure 6 Airflow over an Airfoil at Increasing

Angle of Attack
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 21
a)
b)
G 0250
Figure 7 Aircraft Streamlining

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 22
a) Flat plate
Turbulent flow
b) Sphere
c) Bullet nose, hemispherical tail
d) Bullet nose, conical tail

FG 0274 A
Figure 8 Effect of Shaping on Form Drag

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 23
Induced Drag
Figure 9
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 24
Area of downwash
C 0182
Figure 10 Effect of Downwash

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 25
Figure 11 Vortices
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 26
Wake vortices
C 0184
Figure 12 Wake Vortices

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 27
G 0209 A
Figure 13 Stagnation Point

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 28
a) Wing aspect ratio

Wing span b
Wing cord C
Less Λ = 10
Induced drag Wing aspect ratio = b

C
More Λ =5
Note: If chord is not constant, the aspect ratio is taken as span2/area b2

S
b) Various aspect ratios

b
4
6
C 0164
8 10
12
Figure 14 Wing Aspect Ratio

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 29
Figure 15 Taper Ratio
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 30
Figure 16 Wing References

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 31
Figure 17 Construction of Mean Aerodynamic Chord

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 32
Figure 18 Center of Pressure

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 33
Resultant lift
25 %
G 0207 B
Center of pressure (CP)
Figure 19 Distribution of Lift over an Airfoil

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 34
L R
Center of pressure
Chord line
G 0208 B
a
Note: L = Lift
D = Drag
R = Resultant
W = Weight
α = Angle of attack W
Figure 20 Components of Resultant Lift

Notes
Preliminary
Module 8
8.2
Lilienthal polar diagram Lift diagram Drag diagram
Basic Aerodynamics
8.2.1 - HO - 35
Aerodynamics
Figure 21 Aerodynamic Diagrams
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 36
C 0191
Figure 22 Critical Angle of Attack

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.2 8.2.1 - HO - 37
C 0192 A
Figure 23 Effect of Ice Contamination

Basic Aerodynamics
Preliminary Module 8 Theory of Flight
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 1
Theory of Flight
Fixed-- Wing Aircraft
Introduction
According to a today’s aviation glossary a fixed--wing aircraft is
’a heavier--than--air flying machine, supported by airfoils, designed to obtain,
when driven through the air, at an angle inclined to the direction of motion, a
reaction from the air approximately at right angles to their surfaces’.
All attempts to fly with heavier--than--air machines must embody some means of
forcing the air downwards in order to provide an equal and opposite reaction which is
to lift the weight of the machine. It was natural that the early experimenters tried to
obtain this reaction by flapping of wings to imitate the flight of a bird. But machines
employing this principle, called ’ornithopters’, have never been really successful.
It is often argued that ’nature must know best’, and that experiments should continue
on this line. But such statements are as ’logical’ as the suggestion that ocean liners
should cross the Atlantic by flapping their rudders as a fish’s tail does, or that railway
engines should be provided with legs instead of wheels. All mechanical experience
has tended to show the advantages of rotary motion over the reciprocating motion
which is quite often employed by nature. This should not imply that nothing has been
learnt by studying the flight of birds. Many problems in aviation still remain unsolved
where the knowledge of the birds’ flight may lead to the solution.
Forces Acting in Flight

The flight of an aircraft consists of various stages. First, the take--off, during which
the aircraft is transferred from one medium to another. Then the climb, during which
the pilot gains the altitude at which the level part of the flight will be made. Then a
period of this steady flight at a constant altitude, interrupted in certain cases by
periods of manoeuvres. Later the aircraft is to descend back towards the earth, and
finally the landing.
On long--distance flights the main portion may consist of a long, steady climb, which
is more economical than maintaining the same height because as fuel is consumed
the weight of the aircraft is reduced.
Therefore it is often only a small portion of each flight during which the aircraft may
be considered as travelling in a straight and level flight at uniform velocity.
Yet this condition is of importance, since it is considered the ’standard condition’
when designing an aircraft. The other conditions are considered chiefly in so far as
they differ from those of straight and level flight.
What are the forces which keep the aircraft in its state of steady flight? First the lift,
which acts vertically upwards since the direction of motion is horizontal. The lift is to be
created to keep the aircraft in the air because it acts as a counterforce opposite to the
force of gravity, i.e. the weight. But lift can only be produced if the aircraft is moving
forwards. Therefore thrust need to be provided by propeller(s) or jet engine(s). The
forward motion is opposed by the drag.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 2
Refer to Figure 1.
Figure 1 shows the forces and moments acting on an aircraft during horizontal flight.
The aircraft can be said to be under the influence of 4 main forces. These forces are:
V the lift ’L’ of the main and the tail planes, acting vertically upwards through the
center of pressure
V the weight of the aircraft ’W’ acting vertically downwards through the center of
gravity
V the thrust ’T’ of the propeller pulling the aircraft horizontally forwards along
the propeller shaft
V the drag ’D’ acting horizontally backwards.
Lift
Lift is the total upward force produced by the aerodynamic reaction of the air flowing
over the airfoil surfaces, i.e. wings and horizontal tail planes. The lift force is acting
perpendicular to the relative wind. It may be tilted by varying the amount of lift
produced by each wing panel.
Weight
The weight of an aircraft is the total pull of gravity. Weight acts through the center of
gravity directly toward the center of the earth.
Weight is the greatest part of the downward force on aircraft, but there are also other
downward forces. An aircraft’s downward tail load changes with the airspeed. It may
be adjusted so that all downward forces are equal to the upward forces.
The combination of the downward forces moves the center of gravity to the same
location as the center of lift, and the aircraft balances about its center of gravity. For
the aircraft to remain at the same altitude, the total upward force must be equal to the
downward force.
Thrust
The propeller or jet stream of an aircraft (and the forward vector of lift produced by a
helicopter’s rotor) provide thrust. This is a force that causes forward movement.
Thrust for a glider or for an aircraft under reduced power is produced by the forward
component of lift and weight caused by the aircraft’s downward flight path.
Drag
An aircraft’s drag is the sum of the forces that oppose the aircraft’s forward force of
thrust. There are two basic drag forces:
V induced drag, which is produced by the same factors that produce aerody-
namic lift
V parasite drag, which is caused by all factors not producing lift.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 3
Induced drag is affected by the angle of attack (AOA). It increases as the airspeed
decreases.
Parasite drag increases as the airspeed increases.
The total drag is the sum of the induced and parasite drags. The total drag is least at
the point where induced and parasite drag are equal.
Center of Gravity
For certain purposes it is convenient to consider the whole weight of the aircraft
acting through one point, called the ’center of gravity’ (CG), and the total of the forces
created by all lifting surfaces acting on the center of pressure (CP). The resultant of
all the drag can as well be imagined acting on one point which is called the ’center of
drag’. Its actual position depends on the relative resistance of different parts of the
aircraft (e.g. smooth or rough surfaces etc.).
Steady State Flight
An aircraft is said to be in a balanced condition when it proceeds at a steady height

at uniform velocity into a fixed direction, or, in the words of an aviator, when altitude,
attitude and airspeed are constant and no control inputs are required.
Note: In reality, lift and thrust do not always act exactly at the center of gravity. For
handling purposes, a slight nose--down moment is often desirable.
In the language of mechanics such a state is known as equilibrium. ’Equilibrium’

simply means that the existing state is remaining unchanged, in other words, that the
aircraft is obeying Newton’s first law of motion which says:
’A body remains at rest or in motion in a straight line at constant speed unless

acted upon by an external force’.
In order to maintain such a state the forces acting on the aircraft must be balanced:
V firstly, the lift must equal the weight (this condition will keep the aircraft at
constant height)
V secondly, the thrust must equal the drag (this condition will keep the aircraft
moving at the same steady velocity).
There still remains a third condition for an equilibrium: in order to maintain straight and
level flight the aircraft must be prevented from rotating. This does not only depend on
the magnitudes of the 4 forces, but also on the positions at which they act. If the center
of pressure is behind the center of gravity, the nose will tend to drop and the tail to rise,
and vice versa if the center of pressure is in front of the center of gravity.
Refer to Figure 2.
However, the center of gravity is the center of rotation for the whole system and those
forces, which do not act exactly in it, produce a moment.
The moment of a force acting on any point is the product of the force and the distance
from the point perpendicular to the line of force.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 4
As shown in Figure 2, the forces can produce the following moments:

V The thrust ’T’ acts below the center of gravity and produces a nose-- up mo-
ment.
V The drag ’D’ acts above the center of gravity and produces a nose-- up mo-
ment as well.
V The lift ’L’ acts behind the center of gravity and produces a nose-- down mo-
ment.
V The force on the tail plane ’P’ acts behind the center of gravity as well, but it
must be able to change its direction, because finally the sum of nose--up and
nose--down moments are to be zero. Therefore the force acting on the tail
plane has the task to produce and maintain the equilibrium of the moments.
Where circumstances permit, the forces will be arranged as in Figure 1, which is called
the ’ideal distribution’. Where this is impossible, the arrangement of the 4 forces cannot
be considered as satisfactorily, and it is necessary to look for additional devices to
stabilise the aircraft in the air.
At a considerable distance behind the main planes (main lifting airfoils, or: wings) a
small horizontal plane, the tail plane (or: horizontal stabiliser) is fitted. Its purpose is
to provide the force necessary to counteract the behaviour of the 4 main forces.
The force at the tail plane needs to be small only because, depending on its leverage,
even a small force is able to produce a large correcting moment. Its direction can be
upwards or downwards.
In flight, the moments described above must be counteracted by the pilot using his
controls or, even better, the secondary controls, i.e. the trim systems. Every time when
attitude, airspeed and power settings are changed the aircraft needs to be trimmed, i.e.
to be re--adjusted to steady--state--flight conditions.
Note: Nevertheless it is the aim of the designers to create an aircraft which will, in the
words of the pilots, fly ’hands off’, i.e. on its own in a state of equilibrium.
Gliding
Refer to Figure 3.
When an aircraft is travelling in a steady glide it must be kept in a state of equilibrium

by the lift, drag and weight only, because during gliding no thrust is available. This
means that the total reaction, i.e. the resultant of the lift and drag, must be exactly
equal and opposite to the weight as shown in Figure 3.
But the lift is now at right angles to the path of the glide, while the drag acts directly
backwards, i.e. parallel to the gliding path. By a process of simple geometry it can be
seen that the angle formed between the lift and the total reaction is the same as the
angle between the path of the glide and the horizontal.
This angle is called the gliding angle α. In mathematical terms it can be stated:
D/L = tan α
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 5
Glide Ratio
Refer to Figure 4.
The glide ratio of an aircraft indicates the amount of distance gained versus the loss
of altitude. A glide ratio of 1:10 means that when descending 1,000 feet the aircraft
flies 10,000 feet of distance.
The glide ratio also indicates the aerodynamic efficiency of an aircraft. Common glide
ratios are 1:12 for a small single--engine trainer, 1:20 for an airliner and 1:50 for a
glider.
Climbing
Refer to Figure 5.
During straight and level flight the engine (via the propeller, jet or rocket) must
produce a thrust equal to the drag of the aircraft at that particular speed of flight. If
the engine has some reserve of power and if the throttle is further opened, either
V the pilot can push the nose down slightly, and maintain level flight at an in-
creased speed and decreased angle of attack,
or
V the aircraft will commence climbing.
Consideration of the forces which act upon an aircraft during climb is more difficult
than the other cases which have been considered before.
Assuming that the path actually travelled by the aircraft is into the same direction as
the thrust, then the forces will be as shown in Figure 5.
Theory of the Turn
Refer to Figure 6.
When an aircraft is rolled to the right, the lift produced by the wing, which acts
perpendicular to the lateral axis, now has a horizontal component that pulls the nose
around to the right.
However, when the left aileron moves down to increase lift on the left wing and start
the bank, it also increases the induced drag which pulls the nose to the left.
Adverse Yaw
Refer to Figure 7.
The movement of the nose in the wrong direction at the beginning of a turn is called
’adverse yaw’. It can be minimised by the use of differential ailerons: the aileron
moving upwards travels a greater distance than the aileron moving downward. The
extra upward travel creates just enough parasite drag to counteract the induced drag
caused by the lowered aileron.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 6
Another way to counteract adverse yaw is to use FRISE ailerons. The hinge of this
type of aileron is set back from the leading edge so that when the aileron is deflected
upwards, its nose extends below the bottom wing surface and produces parasite
drag
Load Factor, Stall, Flight Envelope and Structural Limitations
Influence of the Load Factor

Refer to Figure 8.
’Load factor’ is the ratio of the total load, i.e. the load supported by the lift produced
by the aircraft’s wing, to the total weight of the aircraft. The load factor is expressed
in ’g’ units. In an unaccelerated level flight the load on the wings is equal to the lift
and the total weight. Consequently, the load factor in this situation is 1g.
During normal flight, a load factor of 1g or greater is called ’positive’. Under certain
conditions, an abrupt deviation from the aircraft’s equilibrium can cause inertial
acceleration that in turn will cause the weight to become greater than the lift.
For example, a sudden and forceful elevator control movement forward can cause
the load factor to move into a negative region (see Figure 8, detail b)). This will cause
a feeling of weightlessness. During a stall the load factor may be reduced towards
zero as well.
Load factors apply to all flight manoeuvres. In a straight and level unaccelerated
flight, there is always a load factor of 1g. However, certain manoeuvres are known to
invoke relatively high load factors. Increased load factors are a characteristic of all
banked turns, because the centrifugal force adds to the weight of the aircraft.
Refer to Figure 9.
Load factors become significant both to flight performance and to the load on wing
and structure as the bank increases beyond approx. 45°. The load factor increases
rapidly as the angle of bank approaches 90°.
Note: A 90°--bank constant--altitude turn is mathematically not possible.
Structural Limitations
The amount of stress (load factor) that an aircraft can withstand before structural
damage or failure occurs is expressed as the aircraft’s limiting load factor.
Primarily a function of aircraft design, an individual aircraft’s limiting load factor is
published in the aircraft flight manual (or: pilot operating handbook) in terms of
maximum positive or negative g.
Limiting load factors of +3.5g to +3.8g and --1.5g to --1.8g are quite common for
various general aviation and transport category aircraft.
Change of Stall Speed
Stall is a condition where the lift generated by the aircraft’s wings no longer supports
its weight. The higher load factor in constant--altitude turns caused by the centrifugal
fore will also increase the stall speed. An increased stall speed means that the
aircraft stalls earlier, i.e. at a higher speed.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 7
Refer to Figure 10.

In fact, the stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor.
Stalls that occur with g--forces on an aircraft are called ’accelerated stalls’.
Example: If an aircraft has a stalling speed of 55 knots at 1g, then it will stall at twice that
speed (i.e. at 110 knots) when the load factor becomes 4g, which corresponds to
a bank angle of 77°.
Effect of Turbulences
Turbulence in the form of vertical air movements can, under certain conditions, cause
severe load stress on an aircraft wing. When an aircraft, flying at high speed with a
low AOA, suddenly encounters a vertical upward air movement, the relative wind
changes to a more upward direction as it meets the airfoil. This increases the angle
of attack of the wing. A sharp vertical gust will have the same effect on the wing as
applying sudden sharp back pressure on the elevator control.
All certified aircraft are designed to withstand loads imposed by turbulence of
considerable intensity.
Refer to Figure 11.
Nevertheless, gust load factors increase with increasing airspeed. Therefore, when
severe turbulence is encountered, the aircraft should be flown at a type specific
manoeuvring speed. This is the speed least likely to result in structural damage to
the aircraft, even if full control travel is used, and yet it allows a sufficient margin of
safety above the stall speed in turbulent air.
Lift Augmentation
Refer to Figure 12.
High--lift devices are used in combination with airfoils in order to reduce the take--off or
landing speed by changing the lift characteristics of an airfoil during the landing or
take--off phase. When these devices are no longer needed they are retracted into a
position within the wing to regain the normal characteristics of the airfoil.
To achieve a low horizontal speed (e.g. for landing purposes) the thrust must be
reduced. As thrust is reduced, lift is reduced. So, without high--lift devices the vertical
velocity would increase or the aircraft would stall. But the increase in lift produced by
flaps allows a decrease in speed of the aircraft without stalling.
Flaps are the most widely--used method for augmenting lift. Most flaps are hinged on
the trailing edge of the wings inboard of the ailerons, but some are located on the
wing leading edges.
Flaps
Refer to Figure 13.

Flaps are movable portions of a wing that are used to alter the airfoil shape. Lowering
the flaps increases both the lift and the drag. The simplest types are hinged on
the trailing edge. They are extended to increase the camber, thereby increasing
the maximum lift coefficient and producing a greater portion of drag at the same time.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 8
Plain Flaps
A part of the trailing edge of the wing inboard of the aileron is hinged so that, when it
is lowered, both the drag and the lift are increased.
Split Flaps
The trailing edge of the wing is split and the bottom may be lowered. This (like the
plain flap) increases both the lift and the drag. However, because of the limited
effectiveness of both the plain and split flaps with the demands for higher perform-
ance, both types are no longer in use on modern aircraft.
Fowler Flaps
Fowler flaps fit into the lower surface of the wing. When they are lowered (extended),
they slide outward and downward on rails. Both the shape of the airfoil and the wing
area are changed, causing a greater increase in lift and a lesser increase in drag
than any other type of flap.
Slotted Flaps
A wing stalls, when the smooth flow of air over its upper surface is separating
(breaking off) and starts swirling. When the wing flaps are lowered, the camber is
increased that much that turbulences may be generated over the lowered flap. As a
result, the air is not deflected smoothly, but the excessive turbulence destroys the lift.
To prevent this turbulences, slotted flaps may be used.
Slotted flaps deflect the airflow over the top of the extended flap. This allows a
greater deflection before the airflow over the top breaks off.
These act in the same way as Fowler flaps except that the air is ducted through the
slot between the flap and the wing. Then it is blown at high velocity across the top of
the lowered flap.
Slotted flaps allow greater deflection with smaller loss of lift than non--slotted flaps.
Refer to Figure 14.
Some large jet transport aircraft use triple--slotted flaps. As this flap is lowered, it
slides out of the wing on tracks and increases the camber and wing area in the same
way as a fowler flap does. It separates and forms slots between its segments. The air
flowing through these slots is forced down against the flap’s upper surface, which
delays airflow separation and produces additional lift.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 9
Other High--Lift Devices
Slots
Refer to Figure 15.
Some aircraft have fixed slots in the leading edge of the wing to allow for a higher
AOA before the stall occurs.
At low angles of attack, the slot has no effect. If the angle is sufficiently increased, a
wing without slots will stall. But, the same wing with slots, at the same AOA, will
have the air ducted over the top surface, and it will not stall.
Wing slots are normally located in the leading edge of the wing in front of the
ailerons. Because a stall will begin at the root of the wing, enough lift will be lost in
this area to let the aircraft nose drop while there is still a good airflow over the
ailerons. This means that lateral control can be maintained even throughout the stall.
Slats
Many high-- speed jet aircraft and some of the high-- performance STOL (short
take--off and landing) aircraft use movable slats in the leading edge of the wings. At
low angles of attack and cruise speed the slats are selected ’in’ and form a normal
leading edge. At high angles of attack and slower speeds, e.g. during approach and
landing, the slats are extended. This allows a higher AOA before a stall (i.e. an
airflow separation) occurs.
Most slat systems are physically selected by the pilot and electrically/mechanically
operated.
In the early development of slats, there were experiments with automatic systems,
the slats of which automatically deployed when the air pressure on the leading edge
became less due to slower speed and/or higher AOA.
Leading-- Edge Flaps
In order to increase the lift of an airfoil section, the camber of the wing surface may
be increased either by deflecting the trailing edge, the leading edge or both. The
leading--edge flap extends from the front edge of the wing. The camber and the wing
area are increased which increases the lift coefficient CL.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 10
Forces Acting on an Aircraft in Flight

Figure 1
Notes
Preliminary
Lift
Center of gravity (CG)
Drag P
8.3
Thrust
Module 8
P
Weight
Figure 2 Forces and Moments Acting in Horizontal Flight

Basic Aerodynamics
Theory of Flight
8.3.1 - HO - 11
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 12
Forces Acting During the Glide

D
W
α
L
Figure 3
Horizontal
α
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 13
C 0185
Figure 4 Glide Ratios (Examples)

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 14
Angle of climb α
W
α
Forces Acting During the Climb

D
Horizontal
L
W
α
Figure 5
T
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 15
C 0193
Figure 6 Turn Geometry

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 16
Adverse Yaw
Figure 7
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 17
C 0195
Figure 8 Load Factor

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 18
Change of Load Factor During Turns
Figure 9
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 19
C 0197
Figure 10 Relation Between Load Factor and

Stall Speed
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 20
Figure 11 Flight Envelope (Example)

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 21
Increase in lift Increase in

No. Type of high--lift device
in % speed range
1 Basic airfoil -- --
2 Plain flap 55 51
3 Split flap 65 63
4 Fowler flap 93 83
5 Slotted flap 71 42
6 Slot 37 35 B 5017 A
Figure 12 Types and Efficiency of Flaps

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 22
Slot
Flap
Slots plus flaps

Lift coefficient
Flaps alone Slots

alone
Plain
wing
15° 23°
13° 20°
FB 4972
Angle of attack
Figure 13 Effect of Flaps

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 23
Figure 14 Triple- Slotted Flaps (Example)

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.3 8.3.1 - HO - 24
a) Slots
b) Slats
c) Leading-- Edge flaps
Pivot Actuator
FB 4973 A
Figure 15 High-- Lift Devices

Basic Aerodynamics
Preliminary Module 8 Flight Stability/Dynamics
Notes 8.4 8.4.1 - HO - 1
Flight Stability and Dynamics
Stability of Aircaft
Types of Stability
Stability is the characteristic of an aircraft which enables it to be flown without control
actions in a straight and level flight condition.
The aircraft’s response to disturbance is associated with the inherent degree of
stability built in by the designer, in each of the three axes. Another condition affecting
the flight stability is the aircraft’s state of trim: some aircraft can be trimmed by the
pilot to fly ’hands off’ for straight and level flight, or even for climb or descent.
Refer to Figure 1.
An aircraft’s stability is expressed in relation to each axis:
V longitudinal stability = stability in pitch
V lateral stability = stability in roll
V directional stability = stability in yaw.
Longitudinal Stability
Refer to Figure 2.
Longitudinal stability is achieved about the lateral (or: pitch) axis of an aircraft. The
construction of the horizontal stabiliser, its angle of incidence in respect to the chord
of the stabiliser and the longitudinal axis of the aircraft in combination with the
elevator provide longitudinal stability.
A longitudinally stable aircraft will maintain level flight without requiring the pilot to
continually make adjustments to the controls.
An aircraft has longitudinal stability because of the relationship between its center of
gravity and the center of lift. This aircraft has its center of lift behind the center of
gravity. The nose--down rotation is counteracted by a nose--up force caused by the
downward load on the tail. The nose--down force caused by the CG’s position ahead
of the center of lift is fixed and does not change with airspeed. The tail load is
speed--dependant: the higher the airspeed, the greater the downward force on the
tail.
If the aircraft is trimmed for level flight with the pilot’s hands off the controls, and a
wind gust causes the nose to drop, the aircraft will nose down and the airspeed will
increase. As the airspeed increases, the tail load increases and pulls the nose back
to its level flight condition.
If the nose is forced up, the airspeed will drop off, and the tail load will decrease
enough to allow the nose to drop back to level flight.
Lateral Stability
Refer to Figure 3.
Lateral stability is a term used to refer to both rolling and yawing moments. Lateral
stability is achieved about the longitudinal axis of an aircraft. The wings and their
dihedral construction provide lateral stability. The ailerons fitted on the wings provide
lateral control.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.4 8.4.1 - HO - 2
Most aircraft wings tilt upward from the fuselage, and this upward angle (called a
dihedral) gives the aircraft lateral stability.
The aircraft is flying with the pilot’s hands and feet off the controls. If a wind gust
causes the right wing to drop, the air striking the descending wing will increase its
angle of attack, and the air striking the left rising wing will decrease its angle of
attack. Since lift is determined by the angle of attack, the uneven lift will bring the
aircraft back to level flight.
Directional Stability
Refer to Figure 4.
Directional stability is achieved about the vertical axis of an aircraft. The construction
of the vertical stabiliser (fin) together with the rudder provide directional stability.
Directional stability causes the nose of an aircraft to turn into the relative wind when it
has been disturbed from this condition. It is achieved primarily by the weather--vane
tendency of the vertical fin.
When the aircraft is flying straight into the wind, the air flows evenly around the fin,
and there is no sideways force on the tail. If a wind gust strikes the aircraft and forces
the nose e.g. to the right, the air striking the vertical fin gives it an angle of attack.
This increases the lift on the right hand side and pulls the tail around until the aircraft
is heading back into the relative wind.
Propeller Slipstream
Refer to Figure 5.
An aircraft’s propeller forces air to rotate around the fuselage in a corkscrew--like
manner. This causes the air to strike the vertical fin in such a way that it produces an
angle of attack which results in a sideways force.
To prevent this yawing force, most single--engine, propeller driven aircraft have the
leading edge of the vertical fin offset a few degrees. This places the fin directly into
the relative wind when the aircraft is flying at its normal cruising airspeed, with its
engine running at a specific speed.
Sweepback
Refer to Figure 6.
The sweepback of wings, normally a measure designed to improve high speed
aerodynamics, also has an effect on directional stability.
When an aircraft with a swept--back wing is struck by an air gust that causes the
nose to yaw e.g. to the left, the right wing moves into the wind and the left wing
moves back. More air is now flowing straight back across the right wing, producing
more induced drag than the left wing. As a result the nose is pulled back to the right.
Static Stability
Static stability of an aircraft means that the aircraft after being disturbed from its
attitude by a gust or other influences will return to its former attitude without the help
of a pilot. Static stability is performed by construction.
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.4 8.4.1 - HO - 3
If the nose of an aircraft that has positive longitudinal static stability is forced up or
down, and the controls are released, established forces will bring the nose back to
level flight.
Static stability can further be classified according to the nature of the aircraft
response to forces tending to displace it from a steady flight path:
Refer to Figure 7.
V Stability is said to be ’positive’ when the aircraft is able to recover its original
steady flight path without requiring correction.
V Stability is said to be ’neutral’ when the aircraft, after displacement, maintains
the displaced attitude, i.e. it will recover its original attitude only after correc-
tion.
V Stability is said to be ’negative’ if the disturbing forces and moments cause
the aircraft to assume an entirely different attitude.
Dynamic Stability
Static stability is the production of a restorative force to bring an aircraft back to a

condition of straight and level flight. Dynamic stability is the decrease of these forces
with time.
Dynamic stability refers to the oscillatory behaviour of an aircraft in response to a
disturbing force.
Refer to Figure 8.
The oscillating behaviour of an aircraft in relation to the time taken for a complete
recovery is a measure of dynamic stability. Complete recovery should, of course, be
possible without any pilot’s effort.
Dynamic stability of an aircraft is achieved by the help of secondary control surfaces

which are attached or integrated into the primary control surfaces of an aircraft. Small
surfaces like trim tabs at the ailerons, elevator and rudder will correct disturbing
influences such as different fuel capacities in the several fuel tanks in the fuselage or
wings. These trim tabs are controlled by the pilot.
Although stability of an aircraft about all 3 axis is required, instability or indifference is
produced
V by construction
V by incorrect handling of the trim devices.
Degree of Stability
The degree of stability is a very important factor as it limits the degree of control for
any particular category of aircraft. As mentioned above, stability is defined as the
property (or capability) of a system (aircraft) to return to (or remain in) a state of
equilibrium after having been disturbed and moved from a state of steady and
unaccelerated flight. This definition, applied to an aircraft, is read:
’An aircraft will statically be stable if it returns to its steady flight condition, i.e. to
the state of static equilibrium, as soon as the disturbing force has stopped acting.’
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.4 8.4.1 - HO - 4
Static stability is important, but will not be sufficient to ensure safe, controlled flying.
An aircraft must have a certain level of dynamic stability in addition to static stability:
’An aircraft will dynamically be stable if it returns to its original steady flight
attitude, i.e. to the state of dynamic equilibrium, without undergoing large
changes in pitch attitude.’
Some aircraft recover their original steady flight attitude without undergoing large
displacements in pitch. Other aircraft may need large displacements. Unstable
aircraft will never at all recover the original attitude again.
Refer to Figure 9.
An aircraft with positive static stability and positive dynamic stability will oscillate with
damped oscillations as it returns to its original condition.
An aircraft with positive static and neutral dynamic stability will oscillate with
undamped oscillations.
An aircraft with positive static stability and negative dynamic stability will, when
disturbed, oscillate with divergent oscillations.
Summing up, static stability is an essential prerequisite for dynamic stability. The
converse is not true. This means that it is possible to have a statically stable system
without necessarily being dynamically stable. On the other hand a statically unstable
aircraft will never have dynamic stability.
Notes
Preliminary
Vertical stabiliser (fin)
Yaw displacements
Rudder
Pitch displacements
Elevator
Aileron
Elevator
Module 8
Horizontal stabiliser
8.4
(tailplane)
Aileron
Roll displacements
FG 0261 C
Flight Stability/Dynamics
Basic Aerodynamics
Vertical axis Center of gravity Lateral axis
Longitudinal axis
8.4.1 - HO - 5
Figure 1 Control Axes of an Aircraft and the Respective Movements
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.4 8.4.1 - HO - 6
Longitudinal Stability
Figure 2
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.4 8.4.1 - HO - 7
Lateral Stability
Figure 3
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.4 8.4.1 - HO - 8
Directional Stability
Figure 4
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.4 8.4.1 - HO - 9
Propeller Slipstream
Figure 5
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.4 8.4.1 - HO - 10
C 0206
Figure 6 Sweepback
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.4 8.4.1 - HO - 11
Positive static stability
Tendency to return to equilibrium
Equilibrium
Neutral static stability
Equilibrium encountered at any point of displacement
Negative static stability (or: static instability)
Equilibrium
G 0259 C
Tendency to continue in the direction of displacement
Figure 7 Stability Classifications

Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.4 8.4.1 - HO - 12
Flight path
Dynamic Longitudinal Stability

Disturbance
Figure 8
Neutral
Stable
Unstable
Basic Aerodynamics
Notes 8.4 8.4.1 - HO - 13
a) Statically stable, dynamically neutral:
Disturbance
Altitude
Time
b) Statically and dynamically stable:
Disturbance
Altitude
Time
c) Statically stable, dynamically unstable:
Disturbance
Altitude
Time
E 0259
Figure 9 Stability Conditions

Module 08 - Aerodynamics

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Basic Aerodynamics

Preliminary Module 8 Physics of the Atmosphere

Physics of the Atmosphere

There are four separate areas known in the atmosphere:

The stratosphere extends to a height of 85 km above the earth’s surface. Up to a

Composition of the Atmosphere

Air is a mixture of gases in relatively uniform proportions throughout most of the

From a height of approx. 20 km the amount of oxygen decreases at a rate of 0.3 %

Example: 1 m3 of saturated air at a temperature of 20 °C contains 17.2 grams of water

International Standard Atmosphere

Altitude (m) Temperature (°C) Pressure (hPa)

Above 11,000 m the temperature remains constant at --56.5 °C up to a height of

Aircraft performance and behavior is affected by changes in air temperature and

Figure 1 Layers of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere contains from sea level to 20 km height:

Figure 2 Gases in the Atmosphere

Kinetic, Potential and Total Energy

Bernoulli’s theorem for the continuity of incompressible flow can mathematically be

p1 + 1 Ãc2 = p + 1 Ãc2 = constant

Note: For aerodynamic observations it is insignificant whether a body is moving through

Aerodynamics of the Airfoil

An airfoil, whether being a wing of an aircraft, a rotor of a helicopter or the blade of a

This reaction (or, actually: a combination of reactions) is known as aerodynamic lift

Subsonic aerodynamics consider the airflow to be noncompressible, and the airfoils

Subsonic airfoils may be asymmetrical or symmetrical in shape. A symmetrical airfoil

Different Types of Drag

Skin Friction Drag

Refer to Figure 10.

Refer to Figure 13.

Wing Aspect Ratio

Refer to Figure 14.

Refer to Figure 15.

Airfoil Shape and Related Factors

Mean Camber Line

Refer to Figure 16.

Mean Chord Line

Refer to Figure 16 again.

Mean Aerodynamic Chord

Refer to Figure 17.

Refer to Figure 18.

On an asymmetric airfoil, the CP moves forward as the angle of attack increases,

Refer to Figure 18 again.

Wash In/Wash Out

Thrust, Weight, Aerodynamic Resultant

Aerodynamic Lift and Lift Equation

Refer to Figure 20.

Airfoil Surface Area

A coefficient is a dimension-less number used in a formula to express the action of a

Dynamic Pressure of the Air

The dynamic pressure may be mathematically calculated to determine the mass of

The amount of lift L produced by a wing depends on the following factors:

Refer to Figure 21.

Refer to Figure 6 again.

Refer to Figure 22.

Clear ice is usually a product of temperature inversions at a temperature range from

There are four factors determining the accumulation of ice on an aircraft:

Temperature and droplet size influence the type of ice formation.

Refer to Figure 23.

Figure 1 Airflow through a Venturi Tube

Figure 2 Static Pressure and Dynamic Pressure

Figure 3 An Airfoil Cross-- Section Compared to

Leading edge Trailing edge

Chord line G 0205 B

Figure 4 Typical Airfoil Cross-Sections