Aerodynamics Cont. (Drag) PDF

10.
AERODYNAMICS
May 17, 2016

LEARNING OUTCOMES
On comple>on of this topic you should be able to:
•  Describe about aerodynamics (cont.).
1.  Thrust, weight, aerodynamic resultant.
2.  Genera>on of liO and drag.
a.  Angle of aPack.
b.  LiO coefficient
c.  Drag coefficient.
d.  Polar curve.
e.  Stall.
3.  Aerofoil contamina>on including ice, snow and
frost.
Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan
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10.5 GENERATION
OF LIFT AND
DRAG

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DRAG
•  Drag is the force that resists movement of an
aircraO through the air.
•  Any device move into the airflow will cause drag
and this applies to flaps and slats.
•  There are two basic types: profile drag and
induced drag.
•  The first is called parasite because it is in no way
func>ons to aid flight, while the second, induced
drag, is a result of an aerofoil developing liO.

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DRAG

q As an aircra? passes through the air, the air offers a
resistance to the passage.
q This resistance, is known as ‘Drag’.
(Resistance to forward moMon)
q The total amount of drag on an aircra? is made up of many
types of drag forces.
•  Common type of drag:-‐
i.  Form drag
ii.  Parasite drag
iii.  Induced drag

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DRAG
RESISTANCE TO FORWARD MOTION

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PROFILE/PARASITE DRAG
Drag can be mathema>cally wriPen as:
1
Drag = C D ρV 2 S
2

There are three types of parasite drag:

v Form drag
v Interference drag
v Skin fric>on drag

Parasite drag increases as the square of the airspeed.
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PARASITE DRAG
q  A combina>on of many different drag forces.
q  Any exposed object on an aircraO offers some resistance to the
airflow, and the more objects in the airstream, the more parasite
drag.

Reducing parasite drag
•  Reducing the number of exposed parts to as few as prac>cal and
streamlining their shape.

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Fixed landing gear
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FORM DRAG
•  Form drag is a por>on of parasite drag generated
by the aircraO due to its shape and airflow
around it.
•  Examples include the engine cowlings, antennas,
and the aerodynamic shape of other
components.
•  When the air has to separate to move around a
moving aircraO and its components, it eventually
re-‐joins aOer passing the body.

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FORM DRAG
¥ Caused by the shape or form of the
aircraO.
•  Reducing form drag.
•  Streamlining – aircraO shaped to
produce least resistance to the airflow.
•  For least resistance à object length
between 3-‐4 >mes greater than
maximum thickness.
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FORM DRAG

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INTERFERENCE DRAG
•  Interference drag comes from the intersec>on of
airstreams that creates eddy currents,
turbulence, or restricts smooth airflow.
•  Intersec>on of the wing and the fuselage at the
wing root has significant interference drag.

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•  The most interference drag is observed when
two surfaces meet at perpendicular angles,
therefore fairings are used to reduce
this
tendency.

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SKIN FRICTION DRAG
•  Skin fric>on drag is the aerodynamic resistance due to the contact of
moving air with the surface of an aircraO.
•  Every surface, no maPer how apparently smooth, has a rough, ragged
surface when viewed under a microscope.
•  The air molecules, which come in direct contact with the surface of the
wing, are virtually mo>onless.

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INDUCED DRAG
•  The second basic type of drag is induced drag.
•  Induced drag is inherent whenever an aerofoil is
producing liO and, in fact, this type of drag is
inseparable from the produc>on of liO.
•  Consequently, it is always present if liO is
produced.
•  The amount of induced drag varies inversely with
the square of the airspeed.

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•  Whenever an aerofoil is producing liO, the
pressure on the lower surface of it is greater than
that on the upper surface.
•  At the wing >p, since air pressure will flow from
high pressure to low pressure, the airflow at the
boPom will move outward and up.
•  This air flow will create vor>ces, which trail
behind the aerofoil and this is the main source of
induced drag on an aircraO.

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INDUCED DRAG REDUCTION
•  THERE ARE FEW WAYS TO REDUCED INDUCED
DRAG:
v INCREASING THE SPEED
v REDUCING ANGLE OF ATTACK

v WINGLETS
v WING FENCES
v INCREASING ASPECT RATIO

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INCREASING SPEED
•  When airflow speed in increased the air does not
have >me to move span-‐wise to spill over the wing
>p.
•  The air is "pushed" too

quickly chord-‐wise over the
trailing edge.
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REDUCING ANGLE OF ATTACK
•  When angle of aPack is increased the pressure
differences between upper and lower por>on of
the wing becomes higher.
•  Due to the

higher
pressure
difference, the
induced drag
also
increased.
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WINGLETS
•  A winglet helps prevent the air from spilling over
the wing >p.
•  Some aircraO have a winglet fiPed beneath the wing
>p, Others on top, and
some top and boPom.

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WING FENCES
•  These are strips of metal up to a foot high (30cm)
running parallel to the airflow.
•  It is usually
fitted on the top
of the wing
running from
the leading
edge to about
2/3 chord
length.
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INCREASING ASPECT RATIO
•  AircraO with higher aspect ra>o wing has smaller wing >ps and hence will
have less induced drag because there is less wing >p for the air to flow over.
•  In general, aircraO that fly slowly, such as gliders, will have high induced drag
and therefore will have high aspect ra>o wings to help keep this drag as low
as possible.
•  High speed aircraO will have low aspect ra>o wings because their induced
drag is not high.

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INDUCED & PROFILE DRAG AGAINST
AIRSPEED

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DRAG CALCULATION
•  During aircraO design we also need to calculate
the drag produce by a par>cular design.
•  Drag depends on the:
I.  Density of the air,
II.  Velocity square, 𝑽↑𝟐 
III.  Air's viscosity and compressibility,
IV.  Size and shape of the body
V.  Body's inclina>on to the flow (Angle of APack
for Aerofoil).
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POLAR CURVE
•  Drag Polar is the relaMonship between the li?
and its drag interm on coefficient.

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DRAG COEFFICIENT
•  To get the value of Air Density, Velocity, and Body
Shape it is prePy straight forward.
•  The problems lies on the effect of Body
Inclina>on (AoA), Air viscosity, and Air
Compressibility, in which when you want to insert
it into the formula, the calcula>ons becomes very
complex.
•  To simplify it we use Drag Coefficient ( Cd ) which
is a dimensionless quan>ty and it is measured
during wind tunnel tes>ng.
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•  Therefore we get drag equa>on which states
that Drag D is equal to the drag coefficient Cd
>mes the density ρ >mes half of the velocity V
squared >mes the reference area

•  𝑫𝒓𝒂𝒈=𝑪𝒅 𝑿 𝝆 𝑿𝟏⁄𝟐 𝑽↑𝟐  X A
•  Drag coefficients are almost always determined
experimentally using a wind tunnel

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•  h_p://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/Wright/airplane/drageq.html
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EXPLAINATION OF DRAG BY NASA

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LIFT/DRAG RATIO
VS
ANGLE OF ATTACK
•  When aircraO is flying, what we want is to fly
the aircraO with maximum liO and the lowest
drag.
•  The problem is, if we generate more liO, the
drag also increases.
•  That is why we need a graph to shows us what
is the op>mum liO and drag ra>o.
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•  A ra>o of L/D indicates aerofoil efficiency.
•  AircraO with higher L/D ra>os are more efficient
than those with lower L/D ra>os.
•  The L/D ra>o is determined by dividing the CL by
the CD.
•  As you can see on the next graph, the most
op>mum angle of aPack for that par>cular airfoil
is 6 degree.

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LIFT/DRAG COEFFICIENT
•  Theori>cal value base on

airfoil shape:
LiO = CL x 1/2ρv2 x S
Drag = CD x 1/2ρv2 x S
IDEAL ANGLE

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LIFT/DRAG COEFFICIENT

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STALL
•  Stall is a condi>on when the liO created by the
aircraO wings is no longer able to support the
aircraO weight.
•  There are a few condi>ons when a stall can
happens but the most common one is stall
caused by the separa>ons of airflow from the
wing’s upper surface and resul>ng in a rapid loss
of liO.

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•  For a given airfoil, a stall always occurs at the
same angle of aPack regardless of ;
v Airspeed
v Flight aptude
v Weight

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AIRFOIL STALL VIDEO

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STALLING
q ‘Sudden lost of li/’

i.  Increase AOA – separa>on moves forward
(turbulent)
–  Insufficient pressure drop on upper surface à
no pressure differen>al to create liO
ii.  Increase to higher AOA – excessive turbulence
–  Drag increase higher than liO created
q Cri>cal Angle of APack – airflow separate +
turbulence.
q Cri>cal AOA = 15˚ and above.

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As you can see from the coefficient of liO graph,
when
the aircraO
wing angle of
aPack goes
further than
15 degrees,
liO decreases
rapidly and the
wing stalls.
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•  It is important that a wing stall at the root first
so that the aileron are able to provide control
through out the stall.
•  If the aircraO wing does not stall at the root first,
a stall strips can be installed at the wing root
leading edge.

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STALL PATTERNS

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STALL STRIPS

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COLGAN AIR FLIGHT 3407

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10.6 AEROFOIL
CONTAMINATION
INCLUDING ICE,
SNOW AND FROST

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AEROFOIL CONTAMINATION
INCLUDING ICE, SNOW, FROST
•  The roughness, cleanliness and deposits of ice or
moisture all affect the condi>on of the surface of
an aerofoil.
•  However, for our discussion the area of greatest
significance with regard to its effect on the
Coefficient of LiO of an aerofoil is from the
leading edge and up to 20% of the chord aO of
the leading edge.

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•  Icing occur when temperature drops below
freezing points and accumulaMon of super-‐cooled
droplets freezes on aircra?.

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SOURCE : hPp://www2.tech.purdue.edu/at/courses/aeml/

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•  Types of ice form:
•  Clear ice – forms when large
water droplets spread over
the aircra? surface and
freezes as a smooth sheet of
solid ice.
-‐ hard and heavy and difficult
to remove.
-‐ Cause less drag but increase
weight on aircra?.

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•  Type of ice form:
•  Rime ice -‐ formed when
small super-‐cooled water
droplets freeze instantly but
maintain their spherical
shape.
–  Trapped air giving the ice
a white or milky appearance.

-‐  Has a very rough surface and causes a much greater
increase in drag than clear ice but lighter in weight.
-‐  Bri_le and easily removed than clear ice.

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•  Type of ice form:
•  Mixed ice – mixture of
clear and rime ice.
-‐  Formed when rime ice
crystals are covered by
clear ice create a bizarre
ice formaMon
called ‘ice crowns’ on the leading edges.
-‐  Lead to changes of the airfoil shape and possible
leading edges air separaMon.
-‐  Weigh more than rime ice and produces more drag than
clear ice.
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The effect are:
a. Increased mass of the aeroplane;
b. Increased depth of the boundary layer;
c. Increased surface fric>on;
d. Changed aerofoil shape;
e. Decreased maximum liO;
f. Increased drag;
g. Increased stalling speed;
h. Decreased stalling angle;
i. Possible leading-‐edge separa>on.
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AVIATION ANIMATION – HOW ICE MAKES
AN AIRPLANE FALL FROM THE SKY

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Aerodynamics Cont. (Drag) PDF

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10.

May 17, 2016

Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan

Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan

Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan

Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan

Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan

Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan

Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan

Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan

Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan

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v REDUCING ANGLE OF ATTACK

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• The air is "pushed" too

• Due to the

Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan

Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan

Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan

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• Theori>cal value base on

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q ‘Sudden lost of li/’

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a white or milky appearance.

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Prepared By: Wan Nur Shaqella Bte Wan

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v REDUCING ANGLE OF ATTACK

•  The air is "pushed" too

•  Due to the

•  Theori>cal value base on

q ‘Sudden lost of li/’