Demo Handout

Horizon Distant Learning Courses
DEMO Handout
This handout covers stages 1, 2 and 3 of the Learning Objectives.
It is by no means representative for the publications used in the
regular courses, nor does the order follow the actual Learning
Objectives.
The handout makes it possible for you to answer the questions

during testing over the ELearning Platform.
Enjoy learning with us!
© Horizon Swiss Flight Academy

The Atmosphere
1.2 Composition of the Atmosphere

We have now reached the state of equilibrium, a process lasting several million
years creating an atmosphere consisting by volume of
78 % nitrogen (N2 weight 28 u)

21 % oxygen (O2 weight 32 u)
1 % other gases, mainly inert gases such as Argon (Ar)
These are 99.9% of the constituents of clean, dry air, but there are also carbon
dioxide (CO2, weight 44 u), water (H2O, weight 18 u), ozone (O3, weight 38 u) and
solid particles in varying amounts. Perhaps it should be pointed out, that in the
lowest 80 km of the atmosphere different mixing processes take place all the time,
which result in a percentage composition of the atmosphere.
1.2.1 Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Carbon dioxide is to be found both naturally in the atmosphere and as a waste
product from burning fossil fuels (carbon compounds). A large part of the carbon
dioxide which is released into the air, is returned to natures own circulation via
the oceans. The approximate volume of CO2 in the atmosphere is 0.035%.
1.2.2 Water (H2O)

Water can assume all the three phases in the atmosphere. The solid phase - ice,
the liquid phase - water, and the gas phase - water vapour. It is unique in that it
can readily change from one state to another and can happily coexist in all three
states.
Figure: ME 1.6 The Water cycle, illustrating evaporation - condensation

and precipitation
©NAR and TFHS 1-7

Meteorology
There are parts of the circulation of water, which we normally call weather, i.e.
clouds and precipitation. The amount of water vapour in the air varies, but is
greatest in the lower parts of the atmosphere, since most water vapour is formed
by evaporation when the solar radiation strikes a moist ground or a water sur-
face. Depending upon the airs temperature and the availability of a water source,
the air in the lower parts of the atmosphere contains vapour of between 0 and 4
percent by volume (i.e. 96% ordinary air of nitrogen and oxygen and 4% water
vapour at the most).
1.2.3 The Greenhouse Effect

From a radiational and climatological point of view water vapour and carbon diox-
ide have the interesting property of being transparent for short wave solar radia-
tion, while the gases absorb parts of the Earth’s heat radiation (terrestrial long
wave radiation) which is re-radiated in all directions. This leads to an increase of
temperature at ground level and the process is generally called the greenhouse
effect, since the glass in a greenhouse works in a similar way. One should remem-
ber, however, that without these gases in our atmosphere, the temperature differ-
ences between night and day would be extreme and make all life impossible.
1.2.4 Particles and dust

The solid particles in the atmosphere consist mainly of dust and sand from the
ground and of salt particles from the oceans. In addition, through his activities,
Mankind has added all sorts of soot and dust.
The amount of solid particles in the air is of course extremely variable, but the
existence of these particles is of fundamental importance to, among other things,
the condensation processes in the lower parts of the atmosphere. Without these
condensation nuclei, it would be difficult for water vapour to convert into clouds
and droplets of precipitation.
Some of the airs particles have the capacity to attract the humidity of the air,
even if the amount of vapour is small. These particles are said to be hygroscopic.
Salt, sulphur compounds, unburned hydrocarbons, silver iodide and lithium chlo-
ride are examples of hygroscopic substances of importance to meteorology and
the condensation process.
Along coasts deposits on houses and plants cause much trouble from the salty
air. Much more serious are the corrosive effects on concrete structures, cars and
aircraft.
Large suspended salt particles in the air often produce a grey haze. With the
exception of the salt, the dust particles and the molecules of the air affect solar
radiation, so that the light is scattered in different directions. Normally blue light
is scattered more than other colours, and we see a blue sky. But if there are
major particles in the air, such as sand and salt, other colours are affected in the
same way as the blue light, and we get a diffuse milkywhite haze.
1-8 ©NAR and TFHS

The Atmosphere
Figure: ME 1.7 The Midnight sun as seen from a place north of the Polar
circle in the end of June.
How we experience the colour of sunlight will of course also vary depending upon
the position of the sun in relation to the horizon. The sunrays have a longer way to
travel through the atmosphere, when the sun is close to the horizon, which results
in a greater scattering of the blue light, and we experience this as a warm yellow to
red twilight. At noon, when the sun is at its highest position, the sunlight is
whiter and colder.
1.2.5 Air pollution

It is not only at high altitudes that aircraft engines contribute to air pollution, but
also for aircraft at lower altitudes the demands for vigorous methods of emission
cleaning are increasing. For if society shall be able to cope with the whole problem
of pollution, all sources of emission must be cleaned. The environmental charges
imposed on aviation, have already forced many aircraft companies to change en-
gines and whole aircraft systems.
Also the pollution problems at the airports must be taken in hand, and that will
probably lead to limitations in ”idle running”, i.e. the air traffic controllers will not
clear the aircraft for ”start up”, until the situation permits of a rapid flow of traf-
fic. Indiscriminate use of de-icing fluids will not be allowed, nor will it be possible
to use salt or other chemicals on the runway system as much as one might think
necessary etc. These are measures to prevent the subsoil water from being pol-
luted.
©NAR and TFHS 1-9

Meteorology
1.3 General definitions

1.3.1 Air pressure
As we have just seen a mixture of gases originating from the Earth’s interior sur-
rounds us. The reason why the gas remains is a mass effect between the Earth
and the atmosphere known as gravity.
Above each square meter of the earths surface there is a column of air, the weight
of which presses towards the ground. The ratio between the force exerted on
the surface and a unit surface is called air pressure. It is at an average 1013
hektopascal (hPa) and 1hPa = 100 N/m2. Thus the weight of the air is about 10
ton/m2.
The air pressure is measured with a barometer.
The atmospheric pressure
Column of air to
top of atmosphere
Weight = 10 tons 10 tons
Figure: ME 1.8
1.2.2 Air density

In addition to air pressure we talk about the airs density, i.e. the amount of air
per unit of volume. The density of the air is at an average 1.23 kg/m3 at sea
level.
One may say that the weight of the air compresses the air below to a certain
density, and if the air pressure decreases, the density will also decrease.
Higher up in the atmosphere the pillar of air above an observer will be shorter,
which will give a lower air pressure and less density at the observers level com-
pared to the sea level. Thus the pressure and density variations we observe when
1 - 10 ©NAR and TFHS

The Atmosphere
moving vertically through the atmosphere are not independent of each other, but
the decrease of pressure is depending on the gravity and the density of the air.
This is called hydrostatic balance.
If we measure the air pressure at ground level and some distance above the ground
with a barometer in an aircraft, the distance between the aircraft and the ground
can be estimated.
The pressure difference = g * the density of the air * height difference

(g = acceleration due to gravity. g ~ 9,81 m/s2)
This is called the basic hydrostatic equation and we will come back to it in the
chapter about the altimeter. There we will also go through the general gas law,
which shows the connection between air pressure, density and air temperature.
Near ground level 1 hPa is approximately equivalent to a 27ft change of height.

Under 5000 ft 1 hPa is approximately equivalent to a 30ft change of height. 1
hPa = 30 ft can be used when calculating altimetry corrections under 5000 ft.
1.3.3 Air temperature

When we study the vertical structure of the atmosphere we are not only interested
in the changes of pressure and density but also in the vertical distribution of
temperature.
The temperature of the air is defined as a measure of the kinetic energy of the
air molecules. We will return to this later on. High kinetic energy is experienced as
heat, while low kinetic energy of the air molecules is experienced as cold air.
The temperature concept hot and cold in everyday speech thus requires an atmos-
phere of a certain density. In the very high regions of the atmosphere the concen-
tration of air molecules is too small for temperature to be measured. In these
regions we would have to compare the incoming amount of solar energy with the
amount of heat energy emitted from a well-known object.
Furthermore it is important to remember that the atmosphere is largely transpar-

ent to solar energy. This means that the air in the lower parts of the atmosphere
is not heated directly by the sun but indirectly by the ground.
©NAR and TFHS 1 - 11

Meteorology
Figure: ME 1.9 Heat steaming from a warm surface © Digital Vision
1.4 Layers of the Atmosphere

A study of the thermal characteristics of the atmosphere reveals an average tem-
perature profile that changes with altitude. From this a number of ‘layers’ of tem-
perature trend can be recognised. We will now take a look at characteristics of
these layers, starting from the lowest and moving up and away from the Earth.
Figure: ME 1.10 Layers of the atmosphere to the left and standard atmosphere

The Atmosphere
1.4.1 The Troposphere

The lowest layer, extending from the Earth’s surface up to a level between 6-18 km
is called the troposphere. (Figure ME 1.10)
The troposphere is characterised by heat from the Earths surface being car-
ried upwards by vertical currents. Mostly the temperature is higher the closer
we get to the Earths surface.
In the standard atmosphere, (a theoretically created average atmosphere) the tem-

perature is +15oC at sea level and decreases with increasing height at the rate of
2oC/1000ft (more exactly 1.98oC/1000ft or 0.65oC/100m). This is called the lapse
rate. At an average height of 11km (36090ft) the vertical heat exchange decreases
and the temperature remains almost constant with height. This break-point is
called the tropopause and it also constitutes the upper limit for most water va-
pour and dust emanating from the surface of the Earth. All weather except wind
and turbulence is, in principle, limited to the troposphere.
The height of the tropopause varies with the temperature on the surface.
Warm surface = large mixing & a high tropopause

Cold surface = small mixing & a low tropopause
Thus the tropopause at the equator is higher than at the poles.
1.4.2 The Stratosphere

Above the troposphere is the stratosphere. Here temperature is initially constant
with increasing height, -50o to -60o C, but at about 20 km absorption of the UV-
part of solar radiation increases, leading to a temperature increase. At a height of
about 50 km, temperature varies between -20o and +20oC and this height is
usually used as the upper limit of stratosphere, the stratopause.
The temperature in the stratosphere is mainly determined by the difference be-

tween in- and outgoing radiation. During the polar night temperature in the strato-
sphere will be very low and measurements often show temperatures down to-
wards -90oC.
At these low temperatures different chlorine compounds can go in blocking the

reactions in the ozone layer: Cl + O3 give ClO + O2 ; ClO + O give Cl + O2 ; ClO +
NO2 give ClNO2. ; CH4 + Cl give HCl + CH3 . The effect is a depletion of the ozone
layer and probably an increase of UV-radiation at surface level.
Water vapour in the stratosphere

The water that evaporates from the earths surface stays mainly in the troposphere.
This is partly because the exchange of air between the troposphere and the strato-
sphere is limited and partly because the amount of water vapour in the air is
dependent on the temperature of the air, which is very low around the tropopause.
However, sometimes a major quantity of water vapour can reach the stratosphere,
forming ice crystals at about 25 km.

Meteorology
At dusk and at dawn the sunrays sometimes are refracted in the ice into shim-
mering colours forming so called nacreous clouds.
Ozone in the stratosphere

Ozone, O3, works as an UV-filter in the atmosphere absorbing the harmful part of
the Suns energy spectrum. The ozone has accumulated at a height of 15 - 50 km
where it causes an increase of temperature. The concentration is greatest in the
lower part of the layer, while the increase of temperature is highest in the upper
part. Different chemical substances can decompose the ozone, e.g. a group of gases
named freons, commonly called CFCs, (chloroflourocarbons). Among other things
freon is used as driving gas in spray cans, heat exchangers and refrigerators.
Nowadays we are more watchful of the consequences for plants and animals, that
a change in the ozone content of the atmosphere could lead to, and many countries
have strict rules for the emission of freons.
A development leading to a larger number of aircraft flying at high levels (about 20

km) could lead to serious environmental problems in the future, depending partly
on the combustion of ozone and partly on the relatively large emissions of carbon,
sulphur and nitrogen compounds caused by todays aircraft engines. There is a
risk that air traffic will upset the equilibrium in the upper atmospheric layers and
that the amount of ozone will decrease.
Ozone poisoning in the stratosphere

When flying at high altitudes you can often notice the smell of ozone, smelling like
the fresh air in a pine wood. Throat, nose and eyes feel dry. An incipient headache
may sometimes be followed by problems of the lungs. In extreme cases the stricken
individual may cough blood. It is the free oxygen atoms that affect the thin blood
vessels in the lungs after breathing air strongly mingled with ozone for a longer
period of time.
On days, when the tropopause is very low, high contents of ozone may be found
also at normal heights, i.e. around FL 340.
1.4.3 The Mesosphere

Above the stratopause temperature decreases with height up to about 80 km,
where we find the lowest temperature in the atmosphere, about -100o C. Here
density is so low, that our ordinary concepts of temperature fail. This area is
called the mesosphere.
1.4.4 The Thermosphere or Ionosphere

Above 80 km the thermosphere or ionosphere takes over, and here again tempera-
ture rises with increasing height. In the ionosphere the atmosphere consists largely
of electrically charged molecules, ions, as e.g. hydroxide ions OH-. Hydroxide can
absorb and re-emit parts of the solar radiation which makes the night sky faintly
lucent. In some cases noctilucent clouds are formed, consisting of very small par-
ticles of Hydroxide ions with a coating of ice.
The Earths magnetic field also attracts charged particles from the Sun which flow
down towards the magnetic poles forming Northern or Southern lights.

The Atmosphere
Another interesting property of the ions of the atmosphere is, that we can use
different layers to bounce radiowaves around the Earth, the D, E and F layers.
Now and then the activity of the sun increases and large amounts of ions are
hurled towards the earth, sunspot maximum. This often leads to severe radio
interference, so called blackouts, and even the Earths magnetic field may be dis-
arranged during magnetic storms.
1.4.5 Radioactivity in the atmosphere

From the Sun and from space, charged particles fall into the Earths atmosphere.
Some of them are rejected by the Earths magnetic field - mainly around the mag-
netic equator, as it is easier for the charged particles to penetrate the magnetic
field at the poles. The helium nuclei and protons, which collide with the molecules
of the atmosphere, create ”Cosmic radiation”. The most intense radiation is found
around 20 km, because here the concentration of air molecules increases at the
same time as the velocity of the charged particles is still high. Higher up in the
atmosphere the number of molecules is too small and further down the velocity of
the particles is too low to form any major amount of cosmic radiation.
Thus, the amount of radioacive radiation a pilot is exposed to, increases with
latitude and flight level. On some very high flying aeroplanes there are Cosmic
radiation detectors fitted in order to safeguard the people on board.
1.4.6 The Variations of the Tropopause

Since the thickness of the troposphere is determined from the amount of solar
energy and the vertical mixture, the tropopause will be lower over areas where
the air is cold, than where it is warm.
The thickness of the troposphere and thus the height of the tropopause de-
pends on the season and the latitude (the distance from the equator).

Meteorology
Polar Tropopause
Tropical
Tropopause
A A>B
Latitudinal tropopause variation. Seasonal tropopause variation.
Figure: ME 1.11
The figure below is a vertical cross-section from a pole to the equator, (meridional
section), showing three typical discontinuities created by the differences of tem-
perature along the section.
HEIGHT o o Tropical
-60 c/-80 c
50-60000ft Tropopause 1
o
-55 c Mid-Latitude
40000ft JA Tropopause 2
o
-50 c
Polar
30000ft JB Tropopause 3
25000ft o
JC -45 c
Artic
Tropopause 4
0 12 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
LATITUDE
Figure: ME 1.12
1/ Tropical tropopause, at about 50 000 ft,

Tropopause temperature between -60o to -80oC
2/ Subtropical or Middle latitude tropopause, at about 40 000 ft,

Tropopause temperature about -55oC.
3/ Polar tropopause, about 30 000 ft,

4/ Arctic tropopause, about 25 000 ft,

In summertime the arctic air disappears and the polar air moves north. The bor-
derline between polar and tropic air moves to about 60o and the line between
tropic and equatorial air settles around 30o.

The Atmosphere
If an extensive area has a uniform temperature distribution the air pressure at the
surface can cause the height of the tropopause to vary. Generally speaking, the
following applies:
Low air pressure = little air in the air column and a lower tropopause than
in the surroundings.
High air pressure = more air in the air column and a higher tropopause.
Along the discontinuity line between two tropopause levels, a tube like wind phe-
nomena known as a jetstream is often formed. (J in the figure above.)
The position and height of the three most common jetstreams seen in the figure
(J) are:
JA Subtropical jet, at about 37 000 to 43 000 ft.

JB Polar jet, at a height of about 30 000 to 35 000 ft.
JC Arctic jet at about 20 000 to 25 000 ft in wintertime.
We will return to this in the chapter ”Jetstreams”.
Data about the tropopause is distributed through special charts, showing fore-
cast tropopause levels above sea level. These charts are updated every 6 hours day
and night.
Figure: ME 1.13

Meteorology
This chart comes from the forecast centre at London, and shows data concerning
the height of tropopause and maximum winds at levels from 10000 to 45000FT,
(i.e. pressure surfaces 700-150 hPa). Explanations to the whole chart are found
in the part ”Aviation weather service”, so the following is only a simplified study of
tropopause and max. wind exclusively.
The height to the tropopause is indicated with boxes and FL-data.

FL stands for flight level and indicates the level above the pressure surface 1013
hPa expressed in hundreds of feet. 32 000 feet correspond to FL 320.
A box pointing upwards with the letter H indicates the position where the
tropopause is higher than the surroundings. A box pointing downwards with the
letter L indicates the position where the tropopause is lower than the surround-
ings.
An arrow from Iceland via Ireland towards Spain point out the range of a maxi-
mum wind. Over the Bay of Biscay FL 320 is written over the wind-arrow pointing
out the height to the jet stream core. CAT stands for Clear Air Turbulence and
this phenomenon is often associated with bands of maximum wind. We will re-
turn to this later, here there is an area [2] with disturbed air from FL 250 up to
380.
Wind velocity is indicated with flags according to the following pattern. Arrows
indicate direction. Number of pennants and/or feathers correspond to speed. The
heavy line delineating the ”JET” axis begins/ends at the points where a wind speed
of 80 KT is forecasted.
Thus our maximum wind is found at 32 000 FT and it is blowing from north-
northwest with 130 KT.
Good to know
As a pilot it is your task to evaluate the effect of weather on your coming flight.
Navigation and fuel calculations require information about winds en route and
you should avoid heavy weather for the sake of comfort and safety. Charts with
information about the height of the tropopause are therefore of great interest.
If you know the upper limit of weather which is often the same as the tropopause,
you can choose flight levels, which will help you avoid bumpy weather. As we have
already noted, in the upper part of the troposphere, close to the tropopause, there
are the powerful wind belts, so called jetstreams. The height and the direction/
force of the jetstreams are plotted on the international SWC, MAX WIND/
TROPOPAUSE CHARTS.

The Atmosphere
1.5 The International Standard Atmosphere, ISA

The air is assumed to be absolutely dry and uniformly composed at all levels, the
gas constant then receives a fixed value (more about this in chapter 3). The accel-
eration due to gravity, g, is given the value 9.80665 m/s2 which corresponds to the
value at 45o latitude.
The air pressure at the mean sea level is always 1013,25 hPa and the tempera-
ture at this level is fixed at 15oC. The density is 1.225 kg/m3.
The rate of temperature decrease (the lapse rate) is 1,98oC/1000 ft [for practical
work we use 2o or 0,65oC/100m] up to the ISA tropopause at 36090 ft, corre-
sponding to 11 km where the temperature is -56.5oC.
From 36090 ft to 65617 ft [11 to 20 km] the temperature is constant -56.5oC.

Between 20 km and 32 km the temperature increases at a rate of 0.3o C/1000 ft or
1oC/km.
Here is an extract from ISA in tabular form. The levels should be memorized
Height Flight Height Temp Pressure Density

0
in ft Level in m C hPa kg/m3
-1000 - 10 - 305 +17 1050 1.26

0 0 0 +15 1013 1.23
5000 50 1524 +05 843(850) 1.06
10000 100 3048 -05 697(700) 0.90
15000 150 4572 -15 572 0.77 cont.
Height Flight Height Temp Pressure Density

0
in ft Level in m C hPa kg/m3
18000 180 5486 -21 506(500) 0.70

24000 240 7315 -33 393(400) 0.57
30000 300 9144 -44 301(300) 0.458
34000 340 10363 -52 250 0.394
39000 390 11900 -56.5 197(200) 0.317
1.5.1 Radio sounding

By taking measurements vertically through the air, with temperature, pressure
and humidity sensors coupled to a radio transmitter we can calculate the current
lapse rate of the atmosphere. This is called a radio sounding. Notice that the
temperature above the tropopause of the coldest air is higher than that above the
warmest. At higher levels the three curves get closer to each other. At low level the
mixture volume (thickness of the troposphere) is determined by, among other
things, the temperature of the ground surface. At high level, however, the tempera-
ture is only determined by changes in the radiation balance, which is largely sea-
sonal.

Meteorology
Height
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60 000 feet Balloon 1234567
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○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
40 000 feet
30 000 feet
○
Sonde
○
○
○
○
10 000 feet
○
○
○
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Surface -80 -60 -40 -20 0 +20 degrees C
Sounding in the equatorial region

Sounding in the mid latitudes, about 40o
○ ○ ○ ○ ○ Sounding around 80o latitude

Flight Controls
5 FLIGHT CONTROLS
To control the aeroplane in flight, the pilot uses different types of flight controls.
This chapter will focus on the types used. Flight controls are normally divided
into primary and secondary flight controls. An aeroplane is manoeuvrable around
three axes by means of the primary flight controls. Secondary flight controls are
used to support, or to modify the effect of the primary controls.
5.1 Aeroplane Primary Flight Controls

The three axes around which an aeroplane can be rotated are called longitudinal,
lateral and vertical axis. On an aeroplane the following axes must be considered.
Longitudinal Axis - This extends lengthways through the fuselage. Movement

around this axis is known as ROLL and is controlled by the ailerons.
Lateral Axis - is an imaginary line that parallels the span of the wing. Movement
around this axis is known as PITCH and is controlled by the elevators.
Normal Axis - is perpendicular, both to the longitudinal and lateral axis. Move-
ment around this axis is known as YAW and is controlled by the rudder.
All axes are assumed to pass through the aeroplane’s centre of gravity.
Figure: AS 5.1
This is a simplified explanation of the manoeuvring of an aeroplane. The following

paragraphs discuss more thoroughly the controls and control surfaces that ro-
tates the aeroplane around these axes.
©NAR and TFHS 5-1

Airframes and Systems
5.1.1 Controls for manoeuvring around the longitudinal axis,

roll
Ailerons and spoilers are used to roll a conventional aeroplane around its longitu-
dinal axis, but aeroplanes with non-conventional wing planforms must have other
types of flight controls. The spoiler is a surface that modifies the lift. Spoilers will
be discussed in later paragraphs.
Ailerons. The ailerons are generally placed on the outer trailing edge of the wings
to produce maximum moment around the longitudinal axis. The aileron increases
lift on one wing and decreases it on the other and by varying the amount of effective
camber on the wings. This will cause the aeroplane to roll in the direction of the
wing on which the lift has been reduced.
Figure: AS 5.2
In figure AS 5.2, the ailerons are connected to the control wheel by cables and
pulleys. By moving the wheel to the left, the aileron on the left wing moves up and
decreases the lift on the left wing. At the same time, the control wheel movement
will pull the aileron on the right wing down, resulting in increased camber and
thereby additional lift. Increased lift on the right wing and decreased on the left
wing leads to a rotating movement of the aeroplane around its longitudinal axis –
a roll to the left.
Increased lift on the right wing results in increased induced drag on the same
wing, which will tend to pull the nose to the right. This movement of the nose in
the wrong direction is called adverse yaw and is reduced by differential aileron
travel. The aileron that is moving upward travels a larger distance than that mov-
ing downward. An increase in upward travel will increase the parasite drag on the
lowered wing, counteracting the increased induced drag generated on the upward
moving wing.
Another solution to the problem, is the use of interconnected (cross coupled)

rudders and ailerons. If the pilot uses the rudder at the beginning of the turn, it
will overcome the adverse yaw by rotating the aeroplane about its normal axis.
Such an action causes the nose to move in the correct direction. When the turn is
stable, the yaw force movement ends and the rudder can be neutralised.
5-2 ©NAR and TFHS

Flight Controls
Figure: AS 5.3
Figure AS 5.3 illustrates a system using interconnected rudders and ailerons. In

this particular system the rudder controls are interconnected with the ailerons
through a spring that pulls the rudder cable when initiating a rotation on the
control wheel.
The need for excessive roll control is more essential for low speed flight than high-
speed flights. Most large aeroplanes have two sets of ailerons on each wing. At
high speed, the trailing edge flaps are up and the outboard ailerons are locked in
their streamlined position. The inboard ailerons and the spoilers together pro-
duce enough roll control. In low speed configuration with the flaps lowered, the
inboard and outboard ailerons work together to provide sufficient roll control.
On some rear engine jet aeroplanes wing bending is a problem when the aeroplane
is at a heavy weight. To offset this, in addition to having fuel loaded in the wing
tanks, the outer ailerons may be ‘upset’ at these heavy weights. In this technique
the outer ailerons are deflected symmetrically upwards in order to shed some lift
at the outer wing segment. This causes the centre of lift to move towards the
centre line of the aeroplane and so relieves the wing bending moment.
Elevons. Aeroplane wings have several optional planforms, and aeroplanes that
do not employ a conventional wing or empennage, often use other solutions to
obtain pitch and roll control.
©NAR and TFHS 5-3

Figure: AS 5.4
On aircraft that do not include conventional empennage, or which use highly swept
wings, elevons are used to provide pitch and roll control. These are movable con-
trol surfaces placed on the wings’ trailing edge. They operate together for pitch
control, and opposite for aileron control. When left and right elevon are moved in
opposite directions, one will produce downward force and the other an upward
force, resulting in a rotation of the aircraft around its longitudinal axis.
5.1.2 Controls for manoeuvre around the lateral axis, pitch

An aeroplane can be rotated about its lateral axis by variation of the tail loads.
When the aeroplane is trimmed for straight and level flight, all the aerodynamic
forces are balanced and no control forces are necessary. To achieve pitch control,
most aeroplanes use elevators or stabilators. Ruddervators or canards are also
used on aeroplanes that differ from conventional wing planform and empennage.
Figure: AS 5.5
Elevator. Most aeroplanes use a fixed horizontal stabiliser with a movable elevator
hinged to its trailing edge to achieve pitch control. To lower the nose of the aero-
plane, the pilot pushes the control wheel forward. This causes the trailing edge of
the elevator to move down resulting in increased camber on the horizontal empennage
surface, which reduces the natural down load caused by this surface. As a result,
the tail moves up, resulting in nose down rotation of the aircraft.
5-4 ©NAR and TFHS

Flight Controls
Figure: AS 5.6
Stabilator. A stabilator is a single piece horizontal surface used for pitch control.
The stabilator pivots round a point that is placed approximately one third of the
distance back from the leading edge. The aeroplane is rotated around the lateral
axis when the leading edge of the stabilator moves up or down. If the pilot pulls
the control wheel back, the leading edge of the stabilator moves down, which in-
creases the downward force produced by the tail and rotates the aeroplane around
the lateral axis. If the control wheel is pushed forward, the movement will be the
other way round. The leading edge of the stabilator moves up, decreasing the tail
down load and the aeroplane rotates nose down around the lateral axis.
Figure: AS 5.7
Ruddervators. The ruddervator assembly is arranged in a V- figure at the tail with

two fixed stabilisers and two movable ruddervators. When the pilot moves the
control wheel forwards or backwards, the movable surfaces will move together
and act as elevators and rotate the aeroplane about its lateral axis. These control
surfaces also act as rudders. When the rudder pedals are depressed, the
ruddervators will move differentially and act as a rudder to rotate the aeroplane
around its normal axis.
©NAR and TFHS 5-5

Figure: AS 5.8
Canard. Conventional aeroplanes achieve longitudinal stability and control by way

of a horizontal stabiliser, placed at the tail of the aeroplane. This produces an
aerodynamic downward force that counteracts the lift produced by the wing.
The canard principle uses a horizontal surface placed in front of the main wing.
With such an arrangement the centre of gravity is located ahead of the main wing
and makes the aeroplane inherently stall proof, see figure AS 5.8. Because the
angle of incidence of the canard is greater than that of the main wing the canard
stalls before the main wing. If the canard stalls the surface loses its lift and the
nose will drop. When the nose moves downwards, the airflow over the canard
surface will gradually be restored, and the surface produces lift to restore the
aeroplane back to longitudinal stability.
The movement of the canard also serves as the pitch control of the aeroplane. By
moving the whole surface or the trailing edge, pitch control is achieved. If the whole
surface is movable, the canard acts on the same principle as the stabilator, with
opposite effects on pitch control. A downward movement of the canard leading
edge surface decreases the amount of lift produced. This results in a nose down
movement that is opposite that of a downward movement of the leading edge of the
stabilator.
Since the lift of the canard is upward this adds to the total lift efficiency of the
aeroplane compared to a conventional aeroplane where th horizontal stabilizer
produces a downward lift.
The canard wing also aid turning capability, which make it common on many
military fighter aircraft.
5-6 ©NAR and TFHS

Flight Controls
5.1.3 Controls for manoeuvring around the normal axis, yaw
Figure: AS 5.9
Rudder. The rudder is controlled by pedals in the cockpit. The control surface
provides directional control or yaw around the aeroplane’s normal axis. Tis is necesary
to compensate adverse yaw produced by differential lift on the left and right wings,
and maintain coordinated and balanced flight. In single engine propeller aircraft,
the rudder is also used to compensate for the yaw produced by the slipstream from
the propeller. The rudder are also used to maintain yaw control in crosswind condi-
tions for takeoffs and landings. When the left rudder pedal is depressed, the control
system will transfer these signals to the rudder. The trailing edge of the rudder will
then move to the left, causing an aerodynamic load that pushes the vertical fin to the
right. The result is that the nose of the aeroplane rotates to the left around the
normal axis. Depressing the right pedal has the exact opposite effect.
5.1.4 Control Locks

Control locks are fitted to most aeroplanes to prevent damage that could be caused
by parking the aircraft in an area affected by wind.
These locks are sometimes mechanical, wooden blocks shaped to fit between the
control surface and the main aircraft structure, i.e. outboard of the aileron and
elevator and base of the rudder. This kind of lock must have a warning flag at-
tached to it to ensure it can be identified for removal before flight.
Many aeroplanes have control locks that are mechanically engaged inside the aero-
plane. Operated by a handle, these systems operate cables which are attached to
spring loaded pins that fit into the control mechanisms of the operating quad-
rants of control surfaces or, in the case of rudders, into the base of the control
surface.
©NAR and TFHS 5-7

Aeroplanes with electro-hydraulic control surface operation are locked into position
when the power supply to the electro-hydraulic operating system is switched off.
Manually operated mechanical systems can be checked by attempting to move the

controls after lock engagement and by checking full and free movement of all con-
trol surfaces when the locks are released. Electro-hydraulic systems have warning
lights to show the locks engaged. Many systems are electrically linked to a take-off
configuration warning system (TOCWS), which indicates on the master warning
panel if a take-off is attempted (power lever moved towards take-off setting) with
any of the controls are not fully unlocked. Other systems, including flaps, parking
brakes, door and hatch warning, are linked to the TOCWS warning system.
5.1.5 Control Stops

Control inputs, generated by the pilot or autopilot, are limited by the system or by
stops at the operating mechanism, control wheel and control surface. If these
stops were not fitted, control inputs could be generated by the pilot, which would
apply stresses, beyond the design limitations, to the wings, empennage, tail sec-
tion and the fuselage. The primary control stops are located at the control surface
and secondary stops are located at the control system input. They are usually
rigged so that the primary stops will contact first.
Excess roll, pitch or yaw could cause loss of control of the aircraft. Loss of control
is a major cause of aircraft accidents and must be avoided.
5.2 Aeroplane Secondary Flight Controls

Previous paragraphs discussed the flight controls that rotated the aeroplane around
its three axes. However an aeroplane also needs controls to assist or to modify the
effects of the primary flight controls. Such controls are called secondary flight
controls. An aeroplane’s secondary flight controls are divided into two categories.
Firstly, controls that change the amount of force needed to operate the primary
controls and, secondly, controls that modify the primary flight control’s effect.
5.2.1 Mechanisms that modify the lift

In most situations it is desirable to have an aeroplane both with low and high
speed aerodynamic performance. Factors that are important for the lift produced
by an airfoil section are divided into three. First, the shape of the section and the
speed the section moves through the air. Secondly, the surface area, and finally the
angle of attack and the density of the air. To improve aerodynamic performance,
modern aeroplanes make use of three surfaces that affect the airflow over the
surface: flaps, slats, spoilers and speedbrakes
Flaps. Flaps are used to modify the lifting properties of the wing. There are differ-
ent types of flaps depending upon the aeroplane’s characteristics. The location on
the wing varies; some are located on the leading edge but most flaps are located on
the trailing edge inboard of the ailerons.
5-8 ©NAR and TFHS

Flight Controls
Figure: AS 5.10
Plain flap. The plain flap is located on the wing trailing edge, inboard of the ailer-
ons and is the simplest type of flap. It is fitted by means of hinges and when
lowered it increases the wing camber, or curvature of the wing. This increases the
wing lift coefficient resulting in increased lift, which improves the aeroplane’s low
speed characteristics. The improved lift is accompanied by an increase in drag.
The plain flap is mainly used on smaller aircraft and can either be operated by
mechanical, electrical or hydraulic arrangements.
Figure: AS 5.11
Split flap.The split flap is an aerodynamic surface that is deflected from under-
neath the wing. Compared to the simple flap, it increases the lift coefficient slightly.
On the other hand, due to formation of turbulent wakes, it produces much more
drag. The production of additional drag allows the aeroplane to follow a steeper
decent path for a given airspeed. This type of flap was favoured in the 1930s and
the 1940s, when it was used by the Douglas DC-3 transport aeroplane and the
Spitfire, but is rarely used on modern aeroplanes.
©NAR and TFHS 5-9

Figure: AS 5.12
Slotted flap. When lowering a slotted flap, a slot is formed between the high pres-
sure area below the wing and the low pressure area above the wing. This allows
high energy air to flow through the slot to the top side. The additional airflow
speeds up the air on the upper surface of the flap, preventing the air from separat-
ing from the surface, even at full flap deflection. This ability makes the slotted flap
much more efficient when compared to either the split or the plain flap arrange-
ment.
Fowler flap. The Fowler flap increases the wing cord by adding a considerable
amount of wing surface and thereby increasing the lift coefficient. It retracts under
the wing trailing edge and, when lowered, they protrude behind the wings’ original
trailing edge. The Fowler flap produces more lift with less drag than any other
flaps. However, due to the complexity of the Fowler flap operating mechanism, they
have been largely replaced by the slotted flaps.
Triple slotted flap. Large and extremely heavy jet transport aeroplanes use dou-
ble- and triple slotted flaps to produce sufficient lift and drag for low speed opera-
tions. The flaps are lowered in sections, which extend in the same way as the
Fowler flap. A slot is formed between each section allowing high energy air to flow
in the same way as for the slotted flap. With these characteristics, heavy aero-
planes are able to operate at lower speeds for takeoff and landing giving better
runway performance but still retain an efficient, aerodynamically clean, wing for
the cruise portions of the flight.
Figure: AS 5.13

Flight Controls
Leading edge flaps. Many modern jet transport aeroplanes augment the action of
the trailing edge flaps by including leading edge flaps. This further increases the
camber of the wing allowing a higher angle of attack before the airflow becomes
turbulent over the upper surface of the wing. There are different types of leading
edge flap arrangements, but the most common is the drooped type as illustrated
in figure AS 5.13.
Figure: AS 5.14
The drooped leading edge flap is hinged on its lower surface, and a jack screw
arrangement extends the flap, causing the leading edge to droop and thereby in-
creasing the camber. Another type of leading edge flap is the Kruger flap. This
leading edge flap is similar to the drooped flap, but the flap area extends the
camber by the means of a surface which extends from the bottom side of the wing,
as illustrated in figure AS 5.14. An example of the Kruger flap can be found on the
Boeing 727.
Figure: AS 5.15

Slats. Slats are fitted to the leading edge of the wing, and have the same purpose
as the leading edge flaps I.e. to increase the generation of lift. Most slats are aero-
dynamically controlled and, when the wing has a low angle of attack, the slats are
forced back, by ram air pressure, to the leading edge of the wing to produce mini-
mum interference. At high angles of attack, the aerodynamic forces cause the slats
to extend, as illustrated in figure AS 5.15.
When the slats are retracted they form the shape of the leading edge of the wing.
When they are extended they form a slot that forces high energy air to the upper
surface of the wing, preventing the air flow from separating.
Spoilers and speedbrakes. The spoilers are located on the upper surface of the
wing, ahead of the flaps. Their major function is to dump (or spoil) lift from the
wing. There are two situations that require less lift to be produced by the wing.
One is to assist the ailerons to produce roll force. To do so, flight spoilers deflect
with the upward moving aileron and thereby assist the ailerons in roll control. In
situations where large amounts of aileron are required, about 80% of the roll rate
is provided by the flight spoilers.
Figure: AS 5.16
For aileron support the spoilers moves differentially. When the same surfaces are
deployed symmetrically they reduce the lift on the wing symmetrically and also
increase the drag, thereby acting as air brakes (or speed brakes). The speed brakes
are used to dump lift and slow the aeroplane down in flight situations that require
a rapid loss of speed and/or height.
On the landing roll after touchdown, aeroplanes often use full deflection of the
spoilers to dump lift and reduce speed. This assists the brakig effort through
more effective weight transfer to the main wheels.

Displays
4 DISPLAYS
From the day the first instrument was installed into an aeroplane the essential
role of the instrument has not changed. It is the means by which information or
data (to use the ‘in’ term) is conveyed from the source to the pilot.
Effectively you can think of the operation of the aeroplane as being a control loop.
In this the pilot is the controller, the aeroplane is the controlled body and the
instruments are the means by which the pilot is kept informed as to how the body
is functioning. In order that the control function can be carried out effectively it is
of fundamental importance that mental effort of interpretation of the data should
be minimised. This comes down to how the information is presented which in
turn resolves into two issues viz.:
· Design of the display
· Location of the display
4.1 Display Design

Displays may be analogue, digital or symbolic.
In an analogue display, the movement of the

indicator is proportional to the change in value UP
of the data being measured. Most analogue in-
dicators are mechanically driven but some are
created electronically. 10
Analogue displays are applied to a wide vari-

ety of instrumentation but are of special value 20
when dealing with comparative displays

30
where, for example, the performance of a
40
number of identical units are being monitored
50
against one another.
There are two basic forms of analogue dis- 5 5 5

4 6 4 6 4 6
play, viz.: 3 7
8
3 7
8
3 7
8
2 2 2
· Circular 1
9
1
9
1
9
10 10 10
· Straight
Figure: AI 4.1
The scales are calibrated in accordance with the data to be shown. Generally as
much of the available space is used as possible.
Typical circular and straight scales are shown in figure AI 4.1

Instrumentation
In some cases it is desirable to be able to read a

particular portion of a scale with greater accu-
racy and greater definition than other parts of
the same scale. This may be achieved by using a 2
1 4
logarithmic scaling in which the spacing of the 5
numbers is set against the Naperian log values 6
for these numbers. Figure AI 4.2 illustrates such 0
6
a scale and it can readily be noted that the spac- 5
ing from 0 to 1 is considerably greater than that 4
1 2
from 1 to 2 and etc.
Figure: AI 4.2
Digital displays are either mechanically or electronically driven. They provide fi-
nite values of the element being measured. If the numbers used are clearly defined,
by contrast, colour and size, the values can be read off with minimal risk of error
and with relative ease.
Digital displays are also applied to a variety of applications but are of most rel-
evance when displaying quantitative values, e.g. Altitude; Distance; Fuel Quantity;
Temperatures; Position co-ordinates; and etc.
Figure: AI 4.3
Symbolic displays show the information in a symbolic or pictorial fashion. Such

displays are normally used to show the condition or relative position of a system.
In the example at figure AI 4.3 the division of the dial represents the position of
the horizon. The lighter upper (blue) part represents the sky while the darker
lower (black or brown) portion represents the ground. The dividing line therefore
represents the horizon. The aeroplane is represented by the wing-shaped symbol
at the centre.

Displays
4.1.1 Display Arrangement

The various displays are arranged in the most favourable positions. These posi-
tions are governed by a combination of factors.
In general, they are grouped into panels and the panels are arranged in accordance
with the frequency and immediacy of the information.
Flight instruments
These include the following indicators:
· airspeed*
· attitude*
· vertical speed
· altimeter*
· direction*
· turn and bank
On a basic aeroplane these will normally be arranged on the panel as illustrated in

figure AI 4.4.
Figure: AI 4.4
The instruments marked * are arranged so as to form a “T” – a fact that is empha-
sised on many panels, by outlining them in a “T” shape.
More advanced aircraft will still display this panel although the instruments may
be different and fulfil more functions. A typical example is shown at figure AI 4.5.
The instruments are the same except that a Horizontal Situation Indicator re-
places the direction indicator. This gives direction but also provides a symbolic
plan view of the location of the aeroplane in respect of a selected course or point.

Instrumentation
Figure: AI 4.5
Having looked at AI 4.5, take a look back at figure AI 0.1, the Boeing 737-300 flight
deck. Can you see the flight instrument panel? There is one in front of each pilot.
Now you can see the “T” as it appears in the full panel. You will also see that
between the two flight instrument panels there are four other panels, viz.:
· a roof panel
· a panel at the centre at eye level (called the glare shield panel)
· a vertical panel
· a central horizontal panel
Roof Panel
The roof panel contains many switches and a few indicators, the latter usually
associated with air conditioning, pressurisation, oxygen and other systems con-
tents or status.
Glare Shield Panel

The mode control panel, for the Automatic Flight Control System (AFCS), nor-
mally occupies this panel.
Engine Instruments
These are normally grouped on the centre vertical panel where both pilots can view
them. The actual instruments displayed will vary from aeroplane to aeroplane
and even from engine to engine but where two or more engines are fitted, the
indicators for specific parameters will be arranged alongside each other.
The arrangement shown at figure AI 4.6 is typical of a twin jet aeroplane.

Displays
2 3 2 3
VIBRATION VIBRATION
1 4 1 4
REL AMPL. REL AMPL.
5 5
3.0 3.0 -0
-20 20
5 6 5 6 3.4 3.4
4 FUEL 4 FUEL 2.5 PRESSURE 0 2.5 PRESSURE 0
QUANTITY 7 QUANTITY 7 -40
3 3 8 8
8 8 -60
6 6
2 9 2 9 2.0,
4
2.0,
4 STATIC
1 1 1.2 1.2 -80
AIR TEMP.
1.5 1.5 -100
FUEL
TEMP
+ 100 100 + 9 1 9 1
8 2 2 8 2 2 50 0
7 3
4
7 3
4 45
50 50 6 5 4 6 5 4
40
1 2. 5
6 6 35
0 0 r.p.m. r.p.m.
8 8 30
x1000 x1000
14 12 10 14 12 10 ALTITUDE
- 50 50 -
25 DIFF.PRESSURE 10
˚C 20
p.s.i.
15
40 4 5 4 5 40
30 6 6 30
20
OIL 50
3
T.G.T 3
T.G.T 20
OIL 50
7 7
60 60
10 2 2 10
70 CX 100 CX 100 70
p.s.i. p.s.i.
9 1
8 2
7 3
ALTITUDE 50 4 4 50
6 4 OIL 3 5 3 5 OIL
5 0 100 LBS./Hr. LBS./Hr. 0 100
+
150
2
x 1000
6
7
2
x 1000
6
7
+
150
FUEL 8 FUEL 8
˚C FLOW FLOW ˚C
No. 1 No. 2
Figure: AI 4.6
Central Pedestal
This unit houses the throttle, flap, reverse thrust/propeller and trim controls. In
addition it may, on larger aeroplanes, act as the mounting for radio selectors and
the Management Control Unit (MCU) or command Display Unit (CDU) for the
Flight Management System.
Electronic Displays
These have become much more common and will continue to spread throughout
the world’s airliner fleets.
There are three types of electronic display, viz.:

· Light emitting diode (LED)
· Liquid crystal display(LCD)
· Cathode ray tube (CRT)

Instrumentation
You will be familiar with all three as they are used widely in everyday life, e.g.
LED radio frequencies on receivers
TV receiver channel indicators
Video player indicators
LCD wrist watches
CRT TV pictures
In aeroplanes, similar units are used but are driven by signals other than those
that create “Tom and Jerry” cartoons.
Light Emitting Diodes

These are widely used for digital counter displays of such things as engine per-
formance
Liquid Crystal Displays

These are widely used as displays of digital data related to position, distance and
in older CDUs.
Cathode Ray Tubes

It is in this area that the greatest advances have been made. The introduction and
development of digital signal processing has made it possible to convert both meas-
urement and positional information into digitised signals. These signals can be
fed through microphones to create, on the CRT screen, an electronic ‘painting’ of
the data.
Two such systems are in wide use as follows:
· Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) which shows all

information previously carried on the flight instruments. There are
generally two screens, one above the other. The upper screen is the
primary flight display (PFD) sometimes referred to as the EADI
(electronic altitude director indicator). This instrument shows all the
information necessary for flying the aeroplane. The lower screen is
the Navigation Display (ND) sometimes referred to as the EHIS
(electronic horizontal situation indicator). This has various ‘modes’ of
operation but, in essence, displays the information needed in order to
carry out the task of navigating the aeroplane.
· The second CRT system provides either an Electronic Centralised

Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM) or an Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting
System (EICAS).
In essence, these systems largely replace many of the dials and indicators previ-
ously scattered around the flight deck. Different ‘pages’ of electronic information
can be called for and that same screen can be used for the display of many differ-
ent parameters.
We will look more closely at these systems in later sections of this manual.

Pressure Altimeter
2 PRESSURE ALTIMETER
2.1 Introduction
The gaseous envelope, which surrounds the earth, is divided into several concen-
tric layers extending outwards from the earth’s surface. The lowest layer, the one
in which we live, is termed the troposphere and it extends to a height of about
36,000 ft in temperate latitudes, whilst the outer layer is called the exosphere,
and is located some hundreds of kilometres out in space. Throughout the layers
the atmosphere undergoes a gradual transition from its characteristics at sea
level to those at the fringes of deep space.
The atmosphere is held in contact with the earth by the force of gravity, the effect
of which decreases with increasing distance from the earth’s surface. Atmospheric
pressure, therefore, decreases steadily with height until, at tropopause height, the
pressure has fallen to about one quarter of its sea level value. The steady fall in
atmospheric pressure as altitude increases has a controlling effect on air density,
which changes in direct proportion to changes in air pressure.
Another factor affecting the atmosphere is its temperature structure. Air in con-
tact with the earth is heated and rises. In rising, pressure falls, allowing air to
expand, resulting in a drop in temperature with height up to the tropopause.
Beyond the tropopause, the temperature at first remains constant before varying
again with height, finally increasing to a maximum of 2,000°C at approximately
200 km.
In order to obtain indications of altitude, air speed and rate of altitude change,
the relationship between the pressure, temperature, density and altitude must be
known. Relative to altitude, the value of the three variables would be difficult to
continuously measure and compensate for. A standard atmosphere in which the
value of pressure, temperature and density vary at a prescribed rate (with alti-
tude) is therefore accepted and used internationally as a reference and a datum to
which air data instruments are calibrated. The following table gives the pressures
and temperatures at significant levels in the International Standard Atmosphere.
(ISA)
Altitude Press. Temp. Altitude Press. Temp.

(feet) (hPa) °C (feet) (hPa) °C
0 1013.2 +15 24000 392.7 -32.5
3000 908.1 +9 27000 344.3 -38.5
6000 812.0 +3 30000 300.9 -44.4
10000 696.8 -4 33000 262.0 -50.4
14000 595.2 -12.7 36000 227.3 -56.2
18000 506.0 -20.7 39000 196.8 -56.5
21000 446.5 -26.6 43000 162.4 -56.5
Pressures and temperatures, in the above table, have been given to the first signifi-
cant decimal.
©NAR and TFHS 2-5

Instrumentation
You should note that both pressure and temperature decrease with height over the
range given. As an exercise, you should graph these values and note the difference
in the shape of the resultant lines. You should remember that there is a tropopause
at 36,090 feet and the temperature then does not change with height above that.
2.2 The Altimeter

The altimeter is an instrument that is designed to measure static pressure and,
using the conditions of the standard atmosphere, convert that pressure into a
value of altitude. E.G. if the pressure measured is 506 hPa the altitude that the
altimeter is calibrated to indicate is 18000 feet.
2.2.1 The Simple Altimeter

Dial
The simple altimeter is a thing of the past,
see figure 2AI 2.1a, and hardly used to-day.
Static pressure is fed into the instrument-
Linkage
case, and as the height increases, static Mechanism
pressure decreases and the capsule ex-
pands controlled by the leaf spring. A me-
chanical linkage magnifies the capsule ex- Leaf spring
pansion and converts to rotational move- Pointer
ment of a single pointer over a scale gradu-
Partially evacuated Static Pressure
ated in height. capsule
Figure 2AI 2.1a
2.2.2 The Sensitive Altimeter
As shown in figure 2AI 2.1b, the sensitive altimeter has a minimum of two aner-
oid capsules. This provides for a more accurate measurement of pressure and
1000 ft
0
9 1 0 1 3 1
8 2
7 3
6 4
5
100 ft 10 000 ft
Figure 2AI 2.1b
also provides more power to drive the mechanical linkage. The capsules are stacked
together with one face fastened down, permitting movement due to pressure changes
at the other end. The movement of the capsules in response to change in height
(pressure) is transmitted via a suitable mechanical linkage to three pointers that
display (against a graduated instrument scale) the aircraft height in tens, hun-
dreds and thousands of feet. The whole assembly is encased in a container, which
is fed with static pressure, but is otherwise completely airtight. Within the me-
2-6 ©NAR and TFHS

Pressure Altimeter
chanical linkage a bi-metallic insert is fitted to compensate for temperature changes

that could affect the movement. As the aircraft climbs and air pressure falls, the
capsules expand; similarly, as the aircraft descends, static pressure increases
and the capsules contract. Since it is necessary to allow for different values of
mean sea level pressure and to allow the altimeter to be used for indicating height
above the aerodrome, the pilot must be provided with a means of adjusting the
level at which the altimeter indicates zero feet. Fitting a barometric subscale mecha-
nism does this. This adjusts the mechanical linkage and operates a set of digital
counters, or calibrated dial. This displays in a window in the face of the altimeter
the datum pressure setting above which the instrument is now displaying alti-
tude. The desired setting is made using the knurled knob at the bottom of the
instrument.
Setting marker 1 000 ft pointer 1 000 ft pointer Coarse height

indicator
10 000 ft pointer
10 000 ft pointer
0 0
9 1 9 1
8 2 8 2
1015
1020 100 ft pointer
7 ALTITUDE 3 7 ALTITUDE 3
6 4 6 4
5 1 0 1 3
Barometric pressure
100 ft pointer scale Low altitude Barometric pressure scale
warning sector
Figure 2AI 2.2
Altitude alerting
failure light
9 ALT 1 9 0 1
3 2 , 7 60
8 2 8 ALT
2
1 4 6 50
P.E.
7 FEET 3 7 3 correction failure
IN HG MB
warning flag
6 1021 4 6 2983 1010 4
5
Barometric pressure scale Barometric pressure scale
A number of different types of pressure altimeter are manufactured; however, the

majority differ in detail of height band covered, accuracy of instrument and method
of displaying altitude. Types of display vary from multi-needle to needle plus dig-
ital counters, with accuracy varying from 100 feet at 0 feet to 1,000 feet at 35,000
feet in early models, to 35 feet at 0 feet to 600 feet at 60,000 feet in later models.
A selection of typical displays are shown in figure 2AI 2.2; included is an instru-
ment face showing a sector flag, barber pole display or low altitude warning sec-
tor.
©NAR and TFHS 2-7

Instrumentation
The sector flag, which has stripes in black and white, appears in a window when
the height is 10,000 ft or lower, giving the pilot clear warning of approaching low
altitudes in rapid descents.
The control of aircraft along the many air-routes in the vicinity of modern airports
requires that an aircraft’s lateral and vertical position be constantly and accu-
rately monitored if potentially hazardous air traffic situations are to be avoided.
To provide an automated transmission of altitude (flight level), two digitizers are
fitted to modern altimeters. The digitizers are fitted internally to the instrument
case, as illustrated in figure 2AI 2.3, and are connected by common gearing to the
main shaft. The angular position taken up by the rotors of each digitizer relative to
its stator determines the value of a pulsed digital signal produced by the assem-
bly. The digital pulses are fed to a code converter where any ambiguity is resolved,
and the total reply pulse is modified into a coded response suitable for use by an
SSR transponder. The digitised height signal is not affected by changes to the
hectoPascal (millibar) counter setting, as it is always referenced to a datum pres-
sure of 1013.25 hPa.
Connecting rod
Support
Altimeter
Mechanics
Static
Digitized Pressure
Altitude
Signal Out
Aneroid Capsules
Digitizers
Figure: 2AI 2.3
Modern altimeters are fitted with a vibrator assembly. The induced vibration in
the mechanism reduces the initial opposition to motion of the moving parts and
reduces frictional lag in the system. The electrical supply also energises a warning
flag solenoid in the digitizer circuit code converter. In the event of a power supply
failure, the solenoid is de-energised and allows a power failure warning flag to
appear in an aperture in the dial; at the same time the code converter will revert to
a recognised fail-safe position of “ALL Zeros”.
2.3 Datum Sub-scale Settings

The setting of altimeters to datum barometric pressures is part of flight operating
procedures and is essential for maintaining adequate separation between aircraft
2-8 ©NAR and TFHS

Pressure Altimeter
and terrain clearance during take-off and landing. Titles for the settings have been
adopted universally and form part of the ICAO “Q” code of communication. The
code consists of three-letter groups, each having “Q” as the first letter. Those nor-
mally used in relation to altimeter settings are:
QFE The pressure prevailing at an airfield, the setting of which on the altimeter
sub-scale will cause the altimeter to read zero on landing and take-off.
QNE Setting the standard mean sea level pressure of 1013.25 hPa makes the
altimeter read the present elevation in what is termed ‘pressure altitude’.
QNH Setting the pressure scale to make the altimeter read airfield height above
sea level on landing and take-off.
2.4 Servo Altimeter

Servo-assisted altimeters use the same basic principles as sensitive altimeters,
whereby pressure changes are measured using the expansion and contraction of
evacuated capsules. Height is indicated by a digital counter system and a single
pointer. The counters are visible through four windows and show (reading from
left to right) the height in tens of thousands, thousands, hundreds and units of
feet. The pointer moves around the dial, which is calibrated in 50-foot divisions
from 0-1,000 feet. The combined system indicates height up to 100,000 feet.
2.4.1 Principle of Operation

The mechanism of a typical servo-altimeter is shown schematically in figure 2AI
2.4, from which it can be seen that the pressure sensing capsules are coupled
mechanically to an electrical E and I pick-off assembly. Movement of the aneroid
Warning
flag 115V 400Hz
Amplifier
Servo Capsule
motor Cam 'E' bar assembly
follower 'I' bar
Height
counters
Height pointer
Transducer
Digitiser
Baroscale (encoder)
counters Worm
gear Height cam Static
shaft supply
Ground pressure
setting knob
Figure 2AI 2.4
capsules is transmitted through a linkage to the “I” bar of the E and I inductive
pick-up. The amplitude of the AC voltage output from the secondary windings
©NAR and TFHS 2-9

Instrumentation
depends on the degree of deflection of the “I” bar, which is a function of pressure
change. Polarity of the output signal will depend on whether the capsules expand
or contract. The output signal is amplified and used to drive a motor whose speed
and direction of rotation will depend on the amplitude and phase of the signal.
The motor drives the gear train, which rotates the height digital counters and the
pointer.
The motor also drives, through gearing, a cam that imparts an angular movement
to a cam follower. The “E” bar of the inductive pick-off is attached to the follower.
Sense of movement is such that the “E” bar is driven until it reaches a position
where the air gaps between “E” and “I” bars are again equal, thus completing the
servo-loop. The system is very sensitive to small changes in pressure and through
the motor assembly provides adequate torque to drive the indicating system.
The datum pressure setting knob is linked to the cam via a gear train and worm
shaft, as shown in figure 2AI 2.4. Rotation of the knob causes the worm shaft to
slide forwards or backwards and thus rotate the cam. Angular movement of the
cam alters the relationship between the “E” and “I” bars, resulting in an electrical
output which causes rotation of the counters and drives the inductive pick-off
back to its neutral position. The hPa sub-scale displays the value of the datum
pressure set.
2.4.2 Advantages
Servo-altimeters have the following advantages over conventional altimeters:
At high altitude very little pressure change takes place for a given change of alti-
tude, with the result that capsule movement is considerably less than for the
same change of altitude at lower levels. This factor reduces the efficiency of ordi-
nary altimeters at high levels, whereas the servomechanism will pick up a capsule
movement as small as 0.0002 inches (0,005 mm) per thousand feet.
Power transmission gives greater accuracy.
Alerting light Servo Altimeter Alerting Unit
1 2: 7 60
Syncro output
2983 1010
Alerting light
Barometric pressure
setting knob
Altitiude selector
Figure 2AI 2.5 Test button knob

Pressure Altimeter
There is practically no time lag between arrival of new pressure in the instrument
and positioning of counters.
Being an electrical system, correction for pressure error could be made and an
altitude-alerting device may be incorporated.
Although conventional altimeters now employ digital presentation, it is generally

more common with servo-altimeters. The digital presentation reduces the possi-
bility of misreading.
A pointer is still available on the servo-altimeter for use at low level in assessing
rate of change of height.
The appearance of a typical indicator including alerting unit is shown in figure 2AI
2.5.
2.5 Errors
Altimeter errors fall into two categories: instrument and installation, and those
caused by non-standard atmospheric conditions.
2.5.1 Instrument Error

Since capsule movements must be greatly magnified, it is impossible to ignore the
effect of small irregularities in the mechanism. Certain manufacturers’ tolerances
have to be accepted, and errors generally increase with height.
2.5.2 Pressure Error

Pressure error arises because the true external static pressure is not accurately
transmitted to the instrument. A false static pressure arises because of disturbed
airflow in the vicinity of the pressure head or static vent. Pressure error is negligi-
ble at low altitude and speeds; the error becomes significant as speed increases.
Correction for pressure error takes the form of a correction to be applied to indi-
cated height and must be determined by calibration. Air data computers are de-
signed to compensate for pressure error.
2.4.3 Time Lag

Because the response of the capsule and linkage is not instantaneous, the altim-
eter needle lags whenever height is changed. Subsequent over-indication during
descent could be dangerous and should be allowed for in rapid descents. Time lag
is virtually eliminated in the servo-assisted altimeter.
2.5.4 Hysterisis Error

As noted in Section 1, the capsules suffer from hysterisis. This causes a lag
during a climb or descent.

Instrumentation
2.5.5 Barometric Error

Barometric error occurs when the actual datum level pressure differs from that to
which the subscale has been set. Figure 2AI 2.6 illustrates the effect
3000FT
600FT
2000FT
3000FT 2400FT
1000FT
3000FT
MSL
1000hPa 980hPa
Effective level of 1000hPa
Figure: 2AI 2.6
for a subscale set to 1000 hPa. A subscale error of 1 hPa is equivalent to an

indicated altitude error of 28 to 30 feet. Since the QNH has reduced to 980 hPa
this represents a height change of approximately 600 feet. The subscale datum
must now be at a point that is effectively 600 feet below sea level and this is the
level from which the altimeter is measuring.
2.5.6 Orographic
Differences from standard may occur when air is forced to rise/descend over hills
or mountains. Low pressure tends to occur in the lee of mountains with high
pressure on the windward side. Additionally, vertical movement of air can result
in change of temperature from ISA, inducing further errors in altimeter readings.
2.5.7 Temperature Error

Temperature error arises whenever mean atmospheric conditions below the aero-
plane differ from the standard atmosphere. If the actual temperature lapse rate
Indicated height Indicated height
908 hPa
Warm Air Cold Air

3000 FT
ISA
1013 hPa
Figure: 2AI 2.7

Pressure Altimeter
differs from the assumed one, then indicated height will be incorrect. In general, if
the air below the aeroplane is warmer than standard, the air will be less dense
and the aircraft will be higher than indicated. If colder than standard, the air will
be more dense and the aeroplane will be lower than standard. Figure 2AI 2.7
illustrates the effect when flying from a warm atmosphere through a standard and
then to a cold atmosphere. It assumes no change in surface pressure or subscale
setting. Correct height may be obtained from that indicated by use of the naviga-
tion computer. For ‘rule of thumb’ work, a temperature difference of 10°C, from
standard, will cause an error of approximately 4% of indicated height.
2.5.8 Blockages
Should the static tube or vents become blocked, the pressure within the instru-
ment case will remain constant and the altimeter will continue to indicate the
height of the aircraft when the blockage occurred. In some aircraft, an emergency
source inside the fuselage is available. However, the static pressure inside an air-
craft differs from that external to the fuselage, being influenced by blowers, venti-
lation, etc, so that a different correction for pressure error is necessary. This is
normally given in the aircraft manual.

Airspeed Indicator (ASI)
3 AIRSPEED INDICATOR (ASI)
3.1 Introduction
Knowledge of the speed at which an aircraft is travelling through the air, i.e. the air
speed, is essential to the pilot, both for the safe and efficient handling of the
aircraft and as a basic input to the navigation calculations.
3.2 Principle
An aircraft stationary on the ground is subject to normal atmospheric or static
pressure, which acts equally on all parts of the aircraft structure. In flight the
aircraft experiences an additional pressure on its leading surfaces, due to a build
up of the air through which the aircraft is travelling. This additional pressure, due
to the aircraft’s motion, is known as dynamic pressure and is dependent upon the
forward motion of the aircraft and the density of the air, according to the following
formula:
Pt = q + p = ½ρV2 + p
where Pt = total pitot pressure (also known as total pressure, total head
pressure or stagnation pressure)
q = dynamic pressure
p = static pressure
ρ = air density
V = true velocity of aircraft
Re-arranging the formula; ρV2

Pt - p = q = ½ρ
shows that the difference between the pitot and static pressures is equal to ½ ρV2,
which is the dynamic pressure, q. The airspeed indicator measures this pressure
differential and provides a display indication graduated in units of speed.
3.3 Principle of Operation

In the ASI, a capsule acting as the pressure sensitive element is mounted in an
airtight case, as shown in figure 2AI 3.1. Pitot pressure is fed into the capsule and
static pressure is fed to the interior of the case which, when the aircraft is in
motion, thus contains the lower pressure. A pressure difference will cause the
capsule to open out with movement proportional to pressure differential across
the capsule skin (pitot - static). A mechanical link is used to transfer the capsule
movement to a pointer moving around a dial calibrated in knots. A bi-metallic
strip is incorporated in the mechanical linkage to compensate for expansion/con-
traction of the linkage due to temperature variation.

Instrumentation
Static
air
60
80
Pitot
100 air
120
KNOTS 140
250 160
180
200
The airspeed indicator is a

differential pressure gage
Figure: 2AI 3.1
In the sensitive ASI, which reacts to smaller pressure changes, we use a stack of
two or more interlinked capsules connected to the pointers by an extended gear
train. This provides indications of smaller changes in airspeed.
3.4 Calibration
Since dynamic pressure varies with air speed and air density, and since density
varies with temperature and pressure, standard datum values are used in the
calibration of air speed indicators. Values used are the mean sea level values of the
ICAO atmosphere, which are: p=1013,2 hPa, ρ=1225 g/m3, t=+15° C.
3.5 Indicator
The scale is calibrated in speed terms, usually knots or miles per hour (MPH) but
in some cases may be kilometres per hour (KPH). Be sure that you know which
terms are shown on the ASI you are using.
As well as the calibrations, the dial is normally colour coded, as illustrated in
figure 2AI 3.2, as follows:
VSO
40 Stall speed full flap
220
60 VS1
VNE
AIRSPEED Stall speed clean
200
Never exceed speed (Both wings level max. weight)
80
180 KNOTS White
Red
100
Yellow 160 VFE
VNO 140 120
Maximum flaps extended speed
Normal operating limit speed Green
Figure: 2AI 3.2

Airspeed Indicator (ASI)
· White arc – extends from V SO (stall full flap) to VFE (maximum speed
with flaps extended).
· This marks the flap operating range of speeds
· Green arc – from V SI (stall clean) to VNO (normal operating speed). This
is the normal operating range of speeds.
· Yellow – from V NO to VNE (never exceed speed). This denotes the ‘use
with caution’ range. It should not be used in conditions other than
smooth air,
· A red radial line marks VNE.
Other lines may be used, e.g. a blue radial line marks the best single-engine rate of
climb speed, Vyse. Some ASIs have adjustable bugs that can be used to set a
“target” speed, e.g. threshold speed.
3.6 ASI Errors

The dial of the ASI is calibrated to a formula which assumes constant air density
(standard mean sea level) and no instrument defects. Any departure from these
conditions, or disturbance in the pitot or static pressures being applied to the
instrument, will result in a difference between the indicated and true air speed.
There are four sources of error:
3.6.1 Instrument Error

Instrument error is caused by manufacturers’ permitted tolerances in construc-
tion of the instrument. The error is determined during calibration and a correc-
tion is combined with that for pressure error.
3.6.2 Pressure Error

Pressure (position) error (discussed in Section 1, page 8) arises from movement
of the air around the aircraft. This causes disturbances in the static pressure.
Pressure error is tabulated in the aeroplane’s flight manual.
3.6.3 Compressibility Error

The calibration formula for most airspeed indicators does not contain any com-
pensation for the fact that the air is compressible. At low speeds this is insignifi-
cant but, at high speeds this factor becomes of importance. This is especially so at
high altitudes where the less dense air is easily compressed. Compressibility causes
an in increase in the measured value of dynamic pressure, which causes the ASI to
over-read. Thus, compressibility varies with speed and altitude. The error and
correction can be compensated on some mechanical navigation computers but is
tabulated against altitude, temperature and CAS in the handbooks of others.
3.6.4 Density Error

Dynamic pressure varies with air speed and density of the air. In calibration,
standard mean sea level pressure is used; thus, for any other condition of air
density, the ASI will be in error. As altitude increases, density decreases and

Instrumentation
indicated air speed (IAS) and thus equivalent air speed (EAS) will become
progressively lower than true air speed (TAS). In practice, a correction for density
is made using the navigation computer to convert CAS to TAS using arguments of
altitude and outside air temperature.
The relationship between the various air speeds is:
Air Speed Indicator Reading (ASIR )+Instrument Error Correction = Indicated Air Speed
(IAS)
IAS + Pressure Error Correction = Calibrated Air Speed (CAS)
CAS + Compressibility Error Correction = Equivalent Air Speed (EAS)
EAS + Density Error Correction = True Air Speed (TAS)
In practice, the corrections are combined to give:
Indicated Air Speed + Pressure Error Correction = CAS
CAS + Compressibility Error Correction + Density Error Correction = TAS
NOTE:
For certain calculations, the relationship between CAS and TAS can be expressed
as:
CAS ^ ½ ρ (TAS)² (^ = proportional to)
(Note: In UK-english litterature CAS may be referred to as RAS (Rectified Air Speed)).
3.7 Faults
3.7.1 Blockages
Blockage of the pitot tube, possibly by ice, means the ASI will not react to changes
of speed in level flight. However, the capsule will behave as a barometer or altim-
eter capsule, reacting to changes in static pressure, giving an indication of in-
crease in speed if the aircraft climbs, and decrease in speed if it descends. If the
static line is blocked, the ASI will over-read at lower altitudes and under-read at
higher altitudes than that at which the line became blocked.
3.7.2 Leaks
A leak in the pitot system will cause the ASI to under-read, whilst a leak in the
static line will cause the ASI to over-read in an unpressurised fuselage (cabin
pressure usually lower than static) and under-read in a pressurised aircraft (cabin
pressure higher than static).
Whilst any under-reading of the ASI is undesirable, it is not necessarily danger-

ous. However, over-reading of the ASI is dangerous, since a stall will occur at a
higher indicated air speed than that specified for the aircraft.
Some modern ASIs employ coloured flags and needles as attention getters, i.e.: to
indicate electrical or transmission failure and to draw attention to important height
indicators.

Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
4 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (VSI)
4.1 Introduction
A VSI is a sensitive differential pressure gauge. It records the rate of change of
atmospheric pressure in terms of rate of climb or descent when an aircraft
departs from level flight.
4.2 Principle
The principle employed is that of measuring the difference of pressure between
two chambers, one of which is enclosed within the other, as shown in figure 2AI
4.1. The pressure of the atmosphere is communicated directly to the inner cham-
ber (capsule) and through a calibrated choke or capsule case to the outer cham-
ber. When pressure changes, as in a climb or descent, the lag between capsule
and outer chamber results in a pressure differential across the metering unit
which is a measure of the aircraft’s rate of climb or descent. Movement of the
capsule is transmitted via mechanical linkage to a pointer moving against a
calibrated dial on the face of the instrument (figure 2AI 4.1).
In the calibration of the VSI, the indications are arranged in a logarithmic scale.
This allows the scale in the range 0 to 1000 feet/minute to be more easily inter-
preted while, at the same time, allowing smaller changes in vertical speed to be
registered at that range. This makes it easier to achieve a given flight profile.
The metering unit of the VSI is required to provide a pressure differential across
the capsule case for any given rate of climb or descent while compensating for
variations in temperature and pressure of the atmosphere with changes of alti-
tude. The compensation is achieved by incorporating in the metering unit both
an orifice and a capillary, whose sizes are chosen so that indicator readings
remain correct over a wide range of temperature and altitude conditions.
Delayed Metering Unit

pressure
2
4
.5
6
0
.5 6
1 2 4
Instantaneous Aneroid
pressure Vertical speed
ft/min x 1000
Figure: 2AI 4.1

Instrumentation
4.3 Errors
4.3.1 Lag
When an aircraft is suddenly made to climb or descend, a delay of a few seconds
occurs before the pointer settles at the appropriate rate of climb or descent, due to
time required for the pressure difference to develop.
4.3.2 Instrument error

This is due to manufacturers’ tolerances. However, in service the instrument pointer
can be re-adjusted to the zero position using a screw adjustment.
4.3.3 Manoeuvre induced error

Errors induced by manoeuvres or flight in turbulence can cause any pressure
instrument to misread for up to 3 seconds at low altitudes and up to 10 seconds
at high altitudes. The times for the VSI may be even longer. Thus, during any
manoeuvre involving change of attitude, absolute reliance must not be placed on
the VSI. Pitching causes the greatest error.
4.4 Faults
4.4.1 Blockage
Blockage of the static line renders the instrument completely unserviceable, the
pointer registering zero whatever the aircraft’s vertical speed.
4.4.2 Breakage of static line

A breakage or leakage of the static pressure supply line will cause the static valve
to change as the breakage occurs. E.g. if the breakage occurs in a pressurised
section of the aeroplane the VSI will initially show a high rate of descent then
stabilise to a zero indication. This it will keep until the aeroplane descends below
the cabin altitude.
4.5 Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (IVSI)

The IVSI consists of the same basic elements as conventional VSI’s, but in addi-
tion they employ an accelerometer unit which is designed to create a more rapid
differential pressure effect, specifically at the initiation of climb or descent. The
accelerometer comprises two small cylinders or dashpots (figure 2AI 4.2), con-
taining pistons held in balance by springs and their own mass.

Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
Dashpots
Calibrated leak
Figure: 2AI 4.2
The cylinders are connected in the capillary tube system leading to the capsule
and are thus open to the static pressure source. When a change in vertical motion
is initiated, the force that results from the vertical acceleration displaces the pis-
tons. This creates an immediate pressure change inside the capsule and an in-
stantaneous movement of the indicator pointer. The accelerometer output decays
after a few seconds, but by this time the change in actual static pressure is effec-
tive. Errors are generally the same as those affecting the conventional VSI, but
errors due to lag are virtually eliminated.

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© Horizon Swiss Flight Academy

1.2 Composition of the Atmosphere

78 % nitrogen (N2 weight 28 u)

1.2.1 Carbon dioxide (CO2)

1.2.2 Water (H2O)

Figure: ME 1.6 The Water cycle, illustrating evaporation - condensation

©NAR and TFHS 1-7

1.2.3 The Greenhouse Effect

1.2.4 Particles and dust

1-8 ©NAR and TFHS

1.2.5 Air pollution

©NAR and TFHS 1-9

1.3 General definitions

The air pressure is measured with a barometer.

The atmospheric pressure

Weight = 10 tons 10 tons

1.2.2 Air density

1 - 10 ©NAR and TFHS

The pressure difference = g * the density of the air * height difference

Near ground level 1 hPa is approximately equivalent to a 27ft change of height.

1.3.3 Air temperature

Furthermore it is important to remember that the atmosphere is largely transpar-

©NAR and TFHS 1 - 11

Figure: ME 1.9 Heat steaming from a warm surface © Digital Vision

1.4 Layers of the Atmosphere

1 - 12 ©NAR and TFHS

1.4.1 The Troposphere

In the standard atmosphere, (a theoretically created average atmosphere) the tem-

Warm surface = large mixing & a high tropopause

Thus the tropopause at the equator is higher than at the poles.

1.4.2 The Stratosphere

The temperature in the stratosphere is mainly determined by the difference be-

At these low temperatures different chlorine compounds can go in blocking the

Water vapour in the stratosphere

©NAR and TFHS 1 - 13

Ozone in the stratosphere

A development leading to a larger number of aircraft flying at high levels (about 20

Ozone poisoning in the stratosphere

1.4.3 The Mesosphere

1.4.4 The Thermosphere or Ionosphere

1 - 14 ©NAR and TFHS

1.4.5 Radioactivity in the atmosphere

1.4.6 The Variations of the Tropopause

©NAR and TFHS 1 - 15

Latitudinal tropopause variation. Seasonal tropopause variation.

1/ Tropical tropopause, at about 50 000 ft,

2/ Subtropical or Middle latitude tropopause, at about 40 000 ft,

3/ Polar tropopause, about 30 000 ft,

4/ Arctic tropopause, about 25 000 ft,

1 - 16 ©NAR and TFHS

JA Subtropical jet, at about 37 000 to 43 000 ft.

We will return to this in the chapter ”Jetstreams”.

©NAR and TFHS 1 - 17

The height to the tropopause is indicated with boxes and FL-data.

1 - 18 ©NAR and TFHS

1.5 The International Standard Atmosphere, ISA

From 36090 ft to 65617 ft [11 to 20 km] the temperature is constant -56.5oC.

Height Flight Height Temp Pressure Density

-1000 - 10 - 305 +17 1050 1.26

Height Flight Height Temp Pressure Density

18000 180 5486 -21 506(500) 0.70