HEATING THE

ATMOSPHERE
 The Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere
• , CO, N2, SO2, SO3) were
Gases composing Earth’s
earliest atmosphere (H2O,
H2, CO2 vented to the
atmosphere by volcanic
outgassing

• This primitive atmosphere

lacked O2 but was rich in
water vapor, the dominant
volatile produced by volcanic
outgassing
 The Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere
• The first O2 in Earth’s atmosphere was produced by
photochemical dissociation of H2O, caused by bombardment
of H2O molecules by UV radiation from the sun
 The Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere
• By the Middle Archean (3400 Ma), cyanobacteria (blue-
green algae), one of Earth’s earliest life-forms, evolved
and began producing O2 by photosynthesis

• When land plants appeared photosynthesis became the

dominant atmospheric O2 -producing process
 Weather and Climate

What is weather?
What is climate?
How do they differ?

• Weather is the short-term state of the atmosphere at a

particular place at any given time

• Climate is a long-term composite of weather conditions at

a particular place

• Short term versus long term---that is how they differ

 The Elements of Weather and Climate
 Measured properties of weather and climate include:
 Air temperature
 Air pressure
 Relative Humidity
water vapor content
 Relative Humidity = --------------------------------- X 100
water vapor capacity

 Dew Point
 Dew point is the temperature at which air becomes saturated
with moisture and condensation begins to form
 Type and amount of cloudiness
 Type and amount of precipitation
 Wind speed and direction
 Components of Dry Air
 Nitrogen: N2
 78% per volume
 Removed from the atmosphere by nitrogen-fixing soil
bacteria
 Returned to the atmosphere by decay of plant and
animal matter

 Oxygen: O2
 21% per volume
 Removed from the atmosphere by
 respiration
 oxidation reactions
 burning
 decay of organic matter
 Returned to the atmosphere by photosynthesis
 Components of Dry Air
 Argon: Ar
 ~ 0.93% per volume
 An inert gas

 Carbon Dioxide : CO2

 ~ 0.036% per volume
 Removed from the atmosphere by
 photosynthesis
 dissolving in water
 Returned to the atmosphere by
 respiration
 burning
 decay of organic matter
 volcanic eruptions
 reaction of carbonates (limestone, etc.) with acidic water
Components of Dry Air

Figure 11.2
 Variable Components of the Atmosphere
 Water Vapor
 0 - 4% per volume
 Source of all clouds and precipitation
 Absorbs heat when changing from ice to liquid and
liquid to vapor
 Releases heat when changing from vapor to liquid and
liquid to ice

 Aerosols
 Microscopic particles of dust, soil, ash, soot, smoke,
pollen, salts
 Serve as condensation nuclei for clouds and fog
 Absorb and reflect incoming solar radiation
 Cause sunrises and sunsets to be red
 Variable Components of the Atmosphere
 Ozone
 O3
 Concentrated in the stratosphere
 Absorbs UV radiation from the Sun
 Reacts with chlorine from Chlorinated Fluorocarbons
(CFC’s)

 Pollutants
 NOx, SO2, CFC, Volatile Organics, Low Level O3,
 Concentrated in the troposphere
 Causes smog
 Radiates high wavelength radiation
 Greenhouse gases trap in heat
 Causes Acid Rain (SO2 + H2O > H2SO4
Northeastern China
Two Aerosols:
Dust and Human
Generated
Pollution over
eastern Asia

Figure 11.3
Ozone Distribution in the Southern Hemisphere

Figure 11.4 Ozone distribution in the

Southern Hemisphere on 9/17/2001
 Atmospheric Pressure
 Pressure = height X density
 Pressure = force per unit area
 Atmospheric pressure is the
weight (force) exerted by a
column of air above a particular
area on Earth’s surface
 Atmospheric pressure at sea
level will support a column of
mercury that is 76 cm tall
 Average atmospheric pressure
at sea level is
 76 cm Hg
 14.7 lbs/in2
 1013 mb
 Atmospheric pressure
decreases with increasing
elevation above sea level
 Variation of
Atmospheric
Pressure with
Altitude

Figure 11.5
 Properties of Water
• Specific Heat for water (1 calorie) >
Specific Heat for Rock (land)
• Water is transparent (more warming to
depth)
• Water mixes
• Evaporation loses heat
 Properties of Water
Latent Heat (calories/gram)
 Thermal Structure of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is divided into four thermal layers
 Thermosphere
 Rarefied air in the upper-most reaches of the atmosphere
 Where temperature increases with increasing altitude
 Layer in which the aurora occur

 Mesosphere
 Layer between the stratopause and mesopause
 Where temperature decreases with increasing altitude

 Stratosphere
 Layer between the tropopause and stratopause
 Where temperature increases with increasing altitude

 Troposphere
 Layer between Earth’s surface and the tropopause
 Where temperature decreases with increasing altitude (Adiabatic
Rate)
 The layer in which we live, in which most weather phenomena occur
 Thermal
Structure of
the
Atmosphere

Figure 11.7
 Effect of Increasing Altitude on Air in the Troposphere

 Atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude

 Thus, air expands adiabatically as it rises because of decreasing

pressure
 Expansion is a cooling process

 Thus, air cools adiabatically as it rises, increases in altitude

 Air cools at the dry adiabatic rate (1ºC per 100 meters of rise) until it is
cooled to its dew point the temperature to which air must be cooled to
become saturated with moisture)
 After reaching its dew point as the saturated air continues to rise, it
cools at the wet adiabatic rate (0.5ºC per 100 meters of rise) and
condensation begins to occur
 Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
Conduction
 Transfer of heat through
matter by molecular or
atomic activity (negligible for
air, low for land mass, high Conduction
for water) Convection
Convection
 Transfer of heat by
movement of matter from
one place to another
(important for both air and
water)

Radiation Radiation
 Movement of energy through
space by electromagnetic
waves (delivery system for
Sun’s energy)
 What happens to incoming solar radiation?
Incoming solar radiation can be:

Scattered
• Gases and dust particles in the atmosphere scatter the rays.
Scattering changes the direction but not the wavelength

Reflected
• The fraction of total radiation reflected from a surface is called albedo

Absorbed
• The atmosphere is transparent to incoming visible solar radiation
• Nitrogen is a poor absorber of incoming solar radiation
• Oxygen and ozone are effective absorbers of incoming UV radiation
• High temperature in the stratosphere is due to ozone absorption of UV
• Water vapor also effectively absorbs solar radiation
• But for the most part, the atmosphere is heated primarily by solar
energy that is first absorbed by earth’s surface and then re-radiated
Paths Taken by Incoming Solar Radiation
30% lost to space by
Reflection and scattering
5% backscattered
To space by the
atmosphere

20%
Reflected
From
clouds

20% absorbed by
Atmosphere 5% reflected from
And clouds Land-sea surface

50% absorbed by
Land and sea Figure 11.17
 Factors that Control Temperature and Climate
 Latitude, Tilt of Earth’s Axis, and Seasons
 Affect the angle of the Sun’s rays and length of daylight, darkness

 Geographic Proximity to Large Bodies of Land or Water

 Water has a high specific heat and thus warms, cools slowly
 Land has a low specific heat and thus warms, cools rapidly
 Coasts brushed by warm ocean currents have warm damp climates
 Coasts brushed by cold ocean currents have cool dry climates
 Windward coasts have damper, milder climates
 Leeward coasts have dryer, harsher climates

 Altitude
 The higher the altitude, the cooler the climate

 Albedo, Cloud Cover, and Greenhouse Gases

 Clouds have high albedo, reflect 20% of incoming solar radiation
 Cloud cover traps and absorbs radiated radiation
 Greenhouse gases absorb radiation, trap heat in the troposphere
Effect of latitude and Tilt of Earth’s Axis
on Angle of the Sun’s Rays

Figure 11.11
Effect of Changes in the Sun’s Angle
on Intensity of Solar Radiation

Figure 11.10
Effect of Tilt of Earth’s Axis, Latitude, and Seasons
on Length of Daylight and Darkness

Figure 11.13
Warm and Cold Ocean Surface Currents

Figure 10.2
Maritime Influence on Temperature

Figure 11.23
Major Air Mass Source Regions
Effect of Altitude on Temperature

Mount Rainier, as seen from Tacoma, WA

Variation of
Temperature
with
Increasing
Altitude

Figure 11.6
Effect of Cloud
Albedo on
Temperature

Effect of Cloud
Cover on
Temperature

Figure 11.27
 Effect of Greenhouse Gases

Figure 11.19
 Global Temperature Patterns
 Temperatures decrease from the tropics toward the poles
 Isotherms (lines connecting points of equal temperature) shift
with the seasons
 The greatest variations in temperatures (the warmest and coldest
temperatures) occur over land
 The smallest variations in temperatures occur over the oceans
 Thus,
 Isotherms are straighter, more stable in the Southern
Hemisphere because there is more ocean, less land
 Isotherms are not as straight, are less stable in the Northern
Hemisphere because there is less ocean, more land
 In summary, annual temperature ranges
 Are smallest near equator
 Increase with an increase in latitude
 Are greatest over continents
 Are smallest over oceans
Effect of Latitude on Global Temperatures:
January

Figure 11.28
Effect of Latitude on Global Temperatures:
July

Figure 11.29
 Summary of Factors Affecting
Temperature and Climate

 Composition of the atmosphere (dust, moisture,)

 Height the location atmosphere

 Earth-Sun relationships (season determines radiation)

 Mechanisms of heat transfer (convection, conduction)

 Paths taken by solar radiation (albedo, vegetative cover,

water)

 Unequal heating and cooling of land and water (Continental

vs, Marine)