050 Meteorology

050
Meteorology
EASA
Aviationeâm
FIRST EDITION 238
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Contents
About This eBook Series
Foreword
1. The Atmosphere
1.1. Composition, extent, vertical division
1.1.1. Basic explanation of the structure of the atmosphere
1.1.2. Basic explanation of the troposphere
1.1.3. Basic explanation of the stratosphere
1.1.4. Remarks on the Earth’s structure and its atmosphere
1.2. Air temperature
1.2.1. Definition and units
1.2.2. Vertical distribution of temperature
1.2.3. Transfer of heat
1.2.4. Lapse rates
1.2.5. Development of inversions, types of inversions
1.2.6. Temperature near the Earth’s surface, surface effects, diurnal
and seasonal variation, effects of clouds, effects of wind

1.3. Atmospheric pressure
1.3.1. Barometric pressure, isobars
1.3.2. Pressure variation with height, contours (isohypses)
1.3.3. Reduction of pressure to mean sea level, QFF
1.3.4. Relationship between surface pressure centres and pressure
centres aloft
1.4. Air density
1.4.1. Relationship between pressure, temperature and density
1.4.2. Vertical variations of the air density in the atmosphere
1.4.3. Density altitude
1.4.4. Effects of pressure, temperature and density on airplanes
1.5. ICAO Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
1.5.1. ICAO Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
1.6. Altimetry
1.6.1. Terminology and definitions
1.6.2. Aidmeter settings
1.6.3. Corrections and calculations
2. Wind
2.1. Definition and measurement of wind
2.1.1. Definition and measurement
2.2. Primary cause of wind
2.2.1. Primary cause of wind, pressure gradient, Coriolis force,
gradient wind
2.2.2. Variation of wind in the friction layer
2.2.3. Effects of convergence and divergence
2.3. General global circulation
2.3.1. General circulation around the globe
2.3.2. Remarks on the scales of the atmospheric motions
2.4. Local winds
2.4.1. Anabatic and katabatic winds, mountain and valley winds,
Venturi effects, land and sea breezes
2.4.2. Effect of accelerated airflow due to topography
2.5. Mountain waves (standing waves, lee waves)
2.5.1. Origin and characteristics
2.6. Turbulence
2.6.1. Description and types of turbulence
2.6.2. Formation and location of turbulence

2.6.3. Clear-Air Turbulence (CAT): Description, cause and location
2.7. Jet streams
2.7.1. Description
2.7.2. Formation and properties of jet streams
2.7.3. Location of jet streams and associated CAT areas
3. Thermodynamics
3.1. Humidity
3.1.1. Water vapour in the atmosphere
3.1.2. Mixing ratio, temperature/dew point, relative humidity
3.2. Change of state of aggregation
3.2.1. Condensation, evaporation, sublimation, freezing and
melting, latent heat
3.3. Adiabatic processes
3.3.1. Adiabatic processes, stability of the atmosphere
4. Clouds and Fog

4.1. Cloud formation and description
4.1.1. Cloud formation
4.1.2. Cloud types and cloud classification

4.1.3. Thunderstorms
4.1.4. Electrical discharges
4.1.5. Influence of inversions on cloud development
4.2. Fog, mist, haze
4.2.1. General aspects
4.2.2. Types of fog
5. Precipitation
5.1. Development of precipitation
5.1.1. Process of development of precipitation
5.2. Types of precipitation
5.2.1. Types of precipitation, relationship with cloud types
6. Air Masses and Fronts

6.1. Air masses
6.1.1. Description, classification and source regions of air masses
6.1.2. Modifications of air masses
6.2. Fronts
6.2.2. Stationary front, associated clouds and weather

6.2.3. Movement of fronts and pressure systems, life cycle
6.2.4. Warm front, associated clouds and weather
6.2.5. Warm sector, associated clouds and weather
6.2.6. Cold front, associated clouds and weather
6.2.7. Weather behind the cold front
6.2.8. Occlusions, associated clouds and weather
6.2.9. Changes of meteorological elements in a frontal wave
7. Pressure Systems
7.1. The principal pressure areas
7.1.1. Location of the principal pressure areas
7.2. Anticyclone
7.2.1. Anticyclones, types, general properties, cold and warm
anticyclones, ridges, subsidence
7.3. Non-frontal depressions
7.3.1. Thermal, orographic, polar and secondary depressions;
troughs
7.4. Tropical revolving storms
7.4.1. Characteristics of tropical revolving storms
7.4.2. Origin and local names, location and period of occurrence

8. Climatology >
8.1. Climatic zones >
8.1.1. Explanation of general circulation in the troposphere and
lower stratosphere >
8.1.2. Climatic classification >
8.2. Tropical climatology >
8.2.1. Cause and development of tropical showers and
thunderstorms: humidity, temperature, tropopause >
8.2.2. Seasonal variations of weather and wind, Intertropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ), weather in the ITCZ, general seasonal
movement >
8.2.3. Monsoon, sandstorms, cold-air outbreaks >
8.2.4. Easterly waves >
8.3. Typical weather situations in the mid-latitudes >
8.3.1. Westerly situation (westerlies) >
8.3.2. High-pressure area >
8.3.3. Flat-pressure pattern >
8.3.4. Cold drop and cold-air pool >
8.4. Local winds and associated weather >

8.4.1. Foehn, Mistral, Bora, Scirocco, Ghibli, Khamsin and
Harmattan
9. Flight Hazards
9.1. Icing
9.1.1. Conditions for ice accretion
9.1.2. Types of ice accretion
9.1.3. Hazards of ice accretion, avoidance
9.1.4. Ice crystal icing (ICI)
9.2. Turbulence
9.2.1. Effect of turbulence on flight, avoidance
9.3. Wind shear
9.3.1. Definition of wind shear
9.3.2. Weather conditions for wind shear
9.3.3. Effect in flight, avoidance
9.4. Hazardous effects of thunderstorms
9.4.2. Development and effects of downbursts
9.4.3. Squall lines

9.4.4. Avoidance of thunderstorms
9.5. Tornadoes
9.5.1. Properties and occurrence
9.6. Inversions
9.6.1. Influence on aircraft performance
9.7. Stratospheric conditions
9.8. Hazards in mountainous areas
9.8.1. Influence of terrain on clouds and precipitation, frontal
passage
9.8.2. Vertical movements, mountain waves, wind shear,
turbulence, ice accretion
9.8.3. Development and effect of valley inversions
9.9. Visibility-reducing phenomena
9.9.1. Reduction of visibility caused by precipitation and
obscuration
9.9.2. Reduction of visibility caused by other phenomena
10. Meteorological Information

10.1. Meteorological services
10.1.1. International organisations >
10.1.2. The World Area Forecast System and meteorological offices >
10.1.3. Remarks on international cooperation and types of
observations >
10.2. Observations >
10.2.1. Surface observations >
10.2.2. Radiosonde observations >
10.2.3. Satellite observations >
10.2.4. Weather-radar observations >
10.2.5. Aircraft observations and reporting >
10.3. Information for flight planning >
10.3.1. Use of meteorological documents >
10.3.2. Aviation weather messages >
10.3.3. Meteorological broadcasts for aviation >
10.3.4. Meteorological warnings >
10.4. Weather charts >
10.4.1. Introduction to weather charts >
10.4.2. Surface charts >

10.4.3. Upper-air charts
10.4.4. Significant weather charts
10.4.5. Remarks on weather charts
A. Glossary
B. Abbreviations
C. Literature and Regulations
D. Formulae
E. Learning Objectives
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April 2021
Foreword
Meteorology is the discipline of Earth sciences that aims to explain
atmospheric processes which drive the weather and determine the climate.
Common weather phenomena such as clouds, fronts, cyclones and
anticyclones are the result of physical processes. For a detailed explanation,
mathematical formulas of these processes are required. Of course, to provide
a complete physical and mathematical description is beyond the scope of this
book. However, we aim to walk through the key points of these processes.
This book provides the basics which are required to understand the main
atmospheric processes. In addition, we emphasise connections between the
topics of the main chapters to gain a deeper understanding of weather
phenomena. As a pilot, you have to deal with these phenomena at regular
basis. The knowledge gained from this book helps you to operate aircraft
more safely and economically. Later you can improve your knowledge through
your experience acquired during flight hours.
Beyond the processes which are required to understand, we outline the

physical basics of them in the first half of the book. Some simple deductions
are also provided. In line with the previously mentioned, required elements
will be step-by-step described in ten main chapters. First, structure and
composition of the atmosphere will be discussed. Atmospheric motions are
influenced by the rotation of Earth and the transfer of heat which means that
the basics of atmospheric dynamics and thermodynamics shall be learnt. Then,
the formation of clouds and precipitation will be explained which is the
subject of cloud microphysics.
In the second half of the book the main weather systems - such as pressure
and wind systems as well as associated frontal zones and local phenomena -
will be explained. Besides that, main chapters are the subject of other
disciplines of atmospheric science such as climatology which help us to
associate characteristic weather phenomena to specific regions on Earth. The
previously mentioned make it possible for us to recognise hazardous
atmospheric situations as well as to understand weather reports and forecasts
which contain meteorological information that are used for flight planning and
during the flight.
The Atmosphere
The Earth’s atmosphere can be divided into layers with specific characteristics.
The lowest layer of the atmosphere is called the troposphere which is widely
used for civil aviation. It contains half of the mass of the atmosphere and
almost all water vapour in the air. Air temperature is not equally distributed
horizontally and vertically, which leads to differences in air density and air
pressure. These differences result in the formation of weather phenomena like
wind, low and high pressure systems.
Let us emphasise why it is important to know the main characteristics of the

atmosphere. For instance, the wind speed is the highest just below the upper
boundary of the troposphere. The thickness of the troposphere varies with
geographical latitude, it is thicker in lower latitudes and thinner over the poles.
This means that regions with the highest wind speed are expected at lower
height over the poles than close to the Equator. It can be dangerous for pilots
who may not expect the occurrence of these strong winds in higher latitudes.
In addition, in normal conditions, air temperature and air pressure decrease
with increasing altitude, which can be hazardous to health. Even the top of the
Mount Everest can be extremely dangerous since the air pressure there is
around the quarter of its sea level value. The height of long haul flights is
above that level. Therefore, knowing the main characteristics of the
atmospheric layers is crucial.
To summarise, components and characteristics of the Earth’s atmosphere will

be described. To understand the formation of pressure and wind systems, the
relationship between air temperature, air pressure and air density will be
explained using dry air, which behaves as an ideal gas. After that the main
characteristics of the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) will be
described, which means standardised values of the atmosphere regarding air
pressure, air temperature and air density. Finally, measurement of altitude and
altimeter settings are explained.
1.1. Composition, extent,
vertical division
1.1.1. Basic explanation of the structure

of the atmosphere
The structure of the atmosphere refers to the composition and stratification
of the Earth’s atmosphere by physical quantities, in particular by air
temperature. First the components of the atmosphere and then the vertical
layers of the atmosphere based on air temperature will be described.
Composition of the atmosphere

The earth’s atmosphere is considered to be built of layers of various gaseous
components forced to stay in orbit by the Earth’s gravitational force. The
atmosphere contains air that is a mixture of various gases. The main
components or "constituents" of the air by volume are nitrogen (ca. 78 %),
oxygen (ca. 21 %) and argon (ca. 0.9 %). Carbon dioxide (ca. 0.04 %) can also
be detected.
Note: In a mixture, components are not united in the chemical sense of the word.
Therefore, they do not have fixed proportions to each other unlike in solutions or
compounds.
Constituents below 1 % by volume are called trace gases. Besides argon, other
noble gases are found in the air, namely neon, helium, krypton and xenon.
These are inert gases; therefore, they do not react with other components.
Water vapour, methane, nitrous oxide and nitrogen dioxide are also present.
Furthermore, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, ozone, ammonia, sulfur dioxide and
hydrogen sulfide are constituents of the atmosphere but at much lower levels
than the above-listed components.
The composition of a mixture can be expressed in a volume fraction, which is

a dimensionless quantity. If we multiply it by 100, a percentage by volume (%)
can be calculated. With mixtures, the sum of all volume fractions is equal to 1
(or 100 %). Because of their small percentages by volume, fractions of trace
gases are often expressed in parts per million by volume (ppmv or ppm), parts
per billion by volume (ppbv or ppb) or parts per trillion by volume (pptv or ppt).
These are dimensionless quantities as well. For example, one unit of carbon
dioxide among one million particles of the air can be expressed as 1 ppm.
Structure of the atmosphere

The atmosphere has a lower and an upper vertical boundary. The lower
vertical boundary of the atmosphere is easier to define, as it is the solid
surface of the Earth. However, it is difficult to define a physical upper vertical
boundary of the atmosphere because of its gradual transition into the
interplanetary space. In general, pressure decreases with height, suggesting
the definition of the upper vertical boundary could be the limit where the
pressure is constantly zero. However, it is not a solid physical boundary, unlike
the lower vertical limit, which makes meteorological calculations difficult.
Another definition for the upper boundary could be the height at which the
Earth’s gravitational force weakens to the level when it cannot force an air
parcel to stay in orbit around the Earth. Accepting this definition, the vertical
extent of the atmosphere can be considered approximately 115 000 000 ft (ca.
35 000 km).
It is worth mentioning that because the shape of the Earth’s surface is not
perfectly spherical, the lower vertical boundary of the atmosphere cannot be
considered a plane surface. The Earth's landforms including hills, mountains,
valleys, seas and oceans have to be taken into account; for example, altimeter
calculations of physical quantities in the Earth’s atmosphere such as air
temperature, air pressure and air density change with height.
Note: In this chapter words "height" and "altitude" are used in the same meaning.
However in Section 1.6, the above-mentioned words have different meanings.
In other words, the quantity in question has a vertical profile. Consequently,

the Earth’s atmosphere can be divided into different atmospheric layers
(henceforth: layers) based on temperature. In order of increasing altitude, they
are the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere and
the exosphere, which are separated by thin boundary layers with unique
characteristics. These layers are called the tropopause, the stratopause, the
mesopause and the thermopause.
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In normal conditions, air temperature decreases in the troposphere until it

reaches the tropopause. After that, an abrupt change in the air temperature is
observed. In the tropopause, air temperature can be considered almost
constant. In the lower portion of the stratosphere the air temperature remains
(nearly) constant, then increases until reaching the stratopause. Above this, in
the mesosphere, the temperature starts to decrease again. The air
temperature reaches its minimum value at the height of the mesopause. In the
thermosphere, it begins to rise again and continues to do so into the
thermopause.
To understand the structure of the atmosphere properly, the concepts of air

parcels and air columns can be introduced. In atmospheric science, air parcels
are the main, fictional units of the atmosphere that are affected by physical
properties in the surrounding air. The impacts on air parcels of heating, cooling
and various atmospheric forces will be described. Air columns are fictional
"tubes" that begin above a unit surface and reach outer space. They are filled
with air parcels.
A schematic overview of the layers of the atmosphere can be seen in the

figure below.
Atmospheric layers:
• Troposphere (Greek tropo, "turn"), referring to fact that mixing processes are
significant in this layer
• Stratosphere (Latin stratum, "layer")
• Mesosphere (Greek mesos, "middle")
• Thermosphere (Greek thermo, "heat")
• Exosphere (Greek exo, "outside")
Altitude in feet
(km)
Sun-synchronous MfHlites Exosphere
Figure 1.1. Layers of the atmosphere based on the vertical profile of the air
temperature
The temperature at the lowest point of the vertical profile is about 15 °C,
which can be considered the Earth’s average near-surface temperature. Note
that the height of the tropopause varies with the seasons and geographical
latitude. The height of the stratopause and mesopause also vary, but these
changes do not have significant effects on weather and aviation, so only
average values are presented.
The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere, found between the
surface of the Earth and approximately 25 000 ft and 60 000 ft (ca. 8 km and
18 km) depending on seasonal and latitudinal variations. The typical height of
the tropopause can be considered 36090 ft (11 km). It is a layer with a
constant height of 11 km without seasonal and latitudinal variations in the
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), which is explained later. The
troposphere contains half of the mass of the air. Most weather processes take
place here. In general, the air temperature decreases from the ground to the
tropopause, the upper boundary of the troposphere, where an abrupt
decrease in air temperature is observable. In an isothermal layer the
temperature is constant. The tropopause can almost be considered an
isothermal layer. Commercial airplanes fly primarily in the troposphere but can
rise above the tropopause, making the troposphere and tropopause the most
important layers from the perspective of aviation.
The stratosphere starts just above the tropopause. Air temperature in the
lower part of the stratosphere remains (nearly) constant, then starts to rise
until reaching about 0 °C. The region in the stratosphere with the highest
amount of ozone is called the ozone layer. The increasing air temperature in
the stratosphere is the consequence of the chemical reactions in the ozone
layer where the majority of ozone forms and decomposes constantly at
altitudes from approx. 65 600 ft (ca. 20 km) to approx. 98400 ft (ca. 30 km).
The boundary of the stratosphere is called the stratopause, and it can be
found at the altitude of approx. 164 000 ft (ca. 50 km). Few weather
processes, in particular wind and turbulence, occur in the stratosphere. Lower
regions of the stratosphere are used for aviation purposes. Weather balloons
with radiosondes used by meteorological agencies to measure weather
conditions of the troposphere above the surface of the Earth often intrude
into the stratosphere and provide data not only about the state of the
troposphere but also the stratosphere.
The mesosphere is between the stratopause and the mesopause. The

mesopause can be found at approx. 262 500 ft (ca. 80 km). In this layer
temperatures can fall below -80 °C, which makes the mesospause the coldest
portion of the atmosphere. Small meteoroids enter the atmosphere and burn
up in the mesosphere. From an aviation point of view, this layer can be
reached by rockets and space shuttles.
The thermosphere extends from the mesopause to the thermopause, reaching

an altitude of approx. 1640 400 ft (ca. 500 km). In this layer, temperatures
increase with the altitude and can exceed 2 000 °C. Because of the
interactions between the Earth’s magnetic field and the electromagnetic rays
coming from the solar system and outer space, electromagnetic phenomena
including polar lights occur in this layer.
The exosphere is above the thermopause, where the Earth’s atmosphere
transitions into interplanetary space. As previously stated, the outermost
region of the atmosphere can sometimes be at a distance at which the Earth’s
gravitational force is not strong enough to force the constituents of the
atmosphere to stay in orbit
In the layers above the stratosphere, air pressure (and air density) is very low
because of the small number of air parcels. Therefore, air temperature in those
layers - which is proportional to the kinetic energy of the moving air parcels -
is difficult to interpret. Consequently, high temperatures are not dangerous to
aircraft entering the thermosphere or the exosphere.
As described above, the dividing line of the Earth’s atmosphere is primarily

based on the vertical profile of air temperature. These layers constitute the
homosphere and the heterosphere as follows. Mixing processes caused by
eddies in the atmosphere can be observed in the troposphere and the
stratosphere in a turbulent flow regime. Those regions that are characterised
by intense mixing of atmospheric gases are called the homosphere (homos,
Greek for "same"). It extends from the ground to 328000 ft (ca. 100 km). In
the homosphere, the average volume fraction of the atmospheric constituents
remains constant. This means that the composition of the atmosphere is
uniform. Parts of the atmosphere, where mixing is so weak that atmospheric
components (mainly hydrogen and helium) begin to separate in altitude
according to mass, are called the heterosphere (hetero, Greek for "different").
1.1.2. Basic explanation of the

troposphere
Description of the troposphere
In the following description, characteristics of the troposphere will be
discussed in more detail. The troposphere is the layer closest to the Earth’s
surface. After incoming electromagnetic radiation from the Sun (solar
radiation) reaches the surface of the Earth, it transforms into heat energy of
the air parcels directly above the ground. In other words, solar radiation heats
the surface of the Earth which in turn heats the air above the surface. Then
heat is transmitted to the higher layers of the atmosphere. Generally, the
highest temperature is to be measured in the layer which contacts the surface
of the Earth. The average air temperature near the Earth's surface, i.e. in MSL,
is 15 °C. With altitude, vertical heat exchange decreases; therefore,
temperature decreases as the altitude increases until the tropopause, the
upper boundary of the troposphere.
Not only air temperature but also wind speed varies with altitude, which
reaches maximum speeds near the tropopause. Because the tropopause is not
a continuous surface, breaks can be observed in it. (In Figure 1.3 those breaks
can be clearly seen between the tropical and mid-latitudes tropopauses and
between the mid-latitudes and polar tropopauses). Air currents with the
highest wind speeds in the atmosphere are located near those breaks, called
jet streams (Section 2.7). More precisely, the core of the jet streams (in other
words, the jet streak) are located closest to those breaks.
The breaks have an important role in the interactions between stratospheric

and tropospheric air masses as well. On the one hand, intense storm clouds of
towering heights can break the tropopause, thereby introducing a small
amount of water vapour into the stratosphere. On the other hand, cold and
dry air from the stratosphere exchanges with tropospheric air in certain
weather conditions.
To summarise, in normal conditions, air temperature decreases as the altitude

increases up to the tropopause where it remains almost constant. The wind
speed also depends on the altitude. It reaches its highest value close to the
tropopause.
The height of the tropopause varies with air temperature and air pressure.
First, variations of the height of the tropopause are examined because of the
changes in air temperature. The spatiotemporal distribution of the heat energy
near the surface is not equal. Because of the higher elevation of the Sun (in
other words, the altitude of the Sun), the amount of heat energy is greater
along the Equator than over the North and South Poles and greater during the
summer than during the winter.
Note: If a physical quantity e.g. heat is not equally distributed then it means that it
varies in time (e.g. the quantity has seasonal changes) or in space (e.g. the quantity
varies with geographical latitudes). In these cases we speak about the
spatiotemporal distribution of the quantities.
The tropopause extends higher over warmer surfaces and lower over colder
surfaces. It is the equivalent to saying the troposphere is thicker over warmer
surfaces and thinner over colder surface. This means the following:
1. The thickness (in other words, the vertical extent) of the troposphere
reaches its maximum value during the summer and decreases to its
minimum during the winter.
2. The height of the tropopause depends on geographical latitude. It is

always higher over the Equator than over the North and South Poles (see
Figure 1.3).
Second, the height of the tropopause varies because of changes in air

pressure. Without needing a detailed examination of the relationship between
air temperature and air pressure, the following can be said:
1. If temperature is equally distributed, then air pressure leads to changes

in the height of the tropopause.
2. Low air pressure implies less air in the air column, which decreases the
height of the tropopause.
3. High air pressure implies more air in the air column, which increases the
In atmospheric sciences the rate of temperature change with altitude is called

temperature lapse rate or vertical temperature gradient. The lapse rate in the
troposphere is -1.98 °C/1000 ft (-0.65 °C/100 m). It is often rounded to
-2 °C/1000 ft for practical reasons. The minus sign refers to the decreasing
temperature as altitude increases, however in some sources it is removed. The
tropopause is defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
based on the lapse rate as follows: in the tropopause the lapse rate (in
absolute value) decreases to 2 °C/km or less and the average lapse rate does
not exceed 2 °C/km over a vertical range of 2 km. This means that an abrupt
change occurs in the lapse rate at the height of the tropopause. This means
the tropopause can be found where the temperature change does not exceed
two-thirds of one degree Celsius per thousand foot increase in altitude over a
vertical range of 6000 ft.
The thickness of the troposphere, and consequently the height of the

tropopause, change based on season and location. In the following section,
tropical, mid-latitude, polar and Arctic/Antaretie tropopauses will be
distinguished:
1. Tropical tropopause: Along the Equator, the tropopause usually has an

altitude of between approx. 50000 ft and 60000 ft (ca. 15 km and
18 km). The average height of the tropical tropopause is about 54000 ft
(ca. 16 km). The air temperature is between -60 °C and -80 °C.
Information about the height of the tropical tropopause is not necessary
for aviation because it is above the flight levels used by commercial
airplanes.
2. Mid-latitude tropopause: Along mid-latitudes, the tropopause is

between approx. 30000 ft and 40000 ft (ca. 9 km and 12 km) with an
associated air temperature of ca. -55 °C. For example, over the North
Atlantic, at 50°N, the tropopause can be found at approx. 31000 ft (ca.
9.5 km) in winter. However, the average height of the tropopause over
mid-latitudes can decrease slightly under 30000 ft in winter. For
example, at 60°N the tropopause can be located at approx. 29 000 ft (ca.
8.8 km) in winter.
3. Polar tropopause: Over the polar regions, the tropopause can be found
between approx. 25 000 to 30000 ft (ca. 8-9 km) where the air
temperature is ca. -50 °C.
4. Arctic and Antarctic tropopause: Over the Arctic and Antarctic regions,
the tropopause begins at about 25 000 ft (ca. 8 km) where the air
temperature is about -45 °C.
Note: Because of its height, the air temperature of the tropopause is the lowest
above the Equator and it increases as geographic latitude increases. Of course,
there are cases in which the height of the tropopause or its temperature falls
outside the ranges listed above. For example, air temperature can fall below -80 °C
over the Arctic in winter.
Using the below-listed values, one can easily consider the followings. For
example, the tropical tropopause has an average height of approx. 54000 ft
(ca. 16.5 km) with an associated temperature of -75 °C. The tropopause over
cities at relatively low geographic latitudes - among others Dakar (Senegal),
Recife (Brazil), Bermuda or Ponta Delgada (Azores) - is found between approx.
50000 to 60000 ft (ca. 15-18 km) throughout the year.
Region Height of the tropopause Temperature of the tropopause
Over equatorial regions approx. 50000-60000 ft -60 to -80 °C

(tropical tropopause) (approx. 15-18 km)
Over mid-latitude regions approx. 30000-40000 ft -55 °C

(mid-latitude tropopause) (approx. 9-12 km)
Over polar regions approx. 25000-30000 ft -50 °C

(polar tropopause) (approx. 8-9 km)
Arctic and Antarctic regions approx. 25000 ft -45 °C

(Arctic and Antarctic tropopause) (approx. 8 km)
Figure 1.2. Typical height of the tropopause and its associated temperature
on the Earth
Figure 1.3. The height and temperature of the tropopause according to
geographic latitude
It is worth mentioning that landforms create surface friction in the lower

portion of the troposphere, called the planetary boundary layer (PBL). The
highest limit of that layer is about 6 600 ft (ca. 2 km).
The composition of the air in the troposphere

Let us take a closer look at the air composition of the troposphere. Half of the
mass of the atmosphere can be found in the troposphere, within about
18 000 ft (ca. 5.5 km). The air is a mixture of various gases. Henceforth, we
distinguish between dry and humid air based on whether or not the air
contains water vapour, which is water in gas state of matter. That distinction is
important because physical and chemical processes differ regarding the
volume fraction of water vapour. The main components of the dry air are
nitrogen (ca. 78 %), oxygen (ca. 21 %), argon and carbon dioxide (ca. 0.04 %).
The remaining portion contains trace gases other than carbon dioxide, such as
noble gases like neon, helium, krypton, and xenon, and greenhouse gases like
methane, nitrous oxide and nitrogen dioxide. Hydrogen, carbon monoxide,
ozone, ammonia, sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide are also found in the
atmosphere at smaller volume fractions.
Humid air contains water vapour, which is one of the most powerful
greenhouse gases. The percentage of water vapour in humid air is 0.4 % by
volume but can rise as high as 4 %. This proportion seems to be small
compared to nitrogen or oxygen, but it is significant from a meteorological
perspective because weather processes such as cloud formation and
precipitation depend on the volume fraction of the water vapour.
Note: It is essential to mention that if we summarise the main components of the

humid air (nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide and water vapour), then the sum
exceeds 100 %. Note that the air is a mixture in which components do not have a
fixed ratio.
The troposphere contains more than 90 % of all water vapour in the

atmosphere. Half of all water vapour can be found in the 2 km above the
Earth's surface. From the meteorological point of view, water vapour is the
most important constituent of the air because of vertical mixing processes,
components of the atmosphere cannot separate by mass; therefore, the
troposphere is considered a part of the homosphere. However, the volume
fraction of water vapour decreases as altitude increases.
The Earth’s atmosphere contains not only gases and liquid droplets but also
solid particles, though in much smaller fraction. Those liquid and solid
components are called aerosol particles and have a major role in the
formation of precipitation and clouds.
Note: Constituents of the atmosphere have natural and anthropogenic sources.

The former means that the substance in question is released into the atmosphere
via some kind of natural (physical, chemical or biological) processes. Anthropogenic
source means that the material is introduced to the atmosphere by human
activities. For example, carbon dioxide is released by volcanic activities but its main
source is industrial air pollution , while the primary anthropogenic source of
methane is agricultural activities.
Aviation in the troposphere

Next we will introduce some important information about special
circumstances which affect aviation in the troposphere: how flight levels are
affected by jet streams and clear-air turbulence, and the influence of weather
conditions on forces that affect flying.
The height of the tropopause increases as geographic latitude decreases.

Therefore, the altitude used for flying around the Equator is below the height
of the tropical tropopause. At higher latitudes, flight levels can cross the
tropopause (over the mid-latitudes, polar and Arctic/Antarctic region). Note
that the temperature of the tropopause decreases as latitude increases.
Because of this, the polar tropopause is warmer than the tropical tropopause.
From the North and South Poles to the Equator, the tropopause is not a
continuous surface (see Figure 1.3) which means that it has breaks where
different air masses interact with each other. An air mass is a large body in the
atmosphere, characterised by nearly the same conditions of air temperature
and humidity. The boundary between two air masses is called a frontal zone.
The tropopause breaks can be found near the core of jet streams with the
maximum wind speeds in the atmosphere. This area is critical in aviation
because strong turbulence and wind shear occur here, especially on that side
of the jet stream where the colder air mass is located. A special type of
turbulence is associated with the tropopause breaks and jet streams, causing
one of the most dangerous phenomenon in aviation, clear-air turbulence (CAT,
see Section 2.6.3). As its name implies, this type of turbulence is not
accompanied by clouds, but instead occurs when the sky seems to be clear.
Because of this, CAT cannot be detected without using remote sensing
instruments.
The four main forces of flight - lift, weight, drag and thrust - are affected by
the structure of the atmosphere. For example, thrust is affected by the vertical
distribution of the air temperature. The thrust decreases slowly as the lapse
rate increases. This means that thrust will decrease above the tropopause
entering the stratosphere. Altitude also affects these forces of flight. The
speed of the airplane increases as altitude increases; therefore, the fuel
consumption decreases with altitude. However, drag and thrust also decrease,
which has a negative effect on the stability of the airplane.
Regions with severe weather conditions can lead to an increase in fuel

consumption and in stress on aircraft. For example, if an airplane flies from a
cold air mass into a warm air mass (or from a warm air mass to a cold air mass),
the thrust decreases (or increases). Flying close to the tropopause - where the
wind speed is the highest and CAT can be observed - will increase the stress
on the airplane, and therefore should be avoided.
Because of the above-mentioned reasons, the height of the tropopause and

severe weather condition should be known to avoid dangerous situations.
From an aviation point of view, jet streams, frontal zones and clear-air
turbulence are the most dangerous phenomena.
The height of the tropopause depends not only on the geographic latitude but
also on the season. The tropopause can always be found higher in summer
than in winter. Generally, in winter, air temperatures and atmospheric
pressures are lower than in summer, implying less air in the air column and
leading to a decrease in the height of the tropopause during winter. In
summer, higher air temperatures and atmospheric pressures imply more air in
the air column, which increases height of the tropopause. This means that
aircraft cross the tropopause more often during winter than summer.
1.1.3. Basic explanation of the

stratosphere
The stratosphere starts just above the tropopause. Above the tropopause, air
temperature remains (almost) constant, then starts to rise close to 0 °C until
reaching the stratopause. As discussed above, in normal conditions in the
troposphere, air temperature decreases as altitude increases. However, among
special atmospheric circumstances air temperature starts to increase with
altitude, causing a situation called an inversion. This leads to stable vertical
stratification. Stability in the atmosphere means that an air parcel which is
forced upward returns to its initial location. To summarise, in the stratosphere
air temperature increases as altitude increases; therefore, the stratosphere is
absolutely stable.
The biggest difference regarding the constituents of the air below and above
the tropopause is the amount of water vapour. The majority of water vapour
can be found in the troposphere because almost all weather processes take
place in that layer besides wind and turbulence. Vertical mixing in the
stratosphere is less intense than in the troposphere, but because of the
horizontal mixing processes the composition of the air is still uniform.
Remember that the stratosphere is also part of the homosphere.
Because of the seasonal and latitudinal variations of the tropopause, the lower
boundary of the stratosphere is at approx. 25 000 ft and 60 000 ft (ca. 8 km
and 18 km). The upper boundary of the stratosphere is the stratopause, which
can be found at an average height of approx. 164000 ft (ca. 50 km). Because
of the height variations of the tropopause, the vertical extent of the
stratosphere also depends on seasonal and latitudinal changes. (The latter can
be seen in the figure below.)
20
Stratosphere
Latitude
Figure 1.4. Vertical extent of the troposphere and the lower portion of the
stratosphere
The increasing air temperature in the stratosphere is the consequence of the

chemical reactions in the ozone layer where the majority of the ozone forms
and decomposes constantly at altitudes from approx. 65 600 ft (ca. 20 km) to
approx. 98400 ft (ca. 30 km). This means that the average volume fraction of
ozone is not constant in the homosphere. The ozone layer protects life forms
from ultraviolet radiation from the Sun (UV radiation), which is harmful to
cells. Ozone absorbs UV radiation, thereby transforming radiant energy into
kinetic energy of the ozone which in turn increases the air temperature.
Note: Temperature is proportional to the kinetic energy of moving particles.
The distribution of the stratospheric ozone varies not only in space but also in
time. It changes with the seasons; more precisely the amount of ozone
increases during winter and reaches its maximum value at the beginning of
spring. After that, the amount of ozone starts to decrease until its minimum
value at the beginning of autumn. It is worth mentioning that ozone can be
found not only in the stratosphere (called stratospheric ozone) but also in the
troposphere (called tropospheric ozone).
Only a small number of weather processes occur in the stratosphere, in

particular wind and turbulence, because the amount of water vapour is very
small.
1.1.4. Remarks on the Earth’s structure

and its atmosphere
The Earth’s atmospheric composition is the subject of atmospheric chemistry,
but it is also related to the Earth’s formation, in particular its chemical and
physical processes. Therefore, comprehensive chemical, physical and
biological knowledge is required to understand atmospheric process in details.
We try only to give a simple description without using difficult chemical or
physical equations.
Short overview of the formation of the Earth’s

atmosphere
The Solar System is believed to have been formed approx. 4.5 billion years ago
from interstellar clouds of dust and gas. Inner or terrestrial planets (Mercury,
Venus, Earth and Mars) are composed of chemical elements with large masses,
in particular carbon, silicon, nitrogen and iron, while outer or giant planets
(Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune) are primary composed of hydrogen and
helium which have the smallest masses of all the elements. Therefore, inner
planets have a core composed of metals (mainly nickel and iron), a mantle and
a crust which are primary made of silicate rocks. The mantle is an elastic layer
while the crust is the solid surface of the inner planet. The core can be divided
into solid and liquid parts (the inner and outer core). The structure of the Earth
can be seen in the figure below. The outer layer of the giant planets is made of
gas, so they lack a solid surface. Note that every inner planet has an
atmosphere; however, their compositions are different.
Figure 1.5. Structure of the Earth
Here we see the inner core, the outer core, the mantle and the crust of the
Earth. Note that the Earth has a radius of approx. 20 900 000 ft (6 378 km). In
geologic terminology, the crust and upper part of the mantle are called the
lithosphere and the lower part of the mantle is called the asthenosphere. As
we mentioned, below the lithosphere is the rigid surface of the planet Earth.
Earlier, the Earth’s current atmosphere was described. However, about 4

billion years ago the Earth’s atmosphere contained mainly carbon dioxide,
nitrogen and water vapour that had been trapped in the earth and were
released via outgassing and intense volcanic activity. At that time, the
temperature in the atmosphere was much higher than today. As described
above, at the present time the Earth’s atmosphere is 99.9 % a mixture of
nitrogen, oxygen and argon. This means that the atmosphere underwent a
major transformation on timescales of millions of years or greater. After the
Earth’s formation temperature decreased slowly, water vapour transformed
into water (condensation) and accumulated in the oceans. Atmospheric carbon
dioxide was dissolved in the oceans and formed sedimentary rocks. The
volume fraction of oxygen in the Earth’s atmosphere started to increase about
3 billion years ago through chemical and biological processes such as
photodissociation of water and photosynthesis. Photodissociation of water is
the process through which energy from sunlight splits water into its
components, leading to the release of oxygen. Photosynthesis is a process
where mainly plants convert energy from sunlight into chemical energy while
oxygen is released.
Every inner planet has an atmosphere, albeit they differ regarding

constituents. Mercury and Mars have thinner atmosphere than Earth and
Venus. For example, the current atmosphere of Venus shows similarities to the
Earth’s early atmosphere containing mainly carbon dioxide.
The Earth’s system

The Earth is considered a complex system, which means it can be divided into
subsystems in interaction with each other. The Earth has five major
subsystems, or spheres, namely the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the
cryosphere, the biosphere and the atmosphere. Earlier, the importance of the
current atmosphere to meteorology and aviation was explained.
Note that the word "sphere" derives from the Greek word sphaira, meaning
globe, not layer. Layer comes from the Greek word strato. However, we use
the word layer to explain the structure of the spheres surround the planet (see
the figure below). In that sense, the atmosphere is the layer of air that
surrounds the Earth. The lithosphere is the layer of rocks and minerals, the
solid surface of the Earth. The hydrosphere refers to liquid water above and
below the solid surface of the Earth, in particular oceans, lakes, rivers and
groundwater. The cryosphere is often distinguished from the hydrosphere. It is
the mass of ice on the Earth, including ice sheets, ice caps, glaciers etc. The
biosphere is composed of the Earth’s ecological systems with all its life forms.
Of course, the previously mentioned spheres can be divided into subspheres.
For example the atmosphere has five major layers. From ground to top these
the exosphere.
Figure 1.6. Earth’s spheres
The Earth is not only a complex but also a dynamic system; the structure and
the interactions of the previously listed spheres change on timescales of
millions of years. Therefore, information about the spheres helps us to
understand the processes in the atmosphere more precisely.
Let us focus on the atmosphere. As a consequence of the above mentioned,

components of the atmosphere can be characterised by the amount of time
that a component spends in the atmosphere after it was introduced, otherwise
known as their retention time. Removal processes can be chemical, physical or
biological. Permanent components have a retention time longer than ten
years. The main constituents of air such as nitrogen, oxygen, argon and other
noble gases belong to this group. This means that, for example, a unit of
oxygen that was introduced to the atmosphere via biological processes will
stay in the atmosphere for hundreds of years or longer. Variable components
like carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide, methane, ozone and
hydrogen stay in the atmosphere for weeks or years. Highly variable
components such as water vapour, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and
hydrogen sulfide are removed from the atmosphere after a couple of days.
From the meteorological perspective the most important highly variable
component is water vapour, which has a retention time of around ten days.
This means that the mass of water vapour in the atmosphere renews every
ten days. In other words, water vapour injected to the air transforms into
liquid water or ice and falls primary as rain or snow within ten days.
To demonstrate interactions between the spheres, the cycle of water will be

introduced (see the figure below). As previously explained, water vapour has a
major role in the atmosphere because of cloud and precipitation formation.
Due to physical processes such as evaporation and sublimation, water vapour
which was introduced into the atmosphere from the other spheres turns to
drops of water or ice crystals and then falls mainly as rain or snow to the
ground. It means that the water vapour is removed from the atmosphere and
introduced to the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere or the
biosphere. Liquid water can run off, infiltrate the ground or accumulate above
the ground, forming rivers and lakes. Water in its solid form can accumulate in
ice caps, ice sheets or glaciers of the cryosphere. Rivers, melted water from
the cryosphere and groundwater all ultimately flow into seas or oceans.
Finally, water is introduced to the atmosphere again.
Figure 1.7. The cycle of water
Atmospheric components with shorter retention times have a higher chance

to change in the atmosphere by volume than permanent constituents. The
volume fraction of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide have been
changing since the Industrial Revolution. For example, the volume of carbon
dioxide has increased by 40 % since the pre-industrial era due to fossil fuel
and land-use change emissions. In the figure below, the volume of
atmospheric carbon dioxide based on monthly data between March 1958 and
September 2017 can be seen. The data were collected at the Mauna Loa
Observatory in Hawaii. The volume of carbon dioxide has been rising since
measurements were first taken. However, seasonal variations are observable:
it is lower in winter than in summer because of the seasonal changes in
photosynthetic activity of plants. The measurements concerning atmospheric
carbon dioxide began under the supervision of American climate scientist
Charles David Keeling. The graph in the figure below is therefore called the
Keeling curve.
Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii (USA)
400-1
380 J
360 i
340 »
320^S/vWvV
300 4
1958 1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010 2014 2018
year
Figure 1.8. The Keeling curve
The fraction of atmospheric carbon dioxide reached the level of 400 ppm in
April 2014 for the first time at the Mauna Loa Observatory (red dashed line).
Note: Data are missing in June and October 1958, from February to April 1964, in
December 1975 and in April 1984.
The vertical extent of the atmosphere

As we stated before, the Earth’s atmosphere has a lower and an upper vertical
boundary. The lower vertical boundary could be the solid surface of the Earth.
However, ca. 71 % of the Earth’s surface is covered by oceans, or liquid water.
From this aspect, the surface of the oceans can be considered a solid surface
although exchanges between the atmosphere and the ocean are observable.
The upper boundary can be defined as the distance where the Earth’s
gravitational force decreases to the level when it cannot force an air parcel to
stay in orbit around the Earth. Therefore, the air parcel escapes from the
Earth’s atmosphere. The gravitational force is denoted by Fga. The air parcel is
moving on a circular trajectory around the Earth's axis. If we observe the
movement in a coordinate system fixed to the Sun (inertial reference frame)
then the circular motion is the consequence of the centripetal force which
originates from the Fga. Centripetal force is denoted by Fcp. To understand
the effects of forces, let us take a closer look at Fga and Fcp.
Consider two objects with a mass of mi and m2 where mi » m2 where mi is

in the center of the inertial reference frame. According to Newton's law of
universal gravitation, every object attracts every single other object by Fga
which points along the line intersecting both points. This physical law was
formulated by English mathematician and physicist Sir Isaac Newton. The
force exerted by the larger object with mass mi on the smaller object with
mass m2 can be described as:
(1.1)
]7 = x X
r ga 7 f2 A r
Where:
• mi is the mass [kg] of the first object

• m2 is the mass [kg] of the second object
• is the position vector between the centers of the two objects:
o if mi » m2 then points from the center of mi toward the center of m2

• r is the magnitude of 1?, the distance [m] between the centers of the two
objects
• 7 = 6.67 x 10'11 is the gravitational constant introduced by English

physicist and chemist Henry Cavendish
Gravitational force and all force-type measurements use the SI°° unit of
newton (abbreviated as N).
The magnitude of Fga will be denoted by Fga which is the following:

(1.2)
m1m2
Fga — 7 r2
Fcp always directs towards the center of the circular trajectory. The
magnitude of centripetal force (FCD) is the following:
(1.3)
Fcp = m2^
where v is the speed [/s] of the object moving on the circular trajectory and r
is the radius [m] of this trajectory. Assuming circular motion, v is calculated as
v = rcj, where tu = -^ is the angular velocity [1/s] of the circular motion and
T is the period of time for one rotation [s]. Substituting w into the formula of
the velocity:
(1.4)
r2z
T
Based on the above described formulas, the distance where the magnitude of
Fga is equal to Fcp can be calculated as follows.
Let mi be the Earth’s mass, approx. 6 x 1024 kg and m2 the mass of the air
parcels. We can calculate r, which is the distance between the Earth’s center
and the center of the air parcel if we describe the balance of the forces
regarding their magnitudes (Fga=Fcp):
mim2 v2
—r~
2 ~r Ym2
The mass m2 cannot be zero; therefore, we can divide both sides of the
equation above with it:
mi v2
7— = Y
Simplifying equation above with r:
mi 2
?Y = v
Substituting velocity Equation 1.4 into equation above:

mi r247r2
T2
Rearranging equation above:
7mxT2 3/ 7mxT2
3
=> r
4-7T2 V 4-7T2
The Earth's orbital period is approximately one day; therefore T = 24 h =

86400 s. The distance r can be calculated as follows:
/ 3
. / 6.67 x IO"11 — x 6 x 1024 kg x (86400 s)2
3/ kg s2
V 4 x 3.142
= 42311825 m = 42311.825 km
However, r is not the quantity in question because this is the distance

between the Earth’s center and the center of the air parcel. To get the altitude
of the air parcel above the Earth where Fga balances Fcp, the radius of Earth
(6378 km) should be subtracted from r. Therefore the altitude above the
Earth where Fga balances Fcp is:
42 311.825 km - 6 378 km = 35 933.825 km = 117893.127 ft
This is why the vertical extent of the atmosphere can be considered approx.
115 000 000 ft (ca. 35 000 km).
There are other definitions for the atmosphere’s upper vertical limit. For
example, one theoretical boundary of the atmosphere is the Karman line
(named after Hungarian-born American physicist and engineer Theodore von
Karman), found at the altitude of 330000 ft (100 km) where aerodynamic
force does not have significant role in the lifting of airplanes.
The vertical profile of the temperature

In Figure 1.1 the layers of the atmosphere were shown schematically based on
the vertical profile of air temperatures. Abrupt changes in temperature that
define for example the tropopause can be clearly seen in the figure below
which contains vertical profiles of air temperature based on temperature
datasets. As mentioned earlier, the height of the tropopause varies with the
seasons and geographical latitude. It is higher during summer and along lower
latitudes than during winter and at higher latitudes. Because of this, the height
of the stratopause and mesopause also vary but such changes do not have
significant effects on weather and aviation. Therefore, we have only presented
average values of height in Figure 1.1. In the figure below the geographical
and seasonal variations can be clearly seen. To demonstrate these changes,
the figure shows mean air temperature data concerning one winter month
(January 2016 in the Northern Hemisphere and July 2016 in the Southern
Hemisphere) (a-e) and one summer month (July 2016 i Hemisphere and
January 2016 in the Southern Hemisphere) (f-j) along the Equator (a, f), along
mid-latitude 45°S (b, g) and 45°N (c, h) furthermore over the Antarctic Circle
(d, i) and Arctic Circle (e, j).
equator mean vertical , . 45*$ mean vertical . 45*N mean vertical Antartic Circle mean . Antartic Circle mean
temperature profile D) temperature profile C) temperature profile Ci) vertical temperature C) vertical temperature
(2016 January) (2016 July) (2016 January) profile (2016 July) profile (2016 January)
temperature (°C)
temperature (°C)
Figure 1.9. Vertical profile of the temperature in January and June 2016
In mid-latitudes in winter, the tropopause has lower altitudes. Those altitudes

decrease as they move away from the Equator and have their minimum values
at the Poles. In the Southern Hemisphere, the seasonal temperature changes
are less noticeable close to the Earth's surface, which can be explained by the
balancing effect of the larger ocean surface. Above the Equator, seasonal
changes are negligible.
Note: Above the Equator the summer temperature is slightly lower for astronomical
reasons: the Earth is closer to the Sun in the winter of the Northern Hemisphere
(January).
The ionosphere and the Earth’s magnetosphere

We have to mention a special layer of the atmosphere, the ionosphere (iono
derived from ienai, Greek word for "to go"), where charged particles mainly
from the Sun (solar wind) interact with the constituents of the atmosphere.
This process is called ionisation. The ionosphere extends from the upper part
of the mesosphere to the exosphere. This process leads to different
atmospheric phenomena, for example polar lights. The Earth has a magnetic
field which surrounds the planet and is often called the magnetosphere
(magneto, Greek for "magnet"). Its lower portion can be considered a part of
the ionosphere. The magnetic field originates from the Earth’s rotating liquid
inner core, which is composed of melted metal and functions as a
"geodynamo". The magnetosphere protects the Earth from charged particles
released from the Sun and high energy radiation such as cosmic radiation
originating outside the Solar System.
Note: The intensity of the Earth's magnetosphere is unique among the inner
planets. The magnetic fields of the Mercury and Venus are weaker than the
magnetic field of the Earth, while Mars does not have a magnetosphere at all.
Figure 1.10. Interaction between solar wind and the Earth’s magnetosphere
STU DY TEST
1.2. Air temperature
1.2.1. Definition and units

To describe atmospheric processes, first the following physical quantities
should be introduced: temperature, pressure and density. Air temperature and
terms related to temperature will be described below.
Basic explanation of air temperature and its

measurement
Temperature is a physical quantity connected with the perception of heat,
which can be considered the flow of energy. Low temperature can be
experienced as cold and high temperature can be perceived as warm.
Temperature is proportional to the average kinetic energy of moving particles
in the material in question. This type of energy originates from the motion of
the particles in the material. For example, concerning air temperature, that
material is the air, and it can be measured on various levels above the ground.
In meteorology, air temperature near the surface - called near-surface
temperature - is usually the temperature measured at 2 m (ca. 6.6 ft) above
the ground. In connection with air temperature, the terms minimum, maximum
and mean temperature shall be introduced. Minimum (maximum) temperature
is the lowest (highest) value of the temperature measured during a given time
period (i.e. time domain) at a given location (i.e. at a measuring station or over
an area or spatial domain). Mean temperature is the average value of
temperature in a given time and spatial domain.
Temperature has a theoretic lower bound which means that it cannot

decrease below a certain limit called absolute zero. However, temperature
does not have an upper bound, implying that theoretically temperature can
rise infinitely.
The device used to measure temperature is called a thermometer. The

discipline concerned with the measurement of temperature is called
thermometry. The discipline of physics focused on temperature and heat and
their connection with energy is called thermodynamics.
Many different methods exist for measuring temperature, based on changes in

certain properties, in particular volume expansion or electrical properties.
To measure temperature, various scales of temperature have been established.

Nowadays, the Kelvin scale (for scientific purposes), the Celsius scale (mainly
in Europe) and the Fahrenheit scale (mainly in the United States of America)
are widely used. To define a scale of temperature reference points, defining
points have to be chosen. These can be related to the transformation of some
substance (such as water) from one state of matter to another under Earth’s
atmospheric conditions. Briefly, if the temperature of a material decreases to
the freezing point then it turns into solid. If the temperature of a material
increases to the boiling point, then it turns into gas.
The following scales of temperature are widely used to measure temperature.

On the Kelvin scale the null point is absolute zero. The International System of
Units (abbreviated as SI) base unit of temperature is kelvin (symbol: K). Note
that we do not use the word "degree" concerning the Kelvin scale. It is often
used for scientific purposes, mainly in thermodynamic calculations.
The Sl-derived unit of temperature is degree Celsius (symbol: °C). The Celsius
scale has two reference points. It is based on the freezing point of water (i.e.
the melting point of ice) and the boiling point of water at standard
atmospheric pressure, defined as 0 °C and 100 °C. The freezing point and
boiling point of water are 100 degrees apart which means that a degree on
the Celsius scale is 1/100 of the interval between the two reference points.
The Fahrenheit scale has two reference points, similar to the Celsius scale. The
unit of measurement is degree Fahrenheit (symbol: °F) which is not listed as an
SI unit. The reference points are the freezing point of water and the boiling
point of water at standard atmospheric pressure defined as 32 °F and 212 °F.
The two reference points are 180 degrees apart. Consequently, a degree on
the Fahrenheit scale is 1/180 of the interval between the two reference
points.
The following formulas can be used for conversions between the above
described scales of temperature. (See the figure below.)
Symbols T[K], T[°C] and T[°F] are temperatures measured in kelvin, degree of
Celsius and degree of Fahrenheit. One can easily calculate that the Celsius and
Fahrenheit scales have one common point: -40 °C equals to -40 °F.
Conversion Forward Backward
Kelvin scale -> Celsius scale T [K] = T [°C] + 273.15 T [°C] = T [K] - 273.15
Kelvin scale -> Fahrenheit scale T [K] = 5/9 x (T [°F] + 459.67) T [°F] = T [K] x 9/5 - 459.67
Celsius scale -> Fahrenheit scale T [°C] = 5/9 x (T [°F] - 32) T [°F] = T [°C] x 9/5 + 32
Note: Absolute zero (0 K) is equivalent to -273.15 °C which is equal to -459.67 °F.

In practical calculations 0 K is often rounded to -273 °C.
Figure 1.11. Conversions between Kelvin, Celsius and Fahrenheit scales
Further information about the units of temperature can be found in

Section 10.2.1.
Detailed explanation of air temperature and its

measurement
Air temperature is a physical quantity connected to the perception of heat in
the air. It is crucial to understand that heat is not equal to temperature. The
heat of a material is the kinetic energy coming from the movement of its
particles. Therefore, it is expressed by SI base units as (kg-m2)/s . The Sl-
derived unit of energy is the joule (symbol: J). Temperature is proportional to
the average kinetic energy of moving particles such as air parcels in the air. As
a consequence, temperature cannot be measured in a vacuum, which is space
without matter. Because of this, if the particles of a material do not move,
then the temperature of a material decreases to its minimal value, called
absolute zero. Therefore, a natural lower bound of temperature exists.
In physics, we can distinguish between intensive and extensive physical

quantities. Temperature, pressure and density are intensive quantities, while
mass and volume are extensive quantities. Intensive quantities do not depend
on the size of the system. If a system with a constant temperature is split in
two, then the temperature of the subsystems will be equal to the temperature
of the original system. In the other direction, if we assemble the two
subsystems into one system, then the latter will have the mean temperatures
of the two subsystems. On the contrary, extensive quantities depend on the
size of the system. For example, the mass of the original system is equal to the
sum of the masses of the subsystems (see the figure below).
subsystem with subsystem with

system with temperature Ti temperature T2
split in two
temperature T —► and mass m and mass m2
and mass m
where Ti = T where T2 = T
and rrii<m and m2< m
assemble system with

subsystem with subsystem with into one
temperature L + T? = T
temperature Ti temperature T2
2
and mass m, and mass m2
mass m, + m2 = m
Figure 1.12. Examples for intensive and extensive physical quantities
Because of the existence of a lower bound of temperature, the definition of an

absolute thermodynamic temperature scale was necessary. Scottish-Irish
physicist William Thomson (widely known as Lord Kelvin) proposed the Kelvin
scale in 1848. The null point of the scale is absolute zero (0 K). Another
reference point is the temperature 273.16 K where water co-exists in three
different states of matter (solid, liquid and gas).
Techniques measuring air temperature are based on the changes of some
properties of the material such as volume expansion or electrical resistance.
For example, in liquid thermometers (e.g. mercury thermometer and alcohol or
spirit thermometer) volumes of the liquids change with temperature. This
property of a material is called its thermal expansion. Another type of
thermometer is a bi-metal thermometer in which two types of metal with
different thermal expansion contact each other. Temperature is proportional
to the bending of the metals. At the present time, resistance thermometers (or
resistance temperature detectors, abbreviated as RTD) are the most
commonly used thermometers. Measurement of temperature is based on the
fact that changes in electrical resistance of pure metals (e.g. platinum, nickel,
and copper) are almost linearly proportional to the air temperature.
Liquid thermometers can measure only between the freezing and boiling
points of the chosen liquid. Therefore, the mercury thermometer can be used
between -37 °C and 356 °C. For meteorological purposes, it is used to
measure maximum temperatures. Alcohol thermometers cover lower ranges of
temperatures. Because of this, they are mainly used to measure minimum
temperatures. The exact values of the freezing and boiling points depend on
the type of alcohol which is used. Commonly ethanol is used. Its freezing point
is about -70 °C and its boiling point is about 80 °C. Despite the fact that liquid
thermometers are easy to use, they have several disadvantages. For example,
mercury is toxic, so using mercury thermometers can be dangerous to human
health, so its usage is restricted in the countries of the European Union.
Another disadvantage is the evaporation of liquids. Because of the above-
mentioned disadvantages, thermometers manufactured with solid, non-toxic
materials such as RTDs are widely used today. RTDs cover a wider
temperature range which is another advantage over liquid thermometers.
Those devices can measure temperature from -200 °C to hundreds of degrees
of Celsius, depending on the type of metals.
It is worth to mention that the Celsius scale was established almost a century
before the Kelvin scale. It was invented by Swedish physicist Anders Celsius in
1742. However, the scale was the reverse of the scale now commonly used:
the boiling point of water was 0 °C and the freezing point of water was
100 °C. The Fahrenheit scale is older than the Celsius scale. It was proposed
by Polish-born Dutch physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit in 1724.
Note: Fahrenheit also invented the mercury thermometer.
1.2.2. Vertical distribution of

temperature
In normal atmospheric conditions, air temperature decreases with height in
the troposphere until it reaches its upper boundary, the tropopause. However,
in some cases temperature increases with height, which is called inversion.
Incoming radiation from the Sun heats the Earth's surface more efficiently
than it heats the air, thus the greatest amount of heat accumulates on the
ground's surface. The surface then warms the air above it. As altitude
increases, the amount of transferred heat is reduced. Thus, in normal
conditions, the air temperature decreases with height. The mean temperature
near the surface is about 15 °C. The tropopause can be found between
approx. 25 000 ft and 60000 ft (ca. 8 km and 18 km) depending on seasonal
and latitudinal variations. At the top of the troposphere, the air decreases to
its average minimum temperature around -60 °C, but in extreme cases it can
reach -80 °C.
The altitude at which the temperature changes from positive to negative can
be important in aviation because when liquid water turns to solid it can cause
icing. This is called the 0 °C isotherm or zero degree isotherm. An isotherm is
a line on weather maps connecting points with the same temperature. It is
usually found over the poles around ground level. In mid-latitudes, the 0 °C
isotherm occurs between approx. 6 600 ft and 9 800 ft (ca. 2 km and 3 km),
while over the tropical region it can be found between approx. 16400 ft and
18000 ft (ca. 5 km and 5.5 km).
The top of the troposphere is indicated by a reverse in temperature change.

After an almost-constant isotherm layer, the temperature starts to increase
because of the constant formation and depletion of ozone. A maximum
temperature of almost 0 °C is found in the stratopause.
All of the above-mentioned values are average values, but of course the state
of the atmosphere is continuously changing in time and space. Air
temperature depends on latitude, seasonal changes, diurnal (daily) variations
and regional weather conditions.
1.2.3. Transfer of heat

Basic explanation of transfer of heat
If the Sun did not exist, then the distribution of the physical quantities in the
Earth’s atmosphere like air temperature, air pressure and density would be
constant. The Sun radiates uniformly in all direction into the Solar System;
therefore, a small part of the outgoing radiation of the Sun - in other words,
solar radiation - reaches the Earth. The incoming radiation to the surface of
Earth - which is called insolation - changes with geographical latitude. Solar
radiation can be considered heat energy, as it transfers heat from the Sun to
the Earth through outer space. Unequal heating (in other words, uneven
heating) of the Earth’s surface causes pressure differences in the air, leading to
the flow of air known as wind. Variations in the amount of heat originating
from the Sun can therefore be considered the primary source of all weather
processes. Not only the Sun but also the Earth emits radiation that is called
terrestrial radiation (terra, Latin for 'Earth'). Air temperature depends not only
on the amount of solar radiation but also on the atmospheric composition (in
particular the amount of greenhouse gases), the amount and type of clouds
and the type of surface.
Radiation and its above-mentioned forms such as solar radiation, insolation

and terrestrial radiation can be considered processes because they realise the
transfer of heat between the Earth and the Sun and between the surfaces of
the Earth and its atmosphere.
Heat is transferred via radiation from the Sun to the Earth’s surface. Primarily,
insolation can be considered the process via which the atmosphere is heated.
After insolation, the surface heats the atmosphere from the ground to the top
through the following processes: conduction, convection and condensation.
Note terrestrial radiation can be interpreted as both an atmospheric warming
and= cooling process, as emitted terrestrial radiation warms the lowest layer
of the atmosphere while radiation is also directed from the ground to the
outer space, taking energy away from the atmosphere and causing the Earth
to lose heat.
As we mentioned before, the transfer of heat occurs via condensation as well

during a process in which gaseous materials transforms into liquid. For solar
and terrestrial radiation, conduction and convection will be explained in detail.
The primary source of energy that heats the Earth’s atmosphere is incoming
solar radiation (insolation). Other much smaller sources are the dissolution of
radioactive particles in the Earth’s core and incoming cosmic rays from the
Universe.
A body with a temperature greater than 0 K (absolute zero) emits

electromagnetic radiation (abbreviated as EM radiation). Emittance occurs
when EM radiation leaves the body. EM radiation is considered radiant energy
and is therefore expressed in Joules (J). It can be described as the thermal
energy of the body. Via absorption, the energy carried by EM radiation is
transmitted to another body that takes in a portion of that energy.
It is important to note that in the following sections, radiation refers to not

only a process concerning the transfer of heat but also refers to the EM waves
that carry electromagnetic energy.
EM radiation consists of electromagnetic waves (abbreviated as EM waves).

EM waves are characterised by their speed of propagation and their
wavelength, which defines their frequency.
Note: EM waves travel through some kind of medium (e.g. air, water) and the speed
of propagation depends on the density of the medium. If EM waves travel through
vacuum, then they propagate at the speed of light (ca. 300000 km/s). Waves such
as EM waves have periods in the time and spatial domains which means that there
is a distinct time interval and distance until the wave's shape starts to repeat.
Frequency is expressed by the time period which is given in SI base units of 1/s or
SI derived units of Hertz (Hz). Wavelength is expressed in the SI units of m.
The most important relationships between energy, wavelength and frequency

are the following:
1. Wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency.
2. Wavelength is inversely proportional to the emitted radiant energy of

the body, and is therefore proportional to the frequency.
There are several types of EM waves. In descending order of energy and

frequency and ascending order of wavelength they are: gamma rays, X-rays,
ultraviolet rays (abbreviated as UV), visible light (often called sunlight), infrared
light (abbreviated as IR) and radio waves (in particular microwave, longwave,
mediumwave and shortwave). The electromagnetic spectrum (abbreviated as
EM spectrum) consists of the previously listed waves. Because EM radiation is
emitted by the Sun, the Sun (and every star in the Universe) has an EM
spectrum (see the figure below).
energy increases
short wavelength long wavelength
high frequency low frequency
10J‘Hz 10" Hz 10" Hz 1O'*Hz 1O‘Hz 10*Hz 10*'Hz 10°Hz 10*Hz 10‘Hz 10*Hz 10*Hz
7x10*Hz 4x10*Hz
Figure 1.13. The Sun’s EM spectrum
Solar radiation decreases as frequency decreases and wavelength increases.

Note that among visible light waves, yellow always carries a greater amounts
of energy than red. Because of this, sunlight feels much "stronger" at noon
than at sunset.
The largest amount of solar radiation can be measured at the upper boundary
of the atmosphere. The surface of the Earth receives a much smaller amount
of energy because of transmittance, the filtering effect of the atmosphere.
High (low) values of transmittance indicate that atmospheric constituents
absorb small (large) amounts of radiation. Its values vary between 0 and 1 (or
can be expressed in percentage). In other words, transmittance is a
measurement of the transparency of the atmosphere. The band of
wavelengths where transmittance is almost 1 is called the atmospheric
window, where incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial radiation
penetrate the atmosphere without any obstacles.
The atmosphere completely filters out solar radiation with high energy such as
gamma rays and X-rays, as well as waves with low energy such as longwave,
mediumwave and shortwave radio waves. Atmospheric gases including
oxygen, carbon dioxide, ozone and water vapour absorb EM waves with
certain wavelengths. For example, nitrogen, oxygen and ozone absorb EM
waves in ultraviolet. In particular, water vapour, carbon dioxide and ozone
have absorption bands in visible and infrared light (A summary of absorption
regions can be seen on Figure 1.14.). The atmosphere is completely
transparent to visible light.
The emitted energy depends only on the temperature of the body: the higher
the temperature, the shorter the wavelength of the EM wave. At the centre of
the Sun, temperatures exceed 10 million K, and due to the processes in the
Sun such as radiation, convection and conduction, its surface has a
temperature of ca. 6000 K. The surface of Earth has a mean temperature of
about 15 °C (ca. 288 K), causing it to emit radiant energy, called terrestrial
radiation. The Earth emits EM longwaves in the range of infrared light with a
maximum wavelength of about 10 pm.
Remember that as temperature (and hence the amount of energy) decreases,

the wavelength of the radiation increases. Because the surface of the Sun has
a much higher temperature than the surface of Earth, the wavelengths of the
EM waves emitted from the Sun are shorter. A majority of the Sun's energy is
carried by shortwave radiation in the range of 0.01 pm and 4 pm. This means
that the most intense radiation reaches the Earth in the range of visible light,
while Earth emits mainly longwave infrared radiation with the highest
intensity.
MORE INFO L"
In the figure below, we can see that the atmosphere is characterised by high
transmittance values around 10 pm. The atmospheric window can be found
around that wavelength.
Atmospheric components absorb some fraction of emitted terrestrial radiation.
However, if the amount of variable and highly variable atmospheric gases
increases, in particular the amounts of water vapour and carbon dioxide, then a
larger fraction of emitted terrestrial radiation will be absorbed by water vapour
and carbon dioxide particles and then re-radiated uniformly in all directions. This
means that a fraction of the radiation will be re-radiated in the direction of the
Earth’s surface. Because of this the air temperature near the surface increases.
This process is called greenhouse effect and its drivers are greenhouse gases
(abbreviated as GHG). Due to the greenhouse effect, near-surface air temperature
has an average value of about 15 °C. Without the greenhouse effect, the
temperature would be about -18 °C. The greenhouse effect can be caused by
natural processes, like after a rainy day when rain evaporates from the ground into
the air, or by anthropogenic processes, as is the case with the increasing amount
of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere.
wavelength (pm)
Figure 1.14. Absorption bands in the atmosphere
In the figure, absorption wavelengths of oxygen (denoted by O2), ozone (O3),

water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) can be seen.
After incoming solar radiation reaches the Earth’s surface, it transforms into
the heat energy of the air parcels directly above the ground. This means that
the Sun does not heat the air directly. According to the figure above, there are
broad regions where EM waves from the Sun can reach the surface without
significant obstacles. The surface releases solar radiation in the form of EM
longwaves which heat the air indirectly. Then, heat is transferred to higher
layers in the atmosphere. Because of this, the highest temperature is to be
found in the layer which contracts the surface. In normal conditions,
temperature decreases as altitude increases until the tropopause.
The incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial radiation interacts with
clouds in the Earth’s atmosphere. Clouds can reflect, scatter and absorb solar
radiation. Reflection is the returning of radiation that reached a surface.
Scattering means that emitted radiation deviates from its original paths. The
amount of incoming radiation is equal to the amount that is returned or
scattered .
Note: A fraction of the EM waves absorbed by clouds will reach the surface after
the clouds re-radiate them.
To simplify, one part of solar radiation is reflected and scattered by clouds and
the Earth’s surface, one part is absorbed by the ozone layer and the majority is
absorbed by the Earth’s surface.
Incoming radiation
Figure 1.15. Reflection, scattering, absorption and emittance of radiation
Transfer of heat can also be realised by the process of conduction. This means
that heat travels between the particles of the material in question via collision
For example, conduction can be observed in the wall of a ceramic stove. The
two objects, stove and surrounding air, are contacted; therefore, heat
transfers from the latter to the former. In the atmosphere, the surface of the
Earth and the atmosphere are in contact. During the day, the air is warmed by
the ground via conduction. At night, the surface cools faster than the air.
Because of this, conduction cools the air from the ground to higher levels of
the atmosphere, leading to inversion.
Convection is a vertically directed process of heat transfer in a material with a

gas or liquid state of matter. For example, convection can be seen in a cooking
pot filled by water on a hotplate. When it starts to warm, bubbles appear near
the bottom of the pot. They are less dense than their environment, so they
start to rise and transfer heat from the bottom to the top. In the atmosphere,
this process occurs frequently during summer when convective clouds form.
Convective clouds have major role in transferring heat from the surface to
higher levels of the atmosphere.
Convection is associated with unstable atmospheric conditions, since

temperatures increase as the altitude increases. In other words, atmospheric
stability means that if an air parcel is forced to rise then it returns to its first
location. On the contrary, atmospheric instability means that if an air parcel is
forced to rise then it will continue to rise after the force is removed.
Advection can be considered the horizontal motion of air. More precisely, it is

an exchange by the motion of a mass by which air is displaced. Physical
quantities characterising it such as heat are also displaced with the air. From
the meteorological point of view, advection is the horizontal transport of heat
via large-scale atmospheric motions, while convection describes mainly
locally-induced vertical motions. For example, advection can be observed
when a cold air mass flows into a region with a warm air mass.
Turbulent heat transfer (or sensible heat flux) is a type of heat exchange in
which the temperature of a system changes, but other conditions such as
volume or pressure remains unchanged. In a turbulent flow, the heat exchange
is enhanced by the complexity of motions within it. The opposite of a
turbulent flow is a laminar flow in which the substance flows in smooth layers.
In a turbulent flow, more particles can interact with each other and so the
exchange is more efficient than in laminar flow. A turbulent flow is a quickly
changing air flow with small scale vortices in which the speed of the flow
changes continuously in both magnitude and direction. A vortex is the flow of
air which revolves around a horizontally or vertically directed axis. The
development of turbulent flows depends on the ratio of frictional forces to
inertial forces close to the surface. Surface friction and thermal effects cause
turbulence in the friction layer where frictional force cannot be considered
negligible. In other words, it has a significant effect on the movement of the
air. The friction layer is sometimes called the turbulent layer because of the
turbulent mixing typical in it. It can be found in the lowest part of the
troposphere. The thickness of this layer changes over time. During the day ,
convective motions help to increase its thickness to the rage of 3 300 ft and
6 600 ft (ca. 1 km and 2 km), and at night it decreases to a few hundred feet. In
this case, heat exchange happens by interaction of two air masses with
different temperature.
Latent heat transfer is a heat exchange without change in the temperature of

the substance. Latent heat is a "hidden" thermal energy which is commonly
present when the material changes its state of matter, as when ice turns to
water through melting. In the previous cases, heat transfer is always
associated with temperature change in the air without changing its state of
matter; these transfers altogether are called sensible heat transfers. Latent
heat can be absorbed or released depending on the type of changes in the
state of the matter. For example, when gas (liquid) turns to liquid (gas), latent
heat is released (absorbed). When a solid material like ice turns into liquid,
latent heat is absorbed, and vice versa.
A summary of the radiative phenomena in the Earth’s atmosphere and their

influence can be seen in the figure below.
Figure 1.16. The energy balance
Note: Values on the figure are given in percentage.
In summary, incoming solar radiation can be absorbed by the Earth’s surface

(land and oceans) and liquid and gas particles of the atmosphere. A large
fraction of solar radiation (almost 50 % of it) is absorbed by the ground.
Another major part is absorbed by water vapor and solid particles in the air.
Solar radiation can be reflected and scattered by different particles in the air,
such as particles in clouds. Outgoing emitted terrestrial radiation can also be
absorbed (and re-emitted), reflected and scattered in the atmosphere.
Remarks on transfer of heat through radiation

The transfer of heat carried by EM waves is realised through the following
processes: radiation, conduction, convection and condensation. The
examinations of those processes are the subject of atmospheric physics.
Terms concerning radiation such as absorption, emittance, transmittance and

reflection were described before but we intend to explain them more precisely
here. A body with a temperature other than 0 K emits EM radiation, which is
characterised by radiation properties. Those are the followings:
• Absorptivity
• Emissivity
• Transmissivity
• Reflectivity
Absorptivity (denoted by a) is the fraction of radiation that can be absorbed

by a surface. Emissivity (denoted by s) is the fraction of radiation emitted by a
surface. Reflectivity (denoted by p) is the fraction of radiation that can be
reflected by a surface. Transmissivity (denoted by t) is the fraction of radiance
transmitted by a surface. The values of the previously described measures
vary between 0 and 1 (or can be expressed in a percentage).
To describe the above-mentioned radiation properties, the concept of a

blackbody is introduced. A blackbody is a fictional body that absorbs and
emits all electromagnetic radiation, where a=l and e=l. According to
Kirchhoff’s law, established by German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, the
ratio of absorptivity and emissivity in any object is constant for a given
temperature and wavelength. Consequently, the ratio concerning the
blackbody is 1. Typically a good absorber is also a good emitter.
According to the law on the conservation of energy, energy can only

transform from one form to another, but it cannot be destroyed or created.
Therefore the sum of absorption, reflection and transmittance is 1 (100 %):
a + g + t = 1
For example, in the case of the blackbody, a=l, p=0 and t=0, while in the case
of a perfect atmospheric window, a=0, p=0 and t=1.
The emitted radiation by a blackbody depends on the wavelength, described

by a function based on Planck’s law, established by German physicist Max
Planck. According to the figure below, at a given temperature the curve
always has the same shape and the curves never cross each other.
Furthermore:
a. As the temperature increases, the total amount of emitted radiance

increases (as the area under the curve increases).
b. The peak of each curve displaces to the left as temperature increases.

This means that the peak emission wavelength decreases as
temperature increases.
Figure 1.17. Distribution of radiation emitted by a blackbody based on

wavelength
On the x axis, wavelength is expressed in nanometres (abbreviated as nm,

1 nm = 10'9 m). Along the y axis, irradiance is shown as energy reaching unit
area per unit time. Therefore, it is given in the SI derived unit of J/(m2s) which
is equal to W/m2.
Note: Watt (abbreviated as W) is the energy per unit time (1 W is equal to 1 J/s;
therefore, 1 kW is equal to 1 kJ/s).
The previously mentioned relationships are established by the following
physical laws. In connection with (a), according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law,
formulated by Slovene physicist Josef Stefan and Austrian physicist Ludwig
Boltzmann, the emitted energy (denoted by E) is proportional to the fourth
power of the temperature (denoted by T):
E = <zT4
where <7 = 5.672 x 10'8 W/m2K4 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
The relationship stated in (b) is described by Wien’s displacement law,

established by German physicist Wilhelm Wien. The peak emission
wavelength (denoted by Xmax) can be calculated using the following formula:
(1.5)
/A'max —
— —
t
where b = 2 900 pmK is Wien’s displacement constant. Therefore, Xmax is

expressed in micrometres (abbreviated as pm, 1 pm = 10'6 m).
solar radiation
250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500
wavelength (nm)
Figure 1.18. Distribution of solar radiation based on wavelength
On the y axis, irradiance is expressed as energy reaching a unit area per unit
time per one nm. Its SI derived unit is W/(m2nm). The yellow-shaded area
refers to the emitted radiation by the Sun at the top of the atmosphere, while
the red-shaded area is the solar radiance reaching the surface of the Earth at
sea level. The latter is smaller than the former, because of the absorptivity and
reflectivity of atmospheric components and clouds, such as absorption bands
of the atmospheric gases. The black curve refers to a theoretical case: it is the
emitted radiation of the blackbody with the temperature of 5 400 K.
As we mentioned before, the Sun emits radiation with a maximum intensity in

the range of visible light, and the Earth emits radiation in the range of IR (long
wave EM wave) at about 10 pm. Let us calculate wavelength with maximum
intensities (denoted by Xmax Sun and Amax Earth) using the formula mentioned
above that follows Wien’s displacement law. The average surface temperature
of the Sun is about 6 000 K and the average temperature near the surface of
the Earth is 288 K. Therefore:
■» 2900 /jmK
Amax, Sun - 6000 K ~ 0* 48
. _ 2900 ^mK _
A max, Earth 288 K 10. 07
Radiation differs from the other processes that facilitate the transfer of heat in
the following sense: the transfer of heat through radiation does not require
any matter (in other words, medium) in which the EM waves propagate, while
conduction, convection and condensation can be implemented only in some
kind of matter. This means that radiation can be observed not only in the
Earth’s atmosphere but also in a vacuum, which is necessary for the transfer of
heat from the Sun to the Earth through outer space.
1.2.4. Lapse rates

As a result of the characteristics of atmospheric heat transfers, the change of
the temperature with altitude, known as the temperature lapse rate, can be
described as follows. Because of the larger solar radiation absorption rate on
the ground's surface, the highest amount of heat accumulates near the surface
and results in a decreasing temperature lapse rate.
The mean temperature lapse rate in the troposphere is -1.98 °C/1000 ft

(-0.65 °C/100 m) according to the International Standard Atmosphere
(abbreviated as ISA). The following values are in accordance with the ISA and
are valid in dry air. This means that under normal conditions, air temperature
decreases as height increases. This value is only true until the tropopause
(until about 36090 ft or 11 km) where it reaches its minimum temperature of
-56.5 °C.
However, under certain circumstances, lapse rate temporarily begins

increasing in a given layer. This atmospheric situation is called inversion.
According to the WMO, the tropopause can be defined as the layer in which
the lapse rate (in absolute value) decreases to 2 °C/km or less and the average
lapse rate does not exceed 2 °C/km over a vertical range of 2 km. In other
words, the tropopause occurs where the temperature change does not exceed
two-thirds of one degree Celsius per thousand feet increase in altitude over a
vertical range of 6000 ft.
At the tropopause and in the lower stratosphere, air temperatures remain

almost constant up to the height of approx. 65 000 ft (ca. 20 km). In the
stratosphere, air temperatures increase as altitude increases with a lapse rate
of 0.3 °C/1000 ft (0.1 °C/100 m) up to the level of approx. 105 000 ft (ca.
32 km). The amount of ozone is greatest in the lower stratosphere, which
forms the ozone layer (at about 65 600 ft or 20 km to approx. 98 400 ft or
30 km). It absorbs large amounts of solar radiation in the range of ultraviolet
light and converts it into the kinetic energy of the ozone particles. Thus, the
lapse rate above the tropopause increases until the stratopause, which can be
found at the height of approx. 164000 ft (ca. 50 km).
1.2.5. Development of inversions, types

of inversions
Basic explanation of the characteristics of
temperature inversion
Inversion develops when the lapse rate of the air temperature differs from
normal conditions in which temperature increases with height in a given layer.
In other words, inversion means that air temperature increases as altitude
increases. According to the ISA, the temperature in the troposphere decreases
as height increases with a lapse rate of -1.98 °C/1000 ft (-0.65 °C/100 m).
The layer in which inversion occurs is called the inversion layer. A schematic
of the lapse rate concerning normal conditions and inversion can be found in
the figure below.
Typical temperature profile Inversion temperature profile
Air temperature Air temperature
Figure 1.19. Profile of air temperature
A schematic of the air temperature changing with height concerning normal

conditions and inversion.
Inversion is an absolutely stable situation, which means that if an air parcel is

forced to rise it returns to its first location. Because of this lack of vertical
motion, inversion increases air pollution as stability does not allow the mixing
of air. In bigger cities, strong and permanent inversions can cause smog
situations. Smog is compiled from the words smoke and fog. An inversion
layer can start from the ground, while in other cases it can occur in a higher
atmospheric layer. An inversion layer can be dissolved by an increased amount
of solar radiation and strong wind.
Basic explanation of the types of inversion

Radiation inversion develops during cold winter nights with clear skies and
calm or very light wind. Dry air above the surface can let the long-wave
radiation leave the atmosphere at night (called nocturnal radiation), allowing
the surface and air near the surface to cool. This situation can lead to the
formation of fog near the ground. The presence of clouds can slow down or
prevent this process.
From the perspective of aviation, it is important to be aware of an existing

inversion near the surface because visibility can be decreased by pollution or
fog. It is important to know that thrust increases with decreasing
temperatures, thus while descending in an aircraft in an inversion layer, thrust
can increase close to the ground.
Radiation inversion on 21st November 2011,

Budapest Hungary
Temperature [°C]
Figure 1.20. Vertical temperature profile concerning an inversion situation in

Budapest (Hungary) on 21st November 2011
When the Sun starts to heat the surface, the inversion layer begins to rise
from the ground level. The surface heats the air above the ground in the
friction layer, and convection helps to mix the air. Above the friction layer,
cold and dry air can be found. Its temperature increases as altitude increases.
The density of the colder air is greater than that of warmer air, causing stable
stratification in the atmosphere. Under these circumstances convection is
prevented, and therefore mixing of the air parcels with different temperature
is limited. Only strong convection can penetrate into this layer.
Valley inversion occurs when dense, cold air flows down a slope into a valley
at night where it starts to accumulate. During the day, a light wind carrying
warmer air with lower density will blowin above the cold air, thus avoiding the
mixing of air parcels with different temperatures. Therefore, it cannot
interrupt the valley inversion, so the cold air remains in the bottom of the
valley until strong wind or strong insolation dissolve it.
Subsidence inversion is a type of inversion which develops in high pressure

systems (also called anticyclones or simply a HIGH) generally with a height
between 3000 ft and 10000 ft (ca. 900 m and ca. 3 050 m). The exact value
depends on the intensity of the HIGH. In anticyclones, the convergence of air
mass at high levels and divergence on lower levels can be seen, which results
in descending air. Sinking air is warmed by adiabatic compression and an
inversion layer develops where the sinking is the strongest.
Coastal inversion (in other words, advection inversion) develops at night when
warmer air above the surface of sea or ocean is flowing over the coast. The
surface of the coast has a lower specific heat than water, hence the former is
colder than the latter and an inversion layer develops.
Frontal inversion occurs when a cold front near the surface moves faster than
in higher levels and wedges itself under the warmer air mass creating an
inversion.
In winter, every type of inversion can lead to freezing rain if warmer air
contains the liquid form of precipitation above the inversion layer, which then
falls through the colder air with temperatures under 0 °C.
Cold air pool occurs when the fog created by radiation inversion cannot break
up in the day and lasts for days or weeks. This is common in valleys and basins
in winter (for example, in the Carpathian Basin). For a termination of a cold air
pool, an intense cold front or the advection of warm air is required. (An
example can be found in the figure below).
Figure 1.21. Cold air pool in Budapest (Hungary), created by radiation

inversion on 28 December 2015
The above-mentioned types of inversion are typical in the troposphere, but

inversion can also commonly be found in the stratosphere where air
temperature increases. Therefore, the tropopause, where the air temperature
is almost constant, can be considered to be the lowest altitude for an
inversion layer. This layer is called the tropopause inversion layer.
1.2.6. Temperature near the Earth’s

surface, surface effects, diurnal and
seasonal variation, effects of clouds,
effects of wind
Basic explanation of diurnal and seasonal
variation
Intensity of solar radiation changes on the surface of the Earth; that is, the
Earth is heated by the Sun unevenly due to astronomical, geographical and
physical reasons. Consequently, air temperature also varies in the atmosphere.
Earth has two important types of motions:
1. It rotates on its own axis.
2. It revolves around the Sun in a nearly circular orbit, called the plane of
the ecliptic, or just the ecliptic. It is parallel to the equatorial plane of the
Sun.
One revolution on its axis takes the Earth one day (about 24 hours) and one
full revolution around the Sun lasts one year (approx. 365 days).
The Earth’s rotation on its axis leads to diurnal variations of air temperature,
while the Earth’s revolution around the Sun causes seasonal variations in air
temperature.
First, seasonal changes in air temperatures will be explained. The Earth’s axis
always points in almost the same direction as it moves around the Sun.
However, the elevation of the Sun (or altitude of the Sun) over a certain (fixed)
point of the Earth's surface changes from day to day because the Earth’s
rotation axis is not perpendicular to the ecliptic (see the figure below). As a
result, a different part of the Earth’s surface is always receiving the largest
amount of solar radiation during the year, which leads to the changing of
seasons and seasonal variations of air temperature.
Note: The altitude of the Sun varies with geographic latitude as well, because of
the nearly-spheroid shape of the Earth. The angle of incidence of the Sun on the
surface of the Earth decreases as the latitude increases (see Figure 1.23).
There are four notable turning points of the year, namely the summer and
winter solstices, and the spring (or vernal) and autumn equinoxes. The summer
(winter) solstice occurs when the elevation of the Sun is the highest (lowest).
During the summer (winter) solstice, days (nights) are the longest of the year.
The equinoxes occur twice a year when day and night have the same length
(aequinoctium, Latin for 'equal night1). After the spring (autumn) equinox, the
length of days (nights) increases (decreases). Notable turning points are shown
in the figure below.
23.5’ Spin axis

perpc
ec
Equator
Spring (vernal) equinox

20st March
Sun over the equator
Ecliptic \
Summer solstice
Winter solstice
21ItJune
21” December
Sun over 23.5’N
Sun over 23.5’S
(Tropic of cancer)
(Tropic of capricorn)
Earth s
Autumn equinox
23,d September
Sun over the equator
Figure 1.22. Earth’s orbit around the Sun
Regarding the Northern Hemisphere, summer and winter solstices occur

around June 21 and December 21, while spring and autumn equinoxes occur
around March 20 and September 23, respectively. Note that in the Southern
Hemisphere, the seasons of the solstices and equinoxes are reversed.
Note: The orbit of the Earth is not so elongated. It is closer to a perfect circle.
Figure 1.23. Angle of incidence of the Sun
As latitude increases, the area of nsolated surface increases. Therefore, the

amount of heat is less over higher latitudes compared to lower latitudes. Note
that when the Sun is directly overhead at noon in a given latitude, it is called
overhead Sun. During the Northern Hemisphere’s summer (winter) solstice,
overhead Sun is on the Tropic of Cancer (Tropic of Capricorn). Overhead Sun
occurs twice a year at the Equator.
The elevation of the Sun, and therefore the duration of the insolation,
depends on the changing of seasons. The amount of incoming solar radiation
increases as the elevation of the Sun increases above any point of the Earth's
surface. A sketch of the elevation of the Sun over mid-latitudes can be seen in
the figure below.
5d/j/1>3 un iim East an iha
wtosafaiEa Sun/baaniijawiunMwJ
mid ’Jamul d'julnvzds
Figure 1.24. Elevation of the Sun (or the path of the Sun in the sky) over mid
latitudes
The point of zenith (nadir) is the overhead point of the sky in the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere.
To simplify the above-mentioned concept, the amount of incoming solar

radiation depends on the time duration of the insolation absorbed by the
Earth and the elevation of the Sun.
The air temperature above the surface is affected by two main factors: heat
capacity and colour of the surface. Heat absorption and emission by a surface
can be characterised by the physical quantity of heat capacity. It is the amount
of heat that is required to increase the temperature of a substance by 1 °C.
The heat capacity of a unit mass of a substance is called its specific heat
capacity (henceforth: specific heat). Surfaces with faster (slower) warming and
cooling processes have lower (higher) specific heats.
Let us consider some examples. In general, land surfaces have lower specific
heat than sea surfaces. This means that sea surfaces warm and cool more
slowly than land surfaces. As a consequence of the higher specific heat, air
temperature is higher over sea surfaces than land surfaces during the winter
and lower during the summer, because sea surfaces do not have enough time
to warm up and cool down the way land surfaces do. Because of this, on a
diurnal and seasonal timescale, air temperature varies at a lower rate over sea
surfaces than land surfaces.
Note: This does not contradict the following:
1. During insolation, at a given point in time, surfaces with lower (higher)

specific heat are warmer (colder) than surfaces with higher specific heat.
2. At night, at a given point in time, surfaces with lower (higher) specific heat
are colder (warmer) than surfaces with higher specific heat.
Another example is surfaces covered by vegetation (e.g. grass or forest), which

have higher specific heats than surfaces covered by dry soil. Consequently,
assuming equal amount of insolation, grass surfaces will never be as hot as
surfaces covered by sand. Another example is surfaces covered by rainforest
in a tropical country that have higher specific heat capacities than desert areas
at higher latitudes. From this aspect, diurnal and seasonal variation of air
temperature can be considered lowest in tropical countries (assumed that
tropical regions are the wettest and hottest regions of the Earth). Note that
specific heat varies with the amount of water in the material; therefore, dry
and wet grass or soil have different specific heats, and the specific heat of
concrete can be lower or higher than grass. Some typical values of specific
heat are listed in the following table.
Regarding surface colour, lighter surfaces reflect larger amounts of heat

carried by incoming solar radiation than darker surfaces, while darker surfaces
absorb larger amounts of heat. In general, natural (not man-made) surfaces
containing water have higher heat capacities and darker colours than drier
surfaces.
Because of the Earth’s rotation, days and nights follow each other. Generally,
diurnal variation of the air temperature can be described as follows. Let us
assume a clear sky and calm wind. Solar radiation reaches the Earth after the
Sun rises. The amount of insolation rises until local noon (12 p.m.) when the
elevation of the Sun is the highest. In general, air temperature rises with
increasing elevation of the Sun. Because of the thermal inertia in the
atmosphere, the air temperature starts to increase after sunrise with some
delay and reaches its maximum value after local noon, between 2 p.m. and
4 p.m. (see figure below). Then, the air temperature starts to decrease and
speeds up after sunset. The minimum temperature is reached half an hour
after sunrise. The previously established conditions of a clear sky and calm
wind imply that the temperature of the air contacting the Earth's surface is
lower than the temperature of the atmosphere just above it, which leads to
inversion.
sunrise sunset
Figure 1.25. Diurnal variation of air temperature
Note: Among others, humidity of the air, clouds, wind, vegetation and orography
have major influences on the diurnal variation of air temperature.
Concerning the influence of clouds on air temperature, reflection and
absorption can be examined. Darker surfaces absorb larger amounts of heat
than lighter surfaces. Therefore, the former reflects smaller amount of heat
than the latter.
As a consequence, white-shaded clouds (e.g. cirrus, cirrocumulus) reflect more

energy than the grey-shaded ones (e.g. nimbostratus, cumulonimbus - for
more information see this Section 4.1.2). It worth mentioning that clouds
consisting mainly of ice particles are lighter and clouds with higher amounts of
liquid water are darker. Depending on their composition, clouds can reflect up
to 90 % of incoming solar radiation.
Like wind and the amount of liquid water in a material, clouds also contribute
to a decreasing diurnal variation of air temperature. From this aspect, the
thickness of a cloud is crucial. The thicker a cloud is, the darker the colour in
its lower section, because of the increased amount of water droplets there. In
the day, thicker clouds cools the surface of the Earth because they reflect
larger amounts of incoming solar radiation. Note that the upper parts of those
clouds, which receive incoming solar radiation, are white because of ice
particles. Increased reflectivity means that smaller amounts of solar radiation
reach the surface of the ground, causing near-surface air temperatures to
increase more slowly. However, at night, thicker clouds can contribute to the
warming of the surface of the Earth. They can serve as "boundaries" which
prevent terrestrial radiation from leaving the atmosphere and reaching outer
space. After absorbing terrestrial radiation, cloud particles re-radiate them
uniformly in all directions, a part of which reaches the surface of the ground.
Therefore, air temperatures decrease more slowly.
The ratio of liquid water to ice is greater in lower clouds than in higher clouds,
so the former absorbs more heat than the latter. In other words, high clouds
reflect more radiation than low clouds. Thin clouds can be found at various
altitudes. The amount of ice particles increases as height increases; therefore,
a thin cloud at a lower altitude can be a better absorber than a thin cloud at a
higher altitude. Thick clouds are often convective clouds. Because of its large
vertical dimensions, the ratio of liquid water to ice is greater in the lower
portion of a thick cloud than closer to its top. As a result, outgoing longwave
radiation can be absorbed by the lower part of the cloud while incoming solar
radiation can be reflected off the top.
Regarding wind, two main effects are described on the cooling and warming of
the air near the Earth's surface. First, wind turbulently mixes colder air just
above the surface with warmer air. Therefore, wind can decrease the diurnal
variation of the air temperature. Second, wind increases temperature
differences between the surface and the air near the surface because of the
following reason. Let us assume a surface with a constant temperature. If the
wind is calm then a certain amount of heat transfers vertically from the
surface to the air. However, if the wind is blowing, which is the horizontal
movement of the air, then heat is also flowing horizontally. Therefore, a
smaller amount of heat can be transferred vertically from the surface to the
air.
Humidity can also start to evaporate from the Earth's surface, which
decreases the diurnal variation of the air temperature because of the
following. During the day, evaporation cools the air, so the volume fraction of
water vapour in the air increases. During the night, increased levels of water
vapour re-radiate a part of the terrestrial radiation, which slows down the
cooling of the air. (Remember that water vapour is a GHG.)
Furthermore, because of their higher specific heats, surfaces that contain

humidity warm slower than drier surfaces, causing the maximum temperature
of the air above them to be lower than the air above drier surfaces. Similar
processes can be observed above surfaces covered by vegetation. Plants
contain water, which means that surfaces covered with vegetation transpire
and warm more slowly due to their higher specific heats. Along mid-latitudes,
plants lose all of their leaves during autumn and winter, so the above-
mentioned varies not only on a diurnal but also on a seasonal timescale.
Note: In the case of plants, evaporation is called transpiration
Diurnal variation decreases above surfaces with high specific heats such as
humid surfaces. For example, sea water has a high specific heat, so air
temperatures over sea surfaces vary little during the day. The greatest diurnal
variations of air temperature can be observed above desert areas at high
altitudes for the following reasons. First, deserts consist of sand, which has a
low specific heat capacity; therefore, its temperatures change very fast. (In
other words, sand is a poor conductor in the thermal sense.) Second, air above
high altitudes contains smaller amounts of water than air near the surface. In
general, the thermal conductivity of a material increases with increasing
amounts of humidity. Along mid-latitudes, the diurnal variation of air
temperatures is typically within ± 6 °C from the mean temperature.
Remarks on seasonal and diurnal variations

Concerning the Earth, different factors lead to the seasonal and diurnal
variation in air temperatures. The main factors are as follows:
1. The amount of incoming solar radiation can be affected by astronomical

factors (e.g. the Earth’s rotation around its axis).
2. Chemical reactions also effect air temperature (e.g. the greenhouse

effect).
3. The structure of the material in question determines its heat capacity

and colour, which have a significant effect on the air temperature and its
seasonal and diurnal variation.
4. Orography and physical processes on a local scale can affect convection

and air currents, and therefore air temperature.
Astronomical reasons, namely the effect of the Earth’s orbit and rotation on
the horizontal distribution of air temperature, will be explained on timescales
of thousands of years. After that, terms related to heat capacity and colour of
the material will be explained in more detail.
Earth’s elliptical orbit and its eccentricity
The Earth revolves on an elliptical orbit. An ellipse is characterised by its

eccentricity (denoted by e) which determines how elongated its shape is. Its
value varies between 0 and 1. A perfect circle has an eccentricity of 0. In the
case of an elliptical orbit: 0 < e < 1. All planets in the Solar system have
elliptical orbits. If e > 1 then the orbit turns parabolic (e.g. the orbit of comets).
A theoretical elliptic orbit can be seen in the following figure.
Figure 1.26. A theoretical orbit with an elliptic shape
The focuses of an ellipse are the same distance from the centre. Eccentricity is
the ratio of the distance between the centre and one focus (denoted by c), and
half of the major axis (denoted by a). In the case of the circle, the centre
coincides with the focuses; therefore c=0, that is e=0.
The Earth’s orbit has a shape close to a circle. Its eccentricity is about 0.01.
Consequently, the distance between the Sun and the Earth changes slightly
during the year. The Earth is closer to the Sun in January than in July.
Therefore, larger amounts of solar radiation can be measured during the
summer over the Southern Hemisphere than over the Northern Hemisphere.
However, the Earth moves faster in perihelion (closest to the Sun) than in
aphelion (farthest from the Sun), so the summer (winter) in the Southern
(Northern) Hemisphere is slightly longer than in the Northern (Southern)
Hemisphere. Because of the above, the variation in air temperature is not
connected to the eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit on a seasonal timescale. The
Earth’s eccentricity varies between 0.003-0.05 on a timescale of hundreds of
thousands of years. Larger eccentricities mean larger differences between the
amount of radiation in perihelion and aphelion.
Earth’s rotation and its axial tilt
As we have mentioned, the Earth revolves around the Sun on the plane of the
ecliptic and rotates on its own axis. The non-zero angle between the ecliptic
plane and the Earth’s equatorial plane leads to seasonal variation in air
temperature. This is to say, the Earth’ axis is not perpendicular to the plane of
the ecliptic (see the figure below). We have also stated that the Earth’s
rotation leads to diurnal variations in air temperature.
Plane of equator
Plane of ecliptic
Figure 1.27. Earth’s orbital elements (equatorial plane, ecliptic plane, axis)
If the plane of ecliptic and the Earth’s equatorial plane were parallel to each
other, then the Earth’s axis would be perpendicular to those two planes
respectively and the amount of solar radiation would be the same throughout
the year at any given latitude. However, the Earth’s rotation axis is not
perpendicular to the Sun’s equatorial plane; the deviation of the axis from the
equatorial plane at 90° is 23.5° at the present time. This angle is called the
axial tilt. The sides of the angle of axial tilt are perpendicular to the sides of
the angle between the ecliptic and equatorial planes. Therefore, the angle
between those two planes is 23.5° as well. Incoming radiation from the Sun
reaches its maximum intensity when the beams of the radiation are
perpendicular to the surface. Because of the non-zero axial tilt and the orbital
movement of the Earth, the zone with maximum intensity on the surface of
the Earth changes during the year. This means that in a rotating reference
system fixed to the Earth, at a given point of the surface, the elevation of the
Sun also varies during the year. For a given latitude (denoted by 4>) the
maximum value of the altitude of the Sun can be calculated as 90°-cp. For
example, over to the poles the Sun seems to circle around the horizon during
the year, while over the Equator the Sun can reach elevations as high as 90°,
which means that incoming solar radiation is perpendicular to the surface.
Over middle-latitudes like Prague, Czech Republic at cf>=50°, the elevation of
the Sun cannot exceed 40°.
To summarise, if the axial tilt were 0° then the radiation with the maximum
intensity would reach the Earth on the Equator. The value of the axial tilt
varies between 22.1° and 24.5° on a timescale of tens of thousands of years.
Due to greater (lesser) axial tilt, the radiation with the maximum intensity
reaches the surface of the Earth farther from (closer to) the Equator.
The Earth makes a full rotation on its axis in about one day (more precisely 23
hours and 56 minutes), which causes the diurnal variation of the air
temperature. If the axial tilt were 0° then duration of insolation would be
about 12 hours uniformly on the Earth’s surface. Because of the non-zero axial
tilt, the duration of insolation varies with season, and so air temperature
changes with geographical latitude on a diurnal timescale.
Heat capacity and surface colour

Heat capacity and the colour of surfaces are crucial factors effecting the
diurnal and seasonal variations of air temperature. The above-mentioned
physical properties are determined by the structure of the material.
Heat capacity (Denoted by c) is the amount of energy (denoted by q) that is

required to increase the temperature of the unit mass of a material by 1 K or
1 °C. Its SI unit is J/K. For one unit of mass of a substance, the heat capacity is
called specific heat capacity (denoted by cs), which is given in SI units of
J/(kg K).
Note: In this sense of the word 1 K is equal to 1 °C. More precisely, to change the
temperature of a material with 1 K is equal to change its temperature with 1 °C.
Not to confuse the above-mentioned with the following, namely if the substance in
question has a temperature of 1 K then it is equal to -272.15 °C.
Warming and cooling processes over surfaces with higher specific heat
capacities take place more slowly than those over surfaces with lower specific
heat capacities. As a side note, measuring the heat capacity of various
materials is the subject of calorimetry.
Specific heat capacity is connected to the structural factors characterising the

material in question, in particular thermal conductivity. For example, water is a
good conductor in the thermal sense of the word; it has a specific heat
capacity higher than soil (in particular dry soil such as sand), while the latter is
weaker conductor. Some examples are listed in the following table.
The relationship between heat capacity, energy and temperature can be

described as follows:
(1.6)
q = c x AT
where AT is the temperature difference expressed in units of kelvin.
The relationship between specific heat capacity, energy and temperature is

the following:
(1.7)
q = cs x m x AT
where m is the mass of the substance in question. Its SI unit is kilograms

(abbreviated as kg).
Water vapour has a crucial role in weather processes. We distinguish dry and
humid air by whether or not the air contains water vapour. Specific heat of
humid air is higher than dry air, which means that humid air warms and cools
more slowly than dry air.
It is worth mentioning that, the amount of heat transferred varies based on

whether or not the atmospheric pressure or volume is constant. This means
that specific heat capacity at constant atmospheric pressures differs from
specific heat capacity at constant volumes.
EXAMPLE 1.1 L"
Surface colour In connection with reflectivity., larger amounts of incoming

solar radiation are reflected off of lighter surfaces than off of darker surfaces.
Reflectivity is characterised by the measurement of albedo, which is a
dimensionless quantity (varies between 0 and 1 or expressed in percentage). It
is the quotient of the reflected radiant energy and the radiant energy that
reaches the Earth’s surface. It is important to note that insolation occurs only
during the day, but the Earth is exposed to cosmic radiation around the clock;
therefore, the denominator of the albedo cannot be zero. Mostly, albedo is
examined in the range of visible light, so its value concerning a black-coloured
body (a blackbody which absorbs all incoming radiation) is 0 % and the albedo
of a white-coloured body (which reflects all incoming radiation) is 100 %.
The surface of the Earth can be characterised by its albedo as well (from albus,
Latin for 'white'). Darker surfaces such as wet soil and the ocean have lower
albedos than lighter surfaces like sand and ice. The average albedo of the
Earth is called the planetary albedo and its value is 30 %. Darker surfaces have
higher specific heat capacity than lighter surfaces.
Specific heat is expressed in J/(kg K). Note that these are average values that
can vary depending on the amount of water or the age (colour) of the surface.
Equation q = cs x m x AT can be used in the following way in practical
calculations. Let us compute the energy that is required to increase temperature
from 20 °C to 25 °C in dry air and in water with a mass of 10 kg at constant
atmospheric pressure. That is, we intend to calculate q.
In both cases the temperature difference is:
AT = 5 °C = 5K
m = 1 kg
Specific heat capacity for dry air at constant atmospheric pressure is about cs air
1001 J/kg K and for water at constant atmospheric pressure is about cs water =
4181 J/kg K, at constant atmospheric pressure at 25 °C.
Using equation q = cs x m x AT:
qair = 1001 1 kg 5 K = 5005 J
qwater = 4181 1 kg 5 K = 20905 J
which means that (about four times) more energy is required to raise the
temperature from 20 °C to 25 °C in the case of water than in dry air with a mass
of 1 kg.
Typical values of specific heat capacity of some materials at constant
atmospheric pressure
Material Specific heat capacity

Liquid water (at 20 °C) 4182
Water vapour (at 27 °C) 3 985
Ice, snow 2090
Wet soil 1480
Wet grass 1465
Dry air 1005
Asphalt 920
Concrete 880
Dry soil 800
Dry grass 795
STUDY TEST
1.3. Atmospheric pressure
1.3.1. Barometric pressure, isobars

Basic explanation of atmospheric pressure and
its measurement
Atmospheric pressure (also known as barometric pressure or air pressure) is
the weight of the air column in the Earth’s atmosphere per unit area (see the
figure below). With increasing altitude, the air pressure decreases non-linearly.
The cause of the pressure decrease is that the amount of air parcels in the air
column decreases as height increases. Note that weight is caused by the
Earth’s gravitational force acting on a body (i.e. the air column). Therefore,
pressure can be expressed in force per unit area and its SI derived unit is
pascals (abbreviated as Pa).
air column
surface
force Fs perpendicular weight Fg of the air column is

to the surface A perpendicular to surface A
Figure 1.28. Pressure force of air column
Note: The number of the air parcels decreases as altitude increases.
Units besides Pa are also used to measure pressure like millibars (abbreviated
as mbar, 1000 mbar = 1 bar), millimetres of mercury (abbreviated as mmHg),
inches of mercury (abbreviated as inHg), torr (symbol: Torr), standard
atmosphere (symbol: atm), or pounds per square inch (symbol: psi). Note that
bar, inch of mercury, torr and psi are non-SI units. In meteorological practice,
hectopascal (abbreviated as hPa) is the most commonly used unit to measure
air pressure, which is Pa multiplied by 100. Inch of mercury is frequently used
in the United States of America. For further information see Section 10.2.1 in
Chapter 10.
The device which allows us to measure air pressure is called a barometer. Two
prominent types of barometers can be distinguished. Liquid barometers are
made from a vertical tube with some kind of liquid (e.g. water or mercury). The
tube is closed on its top while its lower part is dipping into the liquid in an
open reservoir. The air exerts pressure on the surface of the liquid in the open
reservoir, and consequently the liquid moves up and down in the tube.
Because of this, the height of the liquid column in the tube indicates changes
in air pressure. In a mercury barometer, at standard pressure at sea level
(1013.25 hPa or 1 atm) mercury rises up to 760 mm (29.92 inches).
Aneroid (from Greek, "using no liquid") barometers are empty boxes made
from elastic metals. The walls of the box are distorted through contraction and
expansion because of changes in air pressure. Therefore, it is an efficient
indicator of air pressure changes.
The lines on weather maps that connect the points with the same pressure
normalised to sea level are called isobars. In meteorological practice isobars
are drawn with an average spacing of 2 or 4 hPa on surface weather maps.
Note: Wind speed increases as the distance between isobars decreases.
Isobars are drawn on surface weather maps (or surface weather charts). This
means that these lines connect points with the same air pressure reduced to
mean sea level (abbreviated as MSL), which is the average level of the surface
of the oceans. Air pressure reduced to MSL is denoted as QFF. Therefore,
isobars on surface weather charts are lines of equal QFF.
Isobars are lines that are one dimensional objects. In the two-dimensional
space, surfaces with the same values of pressure are called isobaric surfaces
(500 hPa surface contains points in the space where air pressure is measured
to be 500 hPa). By analogy, surfaces with the same temperature can be called
isothermic surfaces. In the three-dimensional space layers of the atmosphere
can be considered isobaric, isothermic etc.
Isobars are useful to detect atmospheric low and high pressure systems near
the surface of the Earth, such as cyclones and anticyclones. The most
important atmospheric pressure systems will now be introduced.
We are speaking about a low pressure area or simply "a low" if the air pressure
is lower than its surrounding environment. The air pressure is the lowest in the
centre of the low and it increases as we move away from its centre
horizontally. A high pressure area or "a high" is an area where the air pressure
at the surface is higher compared to its environment. The air pressure is the
highest in the centre of the high and it decreases as we move away from its
centre horizontally.
Large-scale low pressure areas are called troughs. These are elongated, V-
shaped phenomena that can be thought of as atmospheric "pressure valleys".
If the air pressure in the centre of the low decreases (increases), then it is
intensifying or deepening (filling or weakening). Cyclones and frontal zones
may be associated with troughs.
Large-scale, U-shaped high pressure areas are called ridges (sometimes

referred to wedges). If the air pressure in the centre of the high increases
(decreases), then it is building-up (weakening or collapsing). Anticyclones are
often associated with ridges.
Cyclones and depressions are low pressure areas with almost circular, closed
isobars. The lowest air pressure is to be measured in its centre. A cyclone
contains different types of weather fronts (e.g. a warm and cold front).
Anticyclones with closed but not very circular isobars are found at in areas
with ridges.
Troughs and cyclones are considered lows, and ridges (or wedges) and
anticyclones are considered highs. The words trough and cyclone cannot be
used interchangeably. The same is true for the words ridge (or wedge) and
anticyclone.
The area between two ridges and two troughs is called a col (or saddle). The
weather of a col is affected by the surrounding pressure systems. Generally
speaking, in winter inversion and fog and in summer thunderstorms often
occur in the area of a col.
A summary about the above-mentioned pressure systems is found in the

figure below.
Figure 1.29. Atmospheric pressure systems
In the figure above, only one low pressure area and one high pressure area can
be seen, noted as trough and ridge respectively. The trough on the right-hand
side of the figure is an elongated, V-shaped area, compared to the low
pressure area on the left-hand side of the figure, which might be a cyclone or
another type of depression.
In mid-latitudes in both hemispheres, the main direction of the large-scale

atmospheric flows is zonal from west to east. Therefore, large-scale
atmospheric pressure systems, such as troughs and ridges move mainly
parallel to the zonal flow. The magnitude of their speed is comparable to the
speed of the zonal flow, thus troughs and ridges can be considered standing
waves if some effect blocks their movement to east. Moreover, in some cases
their movement westward can be seen on the surface of the Earth, which is
called retrograde movement. In some cases, troughs can stall, causing blocking
situations. For detailed descriptions of the types of lows and highs see
Chapter 7.
Figure 1.30. Zonal flow in the Northern Hemisphere with ridge and troughs
Letters L and H indicate low and high pressure areas, respectively.
Significantly different weather conditions are associated with cyclones,

anticyclones, low and high pressure areas, and therefore identifying them on
surface and upper-level weather charts is important.
In cyclones, the wind blows inward towards the centre near the surface of the
ground where the air converges and starts to ascend, or rise. If the air contains
water vapour then it forms clouds above the level of condensation, which can
lead to precipitation and poor visibility. Otherwise, visibility is good due to the
ascending air. Then, the air diverges aloft which means that the air flows out
from the centre of the cyclone. Precipitation can be experienced with
different intensity (e.g. light to moderate rain or heavy showers) depending on
the type of the front. As the cyclone intensifies (deepens), the isobars become
closer to each other, leading to stronger winds.
On the contrary, in anticyclones the wind blows outward from the centre. The
air converges aloft then starts to descend, or subside, where it diverges. The
descending movement of the air works against cloud formation and
precipitation, resulting in a clear sky. However, because the air warms while it
descends, inversion can be developed. It leads to fog in winter and haze in
summer, which reduces visibility. Similarly to cyclones, the isobars become
closer to each other as the anticyclone intensifies. Because of this, light to
strong winds and wind gusts can occur. In general, isobars are more widely-
spaced in anticyclones than in cyclones.
The direction of the air flow depends on the hemisphere. The flow around the
centre of a cyclone is anticlockwise and around the centre of an anticyclone is
clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. The opposite is true in the Southern
Hemisphere because of the forces acting on the flow. Flow around the centres
of cyclones and anticyclones can be seen in the figure below.
Figure 1.31. Air flow in cyclones (A) and anticyclones (B) in the Northern
Hemisphere
Note: The direction of the rotational movement depends on the hemisphere.
Similar weather conditions characterise a ridge as an anticyclone. Weather in a

trough depends on whether or not it contains a cyclone and what kind of
fronts are in it. For example, cold fronts form cumulonimbus clouds with
showers and thunderstorms. The clouds associated with warm fronts are
generally stratiform clouds (e.g. nimbostratus) with continuous precipitation.
Detailed explanation of atmospheric pressure

and its measurement
Atmospheric pressure
As we mentioned in Section 1.1, air is the mixture of various gases, mainly

nitrogen (ca. 78 %), oxygen (ca. 21 %) and argon (ca 0.9 %). Air pressure is the
sum of the pressure of each component. To understand the nature of air
pressure we must introduce the concept of Newton's laws of motion,
gravitational force and gravitational acceleration.
Movement is required to fulfill Newton's laws of motion. The laws are

described in the inertial frame of reference (or the inertial reference frame),
which has no acceleration. The laws can be described as follows.
MORE INFO L"
First law: In the inertial reference frame, without any force, the object remains
at rest or moving along a linear path with a constant velocity.
Second law: Assuming an object in the inertial reference frame, the vector
sum of the forces (denoted by F —>) is proportional to the acceleration
(denoted by a —»). The proportionality factor is the mass (denoted by m).
(1.8)
F = ma
The magnitude of F —> is F which equals to ma. The SI unit of force is kg

s2
and its SI derived unit is the newton (its symbol is N). The equation above is
A reference frame is an observational frame in physics, consisting of fixed
reference points and a coordinate system, for example Cartesian or polar
coordinate system. In Cartesian coordinate system, the fixed point (called origin) is
the point where the coordinate axes intersect each other. Inertial reference
frames have no acceleration, while non-inertial reference frames accelerate. For
example, a frame fixed to the Sun can be approximated by an inertial reference
frame while Earth is a non-inertial reference frame because of its rotation.
called the equation of motion.
Third law: In the inertial reference frame, if an object (a) exerts a force Fa on
another object (b), then (b) simultaneously exerts a force Fb on (a), which has
equal magnitude but opposite direction, that is:
Fa = — FbandFa = Fb
In physics, pressure (denoted by p) is equal to the magnitude of the force
(denoted by F) which effects a unit area (denoted by A) perpendicularly. See

in Figure 1.28 (a) and the equation below.
Based on Equation 1.8, pressure is expressed as:
(1.9)
_ F ma
P — A ~ A
The derived SI unit of pressure is the pascal (denoted by Pa). According to

equation above:
_ lks] x [7]
[m2]
__ [kg]
[m] x [s2]
Note: Pressure is not a vector but a scalar quantity, meaning it does not have any
direction. Consequently, pressure acts in every direction in the air. After multiplying
pressure with the normal vector 7i, we can use the word "direction" regarding
pressure.
According to Newton's law of universal gravitation, every object attracts every

single other object by gravitational force. Therefore, Earth’s gravitational force
effects every single air parcel in an air column. See in Figure 1.28 (b). This
force is called the weight (denoted by Fg) of the air column. The acceleration
of the object (i.e. air parcel) caused by the gravitational force is the
gravitational acceleration (denoted by g ). Its SI unit is m/s2. Because of this,
the weight of the air column with a mass of m can be described as follows:
(1.10)
Fg = mg
To introduce g Newton's law of universal gravitation can be explained in

depth. Let us take two objects with a mass of mi and m2 in their centres
where mi is much larger than m2 (denoted by mi » m2).
Position vectors ri and 12 point from the centre of the inertial reference
frame to the centre of the objects, respectively. Note that the centre of the
inertial reference frame has zero acceleration which means that it remains at
rest or it moves along a linear path with a constant velocity according to
Newton’s first law. According to Newton's law of universal gravitation, the
force, denoted by F ga , exerted by the object with mass mi on the object

with mass m2 can be described as:
mjin, r2 ~ rj,
F
■rgaj \ 2 r2 - rx
where 12 — ri points from the centre of mi to the centre of m2.
-- >
The force, denoted by Fga2, exerted by the object with mass m2 on the object
with mass mi can be described as:
-- > mim2 ri ~ r2
F
rga2 = 7 X
ri - r2\) 2 ri - r2
where ri — 12 points from the centre of m2 to the centre of mi.
The direction of the difference of the two position vectors and the directions
—
of F ga and Fga can be seen in the figure below and Figure 1.33.
object with mass rrh
centre of the
reference frame
Figure 1.32. The directions of the position vectors

object with mass m-i
centre of the
reference frame
Figure 1.33. Gravitational forces between two objects in an inertial reference

frame
Note: The description of force in the formulas above are in accordance with
Newton’s third law, which says:
Fgai — Fga2 and Fgai — Fga2.
If mi is much larger than m2 then mi can be considered the centre of an

inertial reference frame. Therefore, ri is zero, so the force exerted by the
object with mass mi on the object with mass m2 is:
r gal ri2
m1m2
r?
Commonly, ri is replaced with r and its magnitude ri with r. Gravitational

acceleration "g of the object with mass m2 can be defined as follows and
substituted it into equation above:
(1.11)
Fga, = m2 g
The equation above describes the weight of the object with mass m2 based
on the gravitational force of the object with mass mi.
We can calculate the magnitude of "g of an air parcel just above the Earth’s
surface from Equation 1.11 as follows:
(1.12)
In this case r is the Earth’s mean radius, which is about 6371 km and mi is the
Earth’s mass, which is ca. 6 x 1024 kg. Therefore:
6 x 1024 kg
g = 6. 67 x KT11 x
kg2 (6371000 m)2
m
kg
7
= 9.86 = 9.86 ^7
kg s2
where 7 is the gravitational constant.
Note that the Earth’s radius decreases as geographical latitude increases, so

the magnitude of "g is larger over higher latitudes than lower latitudes. Height
above the surface of the Earth also affects its magnitude. However, in practice
is often considered constant regardless of height and latitude. The value of is
used.
After introducing the concepts of weight and gravitational acceleration, we

can introduce atmospheric pressure (denoted also by p), which is the weight
of the air column per a unit area. See Figure 1.28. (b). The magnitude of
acceleration in Equation 1.9 is replaced with the magnitude of the
gravitational acceleration ~g, thus:
(1.13)
Fs mg
P — A — A
The pressure of the air column on the unit area A can be expressed with
density q and height h of the air column instead of mass m. If density is
constant then it can be expressed as the mass [kg] of a material per unit
volume V [m3], that is:
(1.14)
m
P = V
The SI unit of density is kg/m3.
To replace mass with density after rearranging the formula above, the right
hand side of Equation 1.13 must be multiplied by volume V. The product of
the area A and the height of the air column h is equal to the volume V;
therefore, h can be substituted into Equation 1.13 in the following way:
(1.15)
mg QgV ,
p = — = — = psh
To summarise the equation above, under the conditions of constant density

and gravitational acceleration, the pressure of an air column at a unit area is
the product of the density and height of an air column and the gravitational
acceleration.
If we consider a column filled with liquid, the pressure at the depth of h is the
sum of the atmospheric pressure and the product in the equation above.
However, in some cases we cannot disregard the fact that density and
gravitational acceleration vary with height h.
We can calculate air pressure to be 1013.25 hPa when mercury rises up to

760 mm in the sealed tube according to Torricelli’s experiment. We can use
equation above as follows. Density of mercury q is ca. 1.359 kg/m3, the
magnitude of gravitational acceleration g is 9.81 m/s2 and the mercury
column has a height h of 0.76 m. Thus:
p = ngh = 1.359 / KJ4 - 7 9.81 - / 0.76 m 101322 Pa
nr s2
= 1013.22 hPa
which means that the weight of a mercury column with the height of 0.76 m
equals the weight of an air column with the same cross-section.
Note: The standard air pressure at mean sea level is 1013.25 hPa, according to the
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA).
Measurement of pressure
Air pressure can be measured using various devices, such as liquid barometers,
aneroid barometers and even electronic pressure sensors that can be built into
smartphones (microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) barometers). The
mercury barometer was first constructed in 1643 by Italian physicist
Evangelista Torricelli, a student of Italian physicist, mathematician and
astronomer Galileo Galilei. Torricelli created a tube with the height of one
meter that dips into an open reservoir (see the figure below).
Figure 1.34. The schematic of a mercury barometer
The air pressure acts on the surface of the liquid in the open reservoir. The
liquid in the scaled tube rises (shrinks) as the atmospheric pressure increases
(decreases). The empty space above the mercury inside the tube is called the
Torricellian vacuum. Air pressure values are assigned to the changes of the
height of the liquid column. The air exerts pressure on the surface of the
liquid, and consequently the liquid moves up and down in the tube. Because
of this, the height of the liquid column in the tube indicates the changes in the
atmospheric pressure.
Torricelli’s barometer indicates weather as follows. If the height of the mercury

in the tube remains the same as the previous day, then similar weather
conditions are expected during the day. An increasing (decreasing) height of
the mercury in the tube indicates the intensification of a high, causing
cloudless, sunny days or fog during winter (a low with the formation of
precipitation).
Liquid barometers can contain not only mercury but water; however, the
former is less dense than the latter, so a water column with the height of
approx. 10 m (ca. 33 ft) should be used to balance atmospheric pressure with
the same cross-section. Remember that mercury is toxic. Consequently, the
use of mercury barometers is restricted in the European Union as with
mercury thermometers. Another disadvantage of liquid barometers is the
evaporation of the liquid.
Aneroid barometers do not contain any liquid and are much smaller than liquid
barometers. They are made of an empty box from elastic metals invented by
French physicist Lucien Vidi in 1844. After the air is removed from the box,
the air pressure outside the box is compensated with springs. The walls of the
box undergo extraction (contraction) with the intensification of a low (high)
pressure area; that is to say, the distortion indicates the current weather
conditions.
Note: Aneroid barometers are served as parts of altimeters which are applied on
board of aircraft, with their static port connected to the outside.
A pointer and a scale are connected to the barometer, so the value of air
pressure can be easily read.
Functioning mercury and aneroid barometers can be seen in the figure below.
Thermometer and barometer Aneroid barometer
Figure 1.35. Mercury thermometer and barometer
Note: Temperature is given in °F.
Regarding the aneroid barometer, air pressure is given in mmHg as well as hPa.
Both of the barometers have scales that indicate the most likely weather
conditions associated with the measured air pressure.
1.3.2. Pressure variation with height,

contours (isohypses)
Explanation of pressure variation with height
and contours (isohypses)
In general, air pressure decreases as height increases. Previously, the vertical
temperature gradient in the atmosphere was introduced as the temperature
change with height. This is called the lapse rate, or more precisely the
temperature lapse rate. Analogously, the barometric lapse rate (or pressure
lapse rate) is used to indicate the pressure change with height; in other words,
the vertical pressure gradient.
The barometric lapse rate is not constant in the atmosphere. It depends on the
height and the air temperature as follows. Decreases in air pressure slow
down as height increases, so the decrease in air pressure is lower at higher
levels in the atmosphere than at lower levels.
The rate of decrease also depends on the air temperature. Air pressure falls
more rapidly in cold air than in warm air because the distance between the air
parcels (more precisely gas molecules) in cold air is less than in warm air. To
visualise it, imagine two air columns between pressure p^ and p2 with colder
and warmer air, with the same amount of air parcels, respectively. In the
colder air column air parcels are closer to each other than in the warmer air
column, and therefore the height of the cold air column is less than the height
of latter as is shown in the figure below. Because of this, decreases in air
pressure at the same rate occur within a shorter height in the cold air column
than in the warm air column.
To summarise, if the height of the air column is decreasing, then the

temperature is decreasing and the pressure is increasing. This statement is not
in contradiction with Gay-Lussac’s law (pressure is directly proportional to
temperature) because Gay-Lussac’s law is only valid when the volume remains
constant. In our case the height of the air column is changing, and so the
volume is changing.
a) Distance between the same amount of air parcels in warmer and colder air
air parcels in warmer air air parcels in colder air
b) The height of the air columns
warmer air comumn colder air comumn
Figure 1.36. Air column and temperature change
The warmer air column is taller than the colder air column containing the same
amount of air parcels because the distance between air parcels in the warmer
air column is greater than in the colder air column.
In practical calculations the following barometric lapse rates are used. Near
mean sea level it is considered (in absolute value) 27 ft (8 m) per 1 hPa and
above 18 000 ft (5 500 m) it is considered 50 ft (15 m) per 1 hPa.
Height in the troposphere Barometric lapse rate
near mean sea level - 2000 ft (610 m) AMSL 27ft(8m)/1 hPa
2000 ft (610 m) AMSL - 10000 ft (3050 m) AMSL 36 ft (11 m)/1 hPa
10000 ft (3050 m) AMSL - 18000 ft (5500 m) AMSL 50ft(15m)/1 hPa
18000 ft (5500 m) AMSL - 30000 ft (9150 m) AMSL 73 ft (22 m) / 1 hPa
30000 ft (9150 m) AMSL - 40000 ft (12190 m) AMSL 100 ft (30 m)/ 1 hPa
Note: AMSL means "above mean sea level".
Figure 1.37. Most important barometric lapse rates
To illustrate the relationship between height and pressure, imagine an empty

plastic bottle which is sealed at the top of a mountain. Then, it is taken down
from the mountain. The air pressure surrounding the bottle increases with
decreasing height. Because of this the bottle will be crushed. This process is
shown in the figure below.
Figure 1.38. The effect of increasing pressure on an empty plastic bottle
sealed at 14000 ft (4 267 m)
After being sealed at 14000 ft (4267 m), the bottle was taken down to
9 000 ft (2 743 m) and then to 1000 ft (305 m).
To calculate air pressure (p) at a given height (h) in the troposphere, the
following formula is suitable:
(1.16)
0.0065 - xh
m
p hPa = 1013.25 hPa 1 288.15 K
where 1013.25 hPa is the mean sea level pressure and 0.0065 K/m is the
absolute value of the temperature lapse rate in dry air in the troposphere and
the temperature 288.15 K (15 °C) is the air temperature at mean sea level,
according to the ISA.
Applying the equation above, we can calculate the pressure in hPa at a given
altitude (expressed in metres). For example, at the height of 5 250 ft (h
=1600 m), the air pressure (p) is about 836 hPa.
The relationship established by the equation above can be used efficiently

only in the troposphere. For further details see Section 1.3.2.
Note that the equation above can be rearranged to calculate height at a given
pressure level as well:
(1.17)
288,15 K p [hPa]
h m 1013.25 hPa
0.0065 -
Using the equation above, we are able to calculate the height in m at a given
pressure level (expressed in hPa). For example, at the pressure level of
700 hPa, the height is about 3010 m. For detailed calculations see
Section 1.5.
An isohypse (or height contour, or contour line) is a line on an upper-level

weather map that connects points with the same height on an isobaric surface
above mean sea level. These lines form wave-like shape on weather charts. It
is often said that the isohypse indicates the true altitude, which is the actual
height of a pressure level above mean sea level.
Centre of high pressure system
Figure 1.39. Height contours
Closed curves are isobars which show a high pressure system (such as an
anticyclone) on the bottom of the figure. This means that the maximum air
pressure is measured in the centre.
The height, ormore precisely the geopotential height, is measured from the
mean sea level to the given pressure level. It is expressed in decametres (1
decametre = 10 metres), a unit of geopotential (abbreviated as gpdm or
gpdam). For example, if an isohypse has a value of 550 gpdm at a 500 hPa
surface then that 500 hPa can be measured at a height of 5 500 m (ca.
18044 ft) above mean sea level.
In general, isohypses with high values indicate high pressure and isohypses
with low values indicate low pressure.
Remarks on pressure variation with height

Exponential relationship between vertical pressure variation and height
The vertical pressure variation is an exponential function of height which can
be seen in the figure below. However, pressure changes with height can be
approximated by a linear relationship in the troposphere. For this purpose, we
can use Equation 1.16 and Equation 1.17. The change in air pressure with
altitude becomes less linear above the tropopause.
Atmospheric pressure vs. altitude
Figure 1.40. Change in air pressure with altitude
Pressure values are computed for 15 °C, according to the ISA. Zero percent
humidity means dry air and air pressure is given in kPa (1 kPa equals 10 hPa).
Note: The function is decreasing, which means that the air pressure decreases as
height increases.
The exponential relationship between pressure change and height can be

proven by the following deduction. Let us consider an air column with the
base of A. It is shown in the figure below. First, calculate the pressure change
between the levels of z and z + Az.
Figure 1.41. Forces acting on the levels of z and z+Az regarding an air
column with the base of A
We examine the pressure between levels z and z + Az. The forces that act on
the surfaces at the levels of z and z + Az are £gzA and £g(z + Az)A,
respectively. Their difference is:
p(z + A z)A — p(z)A = — £>g A zA
Note that a minus sign is required because force points in the direction of the
ground. It is worth mentioning that the magnitude of p(z) A is greater than
p(z + Az)A because pressure decreases with altitude.
After eliminating A and rearranging the equation above:
Az - £>g
where p(z + Az)—p(z)= Ap is the pressure difference. Therefore,
(1.18)
Ap
Az - £>g
Rearranging the equation above we can give the following approximation for
the increase of height (Az) per unit of pressure change (Ap):
Az =
Qg
In Figure 1.37, we can see that a 1 hPa decrease in air pressure means a ca.
8 m gain in height near the surface of the Earth. Let us prove it using the
equation above. For this purpose, air density q, which is difficult to measure,
will be replaced with —according to the ideal gas law where Rj is the gas
RdT
constant of dry air, thus:
Ap xz RdT
Az = z\
2
Using the following values: p = 1013.25 hPa, Rj = 287 J/kg K, g = 9.81 m/s1
and T = 15 °C = 288.15 K the height increase (Az) per 1 hPa (Ap) is:
Az = x 287 x 288.15 K x -A— « 8.32 m

1013.25 hPa kg K 9 81 —
We can reformulate Equation 1.18 using derivatives:
(1.19)
dp
dz - £>g
The equation above expresses the equilibrium of the atmosphere. In other

words, the forces balance each other. Because of this, the equation above is
called the hydrostatic equation.
Assume that the atmosphere is an isotherm,meaning the air temperature is

constant, and it only contains dry air. The magnitude of gravitational
acceleration is constant. After the replacement of density q with
according to the ideal gas law, the following formula can be described:
Applying the followings, — = d x Inp and using the Newton-Leibniz axiom:

g
y-(lnp)
dz v 7
=
RdT
ln(p(z)) - ln(p(z0)) = - x (z - z0)
Using the fact that the difference of the logarithms can be expressed as the
logarithm of their quotient, and raising the two sides of equation above to the
power of e:
g
x (z - z0)
RdT
Finally, rearrange equation above:
p(z) = p(z0)e RdT X (z Zo)
The equation above describes the dependency pressure and can be called the
barometric formula.
Note that the real atmosphere cannot be considered an isotherm. Frequently,

the average temperature of the air column between the height of zq and z is
used as the value of T. For example, T can be calculated using the ISA's
temperature lapse rate for dry air.
Calculating air pressure at a given height in the troposphere
As we have seen before, vertical air pressure variation is the exponential

function of height. However, it can be approximated by a linear relationship in
the troposphere, and thus we can use Equation 1.16 to calculate the value of
air pressure at a given height. The usage of Equation 1.16 is according to the
US Standard Atmosphere issued in 1976. In general, Equation 1.16 can be
described as follows:
(1.20)
gM
/\ ?h \ r7
P = po 1 - zr )
X J-o /
gM
The exponent —— contains the gravitational acceleration g, the molar mass of
R7
dry air M, the ideal gas constant R and the temperature lapse rate of dry air in
the troposphere 7. Let us consider the following values: g = 9.81 m/s2, M =
0.0289 kg/mol, R = 8.314 J/mol K and 7 = 0.0065 K/m. Replacing those
values into the exponent, the result will be the following dimensionless
constant:
9.81 - x 0.0289 —
gM s2 mol
R7 8.314 — x 0.0065 -
molK m
5.246
2
where J = k x — = Nm.
s2
Note that Equation 1.20 is only usable in the troposphere where pressure
variation with height can be considered linear.
If we replace the values of pressure po and temperature To with the standard

values of the ISA in Equation 1.20, then we can calculate the air pressure at a
given height in the troposphere.
A summary about height and pressure values in the atmosphere is found in

Figure 1.47.
1.3.3. Reduction of pressure to mean sea

level, QFF
QFF is the atmospheric pressure reduced to the mean sea level, corrected for
actual weather conditions such as air temperature.
QFF is not used as an altimeter setting. It is only used for meteorological

purposes, but it has a crucial importance for the following reason. The
barometric lapse rate varies with air temperature. As we mentioned before, air
pressure falls more rapidly in cold air and more slowly in warm air. Because of
this, air pressure in an air column of warm air will likely be higher than in a
column of cold air of the same height. If we intend to calculate the mean sea
level pressure at an airport of a given height, then the actual barometric lapse
rate shall be calculated using the actual air temperature.
On surface weather charts, QFF values are plotted as values of mean sea level
pressure and are connected with isobars usually in the range of 950 hPa and
1050 hPa.
1.3.4. Relationship between surface

pressure centres and pressure centres
aloft
Isobars and isohypses are useful tools to identify low pressure areas and high
pressure areas on surface weather charts and upper-level weather charts,
respectively. With the help of isobars cyclones and anticyclones can be
detected near the surface of the ground. Using isohypses we can identify
troughs and ridges as well as upper-level cyclones and anticyclones.
In Figure 1.42 and Figure 1.43 vertical cross sections of the atmosphere are
shown. Assume the following simple cases. If there are no horizontal
differences in the distribution of air temperature then the isobars are parallel
to each other as we can see in section a in Figure 1.42 and Figure 1.43. Low
and high pressure areas can be developed in upper levels of the troposphere
(e.g. at the height of the 500 hPa surface level) without any effect on the
surface (section b in Figure 1.42 and Figure 1.43). These are called upper-level
lows and upper-level highs, respectively. There are cases, when low and high
pressure areas are identified near the surface of the ground without any
effects on upper levels (section d in the figure below and Figure 1.43).
However, low and high pressure areas can also effect both lower and upper
levels of the troposphere, which can be called cold core lows and warm core
highs (section c in the figure below and Figure 1.43).
Figure 1.42. Cross section of the atmosphere regarding low pressure areas
Isobars are depicted with blue lines:
a. Parallel isobars
b. Upper-level low
c. Cold core low
d. Low pressure area near the surface of the Earth

a
Figure 1.43. Cross section of the atmosphere regarding high pressure areas
Isobars are depicted with blue lines:
a. Parallel isobars
b. Upper-level high
c. Warm core high
d. High pressure area near the surface of the Earth
We should mention two special cases (see the figure below). A warm core low
can be identified if a low pressure area develops near the surface of the
ground and a high pressure area is detectable at a higher level in the
troposphere. On the contrary, if a high pressure area develops near the
surface of the ground and a low pressure area is detectable at higher level in
the troposphere then we are speaking about a cold core high.
Figure 1.44. Cross section of the atmosphere. Warm core low (section a) and
cold core high (section b)
STUDY TEST
1.4. Air density
1.4.1. Relationship between pressure,

temperature and density
Basic explanation of the relationship between
pressure, temperature and density
First, the term of density has to be defined, which is the mass of a material per
a unit volume. The SI unit of density is kg/m . This means that at constant
volume, density increases as mass increases and at constant pressure, density
decreases as volume increases. Atmospheric density (air density) is the mass of
air per a unit volume (i.e. an air column).
Air temperature, air pressure and air density mutually effect each other. If we
consider the air as an ideal gas, then the relationship between temperature,
pressure and density can be described by the gas laws as follows. Assume that
the number of air parcels is constant:
i. If the temperature is constant then the product of pressure and volume

is constant
ii. If the volume is constant, then the quotient of pressure and temperature
is constant
iii. If the pressure is constant, then the quotient of volume and temperature
is constant
We can combine those three statements (i-iii) into one law. It states that the
product of pressure and volume is directly proportional to the temperature.
Density can be substituted into the general gas law. Hereby, density will be
directly proportional to pressure and inversely proportional to temperature.
To summarise, the above-mentioned statements have the following meaning

when applied to air.
Air density is inversely proportional to air temperature, which means that:
• Air density increases with decreasing air temperature.

• Air density decreases with increasing air temperature.
Air density is directly proportional to air pressure, which means that:
• Air density increases with increasing air pressure.

• Air density decreases with decreasing air pressure.
According to the general gas law, we can say that high pressure and low
temperature lead to the greatest air density. Furthermore, at a given height, air
density is greater in cold air than in warm air.
Detailed explanation of the relationship

between pressure, temperature and density
Gas laws are only valid for ideal gases. An ideal gas is a hypothetical gas in
which gas particles collides elastically. This means that there is no energy loss
during the collisions between the gas particles. In other worlds, there are no
interactions between the particles. On the contrary, collisions between the
gas particles and energy dissipation can be observed in real gases. However,
real gases such as dry air can be approximated by the gas laws as well.
To define ideal gas in more detail, we introduce the term mole, which
measures the amount of a chemical substance. Its symbol is n. The mole is an
SI unit denoted by mol. One mole of a substance contains 6.022 x 1023
particles. For example oxygen has the atomic mass number 16. This means
that 16 g of oxygen contains 6.022 x 1023 atoms. The constant 6.022 xlO23
1/mol has the symbol Na and it is called Avogadro’s constant, named after
Italian scientist Amadeo Avogadro . The International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) defines an ideal gas as follows: one mole of an
ideal gas has a volume of 0.0224 m3 at a temperature of 273.15 K and 105 Pa
(1000 hPa). Note that previously the value of pressure was 1013.25 hPa,
which is still used by some sources.
In general, at the same temperature and pressure, the same number of

particles are contained in ideal gases of equal volumes, denoted by V - of
ideal gases contain, which is to say:
—
n
= const,
This is called Avogadro’s law, which will be used to formulate general gas law
below.
The relationship between pressure, temperature and density is described by

the following gas laws. Assume that the number of particle,denoted by N, is
constant. Denote pressure, temperature, volume and density by p, T, V and q,
respectively.
According to Boyle’s law, the product of pressure and volume is constant at a

constant temperature, thus:
(1.21)
pV = const.
This law was first published by Irish physicist and chemist Robert Boyle in
1662.
According to Gay-Lussac’s law, the quotient of pressure and temperature is

constant at a constant volume:
(1.22)
— = const.
This law was formulated by French physicist and chemist Joseph Louis Gay-
Lussac.
According to Charles’s law, the quotient of volume and temperature is

constant at a constant pressure, thus:
(1.23)
V X
— = const.
This law was described by French scientist Jacques Charles in the 1780s but
he did not publish it. It was formulated again by Gay-Lussac in 1802.
The combined gas law describes the above-mentioned three laws as follows:
(1.24)
pV
const.
To summarise, pressure and volume are inversely proportional to each other

(see the figure below section A), pressure and temperature are directly
proportional to each other (figure below section B), and in addition volume
and temperature are also directly proportional to each other (figure below
section C).
Figure 1.45. Relationships between pressure, volume and temperature
The curves that connect the points with the same temperature, volume and
pressure are called isotherms (A), isochors (B) and isobars (C), respectively.
Let us consider the same chemical substance under two different sets of
conditions regarding pressure, volume and temperature, denoted by lower
indices 1 and 2. Then, laws in Equation 1.21 - Equation 1.24 can be described
as:
P1V1 = P2V2
(1.25)
Pl _ _P£
Ti “ T2
Vi = V2
Ti T2
P1V1 _ P2V2
Ti ” T2
In accordance with Avogadro’s law, we can formulate the general gas law as
follows. First, Equation 1.25 is multiplied with the quotient of the volume (Vi
and V2) and the amount of chemical substance (ni and 112) according to
Avogadro’s law:
(1.26)
P1V1 P2V2
Tjii! T2n2
Rearranging equation above:
P2V2
P1V1
T2n2
x Tini
T)9 2
where —— is the gas constant. If we use the above-listed values of ideal gas
T2n2
(in the case of pressure 1013.25 hPa, which equals 1013.25 Nm2), then we
can determine the value of the ideal gas constant (denoted by R) as follows
(remember that 1 Nm equals to 1 joule and 1 N/m2 equals to 1 Pa):
101325 Nm'2 x 0.0224 m3

1 mol x 273.15 K
8.31 8.31 -4v

mol K mol K
Removing the lower index 1, the general gas law can be described as:
(1.27)
pV = nRT
According to equation above, the product of pressure and volume is directly
proportional to the temperature.
Density can be substituted into the equation above in the following way. The
amount of chemical substance is the quotient of the mass of the chemical
substance (in other words, the mass of the sample), denoted by m and the
molar mass of the chemical substance, denoted by M. Because of this, the
equation above can be reformulated as:
P V = 77 RT
1 M
The equation above shall be divided with m:
m = 77
P- M RT
V ?
where — is the specific volume with the symbol of a and the SI unit of nrr/kg,
so:
(1.28)
pa = 77 T
1 M
R
The quotient — is called the specific gas constant. It depends on the molar
mass of the gas which is examined. For example, the specific gas constant of
dry air and water vapour (denoted by Rj and Rw) can be calculated as follows.
The molar mass of dry air and water vapour (denoted by Mj and Mw) is
approximately 29 x 10’3 kg/mol and 18 x 10'3 kg/mol. Note that dry air is a
mixture of various gases, while water is a compound in which the elements
have fixed ratios. Thus,
8.314 ——
__ R __ mol K 287
d “ M? “ 29 x IO’3 i ~
mol
and
8.314 ——
Rw = -5- = ------- ~ 462 -2-
Mw 18 x 10-3 22. kg K
mol
Density can be substituted into Equation 1.28 as follows. Density is defined as

the mass of a material per a unit volume:
(1.29)
111
<? = V
Density is reciprocal for a specific volume, say a = Let us denote a specific

gas constant as R*. Then, Equation 1.28 can be reformulated as:
(1.30)
2 = R*T
According to the equation above, density is inversely proportional to

temperature and directly proportional to pressure.
Note that according to the Equation 1.29, air density is constant in time and
space. However, in the atmosphere air density depends on time and space; in
other words, density varies with height and its horizontal distribution is also
not homogeneous. For example, in a Cartesian coordinate system where
independent coordinates are x, y, z and t, density can be described as
^(x, y, z, t). In the following section, the relationship between height and
air density will be explained.
1.4.2. Vertical variations of the air

density in the atmosphere
According to the ideal gas law, the relationship between air pressure, air
temperature and air density was established. We concluded that air density is
affected by air pressure and air temperature. However, air density is
influenced by height and humidity as well. First, the variation of air density
based on height will be explained.
In normal atmospheric conditions, air temperature, air pressure and air density
decrease as height increases. In Section 1.3.1 we saw that the number of air
parcels decreases as height increases. Because of this, the total mass of air
parcels decreases with increasing height. By definition, at a constant volume
density decreases as mass decreases; therefore, air density decreases with
increasing height.
We have written above that air temperature and air density decrease as height
increases. This seems to be in contradiction with the gas law that states that
air density increases (and volume decreases) with decreasing air temperature.
However, the law is only valid at a constant pressure, which is not the case
here.
Air density decreases with height nonlinearly, as the decrease in the lower
layers is greater than at higher altitudes. At around 20 000 ft (ca. 6 km), air
density is half of the mean sea level value and air density is approximately a
quarter of the mean sea level value at 40000 ft (ca. 12 km).
1.4.3. Density altitude

Density altitude is the altitude in the ISA to which the observed density
corresponds. To determine this, we have to know the value of the air density
in the actual conditions, then find the height at which the same air density
occurs in the ISA.
Density altitude increases as air density decreases. Based on the general gas
law, this means that density altitude increases as air pressure decreases and
air temperature increases. Density altitude also increases as humidity in the air
increases, because humid air is less dense than dry air at a constant volume.
1.4.4. Effects of pressure, temperature

and density on airplanes
Atmospheric conditions influence the performance of an airplane, which
decreases with increasing air temperature and decreasing air pressure.
Concerning flying, the following conclusions can be drawn from the
relationship between pressure, temperature and density.
During takeoff, growing speed is required in warm air with low air pressure,
which increases the need for runway. This leads to growing fuel consumption.
Air density depends on air temperature and air pressure. Because of this,
changes in air density also effect aviation. In accordance with the general gas
law, when the air warms then it becomes less dense. Furthermore, air density
increases with increasing air pressure. So, in less dense air the needed for
runway increases. At a constant air temperature, air pressure and volume,
humid air is less dense than dry air. Therefore, the performance of an airplane
decreases as the humidity of the air increases.
Regarding the landing, atmospheric conditions have a significant importance

as well. At low air pressures, it can be complicated to land at high altitudes.
Note: The highest civilian aerodrome is located in the region of the Tibetan plateau
at a height of 4411 m (14472 ft).
During flight, if the air temperature and humidity of the air increases, then the
lift of the plane may decrease, which also leads to increased fuel consumption.
STUDY TEST
1.5. ICAO Standard Atmosphere
(ISA)
1.5.1. ICAO Standard Atmosphere (ISA)

Explanation of the ICAO Standard Atmosphere
(ISA)
The International Civil Aviation Organization (abbreviated as ICAO)
introduced the International Standard Atmosphere (abbreviated as ISA) as a
theoretical standard atmosphere model to establish common ground for
comparing atmospheric conditions regardless of geographical latitudes. In
other words, ISA is a mathematical model of the atmosphere.
The real atmosphere is constantly changing, so an approximation is needed for

the average state of it as a model. The ISA model is for comparing actual
atmospheric conditions with standard values. It is suitable for calibrating
altimeters on aircraft for the measurement of the actual flight altitude, and for
estimating the most appropriate aircraft responses. Thus, international flight
rules are based on this model. The actual state of the atmosphere will be
expressed for a given level as the difference between the conditions of the ISA
and the real atmosphere. The first internationally applied model was created
in 1952 by ICAO. The Standard Atmosphere is described in the Manual of the
ICAO standard atmosphere.
Main values of the ISA

The model is created with an ideal atmospheric state assuming dry air that
does not contain water vapor or dust or aerosols. In the model there is no
wind or turbulence and it uses standard values for air temperature, air
pressure, air density and temperature and barometric lapse rates in different
layers. The main quantities that characterise the ISA are based on mean values
measured at the latitude of 45°. ISA does not vary with geographic latitude
and season. However, its characteristics change with altitude. In the model, as
altitude increases, the temperature decreases with the standard lapse rates
and standard values at given altitudes. The main characteristics of the ISA can
be summarised in tables below.
The temperature deviation from the standard value at a given altitude can be
positive or negative under real conditions. For example, in an inversion
situation the standard decreasing lapse rate turns into increasing lapse rate or
the layer will be isotherm with a lapse rate of 0 °C.
A positive (negative) temperature lapse rate means that air temperature

increases (decreases) with altitude.
Air temperature at mean sea level 288.15 K = 15 °C
Mean sea level pressure 1013.25 hPa
Air density at mean sea level 1.225 kg/m3
Melting point of ice 273.15 K = 0 °C
Temperature lapse rate (vertical temperature gradient):
• in the troposphere -1.98 °C/1000 ft (-0.65 °C/100 m)
■ in the stratosphere between 36090 ft - 65000 ft (11 km - 20 km) 0°C/1000ft(0 °C/100 m)
• in the stratosphere between 65 000 ft - 105000 ft (20 km - 32 km) 0.3’C/1000 ft
Constant temperature up to 65617 ft (20 km) 216.65 K = -56.5 °C
Increase in temperature up to 104987 ft (32 km) 0.3 °C/1000ft
Tropopause height with a temperature of -56.5 °C 36090 ft (11000 m)AMSL
Figure 1.46. Main characteristics of the ISA
We emphasize that in the ISA, the tropopause is found at 11000 m (ca.

36 090 ft) where the air temperature is -56.5 °C, which is the lowest
temperature in the ISA. Note that this value is only valid in that model
atmosphere. In real atmospheric conditions, the temperature of the
tropopause could be lower or higher. In the ISA, air temperature remains the
same up to 20000 m (ca. 65 617 ft). There are no seasonal changes regarding
the height of the tropopause.
Altitude can also be given in pressure levels. These are always rounded to
integer values. Therefore, 1013 hPa was given at the altitude of 0 m instead of
1013.25 hPa, the mean sea level pressure according to the ISA.
Note: Air density is approximately half of the mean sea level value at 20 000 ft and
approximately a quarter of the mean sea level value at 40 000 ft.
The ISA atmospheric pressure levels, flight levels and the corresponding altitudes and air densities from highest
altitude to ground level
Pressure level
Flight level Altitude in feet Altitude in metres Air density in kg/m’
in hectopascals
50hPa FL600 60000 ft 18288 m 0.003 kg/m3
150 hPa FL450 45000 ft 13720 m 0.238 kg/m3
200 hPa FL390 39000 ft 11890 m 0.317 kg/m3
250 hPa FL340 34000 ft 10360 m 0.395 kg/m3
300 hPa FL300 30000 ft 9150 m 0.459 kg/m3
400 hPa FL240 24000 ft 7315 m 0.569 kg/m3
500 hPa FL180 18000 ft 5500 rn 0.698 kg/m3
600 hPa FL140 14000 ft 4270 m 0.796 kg/m3
700 hPa FL100 10000 ft 3050 m 0.904 kg/m3
850 hPa FL050 5000 ft 1525 m 1.055 kg/m3
1013 hPa - sea level (0 ft) sea level (0 m) 1.225 kg/m3
Figure 1.47. ISA atmospheric pressure levels
Note: Flight levels are explained later.
Please keep in mind that a specific pressure level based on a given height and
a specific height based on a given pressure level can be approximated by using
Equation 1.16 and Equation 1.17 in Section 1.3. Detailed calculations can be
found later in this chapter.
Deviation from the ISA is marked with ISA- or ISA+ whether or not the
measured value of the atmosphere is below or above the value of the ISA. For
example, ISA+4 means that the observed temperature at mean sea level is
19 °C because it is 4 °C above the value of the ISA standard temperature at
mean sea level, which is 15 °C.
In flight, it is important to monitor the air temperature and pressure deviations

from the ISA standards because flight conditions can change in different
atmospheric states and because these measurements are needed to
determine altitude.
In accordance with Figure 1.46, the following temperature lapse rates are
used in the ISA. Air temperature decreases at a rate of 1.98 °C per 1000 ft.
Above the top of the troposphere at 11000 m (ca. 36 090 ft), air temperature
remains constant up to 20000 m (ca. 65 617 ft). From this altitude, air
temperature increases slightly again at a rate of 0.3 °C per 1000 ft up to the
standard altitude of the stratopause.
Atmospheric layer Altitude in feet Altitude in metres Temperature in °C
Thermosphere ca. 278870 ft - ca. 1968500 ft 85000 - 600000 m -90 °C - 1500 °C
Mesosphere ca. 164000 ft-ca. 278870 ft 50000 - 85000 m 0 °C - -90 °C
Stratosphere 36090 ft-ca. 164000 ft 11000-50000 m -56.5 °C - 0 °C
Troposphere 0 ft - 36090 ft 0-11000 m 15 °C--56.5 °C
Figure 1.48. Standard height and temperatures of main atmospheric layers in

the ISA
Flight levels
As can be seen in Figure 1.47, pressure levels correspond to different
altitudes. In conjunction with this, we introduce the concept of flight levels
(abbreviated as FL). Flight levels are based on the datum pressure of
1013.25 hPa, the mean sea level pressure in the ISA. Flight level is expressed
in units of distance (feet or metres) and its value is the vertical distance from
1013.25 hPa, considering the ISA temperature conditions throughout the
layer. The goal of using flight levels is having a convention to determine
aircrafts' levels compared to each other with the same reference pressure and
thus the same deviation. There are distinct flight levels that are separated
from each other by specific pressure intervals.
Flight levels are given by their acronyms, FL and with a two or three-digit
number which expresses pressure altitude in units of hundred feet. There is a
minimum distance between flight levels of 500 ft at lower levels and 1000 ft
at higher levels. For example, 500 hPa is equivalent to 18 000 ft. Therefore,
the corresponding flight level is FL180.
STUDY TEST
1.6. Altimetry
1.6.1. Terminology and definitions

In Section 1.1 we mentioned that the lower boundary of the Earth’s
atmosphere is not a plane surface because of its relief, which must be taken
into account during flight. Let us consider the following example. Assume two
airports, A and B. A is located on a seacoast and B is in a mountainous area.
This means that airport B is located "above" airport A. A pilot travels their
plane from A to B. The plane considers its height to starting on the runway at
airport A to be 0 ft. If there are poor visual conditions during the landing at
airport B, the pilot may crash the plane if they descend back to 0 ft, because
the "real" height of airport B is greater than that of airport A.
First, the following terminologies shall be introduced. In Section 1.6, the

words "height" and "altitude" cannot be used interchangeably. As we can see
below, these words have different meanings. Level can be defined as a surface
with constant values of the quantity in question. Let us consider a point or an
object behaving like a point (i.e. an aircraft). Height is the vertical distance of
the point or the object from a specified level. This fixed level is in most cases
the ground. The altitude can be defined as the vertical distance between the
point or object and the mean sea level (abbreviated as MSL). Elevation means
the vertical distance from mean sea level to a stated level, for example, for an
object on the Earth’s surface. Note that height, elevation and altitude are
expressed in units of distance (feet or metres).
In aviation there are specific altitude definitions. For example, pressure

altitude is the altitude of the current pressure level in the ISA. For a specific
pressure altitude, the air pressure will always be the same. A constant isobaric
surface (e.g. 300 hPa) is always equivalent to a constant pressure altitude. In
the ISA (in other words, at the standard temperature), pressure altitude has
the same value as density altitude. Temperature correction causes a difference
between the two types of altitude. Temperature correction is not needed in
the ISA because the values of the pressure and density altitude are the same.
Note: Flight levels correspond to pressure altitudes, which are expressed in
hundreds of feet. When flying over a pressure surface, the altitude change as the
surface inclines. However, it will not be indicated on the altimeter.
True height (or absolute altitude) is the real distance beneath the aircraft to
the ground. Indicated altitude (for example, the flight level) is only the same as
true altitude if the temperature and pressure conditions are equal to the ISA
conditions. Note that altitude measured by an altimeter is called the indicated
altitude. Because of its definition, flight level is not equal to true altitude,
which is the actual altitude of the aircraft above the mean sea level. If a given
flight level descends (ascends), it means that the pressure is decreasing
(increasing) at the given height. If the temperature is warmer than the ISA,
then the true altitude is higher than the indicated altitude. If the temperature
is colder than the ISA, then the true altitude is lower than the indicated
altitude (see the figure below).
Figure 1.49. Effects of deviations from the ISA air temperature and pressure
on true altitude
1.6.2. Altimeter settings
As we mentioned in Section 1.5, an altimeter is an instrument used to
determine the vertical location of the aircraft, which indicates the approximate
distance between two pressure surfaces. The altimeter's ability to indicate
altitude is based on the fact that pressure decreases with altitude. Altitude is
calculated using air pressure, according to the barometric formula. In the
altimeter, there is an aneroid capsule with a specific air pressure that measures
the static pressure surrounding the aircraft. The box expands and contracts
depending on the aspect ratio of the external and internal air pressures (in
other words, the altimeter contains an aneroid barometer). With a knob on the
instrument you can set a reference pressure. You can choose different
reference pressure types (see below). Therefore, the altimeter indicates the
vertical difference between the pressure level surrounding the aircraft and the
reference pressure set in the altimeter reference window. If external pressure
decreases (increases) when altitude of aircraft is increasing (decreasing), then
the box expands (contracts). If we attach an indicator and scale to the box, we
can measure the altitude.
Altimeter setting refers to the value set on the altimeter subscale. To have
standard values, the following types of air pressure "Q codes" settings were
introduced. Q codes are three letter codes all starting with the letter Q, which
originated in radiotelegraph communication. The letter Q has no set meaning,
but sometimes meaning is assigned to it, as we can see below.
QFE (Quantified Field Elevation or Q Field Elevation) is the barometric

pressure at airfield level, which is the air pressure measured by a barometer at
the official airfield reference point. If QFE is used as an altimeter setting, then
the altimeter indicates the height between the airport reference point and the
aircraft. When the aircraft is on the runway, the altimeter should indicate 0 ft.
QFE is air pressure reduced to the datum level of the airport, applying
corrections for the outside-air temperature.
QNH (Quantified Nautical Height or Q Nautical Height) is the barometric

pressure at the airport (QFE) reduced to mean sea level using values of the
standard atmosphere (the ISA barometric lapse rate) and the elevation of the
airport. This setting indicates the vertical distance above mean sea level. Only
elevation must be known to be able to calculate QNH from QFE. QNH will
therefore not include any corrections for non-standard temperatures. In this
case, the true altitude will be equal to the indicated altitude only under the
ISA conditions. If the altimeter is set to the current value of QNH, then the
altimeter will always indicate the elevation of the airport. Note that the QNH
varies from one place to another and that when navigating you must adjust
the QNH enroute in order to ensure the correct datum for your altimeter. In
many countries there is an agreement by which you can be provided with a
forecast of the lowest expected value of QNH for an area. This provides a safe
margin and should be used if available.
QFF is QFE reduced to mean sea level with regards to the actual outside air
temperature (abbreviated as OAT). If the air temperature is standard (in
accordance with the ISA) then the QFF is equal to the QNH. If the
temperature is colder than the ISA, then the QFF will be higher than the QNH
due to an increase in the molecule number between the QFE level and the
mean sea level. If the temperature is warmer than the ISA, then the QFF will
be lower than the QNH (table below).
Note: QFF is introduced only for meteorological purposes. It is not used to measure
altitude. QNH, QFE and QFF can have the same value only at an airport at MSL
and this is true not just in the ISA conditions.
Relationship between QFF and QNH in different temperature conditions
Above sea level Below sea level

Temperature warmer than QFF < Temperature warmer than QFF >
ISA QNH ISA QNH
Temperature colder than QFF > Temperature colder than QFF <
ISA QNH ISA QNH
QNE QNE is the standard altimeter setting when the reference pressure is
1013 hPa. It gives the pressure altitude of the aerodrome and is used in the
case of flight levels to determine altitude. In the case of assigning flight levels,
a pressure level of zero is the ISA standard mean sea level pressure, which is
1013 hPa. This can be at, above or below the real mean sea level, depending
on the actual weather conditions. Thus, the standard altimeter setting
indicates that the value of 1013 hPa is set in the altimeter reference window.
During an instrument approach QNH settings are used. Using QNH as an
altimeter setting is safer closer to the ground, as it is using measured pressure
value as a reference. Standard setting procedure guarantees that when two
aircraft meet each other, they always have the same reference pressure and
thus the same deviation.
Figure 1.50. Comparison of QFE, QNE, QNH and flight level
As the QNH changes continuously, an airspace is divided into several regions

in which QNH values are measured. But because the value of QNH must be
set in each region, it is better to use the flight level at higher elevations in
which the international standard values are used globally. Thus, the takeoff is
carried out using QNH as a reference, and during the climb you switch to
standard values when passing the transition altitude (abbreviated as TA).
Transition Altitude is the altitude at or below which we refer to our vertical
position in terms of altitude based on QNH. Transition Altitude is specified for
each airport, usually depending on the relief around it. The transition level
(abbreviated as TRL) is the lowest specified flight level above TA, and TRL is
determined locally by considering surrounding terrain, temperature and air
pressure. In certain countries, the TRL must be at least 1000 ft above the TA
as its thickness depends on the QNH. On approach you switch from standard
back to QNH when you pass the Transition Level. The lowest usable flight
level is the first flight level available for use, which is at 500 ft above TRL. The
transition layer is the layer between the TA and the TRL, where traffic is using
both QNH and standard altimeter setting. This layer is located around airports
and only continuous descending or ascending is permitted in it (see
Figure 1.51).
Terrain clearance is the height of an aircraft above the highest obstacle i.e.
above the ground level (abbreviated as AGL). There are different types of such
altitudes:
• MEA00: The altitude for an en-route segment that provides adequate

reception of relevant navigation facilities and ATS communications,
complies with the airspace structure and provides the required obstacle
clearance.
• MSA00: The lowest altitude which may be used which will provide a
minimum clearance of 300 m (1000 ft) above all objects located in an area
contained within a sector of a circle of 46 km (25 NM).
Note: Radius centred on a significant point, the aerodrome reference point (ARP)
or the heliport reference point (HRP).
• MORA00: Altitude which provides 2 000 ft of terrain clearance in
mountainous areas and 1000 ft in non-mountainous regions; at the same
time it provides a reference point of clearance of 10 NM from the route
centreline.
• MOCA°°: The minimum altitude for a defined segment that provides the
required obstacle clearance.
Figure 1.51. Illustration of transition altitude, transition layer and transition
level
1.6.3. Corrections and calculations

Corrections
Actual altitude (true altitude) depends on the mean temperature of the layer
of air between the reference pressure surface and the static pressure surface
(which is the level of the aircraft) and on the pressure. Thus, we need to use
corrections on measured altitudes for temperature and pressure deviations
from standard values. In the case of using the QNH for the altimeter setting,
we need to apply temperature correction only, but when flying, flight level
pressure correction is also needed. The corrected value is usually called the
true altitude which of course is not quite true, since in most cases very rough
estimates are made for the temperature distribution between the aircraft and
the mean sea level or the ground.
When applying temperature correction, different methods can be used. We
need to compare the ambient air temperature with the ISA temperature value
for the same level and determine the deviation. The first method is to use 4 %
for each 10 °C deviation from the ISA (1 % for each 2.5 °C deviation) as a rule
of thumb, but this is only accurate for temperatures on an altimeter setting
source (at the elevation of the airport) above -15 °C.
Note: For simplicity's sake, this rule of thumb is used in every calculation at the end
of this chapter.
In practice, pilots read the value of the currently needed correction from a
temperature correction table. The values were calculated for a sea level
aerodrome with a formula using linear approximation for temperature change.
We apply the corrections for the mass of air between the ground and the
indicated altitude if the ground is above the reference pressure surface. The
result will be the difference between the indicated and the true altitude. If the
air mass below the aircraft is warmer than the ISA, the true altitude is higher
than the indicated altitude, and thus we must add the value of the deviation
to the indicated value. When the air mass below the aircraft is colder than the
ISA, the true altitude is lower than indicated, and thus we must subtract the
value of the deviation from the indicated value. This can be a dangerous
situation when flying at low altitudes or over mountains. These low
temperatures are generally measured within the cold season, depending on
the latitude.
The values in the table were calculated assuming that the aerodrome is
located at sea level. The following formula gives a more accurate
approximation of temperature correction values for different heights and for
different temperature deviations from the ISA temperature conditions with a
maximum of 5 % error. It is recommended by the International Civil Aviation
Organization (abbreviated as ICAO).
Temperature
r
correction = H x ---------- ——-----------
273 + t0 - 0.5 Lo (H + Hss)
where H is the minimum height above the aerodrome, to is the temperature

calculated to sea level (given in °C), Lq is 0.00198 °C/ft, Hss's the elevation
of the airfield. Where:
— taeroc[rome + LoHaerodrome
The taerodrome and Haerodrome are the temperature and the elevation of the
aerodrome, respectively.
To estimate the true altitude of an aircraft maintaining flight levels, after

applying temperature correction, pressure correction is needed as well. For
pressure correction, we apply a correction of 27 ft for each 1 hPa difference
between the QNH and the standard 1013 hPa in lower levels close to the
ground (in calculations below 5 000 ft). As we mentioned above, if the actual
QNH is lower than 1013 hPa, then the true altitude is lower than the
indicated altitude. If the QNH is higher than 1013 hPa, then the true altitude
is higher than indicated altitude.
The pressure altitude and the true altitude will be equal only when standard
atmospheric conditions exist, i.e. there is no temperature deviation from the
ISA and the pressure at sea level is 1013 hPa.
Note that when maintaining flight levels, you can be sure that your true
altitude is above the minimum safe altitude if the temperature equals or is
warmer than the ISA and if the local QNH is equal to or higher than 1013 hPa.
For calculating the lowest usable flight level for clearing the obstacle, you
must know the highest negative temperature deviation from the ISA and the
lowest value of QNH below 1013 hPa. These conditions will provide the most
dangerous situation, which is a negative ISA temperature deviation and a very
low QNH, which make your true altitude lower than the indicated altitude.
If the aircraft is descending and passing the Transition Level, the pilot must
change the altimeter setting from standard setting (flight level) to the QNH
setting. If the aircraft is in a climb and passing the Transition Level, the pilot
must change from the QNH to the standard,, so calculation of the difference
between the actual QNH and 1013 hPa is required. To calculate the QNH
adjustment, we apply the correction of 27 ft for each 1 hPa difference
between the QNH and 1013 hPa. Thus, if the actual QNH in the area that we
are flying over is lower than 1013 hPa, then the true altitude is lower than the
indicated altitude, and we have to add 27 ft per every hPa difference to have
the indicated altitude after switching from QNH to flight level. If the QNH is
higher than 1013 hPa, the true altitude is higher than the indicated and we
must subtract 27 ft per every hPa of indicated altitude from the QNH setting,
while switching into flight levels. Overall, we can say that changing the
altimeter setting (the reference pressure value) to a lower (higher) reference
value means the indicated altitude will decrease (increase).
Calculations
In the following section, different readings on the altimeter will be calculated
based on changes to the altimeter setting.
During the calculations, the following principles will be taken into account:
a. All calculations are based on rounded pressure values to the nearest

lower hPa.
b. The value for the barometric lapse rate near mean sea level is 27 ft (8 m)
per 1 hPa (1 inch of pressure change 11000 ft altitude in non-SI unit).
c. To determine the true altitude/height, the following rule of thumb,

called the 4 %-rule, shall be used: the altitude/height changes by 4 % for
each 10 °C temperature deviation from the ISA.
d. If no further information is given, the deviation of outside-air

temperature from the ISA is considered to be constantly the same, given
value of the whole layer.
e. The elevation of the airport has to be taken into account. Temperature

correction has to be considered for the layer between the ground and
the position of the aircraft.
Example: QFE QNH
As we have seen before, the QFE setting shows 0 ft at airport level, because
QFE is the measured ground level air pressure at the airport. QNH is the air
pressure converted to mean sea level. When the pilot sets the current QNH
into the altimeter, the indicated altitude will be the elevation of the airport
when on the ground.
Assume that the QFE at an airport is 1000 hPa and the elevation of the
airfield is 984 ft (300 m). The barometric lapse rate near the surface is 27 ft
(8 m) / 1 hPa; therefore, we can calculate the QNH by increasing the altimeter
setting by 1 hPa for each 27 ft (8 m). Consequently, 984 ft / 27 ft/hPa =
36 hPa must be added to the QFE value, so the approximate value of QNH is
1000 hPa + 36 hPa = 1036 hPa. To summarise, QNH can be calculated as the
sum of the QFE and the quotient of the airport elevation (in feet) and 27 ft.
Example: QNH -> QFE
To calculate QFE from QNH, only the elevation of the airfield must be known.
If we know the QNH and the elevation of the airport and we divide the value
of the elevation (given in feet) by 27 ft and subtract this value from the QNH,
we get the QFE.
For example, the elevation of Prague is 1247 ft (ca. 380 m). The QNH is
1000 hPa. We can calculate QFE based on the given data. If the pilot sets the
current QFE into the altimeter setting window, the altimeter will indicate zero
when on the ground. In this case the altimeter indicates the QNH, which is the
elevation of the airport when on the ground. Therefore, the altimeter will
indicate 1247 ft. We need to find out the QFE, which is the altimeter setting
that will cause a reading of 0 ft. When we set a lower value into the altimeter
window, the altimeter indication decreases and vice versa. In this case, we
need to reduce the altimeter indication by 1247 ft, so we must reduce the
altimeter setting value. A 1247 ft-reading reduction means a reference value
change of approximately 1247 ft / 27 ft/hPa = 46 hPa. This must be
subtracted from the QNH, which means that QFE is 1000 hPa - 46 hPa =
954 hPa.
Example: QNH —> FL(QNE), Transition level
To calculate the indicated altitude in the case of a standard setting from a

given QNH value, we need to calculate the difference between 1013 hPa and
QNH, then multiply the result by 27 ft. If the QNH is higher than 1013 hPa,
we must subtract this value from the QNH to get the QNE and vice versa.
After takeoff, the aircraft reaches the Transition Altitude, after which the
altimeter setting must be change from QNH to FL.
If the local QNH was 980 hPa after changing the altimeter setting to standard
(1013 hPa), the indicated altitude will increase. Doing the following
calculation: 1013 hPa - 980 hPa = 33 hPa, the pressure correction is 33 hPa x
27 ft/hPa = 891 ft. The indicated altitude will increase with this value.
Example: FL(QNE) —> QNH, Transition level
Assume that an airplane is flying at FL040 and changing to QNH 1000 hPa.
Calculate the altimeter indication after the setting change. In this case you
change the setting from 1013 hPa (standard pressure setting) to 1000 hPa.
The difference is 13 hPa. 1 hPa is approximately equal with a 27 ft-change in
altitude. 13 ft multiplied with 27 ft/hPa gives us a result of 351 ft. We have to
subtract this from 4000 ft (FL040). Thus, the result will be 3 649 ft.
Example: True altitude calculation at Flight level
Assume that an aeroplane is flying at FL300, the OAT is -60 °C and the
pressure at MSL is 1010 hPa. For calculating the true altitude, we must know
the ISA air temperature for FL300. In the ISA, air temperature at sea level is
15 °C and the temperature lapse rate is -2 °C/1000 ft. FL300 means there is a
30000 ft indicated altitude. 15 °C - 30 °C x 2 = -45 °C would be the ISA
temperature. (We assume that the difference between actual temperature and
the ISA temperature is valid for the whole troposphere). First, we have to
calculate the pressure correction with the deviation from the standard mean
sea level pressure: 1013 hPa - 1010 hPa = 3 hPa. The barometric lapse rate
near the surface is 27 ft (8 m) / 1 hPa, so the pressure correction will be 3 hPa
x 27 ft/hPa = 81 ft, which we must subtract from the indicated altitude
(30000 ft-81 ft = 29 919 ft).
Then we need to calculate the temperature correction. Thus, the real

temperature is ISA -15 °C. A 10 °C deviation is generally approximated with a
4 % altitude deviation from the ISA altitude (i.e. 0.4 % / 1 °C), which is 6 % for
a 15 °C deviation. 6 % of 29 919 ft is 1795 ft in this case. 29 919 ft - 1795 ft
= 28124 ft will be the approximate true altitude.
Example: True altitude calculation in the case of QNH altimeter setting
Consider an aeroplane flying with a QNH altimeter setting of 3000 ft (the ISA
air temperature is 6 °C colder at this level, compared to MSL, i.e. 9 °C) and the
OAT is -4 °C. The true altitude has to be corrected with temperature
correction. The temperature difference between the ISA air temperature and
the OAT is 13 °C. Because of this, we have to subtract 5.2 % of the 3 000 ft
from the altitude of the aeroplane. In this case, 3 000 ft -156 ft = 2 844 ft is
the true altitude.
Example: Calculation of layer thickness
Let us calculate the thickness of the layer between FL060 and FL100 in the
case of +10 °C temperature deviation from the ISA temperature. If the real
temperature conditions were equal to the ISA conditions, the thickness would
be 4000 ft. But in this case, a 10 °C deviation from the ISA is approximately
equal to a 4 % difference in altitude. In the case of a warmer air mass, the
deviation is a thicker layer, so we have to add the 4 % of 4000 ft to 4000 ft,
which is 160 ft. The result will be a 4160 ft layer thickness.
Example: Calculation of terrain clearance and lowest usable flight level
Assume that the altimeter is set to 1000 hPa QNH. You must fly over a
mountain with a 10000 ft elevation and a terrain clearance of at least 1500 ft.
What is the required minimum indicated altitude when the QNH at the
nearest airport is 980 hPa and the temperature is 10 °C colder than the ISA?
We must fly at 11500 ft AMSL. This altitude must be the true altitude of the
aircraft. As the altimeter setting in this example is 1000 hPa, the indicated
altitude will not be the true altitude. First, we have to adjust the QNH
deviation, which is 20 hPa. The deviation is 20 hPa x 27 ft I hPa = 540 ft, so
the true altitude will be 540 ft lower than the indicated altitude. The second
step is to adjust the temperature deviation from the ISA. A 10 °C deviation is
approximately equal to a 4 % deviation in altitude. If the temperature is colder
than the ISA, the indicated altitude will be lower, so 4 % of 11500 ft is 460 ft.
Because of this, the indicated altitude has to be higher than these values. The
minimum indicated altitude for safely clear the obstacle must be 11500 ft
540 ft + 460 ft = 12 500 ft.
BEFORE EXAM u"
STUDY TEST
The air is a mixture of various gases which contains mainly nitrogen (ca. 78 %),
oxygen (ca. 21 %) and argon (ca. 0.9 %). Carbon dioxide (ca. 0.04 %) can also be
found as a trace gas.
The Earth’s atmosphere is divided into stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere
and exosphere. The thin boundary layers between them are called the
tropopause, the stratopause, the mesopause and the thermopause.
The troposphere is the most important layer for aviation as it contains half of
the mass of the air and more than 90 % of all water vapour (weather processes).
The normal lapse rate in the troposphere is about -2 °C/1000 ft (or
-0.65 °C/100 m). At the tropopause, temperatures remains almost constant.
The thickness of the tropopause (troposphere) is higher (thicker) over warmer
surfaces, and lower (thinner) over colder surface. When temperature is equally
distributed, then the air pressure at the surface can also cause changes in the
Uneven heating of the Earth by the Sun can be considered the primary source
of all weather processes. Transfer of heat is primarily realised through radiation,
conduction, convection and condensation. The Earth’s atmosphere is heated
primarily by insolation.
Inversion is a specific situation in the troposphere where temperatures increase
as height increases.
The amount of incoming solar radiation depends on the time duration of
insolation absorbed by the Earth and the elevation of the Sun.
Lower (higher) specific heat belongs to surfaces with faster (slower) warming
and cooling processes. Surfaces that contain higher amounts of water (e.g. sea
surfaces, vegetation) have higher specific heat than drier surfaces (e.g. desert).
Surfaces with higher (lower) specific heats warm up and cool down more slowly
(faster) than surfaces with lower (higher) specific heats.
Atmospheric (air) pressure is the weight of the air column in the Earth’s
atmosphere per unit area.
Isobars are connecting points with the same air pressure on surface weather
maps.
Pressure variation with height is not linear. Barometric lapse rate is the change
Lower (higher) specific heat belongs to surfaces with faster (slower) warming
and cooling processes. Surfaces that contain higher amounts of water (e.g. sea
surfaces, vegetation) have higher specific heat than drier surfaces (e.g. desert).
Surfaces with higher (lower) specific heats warm up and cool down more slowly
(faster) than surfaces with lower (higher) specific heats.
Atmospheric (air) pressure is the weight of the air column in the Earth’s
atmosphere per unit area.
Isobars are connecting points with the same air pressure on surface weather
maps.
Pressure variation with height is not linear. Barometric lapse rate is the change
of air pressure with height. It is considered to be 27 ft (8 m) / 1 hPa near MSL
and 50 ft (15 m) / 1 hPa above approx. 18 000 ft (ca. 5 500 m).
The barometric lapse rate depends on height and air temperature. If the height
of the air column decreases, then the air temperature decreases and the air
pressure increases.
A "low" (a "high") develops if the air pressure at the surface of the Earth in a
given area is lower (higher) than its surrounding environment. Cyclones
(anticyclones) are low (high) pressure areas and are often associated with
troughs (ridges).
In cyclones, the air flows inwards to the centre near the surface of the Earth
with an ascending movement, which leads to cloud formation and precipitation
with poor visibility. The closer the isobars are, the deeper the cyclone is and the
stronger the wind blows.
In anticyclones, the air flows outwards from the centre near the Earth's surface
with a descending movement, which mainly blocks cloud formation and
precipitation resulting clear sky. As air descends it warms, thereby developing
an inversion. Poor visibility can be experienced due to fog and haze.
the air temperature. It is only for meteorological purposes.
Isohypses are lines on upper-level weather maps that connect points with the
same height on an isobaric surface above mean sea level.
decrease as altitude increases.
Humid air is less dense than dry air.
precipitation resulting clear sky. As air descends it warms, thereby developing
an inversion. Poor visibility can be experienced due to fog and haze.
the air temperature. It is only for meteorological purposes.
Isohypses are lines on upper-level weather maps that connect points with the
same height on an isobaric surface above mean sea level.
decrease as altitude increases.
Humid air is less dense than dry air.
Density altitude increases with decreasing air density. This means that density
altitude increases as air temperature increases and air pressure decreases.
Density altitude also increases as humidity of the air increases.
The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is the theoretical model of the real
atmosphere. In the ISA, the most important standard values of mean sea level
are: 1013.25 hPa for mean sea level pressure, 15 °C for mean temperature and
-2 °C/1000 ft temperature lapse rate, the tropopause is found at 11 km
(36 090 ft) and its temperature is -56.5 °C.
QNH, QFE and QFF can have the same value only at an airport at Mean Sea
Level.
Flying into a colder (warmer) temperature area, true altitude will be lower
(higher) than the indicated altitude; in other words, the altimeter will overread
(underread). Flying into a lower (higher) pressure area, the true altitude will be
lower (higher) than the indicated altitude.
The most dangerous situation in an altitude measurement is the negative
deviation from the ISA temperature with a very low QNH. These conditions
make your true altitude lower than the indicated altitude if you are using a
standard altimeter setting. For calculating the lowest usable flight level for
clearing the obstacle, you must know the highest negative temperature
deviation from the ISA and the lowest value of QNH below 1013 hPa.
Changing the altimeter setting into a lower (higher) reference value will cause
the indicated altitude to decrease (increase).
Wind
On Earth, the uneven distribution of air temperature causes pressure
differences between areas located along different geographic latitudes from
which pressure gradient originates. The pressure gradient is proportional to
the pressure gradient force (PGF) which causes the formation of wind
systems.
Wind is defined as horizontal movement of the air. Wind can form anywhere
and anytime, which means various horizontal ranges and life spans. For
example, if the PGF acts along a geographic latitude permanently then it
results in the development of wind systems on planetary scales, such as trade
winds between the Equator and the Tropic of Cancer I Tropic of Capricorn. On
smaller scales, characteristic wind systems form which are associated with
troughs and ridges, mid-latitude cyclones and anticyclones etc. These are
considered large-scale systems. The life span of the above-listed small and
large scale phenomena is a couple of days or a few weeks. Even smaller scale,
local winds are observable with diurnal variation in the vicinity of
mountainous area and sea.
In the opening chapter, the definition of wind and its measurement will be
described. Then, atmospheric forces which act on the air parcel and lead to
the formation of wind will be explained. The track of the air parcels is often
curved, which means that - besides the PGF - other forces also affect them
significantly. In a rotating reference frame such as the Earth, the Coriolis force
and the centrifugal force may influence atmospheric movement. Furthermore,
due to the roughness of the ground, frictional force also has a considerable
role in the formation of winds. The relationship between these forces will be
also discussed in this chapter. The above-mentioned effects determine the
general global circulation of the air on Earth. A conceptual model of this
circulation will also be explained. After that, winds on smaller scale, such as
local winds and turbulent air flows will be described. Finally, the formation and
main characteristics of jet streams will be described.
2.1. Definition and measurement
of wind
2.1.1. Definition and measurement

Basic explanation of wind
Wind is the horizontal movement of air parcels, which means that they flow
parallel to the Earth's surface. Primarily, wind can be characterised by its
direction and its speed.
Wind direction is the direction from which the wind blows. The four cardinal
directions are north (N), east (E), south (S) and west (W) at 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°,
respectively. They divide a full circle (360°) into four equal parts. The four
intercardinal directions are distinguished from the cardinal directions of
northeast (NE), southeast (SE), southwest (SW) and northwest (NW) at 45°,
135°, 225°, 315°, respectively. These directions can be displayed on a
compass rose (or wind rose). If only the cardinal directions are shown, then it
is called a four-point compass rose (see the first figure below). If it contains
both the cardinal and intercardinal points, then it is called an eight-point
compass rose (see the second figure below).
N
Figure 2.1. A four-point compass rose and an eight-point compass rose
In aviation, wind directions are expressed in degrees in reference to the North

Pole (called true north) or to the North Magnetic Pole (called magnetic north).
For example, 225° means that wind blows from southwest to northwest, or
that the wind is southwesterly or northwestward.
Wind speed is the distance travelled by an air particle divided by a period of

time. Its SI unit is m/s, which can be converted into km/h by multiplying it by
3.6. In meteorology, aviation and maritime transport knots (abbreviated as kt)
are often used to measure wind speed; however, this is not an SI unit. One
knot is equal to one nautical mile per hour (1 nautical mile (NM) = 1852 m).
More information about the units of wind can be found in Section 10.2.1.
To convert SI units of speed to knots and vice versa, the following rules of
Figure 2.1. A four-point compass rose and an eight-point compass rose
In aviation, wind directions are expressed in degrees in reference to the North

Pole (called true north) or to the North Magnetic Pole (called magnetic north).
For example, 225° means that wind blows from southwest to northwest, or
that the wind is southwesterly or northwestward.
Wind speed is the distance travelled by an air particle divided by a period of

time. Its SI unit is m/s, which can be converted into km/h by multiplying it by
3.6. In meteorology, aviation and maritime transport knots (abbreviated as kt)
are often used to measure wind speed; however, this is not an SI unit. One
knot is equal to one nautical mile per hour (1 nautical mile (NM) = 1852 m).
More information about the units of wind can be found in Section 10.2.1.
To convert SI units of speed to knots and vice versa, the following rules of
thumb can be used to give us good approximations:
1. m/s —> kt: Double the m/s value to get the approximation of the kt
value. (One m/s is approximately two kt.)
2. kt —> m/s: Divide the kt value by two to get the approximation of the
m/s value.
3. km/h —> kt: Divide the km/h value by 1.852 to get an approximation of
the kt value.
4. kt —> km/h: Multiply the kt value by 1.852 to get an approximation of

the km/h value.
Let us consider the following examples.
EXAMPLE 2.1 L"
In Chapter 1, we introduced the terms isotherms, isobars and isohypses. By

analogy, lines that connect points with the same wind speed on a weather
map are called isotachs.
Finally, we introduce two important terms that are suitable to characterise the
wind direction. If there is a clockwise (counter-clockwise) change in wind
direction then the wind is veering (backing). See the figure below.
Example of using m/s —> kt:
The wind speed is 20 m/s. It is ca. 40 kt, because 2 x 20 m/s = 40 kt.
Example of using kt —> m/s:

The wind speed is 20 kt. It is ca. 10 m/s, because 20/2 kt = 10 m/s.
Example of using km/h —> kt:

The wind speed is 90 km/h. It is ca. 49 kt, because 90/1.852 km/h = 48.6 kt.
Example of using kt —> km/h:

The wind speed is 25 kt. It is ca. 46 km/h, because 1.852 x 25 kt = 46.3 km/h.
/ veering \ / backing \
210° (clockwise) 150° 210° (anti-clockwise) 150°
Figure 2.2. Veering and backing wind
Detailed explanation of wind

Wind velocity
In physics, wind speed and wind direction can be described by the velocity
vector (denoted by V). In the case of wind, the magnitude of the velocity
vector is the wind speed (denoted by v) and its direction corresponds to the
wind direction.
Please keep in mind that pressure is a scalar quantity. This means that it acts
in all directions in a point. Velocity is a vector quantity. Consequently, its value
depends on its direction.
See the figure below as an explanation of velocity. Let us consider a reference

frame with the origin of O. Assume an object that moves from point P to the
point P .
By definition, the velocity of the object is the derivative of its position with
J
respect to time (marked with — or with the symbol • above the derivative),
where velocity, position and time are denoted by V, and t, respectively:
r (t + At) —r (t)
= lim
At—>0 At
Note that velocity can be formulated as the limit in the equation above. The
position of the object is the function of the time. It has a dimension of length.
Consequently, it is given in the SI unit m. Time is expressed in the SI unit s.
Therefore, the SI unit of velocity is y.
Figure 2.3. Displacement and velocity of an object
In the Cartesian coordinate system, the position vector has three components,
namely x, y and z. Therefore, the components of the velocity, denoted by u, v
and w, can be described as:
—> f,\ / dx dy dz
V y J \ dt ’ dt ’ dt /
= (x(t), y(t), z(t))

= (u(t), v(t), w(t))
Note that wind is defined as the horizontal movement of air parcels, which
means that only horizontal components of the velocity (u and v) are taken into
account. However, vertical components of the velocity (w) cannot be
negligible. Their importance will be emphasized concerning atmospheric
convection.
The method to calculate the magnitude of velocity, i.e. wind speed, depends
on the path of the movement. If the wind blows along a linear path with a
constant velocity, then its speed can be calculated as the quotient of its
displacement between two points (denoted by s, measured in the SI units m)
and its period of time:
(2.1)
If the air parcels flow along a circular path while the magnitude of the velocity
remains constant, then wind speed can be calculated as the product of the
radius of the circular path and the angular velocity.
It is worth mentioning that the wind speed increases as the height increases.
There is a logarithmic relationship between wind speed and height in the
troposphere.
Wind direction
As in Figure 2.1 we can see the four cardinal and the four intercardinal
directions divide a full circle into eight equal parts. We can distinguish
secondary intercardinal directions between cardinal and intercardinal
directions (see the figure below).
These are as follows: north-northeast (NNE), east-northeast (ENE), east

southeast (ESE), south-southeast (SSE), south-southwest (SSW), west
southwest (WSW), west-northwest (WNW) and north-northwest (NNW).
Figure 2.4. A sixteen-point compass rose
Wind direction is most frequently referenced to true north, which points in

the direction of the geographic North Pole. For example, in Meteorological
Actual Reports (abbreviated as METARs) and in Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts
(abbreviated as TAFs), wind direction is given with respect to the true north.
Note that the rotation axis of the Earth crosses the North Pole and South
Pole. True north occurs in the region of the Arctic Ocean. (The South Pole can
be found in Antarctica.)
However, there are some cases when wind direction is given in degrees
referenced to the magnetic north. The deviation from magnetic north from
true north is shown in the figure below. The needle of a magnetic compass
points in the direction of magnetic north. Consequently, if the wind blows
from south to north, then the velocity vector points in the direction in which
the needle of the magnetic compass points.
Figure 2.5. Differences between geographic and magnetic poles of the Earth
The magnetic field of the Earth changes over time, so a shifting can be
observed regarding the Magnetic North Pole. The magnetic north was
discovered over the northern territories of Canada in the 18th century but it is
moving towards Russia. Its movement is shown in the figure below. The
magnetic poles of the Earth are not antipodal, which means that they do not
move symmetrically. It is worth mentioning that, the magnetic field of the
Earth changes polarity after every period of hundreds of thousand years. The
signs of the changes can be detected in magnetised rock layers.
Figure 2.6. Modelled movement of the north magnetic pole from 1900 to
2020
Wind direction is rounded to the nearest 10° in meteorological reports. There

are 360° in a full circle; therefore, a total number of 36 values can be used for
wind directions.
There are other quantities to characterise wind such as wind pressure, which
is the pressure of the wind applied to a unit area of surface. Therefore, its SI
unit is the Pa. Another quantity is the wind distance, which is the length of
the moving air parcels during a period of time. It has the SI unit of m.
Conversion between m/s, km/h and kt
As we stated before, one knot is equal to one nautical mile per hour where
one nautical mile is equal to 1852 m.
For example, the wind speed of 11 m/s can be expressed in km/h and knots as
follows. First, we convert m/s to km/h:
s X 3 .6 = 39 .6
11 - h
Because 1 kt = 1 NM/h = 1852 m/h = 1.852 km/h, the following proportion

can be described:
39.6 ,
h __ x kt
1.852 1 kt
h
where x is the wind speed in knots in question. Therefore, x = 21.38 kt.
Note: If the given value is in the units of kt, then it has to be multiplied with 1.852
to get the value of km/h.
Explanation of wind measurement

Measurement methods of surface wind and upper-level wind differ from each
other. In the following section, the measurement of surface wind will be
explained. Wind measurement means both the determination of wind
direction and the measurement of wind speed.
Wind speed can be characterised by different quantities. The two main

quantities are two-minute average wind speed and ten-minute maximum wind
gust. The former is the average value of the wind speed over the previous two
minutes. The latter is the peak wind speed during the previous ten minutes.
Please note that the term wind gust is defined as an abrupt increase in wind
speed.
On weather maps the observed wind direction and wind speed are indicated
by wind barbs. See the figure below and Figure 2.8. A wind barb consists of a
line that points in the direction of the wind. At the end of the line various
symbols represent the observed wind speed. These symbols are the
followings: a short line represents 5 kt, a long line represents 10 kt and a black
rectangular triangle (or pennant) represents 50 kt. Values represented by the
above mentioned symbols can be added to each other. For example, a wind
barb with one short line, three long lines and one pennant means a wind
speed of 85 kt, because: 5 kt + 10 kt + 10 kt + 10 kt + 50 kt = 85 kt. An empty
circle means that the wind is calm.
wind calm
270°/5 kt
270°/10 kt
270°/15 kt
270°/50 kt
Figure 2.7. Symbols used on wind barbs
Note: The wind direction is 270°, which indicates that the wind is blowing from
west to north.
50 + 10 ♦ 10 + 5
wind blowing from the wind blowing from the
west at 75 knots south at 5 knots
wind blowing from the calm winds

northeast at 25 knots
Figure 2.8. Examples of wind barbs
Devices such as a weather vane (or wind vane) and windsock allow us to
determine wind direction. A weather vane is made of a horizontal rod that can
freely rotate around a vertical axis (In the following, horizontal means that the
device is parallel to the surface). A metal plate and an arrow-shaped object can
be found on its ends. The metal plate will turn into a position that is parallel to
the wind direction. The arrow will point in the opposite direction from which
the wind blows. A wind vane can be seen in the figure below (A).
A windsock is a cone shaped object made of fabric that can turn around a
vertical axis. It points in the opposite direction from which the wind blows.
Stripes on the windsock can be used to estimate the wind speed. A wind sock
is shown in the figure below (B).
Figure 2.9. Wind vane (A) and wind sock (B)
The instrument that is used for measuring wind speed is called an

anemometer (from anemos, Greek for "wind"). The two main types of
mechanic anemometer are the cup anemometer and the propeller
anemometer. See the figure below. To avoid being affected by various
obstacles such as buildings or trees, the anemometer is mounted on 8-10 m
tall tower above the ground. The cup anemometer contains three or four
hemispherical cups installed at the same distances on horizontal rods that are
fixed to each other. The device can rotate around a vertical axis. If the wind
starts to blow, at first the cups resist the pressure of the wind, and then they
start to move. The number of turns is proportional to the wind speed. The
propeller anemometer has a built-in wind vane with a horizontal axis that
turns the anemometer into a position that is parallel to the wind direction.
Therefore, it is also categorised as a vane anemometer. The propeller can be
considered a fan that is perpendicular to the axis. The number of measured
revolutions made by the fan is converted to wind speed.
Figure 2.10. Cup anemometer (A) and propeller (vane) anemometer (B)
Note: A cup anemometer can also have a built-in anemometer as we can see in
section A.
The previously described devices are used to measure surface wind. It is

measured over 2 minutes for local routine and special reports and ATS units,
and over 10 minutes for aerodrome routine meteorological reports (METARs)
and aerodrome special meteorological reports (SPECIs).
Weather balloons filled with hydrogen or helium are used to measure physical
quantities and conditions of the air in upper levels in the atmosphere.
Weather balloons are equipped with radiosondes that allow observational
stations located on the ground surface to track the route of weather balloons
and receive their data in real-time. The measuring devices are found in a box
that is attached to the weather balloon by a rope. They measure the vertical
profile of air pressure, air temperature, speed and direction of the wind as well
as atmospheric humidity. Balloons can reach the lower levels of the
stratosphere. They are able to detect clear-air turbulence and jet streams, and
thermodynamic diagrams can be created on the basis of the data that are
collected by the observational stations.
Figure 2.11. Weather balloon equipped with sensors to measure physical

quantities of upper levels in the atmosphere
Remarks on wind measurement

The measurement of surface wind has a long history. Wind vanes were used
to determine wind direction in Greece and China in ancient times. The first
mechanical anemometer to measure wind speed was invented by Italian
philosopher and architect Leon Battista Alberti in the 15th century.
Cup and propeller anemometers can be considered rotation anemometers. To

measure wind speed, other devices can be applied that emit laser beams or
sound waves. Instruments that emit sound waves are called sonic
anemometers. These devices contain sensors. Sensors are installed with fixed
distances from each other. The emitted sound waves by one sensor are
received by another. The period of time between emitting and receiving
depends on wind speed. Based on the elapsed time, wind speed can be
determined.
In upper levels of the atmosphere, instruments such as the wind profiler are
applied to measure wind speed. Among other remote-sensing devices, radars
can serve as a wind profiler, which emit electromagnetic waves that scatter
onto the particles in the air. Based on the measured energy of the
electromagnetic waves that are scattered back, the wind speed can be
determined.
Note: Anemometers are used to measure surface wind speed; therefore, they only
provide data for one level of the atmosphere, which is about 10 m above the
ground. Radars emit electromagnetic waves on different altitudes, so they measure
wind speed at different heights. Based on the measurements, three-dimensional
profiles of wind can be composed.
STUDY TEST
2.2. Primary cause of wind
2.2.1. Primary cause of wind, pressure

gradient, Coriolis force, gradient wind
Basic explanation of pressure gradient and
pressure gradient force
The distribution of the solar radiation on the Earth is zonally inhomogeneous
because of the latitudinal change in the angle of incoming electromagnetic
waves. Characteristics of the atmosphere and the surface (i.e. amount of
water vapour, albedo), orography and other regional aspects also affect the
amount of incoming radiation. Differences in the distribution of solar radiation
lead to horizontal air temperature differences in the atmosphere. As we have
seen before, air temperature, air density and air pressure are not independent
from each other. Temperature differences induce differences in the air density,
leading to air pressure differences between two locations at the same height
above the ground. The rate of the horizontal pressure change between two
locations can be expressed by the horizontal pressure gradient. It can be
described as force on a unit surface (i.e. pressure) per unit length. Therefore,
the pressure gradient is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is Pa/m.
The pressure gradient results in a pressure gradient force (abbreviated as

PGF). Because PGF is a vector quantity, it is characterised by its direction and
magnitude. In three-dimensions, the PGF has horizontal and vertical
components. The horizontal components are the result of the horizontal
pressure gradient. The PGF points in the direction of the falling pressure. We
can say that the pressure gradient is steepest when the PGF is the greatest.
The horizontal pressure gradient results in horizontal movements of the air

(wind) - to compensate for the pressure differences, also known as a pressure
imbalance. If we only take into account horizontal pressure differences, then
wind blows from the area with higher pressure toward the area with lower
pressure.
The magnitude of PGF is directly proportional to the pressure gradient and

inversely proportional to density. Consequently, a stronger PGF and lower
density result in stronger winds while a weaker PGF and higher density lead to
lighter winds.
Pressure differences near the surface of the ground can be detected by

drawing isobars on surface weather maps that connect points with the same
pressure normalised to sea level. Closely-spaced (widely-spaced) isobars on a
weather map indicate a stronger (weaker) pressure gradient and PGF. See the
figure below (A). PGF is perpendicular to the isobars. As has been said, PGF
points toward the area with low pressure and away from the area with high
pressure.
The vertical distribution of pressure can be examined on upper-level weather

maps analysing isohypses that connect points with the same height on an
isobaric surface above mean sea level. If the inclination of the isobaric
surfaces increases, then we say the isobaric surfaces become steeper. Steeper
isobaric surfaces indicate greater PGF, which leads to stronger wind. See the
figure below (B).
A B
Figure 2.12. Relationship between isobars and wind speed in a high pressure
system
In the section A of the figure above, on the right-hand (left-hand) side of the
figure, there are isobars that are closer (farther) to (from) each other. Thicker
(thinner) arrows indicate stronger (weaker) PGF and wind. The letter "H"
indicates the centre of the high pressure area. The slope of the contour lines
(isohypses) increases as PGF increases. In the section B, we can see the slope
of the contour lines (isohypses) increasing as PGF increases.
Detailed explanation of pressure gradient and

pressure gradient force
Introducing the concept of surface force
Previously, we stated that pressure gradient force is directly proportional to

the pressure gradient and inversely proportional to the air density. Because of
this, a stronger (weaker) PGF and lower (higher) density lead to stronger
(lighter) winds. In the following section, the relationship between PGF and
pressure gradient will be deduced in a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate
system with independent coordinates x, y and z.
PGF is the force on unit surface due to the changes in the pressure
distribution. Henceforth, the vector PGF and its magnitude are denoted by
F grad and Fgrad, respectively. To understand the concept of F grad, first we

must define the pressure on the surface of a cuboid air parcel.
Note that in meteorology, forces are often expressed with respect to unit
mass. Consequently, the SI unit of F grad can be considered.
kg kg s2
The F grad is a type of surface force (denoted by A F sf). In a fluid medium
(gas or liquid) the surface force (A F sf) on an arbitrary area element AA is

defined with the following vectorial equation:
(2.2)
—>• —>
AFsf = P x n x AA
where n is a unit-length direction vector and P is the stress tensor. Stress in
mechanics is the force per unit area from external forces. Consequently, the
elements of the stress tensor are scalar quantities that have the same SI unit
as pressure (N/m2, which equals Pa). Note that AA is expressed in the SI unit
ofmrand n is unitless.
The three-dimensional stress tensor can be represented by a 3x3 matrix:
where elements crm]l in the main diagonal are the principal stress components
(marked with n as normal components), and elements rnt outside the main
diagonal are the shear stress components (marked with t as tangential
components).
If we multiply the elements of the stress tensor by 1?, then the direction of
the stress becomes meaningful. If we multiply the principal elements of the
stress tensor by li A A, then the product will be an outward-pointing vector
with reference to the surface, defined as pressure on the surface of a cuboid
air parcel.
Assume that the air parcel has plains perpendicular to the coordinate axes of a
positively oriented three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system (Positive
orientation means that coordinate axes x, y and z follow each other in a
A -- >
counter-clockwise direction.). In this case A F sf and n have components
parallel to the coordinate axes:
/(AFsf) \
AFsf = (AFsf)y
\ (AFst)z)
To summarise, the principal and shear stresses on the surface of a cuboid air
parcel are shown in the figure below.
Figure 2.13. Principal and shear stresses on the surface of a cuboid element
(i.e. air parcel)
Note: The sides of the cuboid element are parallel to the axes of the Cartesian
coordinate system.
The equation above can be rearranged as a vectorial equation as follows:
( (AFsf)x \ / <7XX TXy Txz \ / j^x \
(AFSf)y I = Tyx (Tyy TyZ I Uy I AA
\ (AFsf)z J \ Tzx TZy <TZZ J \ nz /
The equation above can be converted to scalar equations as follows:
(2.3)
(AFsf)x — crxxiix A A T- TXyiiy A A -I- Txz^z A A
(2.4)
(AFsf)y Tyxllx A A “I- (Tyylly A A “I- ^yZ^Z A A
(2.5)
(AFsf)z — Tzx-Px A A H- T-Zyiiy A A -I- <Tzznz A A
Note: Vector is multiplied by a matrix in the following way: elements of each row of
P are multiplied by the components of ti , respectively. Then, they are added to
each other.
To summarise, normal and shear stresses cause pressure differences and fluid
friction resulting in F grad and molecular friction force. Their magnitudes

depend on the type of the fluid (e.g. ideal gas, real gas).
If the fluid is ideal, then it does not resist to any compression, which means
that fluid friction is zero and the fluid is totally compressible. In that case,
shear stress elements are zero; in other words, P only has non-zero elements
in the main diagonal. If a pressure difference develops across a surface, then
F grad rises from principal stress components. If the fluid is real, then a
—
molecular friction force rises besides F grad- ln the case of the molecular
friction, P has non-zero elements outside the main diagonal as well.
Describing the components of F grad in a three-dimensional Cartesian

coordinate system
In meteorology, the diagonal elements of P are described as follows:
(TXx = ^yy = <Tzz = P
The minus sign expresses that pressure contracts an air parcel while tangential
stress has a counter-effect on it, namely, it will expand the air parcel. If there
are pressure changes, then the diagonal elements of the stress tensor P are
not equal to each other.
If the cuboid air parcel has parallel edges to the coordinate axes of a positively
oriented three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system with the lengths of
—
Ax, Ay and Az, then F grad has three components Fgradx, Fgrady and Fgradz.
The cuboid air parcel has six sides denoted by ABCD, EFGH, EADH,
FBCG, EFBA and HGCD. They can be seen in the figure below. Opposite
sides ABCD and EFGH, EADH and FBCG, EFBA and HGCD are
parallel to each other.
First, components of the F grad are calculated as summarising forces acting on

opposite sides. After determining the force components of each pair of sides,
the F grad will be described.
Figure 2.14. Components of Fgrad in a 3D coordinate system
Forces induced by pressure differences, across the surface of a cuboid

element, where Ap is the pressure difference between two opposite walls are
described above. Note that the sides of the cuboid element are parallel to the
axes of the Cartesian coordinate system.
The components of F grad are the differences of the forces' effects on the
sides opposite to each other:
(2.6)
Fgradx = pAyAz - (p + Ap)AyAz
(2.7)
Fgrady = pAxAz - (p + Ap) Ax A z
(2.8)
Fgradz = pAxAy - (p + Ap)AxAy
where Ap is the pressure change between sides ABCD and EFGH, EADH
and FBCG, EFBA and HGCD, respectively. It is given in units of Pa. The
lengths Ax, Ay and Az are expressed in units of m.
The pressure change Ap can be expressed by the partial derivative with

respect to x, y and z. If the air parcels Ax, Ay and Az are infinitesimally
small, then the partial derivative can be approached by and
separately. For example, in the case of Fgradx:
p (x + Ax,y,z ) - p (x,y,z )
(x,y,z) = lim Ax
Ax—>0
= AxÔ
lim “AxV
~(x, y,
J
z)7
Ap 7 X
= ^(x-y-z)
Rearranging the equation above and describing it without the independent

variables,
(2.9)
Ap = dx
Ax
Similarly in the case of Fgraj and Fgra<jz the following can be described:
(2.10)
Ap = |Ay
(2.11)
Ap = | A z
<7Z
Substituting Equation 2.9 into Equation 2.6:
(2.12)
Fgradx = P Ay Az - (p + Axj Ay A z
= p Ay Az — p Ay Az — Ax Ay Az
= - |AxAyAz
Ox J
Similarly in the case of Fgrady and Fgradz:
(2.13)
Fgrady = pAxAz - (p+|Ay)AxAz
= - |AxAyAz
dy J
(2.14)
Fgradz = P A X A y - (p + | A z^ Ax A y
= - |AxAyAz
dz J
In the equations above, Ax A y A z can be replaced by the volume of the air

parcel, denoted by V. By definition, the air density q is inversely proportional
to the volume V (if you double the volume, density will halve; in other words,
volume x 2 => density/2).
With respect to unit mass of m, the q is reciprocal of V. In that case, the mass
was divided by p so its SI unit is -A-. In other words, volume = mass I density.
nr
Thus:
Ax AyAz
J
= V= —Q
Substituting V, then q into the equations above, F grad can be described as:
(2.15)
In the equation above, we consider q as constant so it can be multiplied out.
The gradient of the scalar function p is denoted Vp where V is the nabla
symbol. In the three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system gradient of p is
given by Vp=—, -7-, — .
\ dx dy dz /
According to equation above, the pressure gradient force is directly

proportional to the pressure gradient and inversely proportional to the air
density.
Please keep in mind, in that case F grad is expressed in the units of
It is worth mentioning that in calculations the magnitude of the components
of F grad can be approximated by the following formulas:
P _ J_ v Ap
rgradx - g x Ax
P _ 1 v Ap
rgrady - Q * Ay
P _ J_ v Ap
rgradz - e x Az
The exact formula for pressure gradient contains partial derivatives — and
which are approximated by and according to the finite
difference method. This formulation is useful for practical calculations where
and are the pressure changes per unit distances along the axes x and
y-
Theoretically, F grad could increase beyond all limits if there were a lack of
balancing forces. However, under real atmospheric circumstances it never
occurs because of other forces. These forces will be introduced as follows.
Basic explanation of Coriolis force and

geostrophic wind
The Coriolis force
In the Earth’s atmosphere, not only the pressure gradient force acts on wind
systems. However, the introduction of other forces requires an understanding
of the type of movements that can be observed on the surface of the Earth.
Assume that an observer stands on the surface of the Earth. From the
observer’s point of view, paths of cyclones and anticyclones, which originate
from the pressure gradient force, seem to be deflected by some invisible
(inertial) force called the Coriolis force (abbreviated as CF).
To put it briefly, the Earth, cyclones and anticyclones are not moving together
with the same speed. Therefore, the movements of the previously mentioned
wind systems can be seen along curved lines from the surface of the Earth.
This effect is expressed by the CF. As a result, the direction of movements will
alter compared to their original direction.
Because the CF is a vector quantity, its magnitude and direction can be

examined. Its magnitude is proportional to the velocity of the moving object
on the rotating Earth. The CF increases with increasing velocity and decreases
with decreasing geographic latitude. Its value is zero along the Equator.
The CF affects the path of an object (i.e. air parcels, wind) that moves
horizontally (in other words parallel to the surface) as follows. The CF deflects
the wind to the right (left) relative to its original direction in the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere. Deflections with respect to the geographic latitude
are shown in the figure below.
Maximum deflections at pole
Figure 2.15. Effects of the CF on Earth on horizontal movements
The CF cannot be negligible in aviation. It has to be calculated for longer

flights to find the optimal trajectory of flight. In the Northern (Southern)
Hemisphere, the trajectory has to be corrected to the left (right) with the same
magnitude of force in the opposite direction as the CF acts on the plane to the
right.
Formation of the geostrophic wind
Assume that isobars are parallel to each other at equal distances. This would
mean that there is no friction over surfaces and that the pressure field does
not change rapidly over time (the ideal state of the atmosphere). In this case,
isobars are straight lines at equal distances on weather maps.
If horizontal air pressure differences occur, then PGF rises and acts on the
object (i.e. the air parcel), which starts to move to the area with lower
pressure. As has been said before, the PGF is perpendicular to the isobars. If
we take into account the Earth’s rotation, then CF will affect the flowing air
parcel. The CF is perpendicular to the direction of the flowing air parcel. It
deflects the air parcel to the right (left) in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere
until the air parcel flows parallel to the isobars. The PGF and the CF will be
opposite to each other with the same magnitude. This state is called
geostrophic equilibrium.
988 mb
990 mb
992 mb
994 mb
996 mb
998 mb
988 mb
Figure 2.16. Formation of geostrophic equilibrium and geostrophic wind in

the Northern Hemisphere
Air pressure is given in millibars (denoted by mb). One mb is equal to one hPa.
In geostrophic equilibrium, PGF and CF balance each other, which results in a

flow parallel to the straight line isobars called geostrophic wind.
Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere
low high low high
990 1000 1010 1020 990 1000 1010 1020
hPa hPa hPa hPa hPa hPa hPa hPa
F
•grad Fcor Fgrad
i ◄--------------
----- ► =
Figure 2.17. Geostrophic equilibrium
The PGF, the CF and the velocity vector that represents geostrophic wind are
denoted by F grad, F cor and g, respectively.
In geostrophic equilibrium, wind cannot cross the isobars. Geostrophic wind

flows parallel to the isobars.
Direction of the geostrophic wind
The direction of the geostrophic wind can be determined by the Buys Ballot’s
law, which states the following. In the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere if
someone stands with their back to a flow, then an area with low pressure can
be found at their left-hand (right-hand) side.
As a side note, the law was established by Dutch meteorologist and chemist C.
H. D. Buys Ballot in the 19th century.
Magnitude of the geostrophic wind: the geostrophic wind speed

At a constant PGF, the magnitude of the geostrophic wind (in other words, the
geostrophic wind speed) increases as geographic latitude decreases, because
the CF increases from the Equator to the poles. The horizontal components of
the CF can be considered zero along the Equator; therefore, geostrophic
equilibrium is impossible at lower latitudes. The geostrophic wind fulfils an
important role on the Earth outside the region of the Equator, at higher
latitudes than ca. 15°S and ca. 15°N.
The geostrophic wind speed is proportional to the pressure gradient (PGF). At

a constant CF, the geostrophic wind speed increases as PGF increases.
Therefore, the geostrophic wind speed increases as the air density decreases.
Later, there are formulas described with a detailed explanation of the Coriolis
force and geostrophic wind.
Detailed explanation of Coriolis force and

geostrophic wind
In the detailed explanation, first the requirement to introduce inertial forces
will be described. Then, the CF and its dependency on the geographic latitude
will be explained. Finally, the direction and the magnitude of the geostrophic
wind will be examined.
Inertial forces
Movements are required to fulfil Newton's laws of motion. Those movements

are described in the inertial reference frame, which has no acceleration. For
instance, a system fixed to the Sun can be considered an inertial reference
frame. However, the Earth rotates around its axis, which is a movement with
acceleration. Therefore, the Earth is not an inertial reference frame with
respect to large-scale wind systems such as cyclones and anticyclones.
Assume an object with linear motion with constant velocity in the inertial
reference frame. It can be seen as a curved line (in other words, a curvilinear
motion) from the surface of the rotating Earth. During curvilinear movements,
the object is undergoing acceleration because the direction of the velocity
vector changes over time. According to Newton’s first law, without any force,
objects move along a linear path with a constant speed. To use Newton’s laws
in the non-inertial reference frame, some forces have to be introduced. These
are the inertial forces (in other words, the invisible or fictitious forces). The
two main types of inertial forces are the Coriolis force and the centrifugal
force. The Coriolis force acts on moving objects while the centrifugal force has
to be taken into account if an object seems to be at rest in a non-inertial
reference frame.
Coriolis force
The horizontal effect of the CF on horizontal movements is explained by the

following example: Four people (A, B, C, D) are sitting on a rotating disc where
each person rolls a ball toward their neighbour in the shortest way possible. In
case A, in an inertial reference frame, for example fixed above the centre of
the disc, the paths of the ball are straight lines. See the figure below, section
a). In a rotating reference frame, for example an observer fixed to the disc, the
path seems to be curved in the opposite direction as the rotation. See the
figure below, section b). In this case, the CF can be considered an "invisible"
force that deflects the path of the movement.
The paths of a moving object
a) in inertial reference frame b) in rotating reference frame
Figure 2.18. The paths of a moving object
In the section a) of the figure above, the observer is above the centre of the
disc, perpendicular to it. Blue arrows show the linear path of the ball. In the
section b) the observer is fixed to the disc. Blue arrows show the curved path
of the ball. The curvilinear motion is the result of the CF.
The Coriolis force is a vector quantity. Henceforth, it will be denoted as F cor.
The F cor can be expressed as the cross product of the angular velocity Q of
the rotating system and the velocity V of the moving object in the rotating
reference frame:
(2.16)
—> —> _> _> —>
F Cor — — 2m Q x v = 2m v x Q
Note: The mass of the object m is constant. The magnitude of the Coriolis force
Fcor is proportional to the magnitude of the velocity v and the magnitude of the
angular velocity 4?. The SI units ofm, v and ST are kg, m/s and 1/s, respectively.
Because of the properties of the cross product, F cor, v and Q are
perpendicular to each other.
If the rotating system in question is the Earth, then the magnitude of its
angular velocity is the following:
Q= —
T
__ 27T 2 x 3.14
~ 86400 s ~ 86400 s
ss 7 .27 x IO-5 x i
s
where T is the Earth's rotation period, which is 24 h or 86400 s.
Dependence of Coriolis force on geographic latitude
To understand the dependence of F cor on the geographic latitude, the

following consideration can be made. Let the object P with the mass of m be
in a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system where axes x and y point
in the direction of east and north, and axis z is perpendicular to the plane xy.
The coordinate system is orthogonal which means that axes of the coordinate
system are perpendicular to each other.
—
The vector Q can be expressed as the sum of a tangential and a normal
vector (to add the tangential and normal vectors, the parallelogram method is
used), Qt and Qn. The vectors are parallel to axis y and axis z, respectively.
The vector Qt expresses its rotation with an axis parallel to the direction
south-to-north, and vector Qn expresses its rotation with an axis

perpendicular to the plane xy. The geographic latitude is marked with 92.
Vectors and Qn can be expressed by 92 as follows, Qt — ^cos 92 and

—
Qn = Qsin^. Therefore, Q has the following components (0, Qcoscf), Osincp).
See the figure below.
Figure 2.19. The angular velocity vector Q as the sum of the tangential and
normal vectors Qt and On
The object is denoted by P. It is located within the Cartesian coordinate

system on the rotating Earth. Axes x and y point in the direction of east and
north, and axis z is perpendicular to the plane xy. Latitude is denoted by 92.
The object moves with a velocity of ~v , which has the following components
(u, v, w), where u and v are parallel to the axis x and axis y, respectively;
furthermore w is perpendicular to the plane xy. The three components of the
F cor can be expressed by solving the following vector cross product:

—> —> —
F cor = 2m v x Q
/ u / 0
= 2m I v Qcos 92
\ Qsin 92
/ 0
= 2mQ I v cos 92
\w \ sin 99
i
= 2mQ
cos 92 sin 99
= 2mQ i (vsin</> — wcosy?) — j usin</> + k UCOS99
/ vsin 99 — wcos 99
= 2mQ — usin 99
ucos 99
In meteorology, 2 Qsin 92 and 2 Qcos 99 in the equation above are replaced

with f and 1, respectively:
fv — Iw
F cor — 2mQ j — fu j
\ In /
The parameters f and 1 are called Coriolis parameters.
Note that the horizontal components of the F cor are fv — Iw, and — fu and
the vertical component of it is lu.
To simplify the equation above, the following considerations are made. On

one hand, we can assume that velocity components u and v are one order of
magnitude larger than w. On the other hand, the third (vertical) component of
the F cor is parallel to the weight of the object (denoted by Fg), but the F COr
is one order of magnitude smaller than Fg. Therefore, the third component of
the F cor is negligible. Consequently:

(2.17)
/ vsin 99
F Cor = 2mQ — usin 92
\ 0
/ fv
= 2mQ I — fu
\ 0
Based on the shape of the sine function, we can say that the Fcor decreases as
the geographic latitude decreases. According to equation above the Fcor is
zero along the Equator. However, it is not correct if we are neglecting w and
the third component of the F cor. In that case the Fcor is small but not equal
to zero.
Calculate the f at the latitudes of the Equator (0°), the Tropic of Cancer
(23.5°N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°S), the arctic circle (66.5°) and at
the poles (90°) using the equation above. Assuming that u, v are constants,
then:
• f0o = 2 sin0° = 2 X 7.27 x 10’5 1/s x 0 = 0 1/s
. f23 5. = 2 sin23.5° = 2 x 7.27 x 10’5 1/s x 0.4 = 6 x 10’5 1/s
. f66 5. = 2 sin66.5° = 2 x 7.27 x 10’5 1/s x 0.92 = 13.36 x IO’5 1/s
• f90o = 2 sin90° = 2 x 7.27 x IO’5 1/s x 1 = 14.52 x IO’5 1/s
According to the equation above, the F cor is proportional to f, so F cor

increases as latitude increases.
Effects of the Coriolis force on the paths of the movements
—
The F cor has three prominent effects on the paths of the movements of the
object (i.e. air parcel, wind, airplane).
1. If the object moves horizontally - i.e. the wind blows parallel to the
—
plane xy - then F cor deflects it to the right (left) in the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere. (This effect can be seen in Figure 2.15.)
In this case, Fcor, v and the normal angular velocity vector Qn
generate a positively oriented three-dimensional orthogonal coordinate
system that is numbered in the figure below.
Horizontal effect of the Fcor on horizontal movements.
a) object moves b) object moves

from north to south from south to north
Northern (Southern) Hemisphere:

deflecting movements to the right (left)
Figure 2.20. Horizontal effect of the Fcor on horizontal

movements
2. If the object moves horizontally from east to west (west to east), then
the weight of the object decreases (increases), regardless of the
hemisphere.
—> _> —
In this case, Fcor, v and the tangential angular velocity vector form
a positively oriented three-dimensional orthogonal coordinate system
that is numbered in the figure below. If the object moves from east to
west (west to east), then the F cor points in the same (opposite)
direction as F g. Therefore, the weight of the object decreases

(increases), regardless of the hemisphere.
Examples of the vertical effect of the Fcor on horizontal movements.
a) object moves b) object moves

from east to west from west to east
increase of weight decrease of weight
Figure 2.21. Vertical effect of the Fcor on horizontal

movements
3. If the object moves vertically, or perpendicularly to the plane xy, then
the F cor deflects the path of the freefalling (lifting) object to east (west)
regardless of the hemisphere.
In this case, F cor, V and the tangential angular velocity vector Q t

generate a positively oriented three-dimensional orthogonal coordinate
system that is numbered in the figure below.
Examples to the horizontal effect of the (Fcor) on vertical movements.
a) object is falling b) object is lifting
Deflects free falling objects to east, lifting objects to west.
Figure 2.22. Horizontal effects of the Fcor on vertical

movements
Examining the geostrophic wind in the Cartesian coordinate system
Geostrophic wind results from the balance of the horizontal components of
the F grad and the horizontal components of the F cor. The former is denoted
by (F grad) and the latter by ( F cor ) . This state of the atmosphere is

X / h X / h
called geostrophic equilibrium, which can be described as a vectorial equation
as follows:
(2.18)
F
1 grad
j I F cor I
/ h / h
Assume that the object has a unit mass. This means that the F grad and
h
the ( F cor ) are described as force per unit mass. Because of this, their SI
X / h
unit is -7. In this case, based on Equation 2.15 and Equation 2.16, the
s2
geostrophic equilibrium can be described as:
(2.19)
1 / dp
- 2 Q x vg
q \ dx ’
where v g is the velocity vector in the case of the geostrophic wind. The
scalar equations are:
(2.20)
— fvg
(2.21)
fug
where ug, vg are the components of the v g. The equations above can be
called geostrophic wind equations. As we mentioned before, because of the
properties of the cross product in Equation 2.16, F cor is perpendicular to g.

—> —
In geostrophic equilibrium, v g is also perpendicular to F grad . This can be
calculated as follows.
Multiply Equation 2.20 with ug and Equation 2.21 with vg and then
summarise them. Therefore:
C . e 1 dp 1 dp
— tVp Up + tUp Vg =------- X — Ug — - X — Vg
& & 1 aa q dx Q dy s
—> —
The equation above is the scalar product of v g and F grad, thus:
l(dp dp\
Q \ dx ’ dy J = 0
If two vectors are perpendicular to each other, then the scalar product of the
—> —
two vector is zero. This means that v g and F grad are perpendicular to each
other.
Simple calculation regarding geostrophic wind
•A
In simple calculations, the partial derivatives, — and — can be approximated

by and where Ap is the horizontal pressure difference between two
pressure (isobaric) levels. This type of approximation of the partial derivatives
is called the finite difference method.
Let us consider the following example. The horizontal distance between the
isobaric levels of 500 hPa and 504 hPa is 200 km. Calculate the magnitude of
the geostrophic wind (in other words the geostrophic wind speed) in dry air
between the two isobaric levels along the arctic circles at the altitude of
5.5 km where the air temperature T is -30 °C.
To estimate the geostrophic wind speed, Equation 2.21 will be used; therefore
q, f and — can be calculated. Density q is computed by applying the ideal gas
law, where p is the arithmetic mean of 500 hPa and 504 hPa is:
500 hPa + 504 hPa

= 502 hPa = 50200 Pa
2
and Rd = 287 is the specific gas constant for dry air. The air temperature
equals to 243.15 K. Thus:
____ p
Q ~ RdT
_ 50200 Pa
287 -2- x 243.15 K
kg K
« 0 .72
111'5
where the unit of density can be calculated as follows:
x kg
Pa x kg
J kg x 4
X X kg
m2 s2 6
kgx
kg
m3
As we calculated before:
f66.5- « 13 .36 x 1(T5|
The partial derivative || can be approximated by where:
• Ap = 504 hPa - 500 hPa = 4 hPa = 400 Pa

• Ax = 200 km = 200000 m
That is:
Ap __ 400 Pa __ q 002 Pa
Ax ~ 200000 m — U >UU TT
Therefore, based on Equation 2.20:
1 Ap
s
6 — QIr Ax
------- -------- 1---------------- x 0 .002 —

0.72-^-x 1.11 x 10-4-------------------------m
m3 s
25 .03 - ~ 90 .11 ^2.
s h
Theoretically, there is no limit for the geostrophic wind speed. It increases

toward the Equator where it is infinite, because f = o|. However, in real
atmospheric conditions, friction slows down geostrophic wind speed.
Basic explanation of the gradient wind

Formation of the gradient wind
Geostrophic wind only occurs if the isobars are parallel to each other with
equal distances and there is no friction over the surface. Under common
atmospheric conditions isobars are rarely parallel straight lines but closed
curves, which often appear like "islands" on weather maps.
If isobars are curved lines, then the resultant force that coerces the air parcels
into a circular path is called the centripetal force (abbreviated as CP). It points
to the centre of the curvature. If we assume that an observer is fixed to the
rotating air parcel, then another invisible force, the centrifugal force, has to be
taken into account. It points in the opposite direction as the CP, but it has an
equal magnitude as the CP. Because of this, the wind speed is the same,
regardless of the magnitude of CP or the magnitude of centrifugal force is
used to calculate it.
Please note that CF does not mean centrifugal force, but means Coriolis force.
Horizontal motion of air parcels along curved path, namely the gradient wind,
comes from the resultant force of the PGF and the CF. Remember that the
term "horizontal" means the wind blows parallel to the surface. Because of the
above-mentioned relationship, gradient wind is often explained as the results
of the PGF, the CF and the centrifugal force.
Curvilinear motion means that some forces act on the wind. Movements are
required to fulfil Newton's laws of motion. In line with Newton’s first law,
curvilinear motion results from some forces acts on the wind.
Remember that in geostrophic equilibrium the resultant force of PGF and CF is

zero. In detail, PGF = CF, consequently the resultant force PGF - CF = 0. In the
case of curved isobars, the resultant force is not zero, so gradient equilibrium
is impossible. If the isobars are curved, then the resultant force of the PGF and
the CF is the CP, which has a magnitude that equals to the centrifugal force.
Direction of the gradient wind
In low pressure systems PGF is directed inward to the centre of the circular
path. The CF points in the opposite direction from the PGF. In the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere CF deflects the motion to the right (left). The resultant
force of PGF and CF induces cyclonic circulation in a counter-clockwise
(clockwise) direction. This is shown in the figure below, in sections a) and c).
In high pressure systems PGF is directed away from the centre of the circular
path. The CF points in the opposite direction from the PGF. In the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere this induces anticyclonic circulation in clockwise
(counter clockwise) direction. This can be seen in the figure below, in sections
b) and d).
Figure 2.23. Gradient wind and forces
Gradient wind in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres with a) and c)

cyclonic circulation in low pressure systems, b) and d) anticyclonic circulation
in high pressure systems are shown above. Note that the pressure gradient
force, the Coriolis force, centripetal force and gradient wind are denoted by
——>
F grad» F cor, F cp and v gr, respectively. The letters L and H indicate the
centres of the pressure systems. In real atmospheric conditions isobars are
less concentric, especially in high pressure systems.
The gradient wind speed can be higher in anticyclonic circulation than in

cyclonic circulation as the geographic latitude increases. The reason is that the
CF points in the same direction as the resultant force (CP) in the case of
anticyclones. The CF increases as the latitude increases and therefore the
gradient wind speed increases.
Directions of the flows of cyclones and anticyclones are summarized in table

below.
Airflow direction around pressure systems
Hemisphere Type of pressure system Flow direction

Northern anticyclone clockwise
Northern cyclone counter-clockwise
Southern anticyclone counter-clockwise
Southern cyclone clockwise
Comparison of the geostrophic wind speed and the gradient wind speed
In geostrophic equilibrium, PGF balances CF, leading to geostrophic wind. In

cyclones (anticyclones) gradient wind speed is lower (higher) than geostrophic
wind speed, regardless of the hemisphere. These relations can be established
by describing the magnitude of the gradient wind and the geostrophic wind.
Some sources explain the relationship between the geostrophic and gradient
wind speed by introducing the concept of the centrifugal force as follows.
In cyclones, the centrifugal force opposes the PGF. The difference of the PGF
and the centrifugal force is equal to the CF; therefore, the CF has to decrease
in comparison to its value in a theoretic geostrophic equilibrium. As was
discussed previously, if the CF decreases then the wind speed also decreases.
Consequently, the gradient wind speed is lower than the geostrophic wind
speed.
In anticyclones, the centrifugal force is added to the PGF. Their sum is equal to
the CF. The CF increases in comparison to its value in a theoretic geostrophic
equilibrium. The wind speed increases as the CF increases. Consequently, the
gradient wind speed is greater than the geostrophic wind speed.
To summarise, the balancing of the forces is as follows:
• in cyclonic circulation:
PGF - centrifugal force = CF
• in anticyclonic circulation:
PGF + centrifugal force = CF
Detailed explanation of the gradient wind
Centripetal force and centrifugal force
To understand the difference between gradient wind speed and geostrophic

wind speed, the magnitude of the gradient wind shall be examined. The
centripetal force is a vector quantity that is denoted by F cp and its magnitude

by Fcp. It points to the centre of the curvilinear path of flow. For a unit mass
of m it can be described by:
(2.22)
rcp —
F — —
r
where v is the velocity of the moving object and r is the magnitude of the
radius vector that points to the moving object (i.e. the air parcel) from the axis
of rotation. In other words, the radius of the curvature is r. The equation
above states that Fcp is proportional to the square of the velocity and
inversely proportional to the radius of curvature.
To understand the significance of the centrifugal force, denoted by F cf, let us

consider the following example. Assume an inertial reference frame, where an
air parcel moves along a circular path. As we mentioned before, this type of
motion is the result of some force. The resultant force that coerces the air
parcels into a circular path is called the centripetal force. In the Earth’s
atmosphere the resultant force comes from the Earth’s gravitational force (
—
F ga = F cp). Now, assume that an observer is in a non-inertial reference
frame fixed to the air parcel. In that case the air parcel seems to be
motionless; however, the Earth’s gravitational force acts on the air parcel.
When not following Newton’s law, we have to introduce some fictional force
that balances the gravitational force. This is called the centrifugal force, which
points in the opposite direction from the F cp; in other words, it is directed
away from the centre of the curvature. The magnitude of F cf is equal to the
—
magnitude of Fcp and therefore it can be calculated using equation above.
Direction of the gradient wind

Gradient wind is the horizontal flow of air parcels caused by the resultant
force of F grad and F cor. The vector sum of F grad and F cor is equal to F cp.
The velocity vector in the case of the gradient wind is marked with ~v gr. Both
in low and high pressure systems, the F cp points to the centre of the
curvature.
As can be seen in Figure 2.23 in sections a) and c), in a low pressure system
F grad is directed inward to the centre of the circular path. In the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere F cor deflects motion to the right (left), inducing

cyclonic flows in a counter clockwise (clockwise) direction. Note that a circular
motion means that ^gr is tangential to the circular path.
As is shown in Figure 2.23 in sections b) and d), in a high pressure system
F grad is directed away from the centre of the circular path and F cor is
directed inward. In the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere this induces
anticyclonic flows in a clockwise (counter clockwise) direction.
In both cases, F grad and are perpendicular to each other. The definition
of F Cor according to Equation 2.16 implies that F cor is also perpendicular to

v^gr. Thus, F grad and F cor are parallel to each other.
Magnitude of the gradient wind: the gradient wind speed
In a gradient flow, wind blows along curvilinear trajectories. Therefore, it can

be described most easily in a two dimensional polar coordinate system, which
can be defined as follows. See the figure below. Let the centres of a two-
dimensional Cartesian system and the polar coordinate system align at the
same position. Let P be a point in the polar coordinate system where the
movement is observed. The system has two coordinates. The first coordinate
is the magnitude of the position vector 1?, marked with r, which points from
the centre of the coordinate system to the point P. The second coordinate is 0
, which is the angle between axis x and position vector 1?.
Cartesian coordinates x and y can be expressed by the polar coordinates using

trigonometrical functions in the following way, x = rcos 0 and y = rsin 0.
Figure 2.24. Two-dimensional polar coordinate system
The two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system is represented by black

axes. The path of the air parcels are marked with blue lines.
In the two-dimensional polar coordinate system, two components of velocity

can be distinguished: the radial and the tangential component. The latter is
perpendicular to the former. Let us assume that the examined motion is
parallel to the radial axis, and so the tangential velocity component is zero.
The resultant force F cp that leads to the development of the gradients wind,
can be described as the difference of the F grad and F cor. So, the gradient
wind speed can be expressed using Equation 2.22, Equation 2.17 and
Equation 2.15 as follows:
• in cyclonic circulation (Fcp = Fgrad - Fcor):

(2.23)
V = 1
fVgr
r Q dr
• in anticyclonic circulation (Fcp = Fcor - Fgra(j):
(2.24)
2^ = fv 1 x
r sr Q dr
where — means the change of the pressure in radial direction.

OT
Gradient wind speed in cyclonic and anticyclonic circulation can be calculated

by rearranging the equations above and solving the quadratic equation,
respectively.
In cyclonic circulation:
(2.25)
where vgr is the gradient wind speed in cyclonic circulation.
In anticyclonic circulation:
(2.26)
where vgr is the gradient wind speed in cyclonic circulation.
Note that the calculations were based on the equations Fcp = Fgrad — Fcor
in cyclonic circulation and Fcp = Fcor — Fgrad in anticyclonic circulation.
The same results would have been given, if we used the magnitude of the
centrifugal force (Fcf) in the calculations because Fcp = Fcf, thus
Fgrad — Fcf = Fcor in cyclonic circulation and Fgrad + Fcf = Fcor in
anticyclonic circulation.
Comparison of the geostrophic wind speed and the gradient wind speed
Based on the Equation 2.20, the geostrophic wind speed in the polar
coordinate system is:
(2.27)
1 dp
vg6 = “ F x
£>I
77
OT
First, the gradient wind in cyclonic circulation is compared to the geostrophic

wind.
Equation 2.23 is raised to the power of the second, then vg is substituted in

accordance with Equation 2.25:
2 _ f2r2 _ 9fr / f2r2 , r dp f2r2 , r_

VSr— 4 2 2 V 4 + o X ft + 4 + Q X
= - fr^+fr Vg + fr vg
Rearranging the equation above:
fr vg = vgr2 + fr v
(2.28)
fr
2
gr
Vgr
The quotient — is positive; therefore vg is larger than vgr in cyclonic
circulation.
Second, the gradient wind in anticyclonic circulation is compared to the
geostrophic wind.
Raise Equation 2.24 to the power of the second as follows, then substitute vg
in accordance with Equation 2.26:
2 _ f2r2 _ ^fr / f2r2 r dp~ . f2r2 _ r_ dp

Vgr 4 2 y 4 Q dr 4 Q dr
f2r2 r / f2r2 r r
= “V — *r A / —;------- fr Vg — IT Vg
2 V 4 S S
Rearranging the equation above and substituting vg in line with

Equation 2.26:
e /TT2 ~e
fr vg = - vgr2 + — fr a / —----- fr v
y 4
(2.29)
I Vgr
Vgr = Vg + —
Vgr
The quotient — is positive; therefore vg is smaller than vgr in anticyclonic
circulation.
To summarise, assuming the same pressure gradient, in a cyclonic flow the

gradient wind is weaker than the geostrophic wind. In an anticyclonic flow the
opposite is true: the gradient wind is stronger than the geostrophic wind.
The same equations can be used to describe the magnitude of the gradient
wind speed in both hemispheres.
2.2.2. Variation of wind in the friction

layer
Explanation of the variation of wind in the
friction layer
Variation of wind with height in the friction layer
Under realistic atmospheric conditions, from close to the surface up to about

2 000 to 3 000 ft (ca. 600 to 900 m), the friction force cannot be neglected
regarding horizontal flows. This layer of the atmosphere is called the friction
layer. This means that direction of the geostrophic and gradient winds is
modified in the friction layer.
The friction force always acts on air parcels in the opposite direction as their
motion (thus the velocity vector of the flow); in other words, it exerts drag
force on the moving object.
Friction force results in changes concerning the direction and magnitude of

the geostrophic and the gradient wind as follows. Assume that the pressure
gradient does not vary over time. As the friction force increases the wind
speed slows down. The CF decreases as wind speed decreases. Because of
this, near the surface the geostrophic and the gradient winds change direction
towards the area with lower pressure and they will blow at an angle across the
isobars because of the decreasing CF. This angle is 10° to 45° between the
wind direction and the isobars. See the figure below and Figure 2.26.
Above 2 000 to 3 000 ft the flow of the wind can be considered parallel to the
isobars. Therefore, the geostrophic and gradient wind can occur. The wind
speed will be higher at that level than in the friction layer.
a) Northern Hemisphere b) Southern Hemisphere
low high low high
990 1000 1010 1020 990 1000 1010 1020
hPa hPa hPa hPa hPa hPa hPa hPa
Figure 2.25. Variation of wind due to the friction layer
Changes in the direction of the geostrophic wind near the surface due to the
friction, force a) in the Northern Hemisphere, b) in the Southern Hemisphere
are seen above. Deflected geostrophic wind, friction force, pressure gradient
____
force, Coriolis force and resultant force are denoted by v g , F fr, F grad,
Fcor and Fres, respectively.

Figure 2.26. Geostrophic wind in the friction layer
Changes in the direction of the gradient wind near the surface due to the
friction force in the Northern and Southern Hemisphere a) and c) in a cyclonic
flow, b) and d) in an anticyclonic flow. Deflected gradient wind, friction force,
—> *
pressure gradient force, Coriolis force and resultant force are denoted by v g ,
Ffr, F grad, F cor and F res, respectively.
Near the surface, the geostrophic and the gradient winds back in the Northern
Hemisphere and veer in the Southern Hemisphere because of the friction
force that exerts drag on the winds. Backing means counter-clockwise change
in wind direction and veering means clockwise change in wind direction. To
observe the changes in the direction of the wind speed between the ideal
state of the atmosphere where winds are unaffected by the friction force and
the real state of the atmosphere where friction force acts on the winds, please
_ _ *
compare the direction of vectors v g and v g in Figure 2.17 and Figure 2.65
_ _ *
or vectors v gr and v gr in Figure 2.23 and Figure 2.26.
The friction force decreases as the altitude increases; therefore, from the
ground to the top of the friction layer the direction of the wind veers in the
Northern Hemisphere and backs in the Southern Hemisphere while the wind
speed increases.
In the other direction, from the top of the friction layer to the ground, the
direction of the wind backs in the Northern Hemisphere and veers in the
Southern Hemisphere while the wind speed decreases.
In normal conditions, the wind stops veering or backing at the top of the
friction layer. If a warm (cold) front arrives, then wind continues to veer (back)
above the friction layer in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern
Hemisphere, the opposite is true.
Diurnal variation of the friction layer
As was discussed above, the friction layer has an average thickness of about
3000 ft. The extent of the friction layer has diurnal variations. Its extent
increases as the amount of solar radiation increases as explained in the next
section.
During the day, the surface of the Earth heats up because of solar radiation. In
warmer air, the vertical movement of the air parcels (in other words,
convection) intensifies. This means that the warm air mixes in a thicker layer
than in colder air. Therefore, the properties of the surface affect higher
altitudes. Due to the intensive mixing processes, surface winds and faster
winds at higher altitude mix, which results in an increasing surface wind
speed. Its maximum value can be measured after noon locally, during the mid
afternoon, ca. 3 p.m.
At night the extent of the friction layer decreases as the surface of the Earth
cools. The intensity of the convection decreases as the air temperature
decreases. Consequently, surface wind speed also decreases. Its minimum
value is to be observed around sunrise.
Note: The thickness of the friction layer is not only diurnal but also has seasonal
variations.
Factors influencing the vertical extent of the friction layer
In general, the thickness of the friction layer depends primarily on stability,

wind speed and the roughness of surface.
Stability of the atmosphere is closely related to the amount of solar radiation

and the air temperature. The air temperature increases as the amount of solar
radiation increases, which induces convective movements in the air. This
results in a greater mixing of air masses at lower and upper levels, leading to
the development of a thicker friction layer.
Wind speed is also a crucial factor that influences the vertical extent of the
friction layer. Increasing wind speed intensifies the mixing of air mass on lower
and upper levels.
Another important factor is the roughness of the Earth's surface. The mixing
of air masses at lower and upper levels increases as the roughness of the
surface increases. For example, the friction layer is thicker over land surfaces
than over large water surfaces.
Relationship between the isobars and wind
As was discussed above, wind speed decreases as the friction force increases.
We assume that the pressure gradient does not change rapidly over time.
Note that the variation of wind in the friction layer can be characterised by
the following approximate values from the ground to about 2000 ft, as
introduced by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO).
Over water The friction force reduces the surface wind speed to about 70 %
and its direction changes by about 10°.
Over land The friction force reduces the surface wind speed to about 50 %
and its direction changes by about 30°.
Please keep in mind that the roughness of the surface is an important factor
regarding the intensity of the friction. Sea surfaces are smoother than land
surfaces, which leads to more intense friction above land than sea.
Let us consider the following examples in the Northern Hemisphere above
land surfaces where the above-mentioned values are used for calculations.
EXAMPLE 2.2 L"
EXAMPLE 2.3 L"
It is worth mentioning that the geostrophic wind speed varies with the
altitude above the friction layer because of horizontal temperature differences
of the same pressure level. This phenomenon is called thermal wind. For
further details see Section 2.7.
Other types of wind: isallobaric and cyclostrophic wind
In the description of the geostrophic and gradient winds, we assumed that the
pressure field does not change rapidly over time. However, for example, in the
vicinity of weather fronts the pressure field varies rapidly, which leads to the
formation of isallobaric winds. Consequently, the wind speed that can be
measured along fronts differs from the geostrophic or gradient wind speeds.
Besides the above mentioned wind systems, other types of wind are
observable. For example, in the r Equatorial region,where CF can be
considered negligible,air flow with a circular path develops in which PGF
results in the circular orbit of the air parcels via the coercion of centripetal
force. This type of flow is called a cyclostrophic wind (e.g. dust devils and
waterspouts) and has a relatively small radius. The direction of the rotation
can be either clockwise or counter-clockwise.
The PGF can be balanced with not only the CF but also with the friction force,
which leads to another curvilinear motion that is called antitriptic flow (e.g.
sea breezes).
Remarks on the variation of wind in the friction

layer
Deflection of the geostrophic wind due to friction
If the wind direction is 205° and the wind speed is 10 kt over land surface, then at
the height of 2 000 ft above the ground the wind direction and the wind speed are
approximately 235° and 20 kt. From the ground to the top of the friction layer, the
direction of the wind veers in the Northern Hemisphere.
If the wind direction is 255° and the wind speed is 60 kt at the height of 2 000 ft
above the ground, then near the surface the wind direction and the wind speed
are approximately 225° and 30 kt. From the top of the friction layer to the ground
the direction of the wind backs in the Northern Hemisphere.
In the friction layer the following equation can describe the relationship
between the horizontal components of the F grad, the horizontal components
of the F Cor and the F fr
(2.30)
F fr
h h
where the forces are described as force per unit mass. Their SI unit is ■=•.
s2
(Please compare the equation above with Equation 2.18 that describes
geostrophic equilibrium, in which there is no friction force.
' jfc s|c
In the Cartesian coordinate system, the components of F fr are (Acug , Acvg ),

1 * j|c
where n is the coefficient of friction with the SI unit of - and (ug , vg ) are
—> *
the horizontal components of the wind velocity vector v g in the friction
layer. By analogy with Equation 2.19, Equation 2.20 and Equation 2.21 can be
described as:
1 / dp dp \ , o > / * *\
fy)+2 X V8 = K(US ’ V8 )
(2.31)
1 dp | r * *
- - X -X- + IVg =
Q dx 6 6
(2.32)
1 dp c * *
---- X — — tue =
Q dy & s
The deflection of v g from the geostrophic wind v g, known as the angle of

deflection, can be calculated in the Cartesian coordinate system as follows.
Let the axis x of the Cartesian coordinate system be parallel to the isobars.
See the figure below.
low high
990 1000 1010 1020
hPa hPa hPa hPa
Figure 2.27. Geostrophic wind and friction coefficient

_ * _
The angle of deflection (the angle between v g and v g) is shown. The
j|c s|c
tangent a can be calculated as the quotient of vg and ug .
Note: The figure shows wind directions over the Northern Hemisphere, but the
same calculations can be made regarding conditions over the Southern
Hemisphere.
j|c s|c
First, the magnitudes of ug and vg can be determined based on
Equation 2.31 and Equation 2.32.
Multiply Equation 2.31 with k, and Equation 2.32 with f then summarise them,
thus:
0= — — x -^7 + fkvg — /£2ug* — - x — f2ug* — fkvg

Q dx s Q dy g s
Therefore,
* i (* x I i x M
ug K2+f2 dx £? dy )
Multiply Equation 2.31 with f and Equation 2.32 with (—k) then summarise
them, thus:
0 = - f x & + f2y8* - f/tu8* + i x + f/tu8* + k2v«*
Therefore,
g
*___«2+f2 \ Q dx Q dy )
If the axis x of the Cartesian coordinate system is parallel to the isobars then
. Then the angle between v g and g is:

dx
(2.33)
- X
VR K2 +f2 P dy
tga = — f
Ug 1 X
K2+f2 0 dy
So:
We could turn Equation 2.33 into the following summary. The magnitude of n
is greater over land surfaces than over the ocean. Therefore, at the same
latitude a is increasing as k, is increasing, which means that the angle of
deflection is greater over land surfaces than over the ocean. Above the same
surface, a increases as the latitude decreases.
(Remember that the Coriolis parameter f is equal to 2 Qsin 92, where Q is the
Earth’s angular velocity and 92 is the geographic latitude.)
2.2.3. Effects of convergence and

divergence
In the previous chapters we examined horizontal movements in the
atmosphere. Near the surface in low pressure systems, wind crosses the
isobars at an angle and blows into its centre. In high pressure systems, wind
crosses the isobars at an angle also but blows away from its centre. See the
figure below. Above the friction layer, the air flows parallel to the isobars.
Figure 2.28. Cyclonic and anticyclonic circulation in the Northern and

Southern Hemisphere near the surface
In cyclones (anticyclones) the air flows into (away from) the centre of the low
(high) pressure systems. Cyclonic (anticyclonic) circulation has a counter
clockwise (clockwise) direction in the Northern Hemisphere and a clockwise
(counter-clockwise) direction in the Southern Hemisphere. The centres of the
low and high pressure systems are marked with the letters L and H,
respectively.
As we look at the vertical cross-section of a low and a high pressure system,
the zones of convergence and divergence can be identified. See the figure
below.
a) b)
divergence ◄---- H----- ► aloft ---------- k L 4---- convergence
convergence---- ► L 4---- surface 4---- H----- ► divergence
Cyclone Anticyclone
Figure 2.29. Convergence and divergence in cyclones and anticyclones
Convergence and divergence a) in a low pressure system and b) in a high

pressure system close to the surface and aloft are shown. The letters L and H
denote low and high pressure systems, respectively.
Convergence means that the air flows toward one point, which occurs in low
(high) pressure systems near the surface (aloft). Near-surface convergence is
the result of the friction force. Divergence indicates that the air flows outward
from one point, which occurs in high (low) pressure systems near the surface
(aloft).
In a low pressure system, the converging air near the surface starts to ascend.
The ascending air cools down, which leads to the condensation of moisture,
cloud formation and precipitation, if the air contains enough humidity.
Therefore, the air diverges at upper levels of the atmosphere.
In a high pressure system, the converging air starts to descend from above.
The sinking air warms, which works against cloud formation and precipitation.
Finally the air diverges near the surface.
However, convergence and divergence cannot last forever. More precisely, the
mass in a fixed volume is constant over time. According to the law of
conservation of mass, it cannot be added or removed in a system with
constant quantity of mass, therefore, divergence arises aloft in a low pressure
system and divergence can be observed near the surface in a high pressure
system.
STUDY TEST
2.3. General global circulation
2.3.1. General circulation around the

globe
Explanation of the general global circulation
The three-cell model of the general global circulation
As we discussed in Section 1.2.3, because of the inhomogeneous latitudinal

distribution of solar radiation on the Earth’s surface the movements of air and
ocean balance the resulting inequality in heat energy distribution. The unequal
heating of the Earth’s surface leads to air pressure differences that create
wind. Wind is affected by the Earth’s rotation, which leads to a circular motion
of the air, as seen with cyclones and anticyclones. In the following section,
weather patterns will be explained that are ultimately the consequence of the
general global circulation of wind .
The average state of the Earth’s atmospheric circulation has been modelled in
different ways. The three-cell model gives us a general picture about the main
wind systems. According to the model, atmospheric circulations are modelled
with three circulation cells, or circulation loops, that rotate around horizontal
axes. The term "horizontal" means that axes are parallel to the plane tangent
to the Earth’s surface. The cells can be interpreted as the average motions of
the air around the globe. See the figure below.
NORTH
sinkinks winds
(dry)
Polar Eastertes, rising winds

(wet);
tone
cool air sinks, lilfng Westerlies

warms up and sinkinks winds
dries out (deserts) < (dry)
Subtropical High Zone
Tropical Easterlies
warm, moist air rises

Intertropical Convergence Zon<
and produces rain rising winds
(wet)
Tropical Easterlies
Subtropical High
(deserts) sinkinks winds
Prevailing Westerlies (dry)
Subpolar Low Zone
Polar Easterles rising winds

(wet)
sinkinks winds
(dry)
SOUTH
Figure 2.30. The three-cell model of the general global circulation with
related winds
Equatorial circulation cells (Hadley cells), indirect circulation cells (Ferrel cells)
and polar circulation cells are denoted by I, II and III, respectively. Note that
this is an idealised model of the atmosphere. In the real atmosphere, the
system is larger with complexity and variability. However, the model describes
surface wind systems in a relatively good way. For example, high pressure
areas do not develop uniformly around the globe.
General global circulation will be discussed in connection with the incoming

solar radiation on the surface of the Earth. The amount of the emitted
electromagnetic radiation of a body depends on its temperature as follows. It
increases as the temperature of the body increases. Incoming electromagnetic
radiation transmits the highest amount of energy from the Sun to the surface
of the Earth in the region between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
Capricorn. The amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth decreases with
increasing latitude on a yearly average. The surface of the Earth absorbs a
large fraction of the electromagnetic radiation. The re-emitted terrestrial
radiation transforms into the heat energy of the air parcels directly above the
ground, which results in increasing air temperatures. Generally, the highest air
temperature can be measured in the layer that contacts the surface of the
Earth. Therefore, heat is transmitted to higher layers in the atmosphere
through conduction, convection and condensation.
The zone where the greatest amount of solar radiation reaches the surface of
the Earth is called the Intertropical Convergence Zone (abbreviated as ITCZ).
The middle line of this zone is called the thermal equator or less frequently,
the heat equator. This does not coincide with the Earth’s Equator (henceforth,
geographical Equator). The ITCZ migrates with the overhead Sun during the
year, northward in the summer of Northern Hemisphere (July) and southward
in the winter of Northern Hemisphere (January). It can be seen in the figure
below. Also, the monsoon phenomenon relates to the migration of the ITCZ.
Rising air enhances cloud and precipitation formation above the ITCZ. The
ITCZ changes its location depending on the surface type beneath. Above the
land the ITCZ deviates from the Equator more than it does above the ocean.
Figure 2.31. The seasonal migration of ITCZ
The three cells can be found in both hemispheres, symmetrically to the

thermal equator. Please keep in mind that in Figure 2.30 the ITCZ can be
found symmetrically to the geographical Equator, which is the ideal state of
the atmosphere. The main wind systems characterised by their direction and
speed over a region and known as prevailing winds are described as follows.
As we mentioned above, the region along the thermal equator receives the
highest amount of solar radiation, which leads to a higher air temperature in
comparison to other regions on a yearly average. Because of this, the air
density and the air pressure decrease above the surface. On one hand, the air
starts to rise and flow in the direction of the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of
Capricorn. On the other hand,due to the decreasing amount of air mass near
the surface along the thermal equator, the air moves in the direction of the
Equator. The equatorward flows near the surface are called tropical easterlies
(or trade winds), which are northeasterly winds in the Northern Hemisphere,
and southeasterly winds in the Southern Hemisphere. Rising air and tropical
easterlies induce the circulation of the air. Tropical easterlies do not blow
perpendicular to the Equator because of the rotating Earth. If an observer is
fixed to the rotating Earth, then it can be explained with the Coriolis force.
Please keep in mind that the Coriolis force has to be introduced because of
the rotating reference frame. Horizontal movements seem to be deflected to
the right (left) by the Coriolis force in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere.
Because of the ascending air, the thermal equator is characterised by a low
pressure area. Due to the high moisture content of the air, heavy rainfalls are
frequent over that region.
However, air pressure will be higher above the tropics, rather than above
higher latitudes at the same height; therefore, the air diverges aloft. Near the
tropopause the air starts to flow towards the poles. It cools down while
becoming denser, which is the equivalent of an increasing mass at a constant
volume. Therefore, the air sinks along the Tropic of Cancer (ca. 23.5°N) and
the Tropic of Capricorn (ca. 23.5°S) develops a high pressure area called the
subtropical high zone. Sinking movements work against precipitation forming,
so deserts are located in this area. As the flow reaches the surface, on one
hand it engages with the tropical easterlies and closes the equatorial
circulation cell in which the airflows in a clockwise direction. On the other
hand, the air flows towards the poles.
Above the poles, cold and dense air sinks and diverges near the surface. The
sinking air starts to flow towards the Equator. It is not perpendicular to the
Equator, also because of the Coriolis force, which deflects it to the east. In
other words, the surface winds are northeasterly in the Northern Hemisphere
and southeasterly in the Southern Hemisphere. These winds are often called
polar easterlies. In the zone of the confluence of the equatorward and
poleward flows, the former starts to ascend due to its lower density.
Therefore, low pressure areas form near the Arctic Circle (ca. 66.5°N) and the
Antarctic Circle (ca. 66.5°S), called the subpolar low zones. The ascending air
diverges at the tropopause and flows both in the direction of the Equator and
the poles, creating the polar circulation cell in which the air flows in the same
direction as in the equatorial circulation cell.
The equatorial and polar circulation cells indirectly form another circulation
cell (henceforth an indirect circulation cell) over the mid-latitudes, in which the
direction of the flow is counter-clockwise. In that cell the air flows near the
surface towards the poles. Because of the Earth's rotation, its direction is
deflected to the southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and northwest in the
Southern Hemisphere. The winds that pass over the mid-latitudes are called
prevailing westerlies. Over the subpolar low zone the warmer southwesterly
air collides with the colder northeasterly air from the poles, then climbs up
over it. The border between the two air masses, with significantly different
temperatures that originate from the polar and the tropical region, is called
the polar front (abbreviated as PF). It is located between the indirect and the
polar circulation cell. There is an abrupt change in the air temperature along
the PF; in other words, a steep horizontal temperature gradient can be
observed. The location of the PF changes seasonally. It moves south in winter
and draws back north in the summer in the Northern Hemisphere. To the
contrary, the PF moves north in winter and south in summer in the Southern
Hemisphere. Along the PF troughs and ridges develop, which are associated
with low (cyclonic) and high pressure (anticyclonic) systems. Mid-latitude
cyclones (horizontal circulations with vertical axes, the term "vertical" means
that axes are perpendicular to the plane tangent to the Earth’s surface.) have
great importance regarding the transfer of heat from lower latitudes to higher
latitudes. They determine the weather in the mid-latitudes.
Along the regions with a steep temperature gradient (e.g. just below the
tropopause), narrow bands of westerly winds are observable at maximum wind
speeds. These are called jet streams (see Section 2.7). The two main jet
streams are the subtropical jet stream and the polar jet stream. The former is
located above the PF, while the latter can be found above the subtropical high
zone.
For remarks about the development of atmospheric circulation, see the

detailed explanation of general global circulation later. Further details about
the general circulation in the troposphere and lower stratosphere are found in
Section 8.1.1.
Distribution of the surface pressure and resulting wind patterns at low levels
in the atmosphere
As has been said before, the ITCZ migrates with the seasons, which leads to
the seasonal movement of circulation cells that make up the wind systems in
the atmosphere. Because of this, the wind pattern of the Earth also varies with
the season.
In January, during the Northern Hemisphere’s winter, the ITCZ deviates to the
south from the geographical Equator, which can be seen in the figure below.
Because of this, the tropical easterlies i blow across the geographical Equator.
In lower latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere, outside the region of the
Equator, the Coriolis force deflects the wind to the left. Therefore, the wind
changes its direction from northeasterly to northwesterly, which is called the
monsoon. To summarise, in the Southern Hemisphere, the southeasterly
tropical easterlies are replaced with the northwesterly monsoon. In the
Northern Hemisphere, the subtropical high zone, the subpolar low zone and
the PF move closer to the Equator, so a westerly wind with moister air can be
expected around the Tropic of Cancer. Increasing cyclonic activity with a
westerly wind is observed over the southern regions of the mid-latitudes
leading to an increased amount of precipitation (e.g. over the Mediterranean
region in Europe). The high pressure zone around the polar region that
extends to the Arctic Circle causes northeasterly wind just above the surface.
Meanwhile in the Southern Hemisphere northwesterly monsoon winds
dominate the region over the lower latitudes. The subtropical high zone with
southeasterly winds and the subpolar low zone with westerly winds move
towards the South Pole, so the high pressure area around the South Pole with
southeasterly wind, contracts.
Sea-Level Pressure and Surface Winds
Jan
995 1000 1005 1010 1015 1020 1025
Figure 2.32. Average wind and sea level pressure distribution near the
surface of the Earth in January between 1959-1997
Letters L and H denote low and high pressure areas, respectively. The ITCZ is
marked with a red line. Air pressure is given in millibars. The average wind
speed increases as the length of the arrows increases.
In July, during the Northern Hemisphere’s summer, the ITCZ deviates to the
north from the geographical Equator, which is shown in the figure below.
Therefore, the tropical easterlies in the Southern Hemisphere blow across the
geographical Equator and the Coriolis force deflects the wind to the right. The
northeasterly tropical easterlies are replaced with the southwesterly monsoon.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the subtropical high zone, the subpolar low
zones and the PF can be found closer to the North Pole. The high pressure
area with northeasterly tropical easterlies is expected to extend northward by
January causing a decreased amount of precipitation (e.g. over the southern
part of Europe). Cyclonic activity and intense westerly winds are retracted to
the north. A high pressure zone with northeasterly wind is contracted around
the North Pole. Meanwhile, in the Southern Hemisphere the subtropical high
zone with southeasterly winds and the subpolar low zone with westerly winds
move closer to the Equator. A high pressure zone with a northeasterly wind
can be found around the South Pole pushes to the north.
Sea-Level Pressure and Surface Winds

Jul
Figure 2.33. Average wind and air pressure distribution near the surface of
the Earth in July between 1959-1997
Letters L and H denote low and high pressure areas, respectively. The ITCZ is
marked with a red line. Air pressure is given in millibars. The average wind
speed increases as the length of the arrows increases.
Wind direction in mid-latitude cyclones in the friction layer
We emphasize the significance of understanding the direction of the air flows

in mid-latitude cyclones and anticyclones. As we have seen in Section 2.2, in
cyclones (anticyclones) the wind crosses the isobars at an angle near the
surface. The air flow into (away from) the centre of the low (high) pressure
system in both hemispheres is due to the surface friction up to about 2 000 to
3000 ft (ca. 600 to 900 m). This indicates convergence in cyclones and
divergence in anticyclones near the surface regardless of the season.
Furthermore, in a cyclone, the air flows in a counter-clockwise (clockwise)
direction in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere, and in an anticyclone it
flows in a clockwise (counter-clockwise) direction in the Northern (Southern)
Hemisphere
As a result of the above-mentioned flow directions related to the pressure

systems, the following statements can be made:
• In the Northern Hemisphere, if the observer moves towards a low (away

from a high) then the wind blows from the left. If the observer moves
towards a high (away from a low) then the wind blows from the right.
• In the Southern Hemisphere if the observer moves towards a low (away
from a high) then the wind blows from the right. If the observer moves
towards a high (away from a low) then the wind blows from the left.
Figure 2.34. Circulation between a cyclone and an anticyclone in the friction
layer
In case 1 we examine the situation of when an observer (i.e. the aircraft)

moves towards a low pressure system (away from a high) or away from a low
system(towards a high). In case 2 we analyse the situation of when a cyclone
moves away from an observer, while the path of the movement and the
position of the observer does not fall in a straight line.
Case 1
If we are flying in the Northern Hemisphere:
1. towards a low (away from a high) then the wind is blowing from the left
slightly on the nose of the aircraft, which will be drifting to the right (see
the figure below in section a);
2. away from a low (towards a high) then the wind is blowing from the right
slightly on the tail of the aircraft, which will be drifting to the left (see
the figure below in section b).
In the Southern Hemisphere the opposite statements are true.
If we are flying in the Southern Hemisphere:
3. towards a low (away from a high), then the wind is blowing from the
right slightly on the tail of the aircraft, which will be drifting to the left
(see figure below in section c);
4. away from a low (towards a high) then the wind is blowing from the left
slightly on the nose of the aircraft, which will be drifting to the right (see
the figure below in section d).
Note that in the above-mentioned situations the aircraft moves towards a

cyclone (away from an anticyclone) or away from a cyclone (towards an
anticyclone), which are shown in the figure below.
Figure 2.35. Experienced wind by an aircraft flying a-c) towards a low, b-d)
away from in the friction layer
Note that in every case the aircraft is in front of a low pressure system, or in
front of a high system.
Another aspect that should be mentioned regarding a cyclone is the change in

wind direction for an observer as the cyclone moves away from the observer,
while the path of the movement and the position of the observer does not fall
in a straight line.
Case 2
Assume that the observer is in the Northern Hemisphere (see the figure
above):
a. The observer is positioned south of the cyclone. If the cyclone moves

from west to east then the wind direction backs because of the
following. In the cyclone, the airflows in a counter-clockwise direction.
Therefore, the wind is southeasterly when the cyclone approaches the
observer, and then changes to northeasterly as it moves away from the
observer.
b. As a consequence of (a), if the cyclone moves from east to west, then

the wind veers.
c. The observer is north of the cyclone. If the cyclone moves from west to
east, then the wind direction veers. The wind is northwesterly when the
cyclone approaches the observer, then changes to northeasterly as it
moves away from the observer.
d. As a consequence of (c), if the cyclone moves from east to west, then

the wind backs.
Figure 2.36. Experienced wind by an observer in the friction layer if a cyclone
moves from (a), (c) west to east and (b), (d) east to west in the Northern
Hemisphere
Let us assume an observer is in the Southern Hemisphere. See the figure

above. In this case, the following can be observed:
a. The observer is south of the cyclone. If the cyclone moves from west to
east then the wind direction veers because of the following. In the
cyclone the air flows in a clockwise direction. Therefore, the wind is
southwesterly when the cyclone approaches the observer, then changes
to northwesterly as it moves away from the observer.
b. As a consequence of (a), if the cyclone moves from east to west, then

the wind backs.
c. The observer is north of the cyclone. If the cyclone moves from west to
east, then the wind direction backs. The wind is northeasterly when the
cyclone approaches the observer, then changes to northwesterly as it
moves away from the observer.
d. As a consequence of (c), if the cyclone moves from east to west, then

the wind veers.
Figure 2.37. Wind experienced by an observer in the friction layer if a

cyclone moves from (a), (c) west to east and (b), (d) east to west in the
Southern Hemisphere
Distribution of the winds at high level in the atmosphere
The mechanisms established in high tropospheric circulation are not fully

understood. At upper levels of the troposphere around the Equator, poleward
motions are prevailing. This means there are southerly-southwesterly winds in
the Northern Hemisphere and northerly-northwesterly in the Southern
Hemisphere that deflect into westerly winds with great wind speeds towards
the poles via the Coriolis force. At higher levels winds can be faster because of
the lack of friction; thus with altitude the wind speed increases. Over mid
latitudes the winds are mostly westerly during the year in both hemispheres
near the tropopause. They are shown in the figure above and the figure below.
Areas with the strongest wind speed at high levels indicate the location of the
jet streams.
Just above the Equator in a narrow zone, a weak easterly wind direction can
be experienced at high levels because of the convergence of trade winds from
the two hemispheres.
In January, the winds at high levels are stronger, especially over the mid
latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. The average value of the maximum
wind speed can be found at around 30°N in January. On the contrary, in July it
is around 30°S. The wind direction is westerly on average. Temperature and
pressure differences and the resulting air motions are stronger in January in
the Northern Hemisphere in comparison to the Southern Hemisphere.
In July, upper tropospheric winds are weaker and less characteristic in the
Northern Hemisphere when compared to the Southern Hemisphere.
At upper levels of the troposphere the prevailing winds are mostly westerly
and poleward during the year. However, in winter, the wind speed is
increasing over the mid-latitudes.
Wind direction in mid-latitude cyclones above the friction layer
In mid-latitude cyclones and anticyclones the wind blows parallel to the

curved isobars at high level above the friction layer. However, the wind blows
from the same direction relative to the aircraft near the surface between
cyclones and anticyclones. Compare the figure below to Figure 2.34:
• In the Northern Hemisphere, if the observer moves towards a low (away

from a high) then the wind blows from the left (figure below, section a). If
the observer moves towards a high (away from a low) then the wind blows
from the right (figure below, section b).
• In the Southern Hemisphere, if the observer moves towards a low (away
from a high) then the wind blows from the right (figure below, section c). If
the observer moves towards a high (away from a low) then the wind blows
from the left (figure below, section d).
Figure 2.38. Circulation between a cyclone and an anticyclone above the
friction layer
Besides the wind characteristic of cyclones and anticyclones, another

important phenomenon concerning aviation at upper levels in the atmosphere
are the jet streams. For an explanation, see Section 2.7.
Relationship between true altitude and low/high pressure areas
The term true altitude was introduced in Section 1.6 as the actual altitude of
the aircraft above the mean sea level. If an observer is at a constant pressure
level, then its true altitude decreases (increases) as the air pressure decreases
(increases). Consequently, if an aircraft is flying towards a low (high) pressure
area then the true altitude is decreasing (increasing).
It can be determined by Buys Ballot’s law if an aircraft is flying towards a low

(high) pressure area. Remember the following. According to the law, if
someone stands with their back to the flow in the Northern (Southern)
Hemisphere, then areas with low pressure can be found at their left-hand
(right-hand) side. These relationships can be observed in Figure 2.34 and the
figure above.
Remarks on the general global circulation

Remarks on the three-cell model
The three-cell model that is described above is a simplification of the

atmospheric circulation, which is more complex in reality. The equatorial
circulation cell is called the Hadley cell, which is the largest circulation loop in
the model. The wind pattern at lower latitudes was first described by English
physicist George Hadley in the 18th century. The indirect circulation cell
between the Hadley and the polar cell is called the Ferrel cell. It is named after
American meteorologist William Ferrel, who described the winds near the
surface over the mid-latitudes. The three circulation cells are shown in
Figure 2.30.
It is worth mentioning that the main wind systems at lower latitudes were
named during the Age of Exploration between the 15th and the 18th century.
Tropical easterlies are called trade winds. These winds blow constantly from
the same direction that helps with sailing. Doldrums refer to the ITCZ ,where
the northeasterly and southeasterly trade winds come together, leading to
calm winds, which are dangerous for sailing. The regions of the subtropical
high zone are called horse latitudes. Further details about the typical wind
systems of the tropics are available in Section 8.2.
Laws of conservation
As was mentioned above, if an observer is fixed to the rotating Earth, then the
deflection of the wind systems can be explained by the Coriolis force. In the
inertial reference frame (e.g. if the observer is fixed to the Sun), the circulation
of the air is required to fulfil the following physical laws.
Let us consider an isolated system, which means that there is no mass or

energy transfer between the system and its surroundings. In other words the
internal energy of the system remains constant over time. The law of
conservation of mass explains that in an isolated system mass is constant, or
conserved, overtime, which means that mass cannot be created or destroyed.
In fluid mechanics, the law can be expressed by the continuity equation.
According to the law of conservation of energy, in an isolated system, energy

remains constant overtime.
The energy is transmitted by wind systems and oceanic currents from lower to
higher latitudes. If we are speaking about the transfer of energy, then linear
momentum (denoted by P) is carried by the atmosphere and the ocean,

which can be expressed as follows:
(2.34)
P = mv
where mass and velocity is marked with m and , respectively, so the SI unit
of the linear momentum is kg y.
The Earth can be considered an isolated system. The sum of the momenta of
its particles that establish the system remains constant at time. To understand
the atmospheric circulation, the term angular momentum (denoted by L ) has

to be introduced. The air parcel makes rotating movements around the Earth,
with the velocity of v . The position vector of the air parcel is denoted by 1?.
It points in the direction of the air parcel, perpendicular to the rotation axis.
The radius of its circular path is r. The angular momentum of the air parcel is
the cross product of the radius and its linear momentum, thus:
(2.35)
L = r x P = r x mv
This can be shown in Figure 2.38. Note that the magnitude of the angular
2
momentum is L = rmv. It is measured in the SI unit of kg The cross
product means that L is perpendicular to the and the . The angular

momentum of the isolated system is conserved over time as well. This means
the following. At a constant mass, if the velocity of the air parcel increases
(decreases) then the radius of its path has to decrease (increase).
Figure 2.39. Demonstration of the angular momentum vector
Remarks on the atmospheric circulation
Let us consider the Earth as an isolated system. Wind systems in the Earth’s
atmosphere can be explained with the above-mentioned physical laws. A brief
overview of the atmospheric circulation is to be found below.
The highest amount of incoming solar radiation on a yearly average reaches

the surface of the Earth along the ITCZ. Increasing air temperatures and
decreasing air density lead to the ascending movement of the air and
convergence near the surface. However, according to the law of conservation
of mass, the convergence of air cannot last forever and therefore divergence
has to compensate for it at upper levels of the atmosphere. In the ITCZ, the
amount of incoming solar radiation is larger than the amount of terrestrial
radiation so surplus of energy is observable in that region. Comparing lower
latitudes to higher latitudes, an energy imbalance develops. According to the
law of conservation of energy, the transport of energy is required from lower
to higher latitudes by the atmosphere and the ocean. A fraction of the
electromagnetic energy from the Sun turns into the heat energy and the
kinetic energy (denoted by E^n) of the air parcel. The kinetic energy is
proportional to the mass of the air parcel (denoted by m) and its speed
(denoted by v). It can be expressed as:
(2.36)
Ekin = |mv2
The energy is given in the SI units of Joule as follows:
Comparing the atmosphere to the ocean, the following can be said. The ocean
has a much larger mass than the atmosphere; however, oceanic currents are
much slower than atmospheric currents (i.e. wind systems). The latter is more
significant; therefore, the atmosphere carries more energy from lower to
higher latitudes than the ocean.
As has been said, at lower latitudes near the surface, northeasterly winds
blows. The easterly component of the wind can be explained in the inertial
reference frame by the following. The air parcels rotate with the Earth.
However, the air mass that contains air parcels with the same characteristics
has inertia. Consequently, the Earth rotates faster than the air mass, which
drags behind. Because of the surface friction, the air mass receives linear
momentum from the Earth, which also increases its angular momentum. To
obey the law of conservation of angular momentum, the air mass has to be
transmitted back to the Earth, which can be done by westerly winds.
Therefore, the existence of the zone of westerly winds over the mid-latitudes
is inevitable. The PF (that is the border of the poleward and equatorward
flows), makes wave-like movements, so it can be seen as a type of planetary
long wave. These types of waves are called Rossby waves because they were
first described by Swedish-born meteorologist Carl-Gustaf Rossby in the first
half of the 20th century. The development of the PF can be modelled by a
differentially heated rotating tank. Its centre is cooled while its walls are
heated, which represents the poles and the Equator, respectively. If the tank
rotates with the Earth, then meanders or swirls develop with increasing
amplitudes. The formation of troughs and ridges can be observed.
lorth Pole North Pole

Polar front
Cold polar air Cold polar air Polar front
Warm tropical air Warm tropical air
Equator Equator
North Pole North Pole
Polar front Polar front

Cold polar air Cold polar air
Warm tropical air Warm tropical air
Equator Equator
Figure 2.40. The development of the polar front
The above-described wave-like movement means horizontal circulation.

Therefore, over the mid-latitudes, momentum is not carried by vertical
circulation loops with a horizontal axis, but circulation systems with a vertical
axis, i.e. cyclones. However, if isobars in cyclones were concentric, then the
momentum that was carried by the cyclone on its opposite sides would
compensate each other, which is not the case. Cyclones are asymmetric in
reality.
Seasonal variation of the ITCZ
The ITCZ changes its location depending on (1) the season, (2) the surface
type beneath it, and (3) the topography:
1. The Earth’s rotation axis is not perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic.
Therefore, the ITCZ deviates from the geographical Equator to the north
(south) in the Northern Hemisphere’s summer (winter) as well as to the
south (north) in the Southern Hemisphere’s summer (winter).
2. Surfaces may have different specific heat capacity. Because of this

surfaces with lower (higher) specific heat have faster (slower) warming
and cooling processes. In general, the specific heat of land surfaces is
lower than the specific heat of sea surfaces. Consequently, the ITCZ
deviates from the geographical Equator more above the land than above
ocean.
3. Mountainous regions may enhance the convergence of air, which can

also affect the position of the ITCZ, as seen in Figure 2.32 and
Figure 2.33. Further details about the consequences of seasonal
variability are available in Section 8.2.
2.3.2. Remarks on the scales of the

atmospheric motions
Weather patterns can be divided into various groups based on their horizontal
range. In the atmosphere, incoming solar radiation becomes the energy of the
planetary-scale circulation systems. These can be considered the largest flow
systems; for example, planetary long waves (Rossby waves), with a horizontal
range of about 10 000 km. Then, energy is transported from larger scales to
smaller scales via radiation, convection, conduction and condensation. Ridges
and troughs, mid-latitude cyclones and anticyclones, and tropical cyclones
belong to large-scale circulation systems with a diameter of between a few
hundred kilometres up to a few thousand kilometres. On a meso-scale, local
wind systems are found, such as valley winds and mountain winds, sea
breezes and land breezes, large tornadoes and thunderstorms. These have a
horizontal range from ca. 10 km to ca. 100 km. On a micro-scale, small
tornadoes, dust evils and wind gusts are observed with diameters smaller than
ca. 1 km.
The life span of the above-mentioned weather systems decreases with

decreasing horizontal range. The characteristic horizontal ranges of the
atmospheric motions are summarised in the figure below. As a side note, it is
worth mentioning that energy exchanges involved in these processes can
down to a molecular scale. For example, processes concerning the
development of precipitation belong to that scale.
Group Horizontal range Life span Examples
planetary-scale > -33000000 ft months rossby waves

> -10000 km
large-scale -3300000-330000 ft weeks ridges and troughs, mid-latitude

-100 km--1000 km cyclones and anticyclones,
tropical cyclones
meso-scale -330000-33000 ft hours - days valley and mountain winds,

-10 km - -100 km valley and seabreezes,
large tornadoes, thunderstorms
micro-scale < -33000 ft minutes - hours small tornadoes, dust devils

< -1 km
Figure 2.41. Scales of atmospheric motion based on their horizontal ranges
In the following chapters the above-mentioned atmospheric motions will be

explained in detail.
STUDY TEST
2.4. Local winds
2.4.1. Anabatic and katabatic winds,

mountain and valley winds, Venturi
effects, land and sea breezes
Explanation of anabatic/katabatic winds and
mountain/valley winds
As has been described in Section 2.3, the unequal heating of the Earth’s
surface leads to pressure differences in the air, which induce winds that
establish the Earth’s general global circulation. Wind systems such as mid
latitude cyclones and anticyclones are called large-scale atmospheric
circulation systems. They have a diameter of about 100 to 1000 km. If an
observer is fixed to the rotating Earth, then the Coriolis force is exerted on the
large-scale wind systems due to the Earth’s rotation. On a meso-scale,
weather systems, and thus local wind systems, can also be formed due to the
unequal heating of the surface. These differ from large-scale systems in the
following ways:
1. The Coriolis force does not usually affect them.
2. Local wind systems have a strong diurnal cycle.
Anabatic and katabatic winds, mountain and valley winds and land and sea
breezes belong to systems that have a diameter of between about 10 km and
100 km. A diurnal cycle means that during the night, the direction of the
circulation is reversed compared to during the day.
Anabatic/katabatic winds and mountain/valley winds establish the circulation

system of a mountainous region because of the unequal heating of the slope
and its environment. First, anabatic and katabatic winds are explained, which
are the movements of the air currents upward and downward above a slope.
During the day, the incoming solar radiation warms up the slope. The air
expands and becomes less dense, so it starts to ascend, creating a low
pressure area over the slope. This leads to the upward motion of the air from
the valley to the top of the mountain, which is called an anabatic wind or
upslope wind. If this process is strong enough and the ascending air contains
sufficient moisture, then the water vapour starts to condensate, leading to the
development of cumulus clouds and precipitation. See the figure below,
section A.
During the night, the surface of the slope emits radiation, thereby cooling it
down. The air contracts and becomes denser. Therefore, it starts to descend.
Because of this the air flows downward in the direction of the valley, which is
called katabatic wind or downslope wind. A katabatic wind can be very strong
at times, but generally, it is a light wind around 10 kt (ca. 5 m/s). The surface
cools down faster than the air above it, so inversion can occur in the valley,
which leads to the formation of fog. See the figure below, section B.
Incoming solar radiation
Cloud absorbed by the slope
A B
Figure 2.42. Schematic of the anabatic (A) and the katabatic wind concerning
a slope (B)
Note: The wavelength of the incoming solar radiation is shorter than the
wavelength of the outgoing (terrestrial) radiation.
Secondly, the horizontal movements of the air along the valley (called
mountain and valley winds) will be described. In a mountainous area, if an
anabatic wind blows along the slope, then the air flows into the valley because
of the ascending movement of the air. The wind that blows into the valley is
called valley wind. It is shown in the figure below, section A. Alternatively, if a
katabatic wind blows along the slope, then the descending movement makes
the air leave the valley. This flow is called mountain wind. It can be seen in the
figure below, section B.
A B
Figure 2.43. Anabatic (A) and katabatic (B) wind concerning a slope
To understand more deeply the physical processes beyond anabatic and

katabatic winds, atmospheric stability has to be examined in more detail.
Detailed explanations about atmospheric stability and the formation of
anabatic and katabatic winds are found in Section 3.3.1.
Explanation of sea and land breezes

Another type of local wind is associated with the coast line of seas or lakes.
Due to the uneven heating of the sea and land surfaces, sea and land breezes
arise. Local circulation systems can be identified over the coastal regions in
the lower layers of the atmosphere. As with local winds around a mountainous
area, sea and land breezes also have a strong diurnal cycle. In general, wind
blows from the colder area toward the warmer area.
During the day, sea breezes blow from the surface of the sea towards the land
because of the following. After sunrise, the Sun heats the land faster and more
strongly than the surface of the sea due to their difference in specific heats.
Please keep in mind that specific heat capacity of land surfaces is lower than
sea. Therefore, the former warms up and cools down faster than the latter.
Because of this, the air that contacts the ground starts to warm up over the
land. Its density decreases, so low-pressure areas and horizontal pressure
gradients develop between the sea and the land. The PGF®0 points in the
direction of the land. The air starts to rise and the colder air from the sea flows
towards the land, which creates a sea breeze. As the air ascends over the land,
the pressure of the air increases at higher altitudes, higher above the land than
above the sea at the same level. Therefore, the horizontal pressure gradient
changes aloft. The PGF will point in the opposite direction, from the land to
the sea. Consequently, the air starts to flow towards the sea. As has been said
before, the surface of the sea is colder than the land, so the air cools down
and starts to descend above the surface of the sea, creating a closed
circulation cell above the coastal region. The average wind speed is about
5 m/s (ca. 10 kt) and the height of the cell may reach about ca. 1000 to
3000 ft (ca. 300 to 900 m) above the surface. The affected area can extend
about 98400 ft (ca. 30 km) from both sides of the coast depending on the size
of the lake or sea. A sea breeze is most likely to occur during clear nights with
warm sea temperatures. The circulation above a coastal region during the day
is shown in Figure 2.44 section A. Cumulus clouds often form above the land,
which can lead to precipitation (see the figure below).
During the night, the wind blows from the opposite direction near the surface,
which is called a land breeze. See Figure 2.44 section B. A land breeze blows
from land to water and it is weaker than a sea breeze because the PGF
induced by air temperature differences between the land and the sea is mostly
smaller during the night than the day. Its average wind speed is about 2.5 m/s
(ca. 5 kt). The affected area by land breeze is also smaller. It is about 29 500 ft
(ca. 9 km) from the coast. The land cools down faster than the water at night
because of the difference in their specific heats. Above the sea surface the air
that is warmer and less dense starts to rise. A horizontal pressure gradient
develops, and the PGF points in the direction of the sea. Therefore, the wind
starts to blow towards the sea, which is known as a land breeze. At higher
altitudes, the horizontal pressure gradient changes because the pressure
distribution is the opposite to that near the surface. The air starts to flow
towards the land while it is cooling down. Finally, the air descends above the
land, creating closed circulation. The direction of the flow in the cycle that
includes a land breeze is the opposite to the case of the sea breeze. A vertical
extension of the cell is approximately 1000 ft (about 300 m) above surface.
Note: The lowest air temperature can be measured above the middle line of the
sea. Therefore, inversions develop above it, which can lead to the formation of fog.
It is worth mentioning that sea breeze and land breeze develop mainly in
anticyclonic circumstances from early summer to early autumn when the
amount of solar radiation is enough to maintain the above-described local
circulations of the air. Relevant to an aircraft near the surface flying parallel to
the coast line, sea and land breezes result in crosswinds.
Figure 2.44. Sea breeze (A) and land breeze (B)
We have to mention that during the day, a low pressure area above the land
can be considered a convergence zone. Sea-breeze fronts can be associated
with that convergence zone. That front develops where the sea breeze
collides with the warmer air above the land. It is like a cold front where the
warm air slides up to the cold air. It is shown in the figure below. Because of
the convergence, the air starts to rise, and clouds as well as precipitation may
develop.
H —► L
Figure 2.45. Sea-breeze front (denoted by triangles). Letters H and L indicate

high and low pressure areas, respectively.
If the diameter of the above described coastal circulations is large enough,

then the Earth's rotation could exert force on it. On the rotating Earth, this can
be explained by the Coriolis force, which deflects the motion parallel to the
surface to the right (left) in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere. This means
that sea and land breezes veer over the Northern Hemisphere and back over
the Southern Hemisphere.
2.4.2. Effect of accelerated airflow due

to topography
Explanation of the Venturi effect
Mountain ranges can be considered obstacles to air flow. They deflect the
direction of the flow, which can cause changes in pressure. This may influence
the pressure altimeter reading. Deflection occurs for example when air is
forced into a narrow channel (i.e. a valley) that makes it flow with a stronger
wind speed.
Assume a horizontal air flow with a constant density that is forced to pass
over a channel with a narrow cross section. The velocity of the air flow
increases as the cross section decreases. Furthermore as the velocity of the air
flow increases, the pressure decreases. This phenomenon is described by
Bernoulli’s principle. The pressure drop caused by acceleration of the air flow
for topographical reasons can be called the Venturi effect.
The Venturi effect acts on the pressure altimeter reading as follows.

Unexpected pressure drops can cause an overestimation of altitude as we saw
in Section 1.6. As altitude is calculated, when compared to the reference
pressure setting (i.e. QNH or QNE), the true altitude will be lower than the
indicated altitude, in case of flying into lower pressure.
Figure 2.46. Illustration of Venturi effect
If the air flow is forced into a channel with a narrow cross section, called a
Venturi tube, its velocity increases and its pressure decreases.
If the wind blows towards the mountain and flows around it, a convergence
zone develops on the downwind side of the mountain. See the figure below.
Convergence leads to ascending air. If the air contains enough moisture,
clouds and precipitation may form.
Figure 2.47. Example of an air flow convergence caused by a mountain
(Olympic Mountains, Washington State, USA)
As a side note, as has been explained regarding valley wind, during the day on
sunny days, some winds ascends s over the slopes while other winds flow into
the valley. This phenomenon can also be considered a convergence of air.
It is worth mentioning that Bernoulli’s principle is widely used on aircraft to

measure air speed, which is defined as the velocity of the aircraft relative to
the surrounding air. It can be determined by a device called a Pitot tube that
measures the total pressure exerted by the flow and the static pressure, which
is unaffected by the velocity of the flow. Total pressure is measured in a tube
that is parallel to the flow while the static pressure is measured in a tube that
is perpendicular to the flow. A modified version of the original Pitot tube, the
Pitot-static tube (or Prandtl tube) allows us to measure the above-mentioned
types of pressure at the same time. The schematic of the device is shown in
the figure below. Further details about the calculation of air speed are
available later in this chapter.
The device contains an inner tube to measure total pressure and outer tubes
to measure static pressure.
A Pitot tube is affected by meteorological conditions such as icing, which may

lead to serious malfunctions, for example the underestimation of air speed.
Further details and a case study about a related disaster can be found in
Section 9.1.
Remarks on the Venturi effect and Bernoulli’s

principle
The relationship between pressure and velocity in the Venturi tube
Bernoulli’s principle and the Venturi effect are observable not only in gas but
also in liquid. Henceforth, flows of gas and liquid are called fluids. The
principle was described by Swiss mathematician and physicist Daniel Bernoulli
in the 18th century. The effect was named after Italian physicist Giovanni
Battista Venturi. Bernoulli’s principle can be derived from Bernoulli’s equation,
which can be considered the law of conservation of energy for fluids. To
understand the relationship between pressure and velocity, first Bernoulli’s
equation has to be described.
Assume that the fluid is incompressible (which means that its density q is
constant), the friction force is negligible and there is no heat exchange
between the fluid and its environment. The fluid is in a Venturi tube and flows
along parallel streamlines. Streamlines are lines that are tangential to the
velocity vector of the flow. They do not change rapidly over time. This type of
flow is called a laminar flow. See the figure below.
Figure 2.49. Streamlines in a Venturi tube
We can see a cross-section of a tube; the velocity and pressure of the fluid in
points 1 and 2 are A1; A2 and v1} v2 as well as p1? p2 respectively.
Note: Incompressibility of the fluid means that A1v1=A2v2.

In this case, its weight and the force derived from the pressure differences
acts on the fluid. Therefore, these two forces do work on the fluid.
Note that the work on the fluid along a linear streamline is the product of the
force (denoted by F) that acts on it and the length of its displacement
(denoted by s), thus:
(2.37)
W = Fs
Work is given in the SI unit of joule. Based on equation above:
[N]x[m] = [kg]x J2. x[m] = [kg]x
According to equation above, the work (denoted by Wi) on the fluid, that
comes from its weight can be expressed as follows:
(2.38)
Wi = mgh1 — mgh2
where m is the mass of the fluid, hi and h2 are the height of the fluid in points
1 and 2, respectively, and g is the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration.
Note that mgh is the potential energy that is possessed by the fluid relative to
its environment due to its position, where h is the height of the fluid. Potential
energy is also given in the SI unit of joule. Based on the equation above:
m2
J
s2
Mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy.
The work (denoted by W2) on the fluid that derives from the pressure
(denoted by p) can be described as follows. According to Equation 1.9 in
Section 1.3.1, the force F = pA is substituted into Equation 2.40, where A is
the area that is affected by the force, i.e. the cross-section of the Venturi tube,
thus:
(2.39)
W2 = Pl As - P2 As
According to the work of the energy principle, the changes in the kinetic
energy of the fluid (denoted by AEkin) are equal to the work done by all
forces acting on it. This means that:
(2.40)
AEkin = mghx - mgh2 + pi As - p2 As
According to its definition, kinetic energy can be described as:
(2.41)
|mv22 - |mvi2 = mghx - mgh2 + pi As - P2AS
Rearrange the equation above so:
(2.42)
pi As + |mvi2 + mgh1 = p2 As + |mv22 + mgh2
According to the equation above, the mechanical energy remains constant

over time. Therefore Bernoulli’s Equation along a streamline of the fluid can
be described as:
(2.43)
pAs + |-mv2 + mgh = const.
Remember that As = V.
The equation above can be turned into the following summary. Assume that g
and h remain constant over time. If the pressure decreases, then the velocity
of the fluid must increase. If the cross-section of the Venturi tube decreases
then the velocity of the pressure must also increase.
Measurement of air speed on aircraft
If we divide the equation above with V then Bernoulli’s Equation can be

described with density instead of mass as:
(2.44)
P + ^£v2 + £gh — const.
in which the terms are expressed in the SI units of pascal. The equation above
can be interpreted as follows. The total pressure of an incompressible fluid
(denoted by ps), which is constant along a streamline, is called a stagnation (or
total) pressure and it is the sum of the static pressure p, the dynamic pressure
^-pv2 and the hydrostatic pressure £gh. The air speed is denoted by v.
Dynamic pressure originates in the kinetic energy of the flow of the fluid,
while static pressure does not depend on the velocity of the flow.
The Pitot tube was first constructed by French engineer Henri Pitot in the
18th century. Its modified version, the Pitot-static tube, determines v by
measuring the total pressure and the static pressure. After that, the equation
above is used as follows. The cross-section of the Pitot-static tube is relatively
small, so we assume that the pressure does not vary with height. Therefore,
the term of hydrostatic pressure is neglected,so:
(2.45)
I 9
Ps = P + 2^V
(2.46)
2.5. Mountain waves (standing
waves, lee waves)
2.5.1. Origin and characteristics

Explanation of the origin and characteristics of
mountain waves
As we mentioned earlier, the Earth’s atmosphere in some respects acts like a
fluid. One of the major consequences of this is the wave activities at different
scales in the fluid.
If the air flow collides with an obstacle then it is forced to change its original
direction. If the horizontal range of the obstacle is relatively small (e.g. a hill),
then the air flows around it. A top view of the flow around a relatively small
obstacle is shown in the figure below, section a). However, in the case of an
obstacle with larger horizontal and vertical ranges (e.g. a mountain range), the
air is forced to rise and flow above the top of it. A side view of the flow around
a larger obstacle can be seen in the figure below, section b). It is worth
mentioning that turbulent flows often develop behind obstacles. The wind
blows from left to right in both cases.
a) __________________________________
direction of the flow
Figure 2.50. Schematic of the flow
Assume that the obstacle is a wide mountain range and the air flows nearly
perpendicularly to it, forcing the air to rise. If the wind direction is almost
constant, and wind speeds exceed 15 kt (ca. 7.5 m/s) and increase slightly with
increasing altitude, then mountain waves known as lee waves or standing
waves will form. The term standing indicates that the peak of the wave is not
moving (i.e. it remains at the same position above the surface over a period of
time) while the air masses are exchanged in it. As a side note, these standing
waves can also be referred as stationary waves. The term lee indicates the
downwind side (lee side) of the mountain, shown in the figure below.
Figure 2.51. The upwind side and downwind (lee) side of the mountain range
The downwind side can be considered the domain behind the obstacle (i.e.
mountain range). If the mountain range has a north-south alignment, then it
will create mountain waves in easterly or westerly directions.
Note that stable atmospheric conditions are the most favourable regarding
the formation of mountain waves. If we take into account atmospheric
stability then the development of waves can be explained as follows. As we
mentioned in Section 1.2, in stable atmospheric layers the air parcel that is
forced to rise will return to its initial location after the force is removed. The
elevating topography exerts force on the air parcel, which starts to ascend.
After the force ceases, the displaced air parcel starts to descend to its original
position because of the stable atmospheric conditions. However, due to the
inertia of the air parcel, it will descend lower. This process produces oscillation
of the air parcels around their initial positions, leading to the wave-like
movement of the air.
To summarise, the required conditions for mountain wave formation are as
follows:
1. A wind speed of at least 15 kt (ca. 7.5 m/s) near the surface and a slight
increase in speed with altitude.
2. An almost constant wind direction regardless of the altitude, nearly

(within 30° of) perpendicular to the mountain ridge.
3. A stable stratification of the atmosphere.
4. A great horizontal extent of the mountain that forces the air to rise.
Based on the wind speed and the shape of the mountain, waves with different
structure and properties develop.
As with every wave, mountain waves can be characterised by their amplitude

and wavelength. Amplitude is the largest deviation of the particle under
examination from its original position. Crests and troughs are associated with
the maximum and minimum values of the wave, respectively. The length
between two crests is equal with the wavelength. The main characteristics of
a wave are summarised in the figure below.
wave length
Figure 2.52. Wave characteristics
Assuming a sine wave (marked with blue) in a two-dimensional Cartesian

coordinate system, wave crest (denoted by green), wave trough (denoted by
red), amplitude (denoted by purple green) and wavelength (denoted with
orange) are considered the main characteristics of the wave.
It is worth mentioning that wavelength increases with increasing wind speed.

It is not affected by the shape of the mountain range. Furthermore, the largest
amplitude is to be measured when the wavelength is equal to the width of the
mountain range.
Near the surface of the downwind side of the mountain, closed circulation
cells with horizontal axes are developed because of the surface friction. (In
that case horizontal means that the axis of the vortex is parallel to the
mountain range.). That zone is called the rotor zone, which can be considered
a low-level turbulent zone. The vortices are to be found under the wave
crests, which are called rotors. These rotors may cause severe or even
extreme turbulence close to the surface. The heights of the rotors can exceed
the height of the mountain. The strongest rotor can be found under the first
wave crest relative to the mountain range. Because of circulation, updrafts
and downdrafts with different intensities are observable in these vortices. If
the air contains enough moisture, then rotor clouds (in other words, roll
clouds) form because of the updraft.
Figure 2.53. Vertical cross-section of mountain waves and related

phenomena
Note: The flow is from left to right (marked with blue lines). Low-level turbulent
zone is denoted by brown-coloured streaks.
Mountain waves are spreading both horizontally and vertically. Horizontally,

the amplitude of waves decreases as the distance from the mountain range
increases. Their distances can extend hundreds of kilometres from the
mountain. As we discussed earlier, mountain waves develop in stable
atmospheric conditions in which the air temperature increases with increasing
altitude. If atmospheric stability decreases and the wind speed increases
strongly with increasing altitude, then trapped waves can be formed,
associated with strong turbulence. These waves cannot propagate vertically.
Trapped waves are shown in the figure below, section A. Vertically
propagating waves are formed when atmospheric stability increases as
altitude increases and wind speed does not increase strongly with altitude.
These waves may penetrate the lower stratosphere. Vertically propagating
waves can be seen in the figure below, section B.
A B
Figure 2.54. Vertical cross-section of trapped (A) and vertically propagating

mountain waves (B)
Note: The flow is from left to right (marked with blue lines).
Vertically propagating waves can be associated with downslope windstorms

above the downwind side of mountains, which can uproot trees.
Mountain waves are often associated with turbulent flows on the downwind
side of the mountain; therefore, these domains should be avoided during
flight. In dry air, the whirling motion of dust might indicate the presence of
mountain waves and turbulent air flow. As the air rises to the crest of the
wave, it cools down. If the atmosphere contains enough moisture, then water
vapour in the ascending air starts to condensate, leading to cloud formation.
Therefore, orographic clouds such as altocumulus lenticularis, rotor (or roll)
clouds and cap clouds may be developed. The presence of the above-listed
clouds can indicate the development of mountain waves. These clouds look
like standing stationary over the top of a mountain.
Mountain waves are most likely accompanied by altocumulus lenticularis

clouds, which are horizontally elongated, lens-shaped clouds above the wave
crests. See the figure below.
Altocumulus lenticularis can served as visible evidence of mountain waves.

However, this type of cloud can be formed by other weather patterns, such as
frontal zones. As a middle-altitude type of cloud, it can appear between about
6 600 ft (ca. 2 km) and about 19 700 ft (ca. 6 km). The smoothness of its edges
decreases as the intensity of the turbulence increases; therefore, it might
indicate the presence of turbulent flows.
Figure 2.55. Altocumulus lenticularis clouds over a mountain
The clouds in the photo can be considered the consequence of vertically

propagated waves. Please compare the photo to Figure 2.54, section B.
Rotor clouds appear on the top of the rotor circulation. They are small
cumuliform clouds, mainly altocumulus. The zone should be avoided by
aircraft because these clouds are related to intense turbulence.
Cap clouds appear on the upwind side of mountains where the air is forced to
rise due to the increasing elevation of the topography and the decrease in air
pressure. The cap cloud extends over the top of the mountain, from where its
name originates. On the downwind side of the mountain, the sinking air starts
to warm, dissolving the cloud. It is worth mentioning that cap clouds can be
associated with precipitation over the upwind side of mountains. These clouds
are harmless but might indicate turbulence over the downwind side of a
mountain.
Figure 2.56. Cap clouds over the mountains of Bolivia
Clouds are stationary over the mountain top and the upwind side of the
mountain.
Remarks on the explanation of the origin and

characteristics of mountain waves
From a meteorological point of view, mountain waves are a type of gravity
wave, as the development of the oscillation phenomenon that was described
before, is the consequence of the effect of the Earth’s gravity on the air
parcels. More precisely, mountain waves are internal gravity waves as they
occur because of the differences in density inside a fluid. Waves that are
observable along the border of two fluids with different characteristics like
density, for example, sea waves along borders between water and air, belong
to the category of shallow water gravity waves. These waves are allowed to
propagate only along the border of two fluids, while internal gravity waves can
propagate both horizontally and vertically.
As we discussed earlier, if the atmosphere is in hydrostatic equilibrium then:
1 dp
“ X -T-
Q dz
This means that the sum of the forces acting vertically on the unit mass of the
air (e.g. the pressure gradient force and the gravitational force) is zero.
Assume that the atmosphere is in hydrostatic equilibrium and an air parcel

collides with a mountain. In this case, the air parcel is displaced due to the
orographic effect. Displacement means that some force acts on the air parcel,
so consequently it has non-zero acceleration. This is called the buoyancy
force, which can be formulated per unit mass as:
(2.47)
d2z
dt2
Note: The terms are expressed in m/s2 in the equation above.
The left-hand side of the equation above expresses the acceleration in the
direction of z. In general, acceleration can be described three-dimensionally as
the derivative of the velocity of the moving object with respect to time.
(2.48)
v (t + At) — v (t)
aw= v(t) = r (t) = nm -----------------------
AtÔ
where acceleration, velocity, position and time are denoted by a , v , r and

t, respectively, and the second derivative is marked with the symbol •• above
the derivative. In a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, the
component of acceleration can be described as:
(2.49)
a (t) = (u(t), v(t), w(t))
du dv dw \
( dt ’ dt ’ dt /
= (x(t), y(t), z(t))

_ / d2x d2y d2z \
~ \ dt2 ’ dt2 ’ dt2 /
where u, v and w are the components of v , and in addition x, y and z are the
—
components r .
As it was mentioned in Section 1.2. among stable atmospheric conditions, the

air parcel that is forced to rise returns to its original position once the force is
removed. Therefore, mountain waves can be considered buoyancy oscillations
among stable atmospheric conditions. Mountain waves spread out
horizontally over hundreds of kilometres from the mountain. This means that
the clouds that are associated with mountain waves are observable even over
lowlands. An example can be seen in the figure below.
Figure 2.57. Clouds associated with mountain waves
Note: Decreasing amplitude of the wave can be observed in the photo.
In connection with cap clouds, we mentioned that over the upwind side of the
mountain these clouds can be associated with precipitation. Because of that,
the moisture content of the air that flows on the downwind side of the
mountain can decrease close to zero. Dry air warms adiabatically, which
means that air temperatures increase with decreasing altitude at a rate of ca.
1 °C per 100 m (3 °C per 1000 ft). That type of warm and dry downslope
wind is called a foehn wind. It has a dissolving effect on clouds and therefore a
gap can be formed between the zones of cap cloud and rotor clouds. It is
called a foehn gap.
STU DY TEST
2.6. Turbulence
2.6.1. Description and types of

turbulence
Basic explanation of turbulence and its types
In Section 2.4 we mentioned that laminar flows are characterised by
streamlines that are parallel to each other. Please keep in mind that
streamlines are tangential to the velocity vector of the flow. Without any
thermal or mechanical disturbances, laminar flows can develop in the
atmosphere. Forcing effects like the uneven heating of a surface, orographic
causes or surface friction can make the flow transition from a laminar flow to
a turbulent flow. Turbulent flow eddies develop in which a swirling motion is
observed. In what follows, we will use the term vortex in the same sense as
eddy. Laminar and turbulent flow patterns are shown in the figure below.
Turbulence may occur throughout the air column, which means that it can
develop at various heights in the atmosphere. For example, a turbulent flow
forms near the surface due to surface friction, while wind shear (an abrupt
change in the wind speed or wind direction horizontally or vertically) and
mountain ranges cause turbulence at higher altitudes. From a meteorological
point of view, turbulent flow is important because it carries energy from the
ground to higher levels of the atmosphere.
Laminar flow
Figure 2.58. Laminar and turbulend flows
Note: The speed of the laminar flow decreases near the wall of the tube. In a
turbulent flow, streamlines can cross each other causing eddies.
Turbulence can be often perceived as gustiness of the wind. A wind gust is a

sudden increase in the wind speed compared to the peak wind speed that is
measured over several minutes.
Turbulence is associated with specific weather patterns, which means that it

does not occur randomly. The main types of turbulence based on their origins
are as follows. Convective turbulence is associated with the transfer of heat
via convection among unstable atmospheric conditions. Convective
turbulence can be considered a type of thermal turbulence. The latter may
also be related to inversion layers. In a stable atmospheric layer, in which the
air temperature increases as the altitude increases, mechanical turbulence
occurs near the surface when wind collides with any obstacles (e.g. buildings,
plants). Hills and mountains are considered obstructions to the airflow,
leading to the development of orographic turbulence. Turbulence may also be
caused by weather fronts. This type of turbulence is called frontal turbulence.
Another special type of turbulence is called clear-air turbulence (abbreviated
as CAT), which is observable at upper levels of the atmosphere associated
with jet streams and planetary long waves.
Because of their various origins, horizontal and vertical ranges of turbulent

eddies and their life spans can vary widely, from millimetres to hundreds of
metres and from seconds to hours. Note that different types of turbulence
might occur over the same relief or because of the same weather pattern. For
instance, both thermal and orographic turbulence can develop in connection
with a mountain range. Convective turbulence is observed both in connection
with thermal eddies and cold fronts over mid-latitudes during summertime.
Furthermore, different types of turbulence can be related to the same weather
pattern. For example, over rough surfaces both mechanical and convective
turbulences develop among unstable atmospheric conditions.
Information about the intensity categories of turbulence and the description

of some turbulence-related incidents are to be found in Section 9.2.
Remarks on the turbulent flows in the

atmosphere
In the meteorological literature, the atmospheric layer that is influenced by the
properties (i.e. heat capacity and roughness) of the surface is called the
planetary boundary layer (or atmospheric boundary layer). It is the subject of
the discipline of micrometeorology. The atmosphere above the planetary
boundary layer is called the free atmosphere, which is not affected by the
Earth's surface.
The planetary boundary layer has diurnal and seasonal variations, and it is
affected by geographic latitude as well. Based on the above-listed aspects, its
thickness varies between a couple of metres and a couple of hundred metres.
Its diurnal variation can be seen in the figure below. As the incoming solar
radiation increases, convective currents and the consequent turbulent mixing
is dominant in the convective layer, which means that heat and energy are
well hybridised. In other words, eddies develop that transport properties from
the surface such as heat and momentum to the higher levels. This layer is not
fully separated from the free atmosphere. Exchange between them is possible
in the entrainment zone. After sunset, a layer with stable stratification is
formed near the surface in which the air temperature increases with
increasing altitude due to terrestrial radiation. In the stable boundary layer and
above it in the residual layer, laminar flows are more dominant than turbulent
flows. The residual layer contains the remains of the convective mixed layer
that formed during the day. It has a neutral stratification. Due to the lack of
turbulence at night, pollutants from the surface can accumulate and transport
horizontally along laminar flows. Temperature inversion occurs above the
residual layer and is creating a stable layer.
It is worth mentioning that strong wind speed may enhance the mixing of the
planetary boundary layer. Furthermore, just above the surface a thin layer is
observed in which molecular friction must not be disregarded. The thickness
of the planetary boundary layer also varies with the season. Generally, it is
thinner in winter than in summer. In winter, during the anticyclonic conditions
over the mid-latitudes, the stable boundary layer may not be replaced with a
convective mixed layer. Therefore, inversion can be observed throughout the
day until a strong front or enhanced solar radiation dissolves it. This situation
is called a cold air pool as can be seen in a Figure 1.21 and it is often
associated with the formation of smog.
From an aviation point of view, the meteorological conditions of the planetary

boundary layer are important during take-off and landing.
Local Time
Figure 2.59. Diurnal variation of the planetary boundary layer
As was discussed in Figure 2.58, laminar and turbulent flows are observable in
a real fluid. This means that friction forces act on the fluid parcels causing the
velocity of the flow to decrease near the wall of the pipe. In real fluids, the
transition from laminar flow to turbulent flow is inevitable as the speed of
flow increases. The critical velocity associated with the transition can be
determined by the examination of the relationship between the inertial and
the friction forces acting on the fluid parcel. In laminar flows inertial forces are
suppressed by friction forces, while in turbulent flows inertial forces are
dominant over friction forces. Therefore, flows can be characterised by the
ratio of the inertial to and friction forces. This is called Reynolds number
(denoted by Re) and can be formulated as:
(2.50)
Re = -
V
where u is the characteristic speed of the flow, 1 is the characteristic length of

the flow and v is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid, which has an SI unit of
—. The Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity. It was named after
Irish-born mechanical engineer Osborne Reynolds. Because v is in the
denominator, Re decreases as the friction force increases and therefore a
smaller Re indicates laminar flows while a larger Re indicates turbulent flows.
Based on simulations, the critical Reynolds number at the transition is about
1160.
2.6.2. Formation and location of

turbulence
In the following section, the formation of the main types of turbulence will be
explained. As we mentioned in Section 1.2.3, due to the uneven heating of the
Earth's surface, air near the surface becomes warmer and less dense than air
in its environment. It leads to unstable atmospheric stratification and so
affects the vertical motion of the air. This means that convective currents are
developed that are associated with convective turbulence. Consequently, the
possibility of turbulence increases with increasing atmospheric instability and
convection. Because of its dependence on the intensity of insolation,
convective turbulence has diurnal and seasonal variations. Due to thermal
inertia, it reaches its maximum intensity after local noon, between 2 p.m and
3 p.m. similar to the time when the highest air temperatures can be measured.
In general, turbulence decreases as latitude increases because of decreasing
insolation, but remember that convection is not significant over the Tropic of
Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn where the air is sinking. Regarding seasonality,
convection is more pronounced in summer than winter, and thus convective
turbulence is more intense in summer than in winter.
Convective currents can reach the tropopause, so aircraft may be affected by

convective turbulence not only during takeoff and landing but at any flight
level. The most severe convective turbulence is related to intense convective
clouds, and in particular cumulonimbus in thunderstorm zones (abbreviated as
TS zones). In cumulonimbus, lifting and sinking air currents (in other words,
updrafts and downdrafts) are observed, leading to the development of
turbulent flows from the vertical wind shear. In some cases the velocity of the
vertical currents exceeds 10 m/s (5 kt), which can cause the unexpected lifting
or sinking movement of the aircraft. Although the most intense zone of
turbulence is expected in the middle of the cumulonimbus zone, turbulence
can also be observed outside the cloud, i.e. in the vicinity of the cloud. It is not
detectable visually and so it is categorized as CAT. Thunderstorms can be
detected visually or by weather radars that are able to catch rain, which helps
to avoid turbulence associated with the cumulonimbus zone during the flight.
In a broader context, we can speak about thermal turbulence instead of

convective turbulence because turbulence is related to inversion layers as well
(e.g. turbulence in connection with mountain waves in a stably stratified
atmosphere). In these layers air temperature increases as altitude increases,
which acts against the formation of convective currents. Thermally-originated
turbulence related to inversion layers is formed mainly during the winter near
the Earth's surface. Aircraft are affected by this type of turbulence during
takeoff and landing but inversion may also be observable at higher levels in
the atmosphere.
Mechanical turbulence develops over various types of surfaces such as

buildings, mountains and surfaces covered by vegetation. In general, it is less
intense than convective turbulence. Its intensity increases as the roughness
and steepness of the surface and wind speed increase. Mechanical turbulence
occurs both over natural and artificial surfaces; therefore it has to be taken
into account during takeoff and landing. Roughness depends on the type of
surface. In general, sea surfaces are smoother than land surfaces. This means
that mechanical turbulence is more intense over land surfaces compared to
sea surfaces at the same wind speed. As we mentioned above, convective
turbulence develops among unstable atmospheric conditions. Mechanical
turbulence can form in stable atmospheric layers; however, atmospheric
instability enhances it.
Turbulence related to hills and mountains is called orographic turbulence.

However, one can see it as a type of mechanical turbulence because it also
depends on surface friction and the shape of the surface. As was discussed in
Section 2.5, mountain waves are often associated with turbulent flows that
occur over the downwind side (lee side) of the mountain. Please keep in mind
that mountain waves may develop among stable atmospheric conditions, if
the wind speed exceeds 15 kt and the wind direction is nearly perpendicular
to the mountain range. The rotor zone can be considered a low-level turbulent
zone with severe or even extreme turbulence on the downwind side of the
mountain (as can be seen in Figure 2.53). That zone should be avoided by
aircraft; however, turbulent flows at higher altitudes can also be observed. In
dry air, the whirling motion of dust helps us to detect turbulence. This type of
turbulence can be considered CAT0®. In moist air, turbulent zones can be
visually detected due to the formation of orographic clouds. Cloud types such
as altocumulus lenticularis (e.g. related to trapped waves) - or altocumulus
(e.g. in connection with rotor clouds) might be associated with severe
turbulence.
Frontal turbulence occurs in connection with frontal zones. Note that

cumulonimbus clouds (in which convective turbulence is formed) are often
associated with cold fronts in summer over mid-latitudes. However,
turbulence occurs not only in convective clouds but also in stratified clouds
(e.g. altostratus) that form in connection with warm fronts. Clouds often occur
in frontal zones, so frontal turbulence may be detectable visually or by using
weather radars. Frontal zones are found not only at high altitudes but near the
Earth's surface; therefore, aircraft can also be affected throughout the entirety
of a flight, similar to the case of convective turbulence.
2.6.3. Clear-Air Turbulence (CAT):

Description, cause and location
The types of turbulence can be grouped by whether or not they are associated
with clouds. Thermal or convective turbulence and frontal turbulence are
mainly occur with clouds, and so they can be detected visually or by using
weather radars. Mechanical and orographic turbulences are also expected
based on the relief (e.g. above a rough surface in strong wind or on the
downwind side of a mountain). Similar to the previously described types of
turbulence, CAT is always associated with some weather phenomena; it does
not occur randomly. However, the absence of clouds makes it hard to detect
CAT. The zones of CAT can be localised by measuring wind speed at higher
levels of the atmosphere using weather balloons or remote-sensing devices
such as wind profilers.
As was discussed in Section 2.6.2, CAT often occurs in connection with jet
streams, planetary long waves (e.g. Rossby waves) or mountain waves, so it is
mainly expected at higher altitudes in the atmosphere (i.e. the "free"
atmosphere).
CAT often develops in TS zones. It is expected around cumulonimbus, even

kilometres away, horizontally or vertically. Cumulonimbus is a towering cloud
with intense convection, so the CAT above it can reach the tropopause and
even the lower parts of the stratosphere. Concerning a decaying
cumulonimbus, downdraft can still be intense within it. In this case,
downbursts may develop that originate from the intense sinking movement of
the air in the cloud and the turbulent flows related to it. It is a process with a
short life span of just minutes. After reaching the Earth's surface, the air
diverges and flows out from the cumulonimbus in every direction. Depending
on its horizontal scale, two types of downburst are distinguished, namely the
microburst and the macroburst. If the flow carries dry air then CAT can
develop. Further details about downbursts are found in Section 4.1.
By definition, a jet stream is a narrow band with strong wind speed that
exceeds 30 m/s (about 60 kt). It is mainly located near the tropopause. The
maximum value of wind speed is measured in the core of the jet stream. CAT
related to the jet stream is expected in zones where wind shear is strong
horizontally or vertically. On weather charts it is indicated by closely spaced
isotachs, lines that connect points with the same wind speed.
The main areas of the most intense CAT development are as follows. CAT can
be found on the cold, or poleward, side of the jet next to and below the jet
core. CAT is also expected on the warm, or equatorward, side of the jet, above
the jet core. Furthermore, it can be anticipated in the zones of confluence and
diffluence in the jet stream.
In general, CAT more often occurs over land than over sea. The intensity of jet
streams and therefore the associated CAT vary with the seasons. They are
more intense in winter than in summer due to the greater temperature
gradient.
It is worth mentioning that turbulence caused by wind shear may be

associated with cloud formation. Velocity differences between two layers
cause wind shear that leads to the formation of clouds with a "ragged"
appearance. The clouds are produced by Kelvin-Helmholtz instability and are
called billow clouds. The phenomenon was named after Lord Kelvin and
German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz. It is shown in the figure below.
This type of instability can also be observed on top of the convective mixed
layer and on the surface of the outer planets.
Figure 2.60. Billow clouds produced by Kelvin-Helmholtz instability
Note: Clouds that resemble sea waves.
A detailed explanation of the effects of CAT on aviation can be found in

Section 9.2.
STUDY TEST
2.7. Jet streams
2.7.1. Description
Explanation of the jet streams
A jet stream is a narrow tunnel of strong air flow with a horizontal axis, mostly
flowing from west to east around the Earth. The term "horizontal" in this case
means that the flow is nearly parallel to the surface. The horizontal extent of
the jet stream is larger than its vertical extent. In general, jet streams are
located close to the tropopause in the troposphere or sometimes in the lower
stratosphere. However, low-level jet streams also exist in lower levels of the
troposphere. Jet streams have a significant effect on the mixing of air globally
and on the development of synoptic weather systems (e.g. in the formation of
cyclones and weather fronts).
Aviation is affected greatly by the jet streams, especially at the mid-latitudes,

as they are present around the same altitude, approx. 30000 to 40000 ft (ca.
9 to 12 km), frequently used by commercial aircraft. Jet streams may cause
strong wind shear, turbulence and drifting from the aircraft’s original location,
but may also help the plane reach higher speeds with less fuel consumption if
the wind direction is appropriate.
According to the WMO, the main characteristics of a jet stream is as follows.

Its length is thousands of kilometres. Its width is much smaller, only hundreds
of kilometres. The vertical shear of the wind is about 5-10 m/s per one km. Its
horizontal shear is also much smaller; it is about 5 m/s per 100 km. The
minimum wind speed along its axis must be at least 30 m/s (60 kt).
A jet stream varies three-dimensionally during its movement. Its altitude

changes overtime and it often meanders horizontally. It has a huge effect on
the synoptic scale weather. It has an elongated shape most of the time, but it
is curved around cyclones depending on the location of weather fronts.
The region of the strongest wind speed is the jet core (or jet streak). Its
maximum wind speed can reach 100 m/s (200 kt). In extreme cases it exceeds
150 m/s (ca. 300 kt). The strongest wind shear can be found on the cold (i.e.
polar) side of the jet stream near and below the jet core. The jet axis can be
considered the line that connects the points with strongest wind speed. The
jet core and jet axis are shown in the More info box in Section 2.7.3.
The direction of the flow in the jet streams is mostly zonal, which means that
westerly winds blow dominantly in both hemispheres. Among certain
atmospheric conditions, it can flow from east to west. Meridional flows of
southerly or northerly winds exist with less frequency.
The main jet streams are the polar jet stream (or polar front jet stream) and the
subtropical jet stream. These are present in both hemispheres. Other less
intense jet streams on smaller scales also exist. For instance, the tropical
easterly jet stream. Intermittent jet streams are also present in the atmosphere
such as the arctic jet stream (or arctic front jet stream) and the nocturnal jet
stream.
2.7.2. Formation and properties of jet

streams
Basic explanation of the jet stream formation
The two main factors in the development of the jet streams are the Earth’s
rotation and the large temperature gradient between the boundaries of two
air masses.
If we examine jet streams fixed to the Earth, this means that the observer is in
a rotating coordinate system, then the consequences of the Earth’s rotation
can be described by the Coriolis force that acts on the moving air parcels. As
was discussed in Section 2.2, the Coriolis force increases with increasing
geographic latitude, and therefore it does not have an effect on horizontal
movements close to the Equator. The Earth’s rotation is the key factor in the
formation of the subtropical jet stream. Along the jet stream the air does not
flow directly from the warmer area toward the colder area;in other words,
from south to north (north to south) in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere.
This is because the Coriolis force deflects it to the right (left) in the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere. Therefore, jet streams have westerly directions.
The other factor that leads to the development of jet streams is the large
horizontal temperature gradient between two air masses. As we mentioned in
Section 1.1.2, the boundary between two air masses is called the frontal zone.
The tropopause has breaks where air masses interact with each other. Jet
streams may also develop in relationship to these breaks in the tropopause.
The uneven heating of the Earth leads to air temperature differences that
result in air pressure differences. Due to the horizontal temperature gradient
between two air masses with different temperatures, strong wind shear arises
that leads to the formation of jet streams. The intensity of wind shear
increases as the horizontal temperature gradient increases. For example, the
polar jet stream develops above the boundary of polar and subtropical air
masses where the horizontal temperature gradient is the strongest. It is worth
mentioning that less intense jet streams are related to air masses with smaller
horizontal temperature gradients.
The intensity and location of the jet streams change with the seasons.
Stronger wind speed can be measured in winter than in summer because in
winter the temperature difference is larger than in summer. Jet streams are
located more southerly (northerly) in winter than summer in the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere.
In the following section, the main characteristics of the arctic (front) jet
stream, the polar (front) jet stream, the subtropical jet stream, and the tropical
easterly jet stream are described.
Polar and arctic jet streams
The polar jet stream (or polar front jet stream) can be found along the polar
front almost permanently, separating the subtropical warm air mass from the
polar cold air mass. Note that the cold (warm) side of the jet stream can be
found poleward (equatorward). On average, the jet stream is located between
the latitudes 30° and 60°. In winter, it can be found southerly (northerly) while
in summer it moves north (south) and becomes weaker and fragmented in the
Northern (Southern) Hemisphere. It is located between about 30000 ft and
40 000 ft (ca. 9 km and 12 km). These altitudes correspond roughly to the
pressure levels 250 to 300 hPa. Due to its meandering movement, the jet
stream can split into different parts, so the polar jet stream is not always
associated with the polar front.
On average, the highest wind speed is expected over North America because
the steepest horizontal temperature gradient is observed over that area. This
is due to the absence of mountain ranges with a west to east or east to west
alignment that could serve as an obstacle with respect to the flows from north
to south and south to north.
In the Northern Hemisphere’s winter, from October to March, the arctic front
develops around the North Pole. It is located along the boundary of the arctic
and the polar air masses. Just like the polar front, the arctic front is also
associated with a jet stream, which is called the arctic jet stream (or the arctic
front jet stream). The arctic jet stream separates the colder, northerly, arctic
maritime air mass, which originates over the Arctic Sea, and the milder,
southerly air mass above the land. Note that the warm side of the arctic jet
stream coincides with the cold side of the polar jet stream. The horizontal
temperature gradient is lower along the arctic jet stream than along the polar
jet stream. Because of this, lower wind speeds can be measured along the
arctic jet stream.
Subtropical jet stream
The subtropical jet stream is located at the boundary surface between the
tropical and mid-latitude air masses. In general, it is observed above the
boundary of the Hadley and the Ferrel cells. Therefore, its location over the
year is in line with the seasonal movement of the Hadley cell. The meandering
movement of the subtropical jet stream is not as characteristic as in the case
of the polar jet stream. It can be found at higher levels than the polar jet
stream, above 32 800 ft (ca. 10 km), because the height of the tropopause is
larger at lower latitudes than higher latitudes (Please keep in mind that the
tropical tropopause can be found between 50000 ft and 60000 ft or ca.
15 km and 18 km.) Because of this, commercial aviation is mostly unaffected
by the subtropical jet stream. On average, its wind speed is slightly weaker
than the polar jet stream. It is worth mentioning that in winter, the polar and
subtropical jet streams sometimes converge, which leads to enhanced wind
speeds. The subtropical jet stream is present more permanently than the polar
jet stream during the year.
Tropical easterly jet stream
The tropical easterly jet stream develops mainly in the Northern Hemisphere
in the summer. Primarily, it can be found above tropical land masses located
north of the oceans (typically between Southeast Asia and Central Africa). The
horizontal temperature gradient always points from the colder area to the
warmer area. The tropical easterly jet stream points from south to north while
the polar jet stream and the subtropical jet stream points from north to south.
This means that the colder (warmer) side of the tropical easterly jet stream can
be found equatorward (poleward). Therefore, the air flows from east to west
in the tropical easterly jet stream. This type of horizontal temperature gradient
can be formed in relation to the monsoon phenomenon as follows. During a
monsoon, due to the large fraction of clouds and large amounts of
precipitation, the land over the subtropical area does not warm as intensely as
in middle latitudes. Therefore, a temperature gradient develops that points
from south to north.
The altitude of the tropical easterly jet stream is about 40 000 to 50 000 ft (ca.
12 to 15 km). The temperature gradient is the strongest during summer and
therefore the most intense air flow in the jet stream is expected in summer as
well. The wind speed in the jet core is about 40 m/s (ca. 80 kt), which is lower
than the wind speed in the polar and the subtropical jet streams in which
about 70 m/s (ca. 140 kt) and 50 m/s (ca. 100 kt) is expected, respectively.
Detailed explanation of the jet stream formation

Effects of the Earth’s rotation
As we discussed in Section 2.3, circulation systems in the atmosphere can be
described both in inertial and rotating reference frames. On the rotating Earth,
the coriolis force has to be taken into account to describe the formation of jet
streams. If an observer is fixed to an inertial reference frame (e.g. fixed to the
Sun), then the formation of the jet streams can be explained in accordance
with the law of conservation of angular momentum. In the case of the
subtropical jet stream, air parcels at higher latitudes have a higher velocity
than those along lower latitudes. This phenomenon is in line with the law,
because the distance between the air parcel and the axis of rotation (i.e. the
Earth’s axis) decreases with increasing latitude. In order to obey the law, the
velocity of the air parcel must increase with increasing latitude at a constant
mass. The formation of the subtropical jet stream can be seen in the figure
below.
Figure 2.61. The formation of the subtropical jet stream
The jet stream is triggered by the conservation of momentum. Both the

radiuses ri and 12 belong to the air parcel at lower and higher latitudes,
respectively, where ri>i2. According to the law of conservation of angular
momentum, the latter has a larger velocity than the former.
Effects of the horizontal temperature gradient
As we mentioned previously, the main mechanism behind the formation of the

polar jet stream is the steep horizontal temperature gradient between the
polar and subtropical air masses, which are associated with strong wind shear.
In that sense, the jet stream is an air current along isotherms that are nearly
parallel to the isobars, and can be related to geostrophic flows.
Mathematically, this wind shear is described as the change in the height of a
geostrophic wind, called a thermal wind. Please keep in mind that a thermal
wind is not an actual wind, but a vertical wind shear. In general, the higher the
wind speed, the stronger the thermal wind. Thermal wind will be explained in
the following section.
As we discussed in Section 2.2, the horizontal pressure gradient is

proportional to the geostrophic wind speed. Consequently, if the horizontal
pressure gradient changes with altitude, then the geostrophic wind speed also
alters with altitude, which leads to thermal winds. To understand the
development of thermal wind, the following terms are introduced. In the
barotropic atmosphere the vertically distributed isobaric surfaces are parallel
with each other. This can be seen in the first image in the figure below. If the
isobaric surfaces are not parallel with the ground surface, then a horizontal
pressure gradient develops, leading to the formation of a geostrophic wind. In
this case, neither isobaric surfaces nor geostrophic winds vary with height. In
the baroclinic atmosphere the isobaric surfaces are not parallel with each
other, which results in changes in the magnitude,direction and height of the
geostrophic wind. In this case, thermal wind occurs. This scenario is shown in
the second image in the figure below.
barotropic atmosphere baroclinic atmosphere
Figure 2.62. Barotropic and baroclinic atmosphere
Isobaric surfaces are denoted by dotted lines. Orange and purple arrows show
the magnitude and direction of the geostrophic wind speed in the Northern
Hemisphere.
To describe the thermal wind components the following calculations should be

made. Assume a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system and dry air.
After the application of the ideal gas law, the geostrophic wind equations are
rearranged and derived with respect to the height z:
(2.51)
RdT r d I vg d_ ( Rd
fvg
P chc dz \ T dz \ P
(2.52)
RdT a? r d | ug d_( Rd
fug
P dz \ T dz \ P
where Rj, T, p and f denote the specific gas constant of the dry air, air
temperature, air pressure and Coriolis parameter, respectively. Assume that
the gravitational acceleration, g, is constant. According to the hydrostatic
,. 1 dp „
equation, — x ~ g — 0-
After the substitution of the ideal gas law, it is equivalent with

—■ — — — x Derive it with respect to x and v:
T p dz r J
(2.53)
_d_(jL\ = -AfJk x _§p.A
dx \ T J chc \ P dz J
(2.54)
_d_(jL\ = -AfJk x —
dy \ T J cfy \ P dz J
n r d / Rd dp \ Q ( Rd <9p\ ,
Because of — x — = -^ — x — and
dz \ P dx J dx \ P dz J
x it-") = -£-(— x the following can be described based on the
dz \ P dy J dy \ V dz J &
left-hand sides of Equation 2.51 and Equation 2.52 as well as the equations
above:
(2.55)
d_ (21 \ I X
dz \ t ) f dx\T J
(2.56)
d f ug \
dz \ T J f dy\Tj
Integrate Equation 2.55 between height levels zg and z, then rearrange it:
(2.57)
where T(z) and T(zg) are the temperature at heights z and zg, respectively,
and Vg(z), vg(zg), ug(z) and ug(zg) are the geostrophic wind components at
heights z and zq, respectively. Note that z’ is the variable of integration.
Integrate Equation 2.56 between height levels zq and z then rearrange it:
(2.58)
Approximate Equation 2.57 and the equation above as follows. If T(z) is

relatively close to T(zq) then ——- « 1. The components of the thermal
wind, denoted by v t = I ut, vt ), in the Cartesian coordinate system are:
(2.59)
VT == Vg(Z) - Vg(z0)
(2.60)
g H
ut == ug(z) - ug(zo) f J T(z’) V
Approximate T(z’) with the average temperature of the air column between
height levels zq and z (denoted by T). After that, we take into account that
rz i (^T(z) \ j , i/ar\z \ .
4^^/ = f M/(z~z",ancl
x(^-)dz’= l(^)x(z-z») by definition, thus:
(2.61)
g ar / \
vt
x
= —
fT
x —
dx v
(z — zq)
uy
(2.62)
g &T / \
Ut =----f-T X dy
—v(z — Zq)
u'
Based on the equations above, the following statement can be made. The
magnitude of the thermal wind vector is proportional to the magnitude of the
horizontal temperature gradient vector, to the thickness of the layer as well as
to the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration. The magnitude of the
thermal wind vector is inversely proportional to the Coriolis parameter and
the average temperature of the air column between z and zq.
After examining the equations above, the direction of the thermal wind vector
can be determined. To calculate it, first the horizontal temperature gradient
— / &T ST \
vector can be described as VT = —, 0 . It points in the direction
\ dx ay J
where temperature increases.
Multiply Equation 2.61 with ut and Equation 2.62 with vt then subtract
them from each other:
vTuT - UTVT = X f (z-z0)uT + X ^-(z-zo)vT
-4 X ^-(z —Zo)ut + 4 X ?-(z — Zo)vt = 0

fT Sx v 7 fT Sy v 7
(2.63)
/'t<T W\ ,; x n
aj x <UT’ VT) = 0
The scalar product of the two vectors is zero, and so the thermal wind vector
and the horizontal temperature gradient are perpendicular to each other.
To determine the direction of the thermal wind relative to the horizontal

temperature gradient, the following has to be considered. As a vector
equation, thermal wind can be described as:
(2.64)
VT = -zo) X
where k = (0, 0, 1) is a dimensionless unit vector. Thermal wind can be

calculated as follows:
thus,
(2.65)
2 (r,
V T = -=(z
= ( ^?-(z — Zq),
\ fT dy v
This means that vectors v t, k and VT form a positively oriented Cartesian

coordinate system, so colder (warmer) air can be found on the left-hand (right
hand) side of the thermal wind vector in the Northern Hemisphere. This can
be seen in the figure below. In the Southern Hemisphere vectors v*t, k and
VT form a negatively oriented Cartesian coordinate system due to the
opposite direction of the Coriolis force.
Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere
warmer air warmer air
Figure 2.63. Thermal wind vector
In relation to the thermal wind vector, warm air advection and cold air
advection can be explained. In the case of warm advection, geostrophic wind
blows from a warmer air region to a colder air region. The geostrophic wind
veers (changing to a clockwise direction) as the altitude increases in the
Northern Hemisphere. It can be seen in the figure below, section a). In the
case of cold advection, geostrophic wind blows from a colder air region to a
warmer air region. The geostrophic wind backs (changing to a counter
clockwise direction) as the altitude increases in the Northern Hemisphere. It is
shown in the figure below, section b). In the Southern Hemisphere the
opposite is true. See in the figure below, sections c) and d).
a) warm air advection b) cold air advection
colder colder____________ _______________ warmer

air air air
geostropic wind direction is veering pressure geostropic wind direction is backing pressure
with increasing altitude with increasing altitude
c) warm air advection d) cold air advection
warmer__________ _________________colder colder____________ vt

______________ warmer
air air air air
geostropic wind direction is backing pressure geostropic wind direction is veering pressure
with increasing altitude with increasing altitude
Figure 2.64. Geostrophic wind directions
Note: Vectors VT , Vp, it g and itt denote a horizontal temperature gradient,

horizontal pressure gradient, geostrophic wind near the surface and thermal wind,
respectively.
In the case of the polar and subtropical jet streams, the wind blows nearly
parallel to the isotherms, from west to east. Assume an observer who stands
with their back to the flow. If the regions with warmer air and lower pressure
are on the right-hand side (left-hand side) of the observer, then the
geostrophic wind speed increases with increasing altitude in the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere. This can be seen in the figure below, section a) and c).
If the regions with colder air and lower pressure are on the right-hand side
(left-hand side) of the observer, then the geostrophic wind speed decreases
with increasing altitude in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere. This can be
seen in the figure below, section b) and d).
geostroplc wind speed geostroplc wind speed
is decreasing with
a)
is increasing with
increasing altitude colder
b) increasing altitude warmer
air
OJ i
i > I
I
o i
i
i
i
Q.
u) Vp Vpl
i
E
o i
I
I ....... I
I
i I
I i isobars I isobars
------------------------- i
I isotherms warmer
I isotherms------------- colder
air air
geostropic wind speed geostropic wind speed

is increasing with
Increasing altitude warm
d) Is decreasing with
increasing altitude
air
t
i Jt
i I
i
Vpl
I
i ................................... i
I
i
i isobars
i Ii
I
isobars
I
I
i .................................................. i I
i I
isotherms colder isotherms warmer
air air
Figure 2.65. Changes of the geostrophic wind speed with altitude
Note: Vectors VT , Vp, and itt denote a horizontal temperature gradient,

horizontal pressure gradient, geostrophic wind near the surface and thermal wind,
respectively.
Another type of jet: low-level jet streams
In meteorological literature, some permanent regional wind maxima can be

called low-level jet streams. The nocturnal jet stream belongs to the low-level
jet streams. As we discussed in Section 2.6.1, after sunset the stable boundary
layer and the residual layer above it form, containing the remains of the
convective mixed layer that developed during the day due to the incoming
solar radiation. Remember that the atmospheric boundary layer has a vertical
extent from a couple of metres to a couple of hundred metres with respect to
the season, weather conditions and geographic latitude. The wind is calm in
the residual layer;however, at its top strong wind shear and local wind maxima
may occur, which can be considered a low-level jet stream.
The African easterly jet stream also belongs to the low-level jet streams,
which develop over West Africa at about the height level that corresponds to
650 hPa. Its formation shows a strong resemblance to the tropical easterly jet
streams. Both of them blow from east to west because the area over lower
latitudes affected by the monsoons are colder than areas over higher latitudes.
Because of this, the temperature gradient points in the opposite direction as
in the case of the polar and subtropical jet streams. It has a strong connection
with the easterly waves, which have a significant role in the development of
tropical revolving storms.
2.7.3. Location of jet streams and

associated CAT areas
Jet streams are mainly located just below the tropopause. The height of the
tropopause increases towards the Equator, so the polar and arctic jet streams
are at lower heights than the subtropical jet stream. The positions of the main
jet streams can be seen in the figure below.
Figure 2.66. Location of the main jet streams and the height of the
tropopause in the Northern Hemisphere
Note: The atmospheric cells and the jet streams are similarly distributed in the
Southern Hemisphere.
An abrupt change in the isotherm and isobaric surfaces is observed over both
sides of the polar and arctic fronts, respectively. The isobars are widely spaced
on the warm side of the jet stream compared to its cold side, and thus the
same pressure surface can be found at higher levels over its warm side. This
leads to a large horizontal pressure gradient along the jet stream. The
distribution of isobars as well as the distributions of isotherms and isotachs
can be found in the figure below and Figure 2.68.
EQ NP
large temperature
gradient at surface
Figure 2.67. Distribution of the isobaric surfaces related to the polar jet
stream
The polar front separates the colder and warmer air masses. The terms "EQ"
and "NP" denote the Equator and the North Pole, respectively.
As was discussed in Section 2.6, jet streams may be accompanied by CAT. It is

anticipated in areas where wind shear is strong horizontally or vertically. This
means that strong CAT can be found on the cold side of the jet stream, next to
and below the jet core. As we have seen before, the jet stream meanders
during its movement. This means that the jet stream has a curved path. The
intensity of CAT increases as the curvature increases (i.e. along a deepening
trough) because a larger horizontal temperature gradient can be anticipated.
CAT is also expected to appear on the warm side of the jet stream, above the
jet core; however, its intensity is weaker compared to the cold side of the jet
stream. On weather charts, CAT is associated with the strongest wind shear
where the isotachs are closest to each other, as is shown in the figure below.
Because of the absence of clouds, CAT cannot be detected visually. It may be
detected by using weather balloons or remote-sensing devices (e.g. a wind
profiler).
Figure 2.68. Vertical cross section of the polar jet stream and associated CAT
Isotherms and isotachs are represented by dashed and continuous lines,

respectively. In general, strong CAT is anticipated on the cold (warm) side of
the jet stream, next to and below (above) it where the isotachs are closest to
each other. Note that the tropopause is at a lower height near the poles than
when it is over subtropical areas. The jet core is located in the warmer area.
BEFORE EXAM L"

Jet stream recognition
A jet stream can be recognised by the presence of specific cloud types; however, it
is not necessarily accompanied by visible phenomena as we have seen in the case
of CAT. Most of the time long streaks of high-level clouds such as cirrus and
cirrocumulus clouds indicate jet streams. The cirrus cloud band is located on the
warm side of the jet stream created by the ascending motion if the appropriate
amount of water vapour is available.
Note: The cold side of the jet stream is characterised by descending motions. See the
figure below.
Source NASA
The polar jet stream is associated with the formation and progression of mid
latitude cyclones (called cyclogenesis) and related weather fronts, which can be
seen in the figure below. In general, the front surface is not perpendicular to the
ground, but is inclined relative to it. (This can be seen in the case of the polar front
in Fieri irn O ZQ \ Thi ic nn fhn crrni me! i-hn rnlrl frnnt ic -ahoorl incfoorl nf
The polar jet stream is associated with the formation and progression of mid
latitude cyclones (called cyclogenesis) and related weather fronts, which can be
seen in the figure below. In general, the front surface is not perpendicular to the
ground, but is inclined relative to it. (This can be seen in the case of the polar front
in Figure 2.68.) Thus, on the ground the cold front is ahead instead of aloft.
Because of this, the jet stream is behind the surface front most of the time. In the
case of cyclones where warm and cold fronts are following each other, the warm
front is behind the jet stream and the cold front is ahead of the jet stream by
hundred kilometres. In a later stage of the life cycle of the cyclone, its centre gets
closer to the jet axis until the jet axis crosses the front line. The front becomes
occluded and both the cold and warm front are joined.
In the figure, the locations of weather fronts in cyclones can be seen in

comparison to a jet stream axis in different stages (from left to right). Black and
red lines indicate the fronts and the jet stream, respectively. Black triangles (black
semicircles) associated with the fronts denote cold (warm) fronts. The last stage
where these fronts are mixed is the "occluded front".
The top view of the jet core can be seen in the figure below. In general, the
following can be said about the flows related to the jet core. On the upstream side
(entrance region or confluence zone) of the jet core, standing in the flow direction,
convergence can be found on the left-hand side and divergence on the right-hand
side. The opposite is true on the downstream side (exit region or diffluence zone).
Note that these flows are typical at the altitude of the jet core. Closer to the
surface, the opposite flow pattern is observed. Thus, on the left-hand side (right
hand side) of the confluence zone, divergence (convergence) can be observed as a
consequence of the upper level convergence (divergence). High in the jet stream,
the regions with divergence are iconnected to strong, upward motions and the
regions with convergence areconnected to strong, downward motions. The
strongest jet core is usually located in a pressure trough. It has a significant role in
cyclogenesis. In general, cyclones form on the cold air mass side of the jet core.
To determine the location of the polar and arctic jet streams, the layer of
maximum wind speed can be examined (e.g. at the pressure surface of 300 hPa).
Note: The direction of the flow in the jet stream is from west to east. The jet axis is
Wind direction is the direction from which the wind blows. A clockwise change
in wind direction is called veering. An anti-clockwise change in wind direction is
called backing.
Differences in temperature can be considered the primary cause of wind.
The rate of the pressure changes over a horizontal distance can be expressed by
the horizontal pressure gradient.
PGF increases as pressure gradient increases and decreases as air density
decreases.
If isobars are closer to (farther from) each other on a weather map, then PGF
and wind are stronger (weaker). Strong PGF results in stronger wind while
weaker PGF leads to lighter wind.
In normal atmospheric conditions, wind blows from the area with higher
pressure toward the area with lower pressure.
CF turns the wind to the right (left) relative to the original direction of the flow
in the Northern (Southern) Hemispher and increases with increasing geographic
latitude and velocity.
In geostrophic equilibrium PGF and CF balance each other. The resulting flow is
a geostrophic wind that blows parallel to the isobars.
Geostrophic wind is directly proportional to the PGF and inversely proportional
to the CF, the geographic latitude and the air density, respectively.
According to the Buys Ballot’s law, in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere if
someone stands with their back to the flow, then the area with low pressure
can be found at left-hand (right-hand) side.
Gradient wind is the horizontal motion of air parcels along a curved path that
comes from the resultant force of the PGF and the CF.
In cyclones, wind blows counter-clockwise (clockwise) around the centre of the
low pressure area in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere.
In anticyclones, wind blows clockwise (counter-clockwise) around the centre of
the high pressure area in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere.
In cyclones (anticyclones), gradient wind speed is lower (higher) than
geostrophic wind speed regardless of the hemisphere.
the high pressure area in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere.
In cyclones (anticyclones), gradient wind speed is lower (higher) than
geostrophic wind speed regardless of the hemisphere.
In the friction layer, the friction force changes the direction of the geostrophic
wind and slows it down. Over land (water), the friction force slows down the
surface wind speed to about 50 % (70 %) and their direction changes by about
30° (10°).
Convergence means that the air flows toward one point that occurs in low
(high) pressure systems near the surface (aloft). Divergence means that the air
flows outward from one point, which occurs in high (low) pressure systems near
the surface (aloft).
Global circulation is driven by the unequal heating of the Earth’s surface, which
results in air motions that serve as energy balancing processes.
Along the thermal equator the air converges and rises; thus close to the ground
low pressure develops, and great amounts of precipitation fall.
Along the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn high pressure areas are
observable because of the descending air, which works against the formation of
precipitation (subtropical high zone).
At lower latitudes, mid-latitude and around the poles, prevailing winds just
above the surface come from tropical easterlies, westerlies and the polar
easterlies, respectively.
Tropical and polar air masses are separated by the polar front.
Along the polar front troughs and ridges develops, and therefore cyclones and
anticyclones determine the weather over the mid-latitudes.
If we are flying in the Northern Hemisphere towards a low (high) pressure
system, the wind blows from the left (right) and if we are flying in the Southern
Hemisphere towards a low (high) system the wind blows from the right (left).
At upper levels of the troposphere westerly winds are dominant.
Local wind systems can be formed by the unequal heating of the Earth's
surface. These systems have strong diurnal cycles.
An anabatic (katabatic) wind is the upward (downward) motion of the air along a
slope, mainly during the day (night). It is associated with valley (mountain)
winds, which blow up and out of (down and into) the valley.
Closed circulation can develop over coastal regions. The surface winds are
Closed circulation can develop over coastal regions. The surface winds are
called sea breezes and land breezes. During the day (night),s sea breeze (land
breezes) blow from the sea to the land (from the land to the sea).
Local winds are not affected by the Coriolis force, with the exception of sea
breezes.
High wind speeds may occur near mountains due to geographical features. This
can result in a drop in pressure and an overestimation of the altitude
According to Bernoulli’s principle, if air (with a constant density) is forced to
pass over a channel with a narrow cross section, then the velocity of the air
current increases as the cross section decreases and the velocity of the air flow
increases as the pressure decreases.
Among stable atmospheric conditions, if the wind speed exceeds 15 kt and the
wind direction is nearly perpendicular to a mountain range, then mountain
waves may develop.
Mountain waves can cause severe or even extreme turbulence on the
downwind (lee) side of a mountain, which can be dangerous to aviation.
The main types of turbulence are convective (or thermal), mechanical,

orographic, frontal and clear-air turbulences. Turbulent flows can be anticipated
at any level of the atmosphere.
Clear-air turbulence (CAT) might be formed in connection with thunderstorm
(TS) zones, mountain waves, frontal zones or jet streams. Because of the
absence of clouds, it cannot be detected visually.
Jet streams are tunnels of air flow with horizontal axes and high wind speeds
(above 30 m/s along its axis). They are located close to the tropopause. The
highest wind speeds can be measured in the jet core (jet streak).
The main mechanisms concerning the development of jet streams are the
rotation of the Earth and the steep horizontal temperature gradient between
colder and warmer air masses.
The main jet streams on both hemispheres are the polar (front) jet stream and
the subtropical jet stream.
The polar and subtropical jet streams are nearly parallel to the isotherms (and
the isobars), and their winds blow from west to east. This means the colder
(warmer) air region can be found on the left-hand side (right-hand side) in the
Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere the wind also blows from
west to east, but the colder (warmer) air region can be found on the right-hand
Clear-air turbulence (CAT) might be formed in connection with thunderstorm
(TS) zones, mountain waves, frontal zones or jet streams. Because of the
absence of clouds, it cannot be detected visually.
Jet streams are tunnels of air flow with horizontal axes and high wind speeds
(above 30 m/s along its axis). They are located close to the tropopause. The
highest wind speeds can be measured in the jet core (jet streak).
The main mechanisms concerning the development of jet streams are the
rotation of the Earth and the steep horizontal temperature gradient between
colder and warmer air masses.
The main jet streams on both hemispheres are the polar (front) jet stream and
the subtropical jet stream.
The polar and subtropical jet streams are nearly parallel to the isotherms (and
the isobars), and their winds blow from west to east. This means the colder
(warmer) air region can be found on the left-hand side (right-hand side) in the
Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere the wind also blows from
west to east, but the colder (warmer) air region can be found on the right-hand
side (left-hand side). In the Northern Hemisphere, in the tropical easterly jet the
air flows from east to west.
The polar jet stream has a huge effect on weather systems (e.g. formation of
cyclones and weather fronts) over the mid-latitudes.
The height of the tropopause increases towards the Equator, so the polar and
arctic jet streams are at lower heights, between about 30000 ft and 40000 ft
(ca. 9 km and 12 km), than the subtropical jet stream, above about 32 800 ft (ca.
10 km). The tropical easterly jet is located between about 40000 ft and
50 000 ft (12 km and 15 km).
In general, wind speed within jet streams is stronger in winter than summer due
to the larger horizontal temperature gradient in winter.
Strong CAT can be observed next to and below the cold and warm sides of the
jet.
Jet streams can be accompanied by high-level clouds (e.g. cirrus and
cirrocumulus).
Thermodynamics
In the previous chapter, we discussed atmospheric motions related to wind
systems. If we simplify matters, rotation of the Earth and uneven distribution
of heat on its surface have the most important effect on the development of
weather systems. However, their importance depends mainly on the
horizontal range and life span of the particular weather phenomenon. For
example, Coriolis force influences upslope/downslope winds or convective
clouds slightly due to their relatively small extent. Their formation can be
explained on the basis of atmospheric stability which is the subject of
thermodynamics. Consequently, in this chapter, we explain the basics of
atmospheric thermodynamic processes.
Water vapour can be found in the atmosphere not only in gaseous but also in
liquid and solid states. Therefore, transitions between them - in other words
phase changes - have to be taken into account. Phase changes such as
condensation, freezing and deposition may lead to the formation of clouds
and precipitation. To understand these processes, first atmospheric humidity
as well as terms and measures such as saturation, vapour pressure, dew point,
relative humidity and mixing ratio will be described. Then, in order to gain a
deeper understanding concerning the formation of convective weather
phenomena such as cumulus clouds, atmospheric stability will be explained.
For the sake of simplicity we assume that there is no heat transfer between
the air parcel under examination and its environment, in other words,
adiabatic processes will be analysed. During the analysis, thermodynamic
diagrams will also be used.
3.1. Humidity
3.1.1. Water vapour in the atmosphere

Explanation of water vapour in the atmosphere
As was discussed in Section 1.1, air is the mixture of various gases. This means
that the sum of the volume fractions of the components must be equal to
100 % but the volume fraction of each component is not fixed. Concerning
the water vapour content of the air, we distinguish dry air and humid (or moist)
air. In humid air, water is present in three states of matter among natural
conditions, namely in solid, liquid and gaseous states, which is unique among
the planets in the Solar System. Henceforth, the terms ice, liquid water and
water vapour will indicate the solid, liquid and gaseous state of the water in
the air, respectively. Therefore, humid air is composed of dry air and water.
Humidity is the water vapour content of the air. It depends on the air
temperature as follows. Warmer air can contain greater amounts of water
vapour than colder air because the volume of warmer air is larger than the
volume of colder air with the same mass. Due to the changing air temperature
and the unequal distribution of air pressure on the Earth, the volume fraction
of water vapour in humid air changes in space and time. Its average value is
0.4 % but it can reach 4 %, for example, over tropical regions along the ITCZ.
However, it can decrease to nearly 0 % over the poles because of the low air
temperatures and descending movement of relatively dry air. Please keep in
mind that the volume fraction of the water vapour never equals 0 % in the
atmosphere. This means that dry air cannot be observed in reality. The volume
fraction of water vapour varies not only with geographic latitude but with
altitude as well. In general, its amount decreases with increasing altitude. The
troposphere contains more than 90 % of all humidity. Moreover, half of all
water vapour can be found between the ground surface and 2 km. As we
mentioned, the volume fraction of water vapour changes over time. In general,
it is lower in winter than in summer because of the seasonally varying air
temperatures.
Humidity may affect the physical (i.e. thermodynamic) processes of the

atmosphere. For example, dry air cools down faster than humid air as the
altitude increases. This means that the vertical temperature lapse rate
depends on the humidity of the air.
The proportion of water vapour in the air seems to be small compared to

nitrogen (ca. 78 %) and oxygen (ca. 21 %) but from a meteorological point of
view it has a significant role in atmospheric processes (e.g. in the formation of
cloud and precipitation).
Water vapour is primarily introduced to the atmosphere by natural (i.e.

physical, chemical or biological) processes. This means that natural sources are
more dominant than anthropogenic sources. The main process that
contributes to the accumulation of water vapour in the atmosphere is
evaporation from sea and land surfaces, as well as the sublimation of ice
surfaces. Please keep in mind that over land masses not only lakes and rivers
evaporate, but water content in the soil,or soil moisture, does as well. The
latter has a significant effect on the formation of cumulus clouds in summer.
Water vapour that was released to the air may turn into cloud droplets and
precipitation that can fall from clouds. Therefore, it can be removed from the
atmosphere. Water vapour is a highly variable constituent of the air, which
means that it renews every ten days. For example, compare it to the
permanent component of the atmosphere (nitrogen, oxygen etc.) which stays
in the atmosphere for hundreds of years or longer after their introduction.
Remarks on the water vapour in the atmosphere

and atmospheric thermodynamics
Mass of the atmosphere
In the following section, the amount of water in the Earth’s atmosphere is

discussed. As was written in Section 1.1.4, the total mass of the Earth is about
6 x 1024 kg. The mass of the hydrosphere (including the cyrosphere) is smaller
by three orders of magnitude than the mass of the Earth. It was said that the
average volume fraction of water vapour in the atmosphere is between 0.4 %
and 4 %. The latter is equivalent to 40000 ppb. But what is the mass of
atmospheric water vapour expressed in kg? As was written in Section 1.3, the
mass depends on the pressure. It was assessed that at the air pressure of
985.5 hPa, the total mass of the atmosphere is about 5.148 x 1018 kg and the
mass of the dry air is about 5.1352 x 1015 kg. This means that the mass of the
atmospheric water vapour is about 1.28 x 1016 kg. Note that the retention
time of water vapour in the atmosphere is the shortest among all reservoirs
(i.e. hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere and biosphere).
Humidity
In meteorological literature, three types of humidity are distinguished that are

suitable to characterise the water vapour content of the atmosphere.
Absolute humidity is the density of water vapour in the air. It measures the
mass of water vapour in 1 m3 of air, and thus it is expressed in the SI unit of
kg/m3.
Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapour to its maximum
possible quantity for a given temperature and pressure in humid air. It is a
dimensionless quantity that is given in a percentage. It will be explained in
detaiI in Section 3.1.2.
Specific humidity is the quotient of the mass of water vapour and the total
mass of the humid air. It is given in g/kg. It is worth mentioning that the
mixing ratio differs from specific humidity as follows; mixing ratio is the
quotient of the mass of the water vapour and the mass of the dry air. As we
have seen, the difference between the masses of dry air and humid air is small.
Therefore, the specific humidity is almost equal to the mixing ratio.
Water vapour as a greenhouse gas
Water vapour is one of the most effective greenhouse gases (abbreviated as

GHGs) in the atmosphere. As was described in Section 1.2.3, the greenhouse
effect describes how the particles of GHGs re-radiate a fraction of the
terrestrial radiation in the direction of the Earth’s surface,thereby contributing
to the warming of the atmosphere. As we mentioned above, humidity
depends on the air temperature. Therefore, the following positive feedback
can be described. If the air temperature increases, then the amount of water
vapour in the atmosphere may increase, which enhances the warming of the
atmosphere. However, the role of atmospheric water vapour can be
formulated as a negative feedback as well. If the amount of water vapour in
the atmosphere increases then cloud formation may increase, which reduces
the amount of incoming solar radiation. Consequently, the air temperature
starts to decrease.
Atmospheric thermodynamics
As was discussed in Section 1.2, thermodynamics is the discipline of physics

that focuses on temperature, heat and their relationship with energy. To
understand more deeply thermodynamic processes of the atmosphere, some
basic terms have to be introduced.
The volume that is under examination is called a thermodynamic system (often

abbreviated as system). It is either filled with some matter or it is empty. The
space that surrounds the system is called its environment or its surroundings.
The system and its environment are separated by a boundary. Depending on
the physical properties of that boundary, isolated, closed and open systems
are distinguished. If the boundary is rigid, then energy and mass cannot be
exchanged between the system and its environment. In that case, the system
is called isolated. Of course, it is an idealised state of a system that does not
occur in the real atmosphere. If energy is allowed to exchange between them,
meaning the boundary is not rigid, then the system is closed. In open systems,
both energy and matter can be exchanged between the system and its
environment.
As was also described in Section 1.2, the system can be characterised by

intensive and extensive physical quantities. Temperature and pressure belong
to the former, and mass and volume belong to the latter. If a thermodynamic
system is in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium then the above-listed
physical quantities do not vary over time. Moreover, those quantities tend to
be equally distributed in the system.
Substances in the atmosphere exist mainly in three states of matter, namely
solid, liquid and gas. We emphasise that state of matter should not be
confused with phases. We distinguish four states of matter, namely solid,
liquid, gaseous and plasma. The number of phases can exceed the number of
states of matter. For example, there are different phases of a substance in a
solid state of matter (e.g. allotropes of sulfur). In meteorological literature, the
changes between the states of matter are called phase changes (or phase
transitions), which will be explained in Section 3.2.
Every thermodynamic system has its own internal energy, which is the sum of
the bond energy between the particles and the average kinetic energy of the
particles. If we consider an ideal gas as a thermodynamic system then the
amount of its average kinetic energy is greater than the amount of bond
energy between its particles. Note that bond energy is stronger in solid or
liquid substances than in substances that exist in the form of a gas, while the
average kinetic energy is greater in gaseous substances than in liquid or solid
substances.
Thermodynamic processes have to obey the laws of thermodynamics. We

emphasise the importance of the first law of thermodynamics, which is in
accordance with the law of conservation of energy. It states that changes of
the internal energy of the thermodynamic system over time (denoted by ^)
is the result of the transfer of energy per unit time by heat (denoted by Q),
work (denoted by W) and matter (denoted by L) across the boundary of the
system. Based on the above, the first law can be formulated as:
(3.1)
= Q + W + L
at
where the terms are given in the SI unit of p
Based on the equation above, the following can be said: If there is no

exchange of heat, work and mass across the boundary, then:
(3.2)
dU
dt
This means that the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium.
If we consider an isolated system, then the transfer of heat is not allowed

across the boundary of the system. So:
(3.3)
at
= w + L
In a closed system where heat and matter are not exchanged between the
system and its environment:
(3.4)
£ = W
at
where W is the pressure-volume work, which is the work that changes the
volume (denoted by V) of the examined thermodynamic system. The volume
can increase or decrease. Conventionally, the W is negative when the work is
done by the system on the environment and positive when the work is done
by the environment on the system. The pressure-volume work can be
formulated as:
(3.5)
W = pdV
where pressure is denoted by p.
Assume a thermodynamic system that is filled with dry air, which can be
approximated by the concept of ideal gas. Remember the diagrams that show
the relationships between temperature, pressure and volume. It is worth
mentioning that if we are speaking about the adiabatic processes of the air,
then we assume that there is no heat and mass transfer across the boundary
of the system and the change of the internal energy over time originates from
the pressure-volume work, according to Equation 3.4 and Equation 3.5.
Note: Dry air can be considered a system filled with a substance in a gaseous state
of matter, which means that only one phase is observable.
The physics of humid air is more complex compared to that of dry air. It can be
a mixture of two components of a gaseous state of matter, namely, water
vapour and dry air or the mixture of two or even three phases such as solid,
liquid and gaseous. Even if the system is closed, the particles in it may change
phases (e.g. water vapour transforms to water). Those transitions involve heat
energy (latent heat), which must be taken into account during the examination
of changes in the internal energy.
Details about the phase changes of the water and adiabatic processes are
available in Section 3.2 and in Section 3.3, respectively.
3.1.2. Mixing ratio, temperature/dew

point, relative humidity
Basic explanation of mixing ratio,
temperature/dew point, relative humidity
Several measures are available to characterise the water vapour content of the
humid air. In the following section, the most relevant measures (i.e. mixing
ratio, saturation mixing ratio, relative humidity, dew point) and related terms
(i.e. vapour, pressure, saturation) will be explained.
Note that the mass of humid air is the sum of the mass of dry air and the mass
of water vapour in it. The mixing ratio of humid air is the rate of the mass of
water vapour to the mass of dry air. Note that in meteorological literature it is
also called actual mixing ratio. Its SI unit is g/kg or kg/kg. For example, 1 g/kg
(or 0.001 kg/kg) means that the rate of water vapour is 1 g (or 0.001 kg) to the
dry air with a mass of 1 kg.
If humid air gets saturated with liquid water, then the water vapour starts to
turn into water via the process of condensation. In that case air is called
saturated. The saturation mixing ratio is the mixing ratio of the saturated air.
More precisely, it is the rate of the maximum mass of water vapour to the
mass of dry air that can be held by the humid air without condensation. It is
also expressed in the SI units of g/kg or kg/kg.
Based on its definition, a mixing ratio is influenced by humidity. It increases
(decreases) with increasing (decreasing) amounts of water vapour in the air. It
is also affected by temperature because warmer air can contain greater
amounts of water vapour without saturation than colder air. The mixing ratio
is also influenced by air pressure. However, if the air is unsaturated, then the
mixing ratio remains constant as height increases because of its definition.
To understand the above-described measures more deeply, the terms vapour

pressure and saturation vapour pressure have to be introduced. Assuming
unsaturated air, vapour pressure is the weight of the water vapour per unit
area. It is given in the SI unit of Pa. It can be said that warmer air or a larger
volume of air can contain more water vapour. Therefore, the dependency of
vapour pressure on temperature, pressure and volume can be summarised as
follows: decreasing temperature (at constant volume or pressure) or increasing
volume (at constant temperature) decreases vapour pressure. Furthermore,
decreasing pressure (at constant temperature) or decreasing temperature (at
constant volume or pressure) decreases vapour pressure if the temperature
does not exceed the critical value.
Saturation vapour pressure can be explained by the following example.

Assume a (thermodynamic) system (e.g. a closed pot) that contains liquid
water at its bottom. The surface of the water starts to evaporate, which means
that particles in a liquid state of matter are transformed to a gaseous state of
matter. Gaseous particles cannot leave the pot; therefore, some of them will
turn back into a liquid state of matter after colliding with the surface of the
liquid water. After a while, the number of particles that turn into a gaseous
state and that turn back into liquid will be equal to each other and
(thermodynamic) equilibrium is formed. Saturation vapour pressure is the
weight of the water vapour per unit area in the above-described state of
equilibrium. Note that saturation vapour pressure depends on the type of the
substance, its temperature and the curvature of its surface. We emphasise
that saturation vapour pressure is the exponential function of air temperature,
as shown in the figure below. We emphasise that saturation vapour pressure
over a water surface is higher than the saturation vapour pressure over an ice
surface.
Saturation vapour pressure over ice surface Saturation vapour pressure over water surface
Figure 3.1. Saturation vapour pressure a) over an ice surface and b) over a
water surface
The values of saturation vapour pressure were estimated by using the

Magnus-Tetens formula in Equation 3.7, which provides us a proper
approximation.
The empirical formula (i.e. Magnus-Tetens formula) to calculate saturation

vapour pressure over water and ice surfaces, as well as equations regarding
the dependence of mixing ratio on vapour pressure and air pressure, are
available later in this chapter.
Dew point is the temperature of the air parcel that must be cooled to be
saturated at a constant air pressure and a constant amount of water vapour in
the air. It is given in the SI unit of °C.
The dew point is always less than or equal to the air temperature that can be
measured at a given time. The humid air becomes saturated when the air
temperature decreases to the value of the dew point or when the dew point
increases to the level of the actual air temperature. Note that air temperature
that is measured at a given time is often referred as the actual temperature in
aviation.
As we discussed above, the amount of unsaturated water vapour in the air

depends on air temperature. The mixing ratio is the function of air pressure
and dew point, while the saturation mixing ratio depends on the air
temperature.
The influence of the air temperature on the saturation mixing ratio at a

constant pressure on an air parcel can be examined by using thermodynamic
diagrams. These are two-dimensional diagrams that allow us to visualise data
of physical quantities relevant in thermodynamics (i.e. pressure, temperature,
water vapour content). Various types of thermodynamic diagrams are
available. Mainly, temperature is shown on the x-axis while pressure is found
on the y-axis (henceforth p-T diagrams). This means that lines that are parallel
with the x-axis (y-axis) can be considered isotherms (isobars). Air pressure
decreases with increasing height, and therefore the y-axis of the p-T diagram
represents not only air pressure but height. A simplified p-T diagram is shown
By using such diagrams, one can draw conclusions about the thermodynamic
processes of the atmosphere. For example, the vertical movement of an air
parcel can be seen in a p-T diagram. If we denote the actual values of
temperature and pressure of an ascending or descending air parcel in the p-T
diagram, then we can see the thermodynamic route of the air parcel, which
can be represented by continuous lines. Atmospheric stability can also be
examined in these diagrams. It is worth mentioning that there are special
types of thermodynamic diagrams that are used for meteorological purposes
and allow us to analyse relationships between the above-mentioned physical
quantities and atmospheric energetics. This type of analysis is based on data
measured by radiosondes attached to weather balloons, which can be plotted
on thermodynamic diagrams.
Figure 3.2. Simplified thermodynamic diagram (p-T diagram)
Values of air temperature (denoted by T) and air pressure (denoted by p) can

be found on the primary x-axis and y-axis, respectively. Isotherms and isobars
are marked with parallel continuous lines. Isotherms are perpendicular to
isobars. The values of the mixing ratio or saturation mixing ratio (denoted by r
and rs) are shown on the secondary x-axis.
Note: Only the primary x-axis is divided into equal intervals. The lines of equal
mixing ratio or saturation mixing ratio are marked with nearly straight dashed lines.
Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapour and the possible
maximum amount of water vapour for a given temperature in humid air. It is a
dimensionless quantity that varies between 0 and 1. It also can be expressed
in a percentage if we multiply it by 100. Relative humidity expresses how close
the air is to being saturated. For example, 99 % (or 0.99) means that water
vapour of the air is "almost" saturated.
Relative humidity depends on air temperature and the amount of water

vapour in the air as follows. At a constant air temperature, if the amount of
water vapour increases (decreases) then the relative humidity increases
(decreases). At a constant amount of water vapour, if the air temperature
increases (decreases) then the relative humidity decreases (increases). The
maximum water vapour content of the air depends on air temperature. As we
mentioned in the case of the mixing ratio, the maximum amount of
unsaturated water vapour increases with increasing temperature. As we
discussed in Section 1.2, in normal conditions air temperature decreases with
increasing height. Therefore, if the amount of water vapour in the air remains
the same, the relative humidity increases (decreases) as height increases
(decreases).
Among real atmospheric conditions, changes in relative humidity occur more

often due to varying air temperature than because of the changing amount of
water vapour in the air. As was explained in Section 1.2, the air temperature
has diurnal variability. Relative humidity depends on the air temperature, so it
also has diurnal variability. If the amount of water vapour is constant in the air,
then the following can be said about "normal" weather conditions (e.g. in the
absence of weather fronts). After sunrise, relative humidity starts to decrease
as air temperature increases. It decreases to its minimum value after local
noon due to thermal inertia. After that, air temperature starts to decrease, and
so relative humidity increases. Saturation occurs when the relative humidity of
the air reaches 100 %. Because of this dew or fog form mainly after sunset
and before sunrise.
Relative humidity is also connected to the dew point. On the basis of the
above-mentioned, the relationship between dew point, actual temperature
and relative humidity can be summarised as follows:
1. If relative humidity increases (decreases) at a constant air temperature,

then the dew point comes closer to (farther from) the actual
temperature and the dew point increases (decreases). Therefore, the
chance of saturation of water vapour in the air increases (decreases).
2. If air temperature increases (decreases) at a constant relative humidity,

then the dew point decreases (increases). Because of this, the chance of
saturation of water vapour in the air decreases (increases).
Relative humidity can be estimated from the difference between the actual
temperature and the dew point. It is worth mentioning that devices called
hygrometers allow us to measure relative humidity and dew point directly.
A proper estimation for the relative humidity can be given by the following
empirical formula, if the relative humidity is above 50 %.
(3.6)
relative humidity ~ 100 — 5(T — Tj)
where T is the actual temperature and Tj is the dew point. Both are given in
units of °C. For example, if T = 25 °C and Tj = 17 °C, then relative humidity is
about 60 %.
The equation above is in accordance with the above-discussed statements. If

the dew point comes closer to the actual temperature then relative humidity
increases. The dependence of relative humidity on the actual temperature and
dew point is shown in the figure below.
actual temperature (°C) actual temperature (°C)
Figure 3.3. Changes in relative humidity
Lines that connect points with the same relative humidity are coloured.
Relative humidity is estimated by using a modified version of the Magnus
formula, which can be found in Equation 3.14.
Relative humidity can also be approximated as the quotient of the mixing ratio
and the saturation mixing ratio at a given temperature. More complex
formulas and description of the measuring devices are available in the
following subchapter.
Detailed explanation of mixing ratio,

temperature/dew point, relative humidity
Measures of humid air
As we mentioned above, dry air can be considered an ideal gas. The state of
an ideal gas is determined by its volume, pressure and temperature.
Unsaturated humid air is the mixture of gases namely, the mixture of water
vapour and dry air. The amount of water vapour also must be characterised.
Forthat purpose, different measures were constructed (i.e. mixing ratio,
relative humidity, dew point).
Please keep in mind that the above-listed measures depend on each other,
consequently the following complex formulas from Equation 3.7 to
Equation 3.14 are introduced to make proper estimations. Those formulas will
also be used to determine the route of an air parcel in thermodynamic
diagrams, shown in Section 3.3. Quantities such as dew point and relative
humidity can also be measured directly.
Over flat water or ice surfaces saturation vapour pressure (denoted by es) only
depends on the type of the substance and its temperature; in other words, it is
a function of the temperature of the given substance: es(T).
The dependence of es on temperature is given by a formula named the

Clausius-Clapeyron equation. It is derived from the second law of
thermodynamics concerning the direction of the thermodynamic processes.
The way the equation is formulated will not be explained here. However, it is
worth mentioning that various empirical formulas are available to give an
approximation of es. These formulas are similar in that they describe the
relationship by which the pressure increases rapidly as the temperature
increases. For example, es can be approximated by using the Magnus-Tetens
formula (often referred as August-Roche-Magnus formula), which can be
described as:
(3.7)
aT
es(T) « 6.11 x 10^7
in which T is the temperature given in °C, a and b are empirical constants, a =

7.5 and b = 237.3 °C for water as well as a = 9.5 and b = 265.5 °C for ice.
Note that es will be expressed in hPa.
If the vapour is not saturated then it can be considered an ideal gas.

Therefore, vapour pressure (denoted by e) depends on temperature and
volume.
As was mentioned above, the mixing ratio (denoted by r) of humid air is the
quotient of the mass of water vapour (denoted by mv) and the mass of dry air
(denoted by mj). The mixing ratio can also be formulated by using the density
of water vapour and dry air (denoted by ov, or by using the specific volume
of water vapour and dry air (denoted by qv, mJ, thus:
(3.8)
__ mv Qv av
md Qd ad
According to the equation above, the mixing ratio of humid air increases with
an increasing amount of water in it.
We also mentioned that the mixing ratio depends on pressure. It can be

explained by the following. The mixing ratio of the humid air can be expressed
by vapour pressure (e) and the total air pressure (p) using the equations below.
Dry air and water vapour can be approximated by the concept of ideal gas;
therefore, the ideal gas law can be applied as follows:
(3.9)
i = RvT
(3.10)
where Rv, Rd are the specific gas constants of water vapour and dry air,
respectively. We assume that the temperature of water vapour and dry air are
equal to each other (denoted by T). According to Dalton’s law, first described
by English physicist and chemist John Dalton in the beginning of the 19th
century, the pressure of a mixture of various gases is the sum of the pressure
of each compound. Therefore the pressure of dry air is p — e in the equation
above.
After the rearrangement of Equation 3.9 and Equation 3.10, and their
replacement into Equation 3.8, the following can be said:
(3.11)
Qv __ RVT _ Rj e
*?d — ~ R? P~e
RdT
287—
kgK x _e_
462—^— P“e
kg K
0 -62 « 0 .62 |
Note: p is much larger than e; therefore e was disregarded.
The saturation mixing ratio (rs) can be described similarly to the equation
below, using es instead of e. So:
(3.12)
Rd x
rs = — ..
rtv P s-
« 0 .62 —
P-es
« 0 .62 -
p
Relative humidity (denoted by f) is the quotient of the mixing ratio and the
saturation mixing ratio and therefore:
(3.13)
Rv X p-ee
—
e P e
X
— X es P es es
Rv p—es
Based on the equation above, relative humidity depends on the amount of

water vapour in the air and the temperature via the mixing ratio and the
vapour pressure. To summarise, relative humidity increases as the amount of
water vapour in the air increases at a constant air temperature. Relative
humidity decreases as actual temperature increases at a constant amount of
water vapour.
If e reaches the value of es, then humid air becomes saturated and water
vapour starts to condensate.
As was written above, dew point (denoted by Tj) is the temperature of the air
parcel to which it must be cooled to be saturated at a constant air pressure. In
practice, dew point can be estimated by using the Magnus formula and its
modified versions, such as:
(3.14)
where b, c and d are empirical constants. The values of b and c are 17.368
and 238.88 °C between 0 °C and 50 °C while 17.966 and 247.15 °C between
-40 °C and 0 °C, respectively, and in addition, d = 227.3 °C. The formula can
also be resolved for the relative humidity if the actual temperature (denoted
by T) and dew point are known.
As a side note, lines that connect points with equal humidity (i.e. relative
humidity, mixing ratio etc.) in thermodynamic diagrams or weather maps are
called isohumes, and lines that connect points with the same dew point are
called isodrosotherms.
Measurement of humidity
The device that allows us to measure the absolute and relative humidity of the
air is called a hygrometer (from hugros, Greek for 'moist, wet1). Similar to the
tools used to measure surface wind, the first hygrometer was also used in
ancient times. There are various methods to measure atmospheric humidity. In
the following section, some methods and devices will be described. To
measure absolute and relative humidity absorption, a hygrometer can be used.
In this type of hygrometer, hygroscopic material (e.g. sulfuric acid) is used,
which means that water is taken up by the volume of those liquid or solid
substances. That process is called absorption. In that device, hygroscopic
material with a given mass is put into a known volume filled with air. Changes
in the mass of the material indicates relative humidity.
Absolute humidity can be measured by a gravimetric hygrometer, which

measures the weight of hygroscopic material in dry atmospheric conditions
and after the absorption of the atmospheric water vapour. These devices are
used mainly in laboratory conditions.
Hygroscopic material that has some property (e.g. extension) that changes
with varying relative humidity are used to take these measurements, as shown
in the figure below. The hair tension hygrometer was invented by Swiss
physicist Horace-Benedict de Saussure in the 1780s. The device is based on
the fact that the length of a human hair increases with increasing relative
humidity. Therefore, it contains a human hair under tension. Prior to its use,
contaminates and oils must be removed from the hair. Forthat purpose,
organic compounds such as diethyl ether may be used. After that, the hair will
be insensitive to changes of air temperature over a wide range, between about
-35 °C and 65 °C.
A weight ensures that the hair remains under tension.
Electronic devices are frequently used to measure relative humidity today.

They are smaller and less sensitive to mechanical disturbances than the
above-mentioned tools. Resistive hygrometers operate on the basis that
electrical resistance from hygroscopic non-metallic material (e.g. lithium
chloride) varies with the absorption of atmospheric water vapour. More
precisely, the resistance of the material decreases with increasing relative
humidity. Below a thin layer of conductive hygroscopic material, two
electrodes can be found. The resistance between them changes with the
absorption of water vapour by the hygroscopic material.
One special type of measuring device is the psychrometer (or wet-and-dry-

bulb thermometer) that consists of two thermometers. The first one is kept
dry, while the other one is kept moist (e.g. the bulb is covered with a cloth that
is partially immersed in water). The intensity of the evaporation depends on
the relative humidity of the air. As will be described in Section 3.2,
evaporation requires heat from its environment; therefore, the wet-bulb
thermometer measures lower temperatures then the dry-bulb thermometer.
Note that the thermometers should be ventilated during measurements.
Vapour pressure (denoted by e) can be calculated on the basis of the
difference between the dry-bulb temperature (denoted by T) and the wet
bulb temperature (denoted by Tw), two measured values using the empirical
psychrometric formula as follows:
(3.15)
e = es — Ap(T - Tw)
where es is the saturation vapour pressure, p is the atmospheric pressure and

A is the psychrometric coefficient. Note that pressure and temperature are
expressed in units of hPa and °C, respectively. The coefficient A is given in the
unit of 1/°C and it differs based on whether the temperature is below the
freezing point or not.
The value of es is equal to the value of e that belongs to Tw. Values of es can
be found in tables.
The psychrometric coefficient implies the intensity of the ventilation. The

value of A decreases with an increasing intensity of the ventilation.
Ventilation ensures a steady flow around the wet-bulb thermometer, which
can originate from natural sources (e.g. in the case of a sling psychrometer)
and from artificial sources (e.g. ventilation from a fan). The latter is called an
aspirating psychrometer. A widely used type of aspirating psychrometers was
developed by German meteorologist and physician Richard Assmann in the
late 19th century.
The term sling implies that the device is equipped with a handle.
Fan
Wet-bulb thermometer
Direction of the air flow

from the fan
Figure 3.4. Assmann psychrometer
Note: The wet-bulb thermometer measures lower temperatures than the dry-bulb
thermometer. To avoid the impacts of wind gusts and radiation, thermometers are
often covered by a metal box.
It is worth mentioning that the dew point also can be measured, for example
by using a chilled mirror dew point hygrometer. The device contains a mirror
that is cooled down at a constant air pressure and a constant amount of water
vapour in the air until it is saturated. At that point liquid water droplets appear
on the surface of the mirror. The water droplets change the optical properties
of the mirror that are detected by an electronic device. The temperature that
can be measured at the time of saturation is considered the dew point.
STUDY TEST
3.2. Change of state of
aggregation
3.2.1. Condensation, evaporation,

sublimation, freezing and melting, latent
heat
Basic explanation of phase changes and latent
heat
In the Earth’s atmosphere, water can exist in gaseous, liquid and solid states,
which makes it unique in the Solar System. Because of changing volume,
pressure or temperature, substances such as water can transform from one
state of matter to another state of matter during the process of phase change
(or phase transition). We distinguish six types of phase change, namely
evaporation, melting and sublimation as well as condensation, freezing and
deposition.
Phase changes will be explained by the following example concerning humid

air. Please keep in mind that the water content of humid air is 0.4 % on
average. The process in which liquid water turns to gas (water vapour) is called
vaporisation. Water in solid form (ice) transforms to liquid water during the
process of melting. Ice can turn into water vapour directly via the process of
sublimation. Note that vaporisation, melting and sublimation require heat
energy. In other words, the substance absorbs heat to evaporate, melt or
sublimate. The process in which water vapour turns to liquid water is called
condensation. Liquid water transforms into ice during the process of freezing.
Water vapour can turn into ice directly via the process of deposition. During
condensation, freezing and deposition, heat energy is released by the
substance. This type of energy that is associated with phase transitions is
called latent heat. It is given in the SI unit of joule.
Please keep in mind that in meteorological literature, two types of
vaporisation can be distinguished. If vaporisation takes place over organic
surfaces, for example over grass or forests, then it is called transpiration. If the
process takes place over inorganic surfaces, for example above the sea, soil or
man-made surfaces (e.g. asphalt, concrete etc.) then it is called evaporation.
The need for latent heat can be explained as follows. On one hand, in a solid
substance particles cannot move freely; in other words, they are bounded. In
liquid and gaseous states the particles can move more freely. This means that
gaseous particles may fill a given volume entirely. To reach that degree of
freedom of the particles, energy is required. In other words, energy is
absorbed by the substance to be evaporated, melted or sublimated. On the
other hand, particles become more bounded while they turn from gas to
liquid, from liquid to solid or from gas to solid. The substance loses the
amount of heat energy that is not required for the phase change, so energy is
released into its surroundings. Phase transitions are summarised in the figure
below. However, it is important to emphasise that phase transitions of a given
mass of substance (henceforth, referred to as the "substance") occur at a
constant temperature. This means that absorbed or released heat only serves
the purpose of phase change; it has no effect on the temperature of the
substance, which makes the heat latent. It is worth mentioning that heat that
causes variations in temperature is called sensible heat.
Figure 3.5. Phase changes between gaseous, liquid and solid substances
Blue-coloured arrows and texts indicate that the substance requires energy
from its surroundings to change its phase, while red-coloured arrows and texts
indicate that energy is released by the substance during the processes.
In the following section, practical examples will be described concerning a

one-component system, for example the mixture of water vapour, liquid water
and ice, which help us understand the different types of phase changes. Note
that in a one-component system at least one phase is present.
Melting is observable in all cases if the substance turns from solid to liquid, for
example an ice cube melts after it is taken out of the freezer and put down on
the kitchen table.
Vaporisation is one of the most frequently perceived phenomenon in our daily

life. Consider a swimmer who feels cold after leaving the pool. Water droplets
on their skin start to turn into water vapour. Water droplets absorb heat
energy from the air and the human body. Both can be considered the
environment of the evaporating water droplet, which has a constant
temperature during the phase change, while its surroundings start to cool
down. A schematic of that process is shown in the figure below. For the sake
of simplicity, henceforth the term evaporation will be used in the same sense
as vaporisation.
Absorbtion of heat
from the object
(decreasing T of the object)
Figure 3.6. Evaporation of a water droplet at the surface of an object
Note: The letter T denotes temperature.
In nature, sublimation may occur over the surface of ice. For example, if the
ice is cooled properly at an ice rink while the hall is heated to make the
audience feel more comfortable without wearing winter clothing, the ice can
sublimate and fog can develop above the ice.
Condensation can be observed after humid air becomes saturated. It leads to

the condensation of water vapour; therefore droplets (cloud or precipitation)
develop from it. Condensation is observable in our daily life as well. If
somebody pours water into a glass with a temperature lower than the dew
point of the surrounding air, then the air starts to cool down and the vapour
content of the air that contacts the glass will be condensed on the outer wall
of the glass. Regarding this phenomenon, the steps of this experiment can be
seen in the figure below.
Figure 3.7. Condensation of water vapour in the air on the outer wall of a
glass
At the time of the experiment, air temperature and relative humidity in the
room were about 25 °C and 42 %, respectively. The corresponding dew point
is ca. 11 °C:
1. A glass was filled with fresh water. To cool it down ice cubes were put in
it.
2. After ca. 10 minutes the ice cubes were melted, which cooled down the
water and the glass.
3. On the outer wall of the glass, the water vapour in the air condensed
because the air temperature decreased to the dew point.
Just like evaporation, freezing is a phase change that can frequently be

perceived by the human body, for example, when someone experiences
burning pain while holding ice or snow in their bare hands too long. We
underscore that the reason behind this is not the release of latent heat but a
biological process (more precisely, the destruction of cells), which is caused by
freezing. Freezing may lead to the formation of ice on the surface of an
aircraft, which can be hazardous (for more information about icing see
Section 9.1).
Deposition can also be observed in the atmosphere. For example, water

vapour may be deposited on ice surfaces, leading to an increase of ice. This is
called the Bergeron-Findeisen process, which has a prominent role in the
development of precipitation.
In the following section, phase changes will be explained in more detail.
Evaporation and condensation
To summarise, liquid water transforms to a gaseous state (water vapour)

through the process of evaporation, while water vapour turns to liquid water
via condensation.
The primary process by which water vapour is released into the air is
evaporation of liquid water. To evaporate a substance, heat energy is required
from its surroundings, and thus the temperature of its environment decreases.
The bond energy between particles decreases as their kinetic energy
increases, which means that the particles can move more freely in a gaseous
state than in a liquid state. Water droplets form in the air mainly via
condensation of water vapour while heat energy is released; therefore, the
temperature increases.
The intensity of evaporation primarily depends on temperature and humidity,

wind speed and the extension and curvature of the evaporated surface:
1. The intensity of evaporation increases as temperature increases. It can

be illustrated by the following example, when someone intends to dry
their clothes. If the humidity of the air and wind speed is constant then
clothes will dry faster in summer than in winter in general because
warmer air can contain greater amounts of water vapour than colder air,
as was discussed in Section 3.1. Evaporation depends on the relative
humidity of the air, which is the function of the air temperature and the
amount of water vapour in the air. At a constant temperature, the
intensity of evaporation decreases with increasing relative humidity.
2. Increasing wind speed also increases the intensity of evaporation

because wind carries water vapour particles from the surface of the
evaporating substance into its surroundings. As we have seen in
Section 3.1.2, in a closed pot particles that evaporate from the surface
of the liquid cannot leave the pot and some of them turn back into a
liquid state after colliding with the surface of the liquid. In an open pot
gaseous particles will be carried by the flow above the pot, which
prevents them to re-enter the liquid state. This means that the entire
amount of liquid will evaporate. The intensity of the evaporation
increases as the speed of the flow increases. A practical example of
speeding up evaporation is using a hair dryer to dry wet hair.
3. The intensity of evaporation also increases as the surface of the

evaporated substance and its curvature increases. This can be observed
in the case of fuel vaporisation in the induction system of aircraft, where
the fuel is atomised, and consequently the size of the fuel droplets
decreases. This may lead to fuel icing because the air temperature in the
surroundings of the evaporating fuel droplets decreases. If the
temperature of the flow decreases below the freezing point then ice may
form.
The intensity of condensation also depends on temperature and humidity but

it is affected by the number of condensation nuclei and pressure:
1. With decreasing air temperature at a constant relative humidity, the

difference between the temperature and dew point decreases, and so
the chance of condensation increases. With a growing amount of
moisture in the air at a constant temperature, the dew point comes
closer to the actual temperature, which also increases the chance of
condensation.
2. There is a large difference between evaporation and condensation.

Besides the different direction of the latent heat transfer between the
substance and its environment, particles called condensation nuclei are
required in the case of condensation. Liquid or solid particles in the
atmosphere can serve as condensation nuclei on which the formation of
liquid droplets can occur.
3. Condensation occurs when the air becomes saturated. However, above

given values of temperature and pressure (i.e. the critical point, which
depends on the substance in question) materials in a gaseous state of
matter cannot be liquified. Above that point, liquid and gaseous states
cannot be distinguished anymore. The reason behind this is the
following. Assume that the unsaturated air can be approximated by the
concept of ideal gas. Because of the relationship between temperature,
pressure and volume, any gaseous substance can be liquified by
decreasing its temperature (at constant volume or pressure) or by
increasing pressure (at constant temperature). As was written in
Section 1.2, temperature is proportional to the average kinetic energy of
the moving particles in the material in question. Particles in a liquid state
are more bounded than in a gaseous state, leading to greater kinetic
energy. Above the critical point, particles have an amount of kinetic
energy that prevents them from turning from a gas to a liquid, regardless
of the increasing pressure. For example, in the case of water, the critical
temperature is 374 °C (647.15 K or ca. 705 °F) and the corresponding
critical pressure is 220640 hPa.
Typically, condensation occurs in the following two cases in the atmosphere:
1. Assume a rising humid air parcel in which temperature and pressure start
to decrease. If its temperature reaches the dew point then the air parcel
becomes saturated and condensates, so water vapour transforms to
liquid water within it. During the process latent heat is released by the
air parcel at a constant temperature; therefore, the strength of the bond
between the particles decreases while their kinetic energy grows. As a
side note, the air parcel may ascend due to an unstable stratification of
the air or because of the forcing effect of a mountainous region.
Precipitation may form and fall as a result of condensation.
2. If a warmer humid air parcel flows over a surface with a lower

temperature, then the surface starts to cool down the air parcel above it.
If the temperature of the air parcel decreases to the dew point, then it
becomes saturated and water vapour starts to condensate. Similar to
case (1), latent heat is released by the air parcel. Its temperature remains
constant until the phase change finishes. This type of condensation
occurs mainly after sunset, leading to the formation of dew if the
temperature is above 0 °C.
Among real atmospheric conditions condensation occurs on condensation

nuclei. As was discussed in Section 1.1.2, the Earth’s atmosphere contains
liquid droplets and solid particles( as well as water droplets and ice particles),
which are called aerosol particles. Several types can serve as condensation
nuclei. The sources of those particles are both natural (e.g. volcanos, sea) and
anthropogenic (e.g. industrial activities, land use) and are located mainly on
the Earth's surface.
In general, condensation occurs on hygroscopic particles, which means that

the condensation nuclei can absorb moisture from the air. Solubility in water is
not a requirement; however, condensation nuclei are often water-soluble or at
least wettable. The origins, components and number of these particles differ
from each other depending on the type of surface. The number of available
particles is greater over land surfaces, especially over urban areas, than over
sea surfaces due to anthropogenic effects. Therefore, polluted air over a city
leads to a greater number of condensation nuclei, which enhances cloud
formation and the development of precipitation if enough moisture is present
in the air. Over sea surfaces, the number of condensation nuclei is lower, and
therefore a lower number of water droplets form, though their size is larger
compared to droplets formed over land surfaces. Particles over land and sea
surfaces often contain sodium chloride and ammonium sulfate, respectively.
As was discussed previously, condensation may lead to the formation of
clouds and precipitation. Precipitation can fall from the atmosphere; however,
liquid water droplets such as dew also can form near the Earth's surface. It is
worth mentioning that condensation leads to the formation of supercooled
water droplets. Because of some disturbances, these can be frozen on a
surface after their collision. Supercooled water droplets typically cause surface
icing of the aircraft.
Freezing and melting
Liquid water transforms to ice via freezing, while ice turns to liquid water
through the process of melting. During freezing, heat is released, similar to
condensation, while melting requires heat from the environment like
evaporation. Therefore, latent heat is released (absorbed) through freezing
(melting).
Like in the case of evaporation, during melting the bond energy between the
particles of the substance decreases while their kinetic energy and degree of
freedom grow. On the contrary, during freezing the bond energy between the
particles of the substance increases as their kinetic energy decreases.
The latent heat of freezing and melting can be explained as follows. Assuming
a constant pressure, freezing and melting points correspond to that pressure.
In the case of freezing, the temperature of the substance decreases to the
freezing point. Then, the temperature does not change until the substance
turns from liquid to solid completely, despite the fact that heat is added to the
substance. Again, we emphasise that this means that heat is required to cover
the phase transition but not to change the temperature; therefore, it can be
considered to be latent. Similarly, in the case of melting, the temperature does
not vary until the phase change finished. After reaching the melting point, the
temperature remains constant until the substance completely turns from solid
to liquid.
Please keep in mind that the freezing point equals the melting point for any
given substance. The temperature of the substance is fixed to the freezing
(melting) point until all particles transform from liquid to solid (from solid to
liquid). However, different substances have different freezing and melting
points. For example, the freezing and melting point of water and ethanol are
0 °C and -114 °C, respectively, which makes ethanol ideal to measure
extremely low temperatures on the Earth.
Freezing occurs on freezing nuclei (in other words, ice-forming nuclei), which
should not to be confused with condensation nuclei. Freezing nuclei are not
water-soluble. In addition, their crystal structure has to be similar to the ice
crystals, which means the most common hexagonal structure. It is worth
mentioning that the crystal structures of potassium iodide and silver iodide
show similarities to the crystal structure of ice, which makes them effective
freezing nuclei. Therefore, in some countries these chemicals are released into
the atmosphere by generators on the ground, or by planes or rockets in the air
during days with a high risk of hail. Due to the higher number of freezing
nuclei, the number of hailstones will increase in some cases, but their size will
decrease, which makes them less dangerous. The above-described process of
hail prevention is called cloud seeding.
We underscore that freezing and melting depend on air temperature and air
pressure. The intensity of melting (freezing) increases as temperature and
pressure increase (decrease). Freezing is affected by the amount of freezing
nuclei.
If liquid water is free from contamination then it can cool down below the
freezing point without a phase change, so liquid water can exist below 0 °C,
which is called supercooled water. However, supercooled water is in a
metastable state, which means that due to any disturbances, freezing of
supercooled water droplets starts immediately and particles turn rapidly from
liquid to ice. In the atmosphere, cloud and precipitation often develop from
supercooled water, which exists between about 0 °C and -20 °C. Supercooled
water droplets may turn into ice because of the external forces affecting them
(e.g. freezing nuclei are introduced into the droplets). It is worth mentioning
that ice crystals can also act as freezing nuclei. Among natural circumstances,
in the absence of freezing nuclei ice formation may require a temperature
below -40 °C and enormous saturation. As we mentioned above, supercooled
water droplets are often involved in the surface icing of aircraft. Various types
of ice must be taken into account related to icing, which may be a serious
hazard for aviation.
In general, freezing occurs in many different ways. For example, liquid water
droplets can contain freezing nuclei, which induce freezing if the temperature
and relative humidity reach the required values. Another example of freezing
occurs when freezing nuclei collide with supercooled water droplets. In this
case, the latter turns to ice because the collision can be considered an external
force that acts on the droplet.
Sublimation and deposition
Ice turns to water vapour directly through the process of sublimation while
water vapour transforms to ice via deposition.
Sublimation can be considered the evaporation of solid surfaces; therefore,

the process will be described similarly to evaporation. During the sublimation
of a substance, heat is absorbed from its surroundings, so the bond energy
decreases between the particles while their kinetic energy grows. On the
contrary, during the deposition of a substance heat is released by the
substance into its surroundings; therefore, the bond between the particles
increases.
We underscore that some sources refer to the process by which substances

turns from gas directly into a solid as sublimation, which requires sublimation
nuclei. However, in general that process is called deposition, while sublimation
indicates the process in which a solid substance turns to gas. When the term
sublimation is used for both meanings, that is, for the transformation of a solid
to a gas and a gas to a solid, then the term sublimation nuclei becomes
meaningful. However, we distinguish the processes of sublimation and
deposition as was discussed above, and we use the term deposition nuclei
instead of sublimation nuclei.
We mentioned that condensation and freezing occur on the surface of

condensation nuclei and freezing nuclei, respectively. Based on this, one can
assume that deposition also requires particles on which the process may occur
and these particles are referred as deposition nuclei. In other words, we
assume that particles of water vapour and liquid water droplets have to be
activated for condensation, freezing and deposition, respectively. The
existence of deposition nuclei was first suggested in the early decades of the
20th century. They were created in a laboratory; however, deposition nuclei
can be hardly distinguished from freezing nuclei among real atmospheric
conditions.
Sublimation and deposition also depend on temperature, pressure and

humidity of the air. For example, sublimation increases with increasing
temperature and pressure, and it decreases with growing amounts of water
vapour in the air because there is less room for the sublimating particles.
Dependence of phase transitions on temperature and pressure
In general, phase transitions therefore follow these notable points: freezing

and melting points and boiling points depend on temperature and pressure.
The above-listed notable points are in connection with phase changes in the
following way regarding a one-component system (e.g. the mixture of water
vapour, liquid water and ice). If the material has the temperature and pressure
that correspond to the freezing point then it turns from liquid to solid. The
transition takes place in the opposite direction when the material has the
temperature and pressure that belong to the melting point. As we mentioned,
the freezing point equals melting point of the same substance. At the freezing
and melting point the number of liquid particles that transform to solid is
equal to the number of solid particles that turn to liquid. If the material has
the temperature and pressure that belong to the boiling point then it
transforms from liquid to gas. At the boiling point, the number of liquid
particles that turns to gas is equal to the number of gaseous particles that turn
to liquid.
The previous description raises the question: what is the difference between
evaporation and boiling? Evaporation means that particles from the surface of
the liquid turn to a gaseous state while boiling means that particles not only
from its surface but also from throughout its volume start to turn to a gaseous
state.
In the case of water, at standard atmospheric pressure (1013.25 hPa) the
temperature that corresponds to the freezing and melting point and the
boiling points is 0 °C (273.15 K or 32 °F) and 100 °C (373.15 K or 212 °F),
respectively.
Concerning water, the temperature of the freezing and melting point and the
boiling point increases (decreases) with increasing (decreasing) pressure. To
demonstrate the dependence of the freezing and melting point and the boiling
point on pressure, consider the following examples:
1. During the process of regelation ice melts due to increasing pressure and
freezes again after the pressure is reduced. For example, the pressure at
the lower part of a glacier that originates from its weight is enough to
increase the freezing and melting point of ice to the level at which ice
melts and the glacier starts to move downward along the slope of a
mountain.
2. Consider a mountaineer who finds it difficult to melt ice at a high

altitude, for example in the vicinity of the peak of Mount Everest where
the average air pressure is ca. 350 hPa. As we learned before, air
pressure decreases as altitude increases; therefore, the boiling point
decreases. This means that if someone tries to melt ice to produce liquid
water, they should not exceed the temperature that corresponds to the
boiling point, which is ca. 70 °C. This means that liquid water exists in a
more narrow temperature range at higher altitudes than on the ground
surface.
The above-mentioned dependencies can be demonstrated by using phase

diagrams concerning the material in question. Let us consider water. Its two-
dimensional phase diagram is shown in the figure below. In the figure, curves
separate different phases from each other. The curves AB, BD and BC are
called the sublimation curve, melting curve and vapour pressure curve,
respectively. The sublimation curve (AB) separates solid and gaseous states of
the substance. The melting curve (BD) can be seen along the border between
solid and liquid states. It can also be explained as the line that connects the
freezing and melting point corresponding to different values of temperature
and pressure. The vapour pressure curve (BC) separates liquid and gas states.
These lines can be considered the borders between different phases (marked
with red-coloured continuous lines in the figure).
The three curves are joined at the same point, which is called the triple point
(denoted by the letter B). The following conclusions can be drawn based on
the figure below: water cannot be in a solid state above 0 °C. Above the
temperature that corresponds to the critical point, the substance cannot be
liquified at any pressure. (This means that the gaseous substance cannot be
condensed at any pressure, as was mentioned previously.)
Note: The fluid below (above) the critical point can be called a subcritical
(supercritical) fluid.
temperature (°C)
Figure 3.8. Two-dimensional phase diagram of water (one-component

system)
Temperature and pressure values can be found on the x-axis and y-axis,
respectively.
A change in the state of aggregation affects the volume of the material.
Volume can either increase or decrease. In general, the volume of substances
increases through the process of melting. However,the case of water melting
leads to decreasing volume.
Previously we examined the phase changes of a one-component system. If we

consider a multicomponent system, for example the mixture of two
substances with fixed compositions, then the dependence of phase transitions
on pressure and temperature will alter.
Significant differences are observable regarding the phase transition from

liquid to gas. In a multicomponent system, the bubble-point curve is defined
as the line that connects pairs of points on a p-T diagram in which the first
bubble of vapour develops as a consequence of heating. In a one-component
system, a bubble-point curve coincides with the dew-point curve that
connects dew points corresponding to different pressures and temperatures.
The bubble-point curve and dew-point curve join in the critical point. On the
left-hand side of the bubble-point curve the substances are in a liquid state
while on the right-hand side of the dew-point curve they are in a gaseous
state. Between the two lines, liquid and gaseous states are also present.
However, the maximum values of pressure and temperature do not belong to
the critical point, which is the case in a one-component system. Therefore,
liquid and gaseous states can exist just above the critical pressure and
temperature in a multicomponent system.
✓\y bubble-point curve
dew-point curve
Figure 3.9. Two-dimensional phase diagram for a multicomponent system
The points at which pressure and temperature have their maximum value are
called the cricondenbar and cricondentherm, respectively.
Remarks on phase changes and latent heat

In Section 3.1.1 the terms thermodynamic system and its environment were
introduced. From this point of view, the following can be said about the
energy transfer during phase changes.
Heat energy is used to evaporate, melt or sublimate a given amount of

substance, which can be considered a thermodynamic system. This energy is
taken away by the substance from its environment. In contrast, heat energy is
released by the substance into its environment during condensation, freezing
and deposition. The temperature of the substance does not vary during the
phase transitions. A related point to consider is the existence of adiabatic
processes, which are explained in Section 3.3. If the thermodynamic process is
adiabatic then we assume that there is no exchange of heat and mass
between the system and its environment. This means that if phase changes
occur then heat only increases or decreases the internal energy of the system.
In the following section, let us explain phases and phase transitions in more
detail. In the case of an ideal gas weknow know the relationships between
intensive (pressure and temperature denoted by p and T, respectively) and
extensive (volume, denoted by V) physical quantities. The p-T and V-T pairs of
points in a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system lie on a straight line
(in other words, p-T and V-T are in linear relationship) while the curve of the p-
V pairs of points is hyperbolic. As we mentioned, unsaturated water vapour
can be considered an ideal gas. However, after becoming saturated, phase
transition (i.e. condensation) occurs. After that, water vapour cannot be
approximated by the concept of ideal gas anymore, which means that the
above-described relationships between p, T and V alter as a result of phase
transition.
Sublimation, melting and vapour pressure curves can be explained as follows.

Assume water as the given substance. Along these lines, particles of water in
different states of matter coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium. For example,
along the melting curve the same amount of particles in a solid state turn to a
liquid state as particles in the liquid state turn to a solid state. This state can
be interpreted as thermodynamic equilibrium. At the triple point, solid, liquid
and gaseous states coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium. The triple point
means that ice, liquid water and water vapour are in thermodynamic
equilibrium at the same time.
Phase transitions are the functions of pressure, temperature and volume.

These physical quantities can be considered the coordinate axes of a three-
dimensional coordinate system, so dependencies of a given substance on p, V
and T can be demonstrated in three-dimensional phase diagrams. In Figure 3.8
the p-T projection of the three-dimensional phase diagram can be seen, which
is suitable to examine the relationship between pressure and temperature.
The p-V projection can also be constructed, which is shown in the figure
below.
Figure 3.10. The p-V projection of the phase diagram of water
The figure is simplified because it does not contain the region in which water
exists in a solid form.
As we mentioned before, phase transition means that the relationship

between intensive and extensive physical quantities changes. This can be
clearly seen in Figure 2.36 because of the following. Isotherms above the
isotherm that corresponds to the critical point (Tc) have approximately
hyperbolic shapes because a substance with a higher temperature is in a
completely gaseous state; therefore, it can be approximated by the concept of
an ideal gas. Below the dashed curve, the two phases of liquid water and
water vapour coexist at the same time. Phase transition occurs between those
two phases. On the right-hand side of the figure, we can observe that volume
decreases as pressure decreases along Tiuntil it crosses the saturation vapour
curve (dashed line), which separates unsaturated water vapour and the zone
with two phases. In that region, temperature and pressure remain constant
until phase change occurs. On the left-hand side of the dashed curve, called
the saturation liquid curve that separates liquid water and the mixture of
liquid water and water vapour, only a slight decrease in volume is measurable
as pressure decreases. The reason behind this is the incompressibility of the
substance in its liquid state. Break points in the isotherm related to the phase
transition indicate that the relationship between pressure and temperature is
altered. To examine phase changes in their entire complexity, a three-
dimensional phase diagram should be used, which is shown for water in the
figure below.
Figure 3.11. Three-dimensional phase diagram of water
The axes are pressure, temperature and the logarithm of volume (the latter
provides better visualisation). The p-T (p-V) projection that is shown in
Figure 3.8 can be seen on the left-hand (right-hand) side of the figure.
As a side note, a phase diagram can be drawn concerning another substances

in which the three curves join at the triple point with some exceptions. For
example, a phase diagram of carbon dioxide shows similarity with the phase
diagram of water but different pressure and temperature values correspond to
triple and critical points. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that there are
substances that have two or more triple points (e.g. sulphur).
In Section 3.1.2, the terms vapour pressure (denoted by e) and saturation

vapour pressure (denoted by es) were introduced. Thermodynamic equilibrium
was demonstrated by a practical example (i.e. a closed pot with evaporating
liquid). On the basis of the above-mentioned, condensation and evaporation
can be explained as follows:
1. If e < es then the intensity of evaporation is greater than that of

condensation, which means that the number of forming gaseous
particles is greater than the number of forming liquid droplets.
2. If e = es then water vapour and liquid water are in the state of

thermodynamic equilibrium. The number of forming gaseous particles is
equal to the number of forming liquid droplets.
3. If e > es then the intensity of condensation is greater than that of

evaporation. Therefore, the number of forming liquid droplets exceed
the number of forming gaseous particles. This means that humid air is
supersaturated with liquid water.
Previously, we emphasised the significance of saturation regarding

condensation. More precisely, supersaturation is required for condensation,
and consequently for cloud formation and the development of precipitation.
The es increases with the increasing curvature of the water surface while it
decreases as the water becomes contaminated.
As was said before, condensation nuclei are required for condensation to

occur. If the water vapour is not contaminated (e.g. in a laboratory) then water
droplets can also serve as condensation nuclei. However, it requires a level of
supersaturation that cannot be reached in real atmospheric circumstances. In
the atmosphere, liquid or solid condensation nuclei are often available, which
enhances condensation at lower supersaturations. Further details can be
found in Chapter 5.
It is worth mentioning that besides supercooled water, superheated water also
exists. This means that liquid water free from contamination can warm up
between the boiling point of the corresponding pressure and the critical point
without transitioning to a gaseous state. Like in the case of supercooled water,
phase transition starts immediately after some disturbances affect the system.
STUDY TEST
3.3. Adiabatic processes
3.3.1. Adiabatic processes, stability of

the atmosphere
Basic explanation of adiabatic processes,
stability of the atmosphere
Assume an air parcel and its surroundings in the atmosphere. The air parcel
moves vertically (i.e. it ascends or descends or remains at the same height). Its
route can be modelled by thermodynamic processes such as by adiabatic
(from a-dia-batic, Greek for "not", "through", "walk") processes in which heat
and matter do not exchange between the air parcel and its surroundings while
the energy of the air parcel is conserved. The process is considered so fast
that there is not enough time for the exchange of heat and material between
the air parcel and its surroundings. Therefore, the temperature of the air
parcel varies only because of its changing volume.
In more detail, adiabatic processes can be described as follows. Assume that a

lifting air parcel with a constant mass starts to rise because of the uneven
heating of the Earth's surface. At a constant pressure, if the temperature of
the air parcel increases compared to its surroundings, then the air parcel
becomes less dense and starts to ascend. (Henceforth this reason is referred
to as a thermal reason.) It is worth noting that some external forces, such as
strong convergence above the ground surface or a slope in a mountainous
region may also force the air parcel to rise. (Henceforth this is referred as an
orographic reason.) During the lifting, the surrounding pressure of the rising
air parcel does not remain constant. It decreases as altitude increases, so the
air parcel starts to expand. This process is called adiabatic expansion. This
means that the air parcel exerts work on its environment, which leads to an
decreasing temperature (i.e. adiabatic cooling) of the air parcel even though its
density decreases.
If the air parcel becomes colder than its surroundings then it will be denser
and heavier than its surroundings; therefore, it will start to sink. The
surrounding pressure of the sinking air increases as the height decreases, so
the air parcel is compressed, which leads to its decreasing volume. This
process is called adiabatic compression. In this case, the environment does
work on the air parcel, leading to an increasing temperature (i.e. adiabatic
warming) of the air parcel.
Let us consider a bottle with liquid at its bottom, which evaporates relatively
quickly (e.g. ethanol). Then, air is pumped into the bottle with a bicycle pump,
which causes adiabatic compression and an increasing pressure. After
removing the pump the bottle is opened, and therefore air will flow out of the
bottle with great speed to equalise the pressure with its surroundings. In line
with the previously concept, the air in the bottle expands adiabatically, so the
temperature drops. It may decrease to the dew point at which the air gets
saturated with ethanol, so consequently the vapour of the ethanol
condensates, leading to the formation of "clouds". Finally, air is pumped into
the bottle again. Via adiabatic compression the air temperature in the bottle
rises, which leads to an increasing temperature, and finally the ethanol starts
to evaporate again. Because of this, the "clouds" disappear in the bottle.
Meteorological processes, for example the vertical movement of an air parcel,

can be approximated by adiabatic processes. Two main types of adiabatic
processes are distinguished in the atmosphere. If the air parcel is dry or humid
(in other words, moist) but unsaturated, which means that it can be considered
an ideal gas, then using the concept of dry adiabatic process is allowed. If the
humid air is saturated and phase changes occur in it then it can be
approximated by moist adiabatic processes. The two processes are associated
with different vertical temperature lapse rates, which makes them easy to
distinguish in thermodynamic diagrams.
The lapse rates are as follows. Assume an unsaturated air parcel that starts to
ascend. It moves in a dry adiabatic fashion until it becomes saturated. Its
temperature decreases at the rate of about 3 °C/1000 ft (or ca. 1 °C/100 m),
which is called the dry adiabatic lapse rate (often abbreviated as DALR).
At this height the air parcel becomes saturated with water. Consequently,
water vapour starts to condensate and latent heat is released, which leads to a
decreasing temperature lapse rate, because it slows down the cooling of the
air parcel. The temperature of the air parcel decreases in line with the
saturated adiabatic lapse rate (often abbreviated as SALR), which is lower than
the dry adiabatic lapse rate. The temperature decreases at about
1.8 °C/1000 ft (or ca. 0.6 °C/100 m).
Please compare the dry and saturated lapse rates to the tropospheric
temperature lapse rate that is used in the International Standard Atmosphere
(ISA). In the ISA the temperature decreases at the rate of 1.98 °C/1000 ft (or
0.65 °C/100 m).
Note: Regarding the previously established lapse rates, we assume a linear

relationship between temperature and height, which means that the temperature
decreases with a constant rate as the height increases.
As a side note, we mention that the dry and saturated lapse rates can be
calculated. The calculation of the former is available later in this chapter.
As we mentioned in Section 3.1, the vertical movement of an air parcel can be

followed in a simplified p-T diagram (thermodynamic diagram), which was
introduced in Figure 3.2. In the following section, the route of an ascending or
descending air parcel approximated by adiabatic processes will be examined.
Please note that the temperature at the beginning of the adiabatic process
(before the air parcel starts to move vertically) and at the end of the adiabatic
process will be referred to as the initial and final temperatures, respectively.
To follow the route of an air parcel that rises or sinks adiabatically, the terms
dry adiabat and moist adiabat should be introduced, and curves that represent
them should be added to the p-T diagram. An unsaturated air parcel that
ascends or descends adiabatically in dry conditions always moves along a
specific line with the dry adiabatic lapse rate, called the dry adiabat. If the
isotherms are parallel to the y-axis in a thermodynamic diagram, then dry
adiabats usually have an inclination of 45° to the isotherms. We emphasise
that the dry adiabat along which the air parcel moves is determined by its
initial temperature.
A saturated air parcel does not ascend along the dry adiabat anymore, but
moves along a curve with a smaller inclination to the isotherms, called the
moist adiabat. Along the moist adiabat, the temperature of the air parcel
changes in line with the saturated adiabatic lapse rate. Because the moisture
content of the air decreases as the height increases, the distance between dry
and moist adiabats decreases as height increases.
The height where the air becomes saturated with water vapour is called the
condensation level (more precisely, the lifted or lifting condensation level),
which coincides with the level where the bases of clouds form. Condensation
levels can be determined in thermodynamic diagrams as follows. Find the
mixing ratio line closest to the dew point and move along it vertically. The
condensation level is at the height where the mixing ratio line crosses the dry
adiabat along which the air parcel rises. This means that the condensation
level is determined by the air temperature (denoted by T) and the dew point
(denoted by Td), which can be measured just before the lifting movement
starts. It is worth mentioning that the following empirical formula is available
to give an approximation of the height of the cloud base (denoted by h) in the
case of convective clouds, which form due to thermal reasons:
(3.16)
h « 120(T — Td)
where T and Td is given in °C, as well as h is expressed in m.
In the measurements of atmospheric humidity in adiabatic processes, for

example of relative humidity and mixing ratio, the relative humidity increases
as the height increases along the dry adiabat. It reaches 100 % at the
condensation level where the air temperature decreases to the value of the
dew point. The relative humidity remains constant along the moist adiabat.
Along the dry adiabat, the mixing ratio does not vary with height because of
its definition. According to its definition, the mixing ratio is the rate of the
mass of water vapour to the mass of dry air which can be held by the humid
air without condensation. If the air is saturated with water vapour and
precipitation forms and falls, then the mixing ratio starts to decrease because
of the decreasing water content of the air. Please note that this statement
seems to be in contradiction with the definition of the adiabatic process.
According to its definition, no heat or mass exchange is enabled. If
precipitation falls out then the mass of the air parcel changes. It is called
pseudoadiabatic process and will be discussed below in connection with the
formation of foehn wind.
To gain a deeper understanding in adiabatic processes, in the following section

the route of the rising and sinking air parcel with respect to some typical
weather phenomena will be explained. For that purpose, simplified p-T
diagrams are used. Please keep in mind that air pressure is not a linear
function of height. Consequently, dry and moist adiabatic lapse rates are not
constant with respect to changing pressure and when the y-axis logarithmic
scale is used.
Dry adiabatic process in unsaturated air
Assume an air parcel that starts to ascend because of an orographic reason or

a strong convergence. The air parcel is unsaturated and therefore it rises
adiabatically under dry conditions along a specific dry adiabat. The pressure
decreases as the height increases, which leads to adiabatic expansion and
decreasing temperature. If the lifting force that makes the air parcel to rise
were to cease, then the air parcel descends along the same dry adiabat. This
means that the initial and final temperatures of the air parcel will be the same.
It cools down and warms up with at the adiabatic lapse rate.
Adiabatic processes of saturated air
If the air parcel is saturated then clouds and precipitation may form, which
makes it difficult to follow the route of an air parcel:
1. Assume that the moisture content of an air parcel is saturated but no

precipitation forms; in other words, humidity is not removed from the air
parcel during the adiabatic process. In this case, the air parcel rises and
sinks along the same adiabats. It ascends along a dry adiabat until the
condensation level at which moist air becomes saturated. Condensation
is associated with the release of latent heat, which decreases the rate of
cooling. The air parcel continues to ascend along a moist adiabat at the
saturated adiabatic lapse rate. After the lifting force is removed, the air
parcel starts to descend along the same moist adiabat. It descends to the
height of the condensation level, and then the air parcel becomes
unsaturated again. The latent heat is absorbed by the air parcel during
evaporation, which will speed up its warming. Therefore, it continues to
descend along the same dry adiabat along which it ascended. This
means that the initial and final temperatures of the air parcel will be the
same.
2. Assume that the moisture content of the air parcel becomes saturated
and falls immediately. At this point, we emphasise the definition of
adiabatic processes. We have discussed how no heat or mass exchange
is enabled between the air parcel and its surroundings. However, falling
precipitation indicates the decrease of mass. Therefore, it is called a
pseudoadiabatic process.
Processes in the atmosphere are the mixture of cases above. For example, the
saturated air parcel ascends and descends along different dry and moist
adiabats, but not all of its moisture content falls.
Various weather phenomenon in the atmosphere can be approximated by

adiabatic processes. In the following section, the development of foehn winds
and subsidence inversion will be explained in more detail.
Formation of foehn wind
A description of foehn wind is based on the example that can be seen in the
figure below. As was mentioned in Section 2.4, foehn winds are a type of
katabatic (downslope) wind. Assume the initial temperature and pressure of
the air parcel are 20 °C and 1000 hPa. A moist, unsaturated air parcel is forced
to rise adiabatically in dry conditions due to an orographic reason. It ascends
along the slope of the upwind side of a mountain. As the air pressure
decreases with height, the air parcel expands and cools down adiabatically
with the dry adiabatic lapse rate. If the air temperature decreases to the dew
point (in our example, to -3 °C at about 750 hPa), then the air becomes
saturated with water vapour and condensation starts. Consequently, the air
rises farther along a moist adiabat. The air temperature decreases at the
saturated adiabatic lapse rate and clouds and precipitation may form. The
latter falls on the upwind side of the mountain. After this, the air parcel
becomes unsaturated and has a temperature of -25 °C. The corresponding
pressure value is about 500 hPa. At the peak of the mountain, the lifting force
ceases; therefore, unsaturated air will flow downward in a dry adiabatic
fashion, along the downwind (lee) side of the mountain. As the air pressure
increases with decreasing height, the air parcel is compressed and heated
adiabatically, so the temperature of the ascending air increases at the dry
adiabatic lapse rate. As was mentioned previously, the dry adiabat along which
the air parcel descends (denoted by II) corresponds to a higher temperature
than the dry adiabat along which it ascended (denoted by I). As the air parcel
sinks to 1000 hPa, its temperature increases to ca. 30 °C. Consequently, it will
not only be drier but also warmer than it was above the upwind side of the
mountain. This means that the final temperature of the air parcel can be up to
10 °C higher than its initial temperature.
Figure 3.12. The formation of foehn winds
The upwind and downwind sides of the mountain are denoted by the letters A
and B, respectively. The dew point is denoted by Tj, while the initial and final
temperatures of the air parcel as well as its temperature at the height of the
cloud base are marked with Ti, T3 and T2, respectively.
Regarding the weather conditions, the following can be said. On the upwind
side of the mountain, the development of clouds and precipitation is expected,
which can be associated with turbulence. On the downwind side of the
mountain, better visibility is expected because the downward flow dissolves
clouds.
Formation of subsidence inversion
Subsidence inversion is another interesting weather phenomenon that

originates from adiabatic processes. As was discussed in Section 1.2.5, when
air temperature increases with increasing altitude it causes absolutely stable
atmospheric stratification. Generally, subsidence inversion develops between
the heights of about 3 000 ft and about 10 000 ft (ca. 900 m and ca. 3 050 m).
The following two examples of the development of subsidence inversion will

be explained in connection with a larger- and a smaller-scale weather system.
Subsidence inversion is often associated with large-scale weather systems

such as anticyclones, mostly in winter. In anticyclones the air descends,
causing the adiabatic compression and adiabatic heating of the air.
Meanwhile, the air cools down above the ground surface due to terrestrial
radiation after sunset, which leads to increasing temperatures as height
increases.
Subsidence inversion can also be formed on a smaller scale, such as above

valleys. As we learnt previously, due to terrestrial radiation colder air
accumulates on the bottom of the valley. The flow before entering it collides
with the slope of the hill that surrounds it. Consequently, air gets compressed
and warmed up adiabatically. After the collision, the air that flows above the
valley will be warmer than the air just below it, forming an inversion layer.
Usually, when an inversion layer forms at a certain height, it does not reach
the ground surface. A schematic of its formation and a vertical profile of the
air temperature is shown in the figure below.
Vertical profile
of temperature
Figure 3.13. Schematic of subsidence inversion
Deep blue, blue, purple and red arrows indicate increasing temperature.
Please compare the right-hand side of this figure to the vertical temperature
profile of inversion in Figure 1.19 in which the inversion layer extends to the
ground surface.
Subsidence inversion may be associated with fog or the accumulation of air

pollutants due to the lack of turbulent air motion. Therefore, it can cause poor
visibility.
Atmospheric stability (explanation)
Atmospheric stability can be examined by using the parcel method, which was
developed in the 1930s and 1940s to model the growth of cumulus clouds.
Consider an air parcel and its surrounding environment. The air parcel is at
rest, which means that the sum of the forces acting on it is zero. The air parcel
is displaced vertically because of an effect that originates from its
environment If the air parcel is displaced upward then it starts to ascend
vertically. For example, in the case of katabatic winds such as foehn winds, the
air parcel is forced to rise along the upwind side of the mountain. Another
example is convergence near the surface that coerces the air parcel to rise.
The lifting of the air parcel is illustrated in the figure below. The air parcel will
reach the height where the lifting force is removed. Regarding the first
example, this height is the peak of the mountain.
increasing air parcel rises from height

height level 1 to height level 2
Figure 3.14. Air parcel rises from height level 1 to height level 2
The temperature and pressure of the air parcel and its environment before the
* *
lifting force affects the air parcel (height level 1) are To, po and To , po ,
respectively, while the temperature of the air parcel and the environment at
*
the height where the lifting force is removed (height level 2) are T, p and T ,
5|C
p , respectively.
The following can be said regarding the air parcel after the lifting force is
removed (height level 2 in the figure above):
1. The temperature of the air parcel can be lower than the temperature of
its environment (T < T ). In that case the density of the air parcel is
higher than its surroundings. This means that the air parcel is heavier
than its environment, and consequently it starts to sink with increasing
acceleration, indicating stable atmospheric conditions.
2. The temperature of the air parcel can be higher than the temperature of
its environment (T > T ). In that case the density of the air parcel is
lower than its surroundings. This means that the air parcel is lighter than
its environment, and is affected by the buoyancy force, so it continues to
rise with increasing acceleration, indicating unstable atmospheric
conditions.
3. The temperature of the air parcel can be the same as the temperature of
its environment (T = T ). In this case the air parcel has the same
density as its environment. Therefore, it will remain at the same level,
which is called indifferent stability or neutral equilibrium.
In summary, the movement of an air parcel depends on the temperature (and

density) difference between the air parcel and its environment after the lifting
force is removed. Deduction is available later in this chapter.
Please note that we did not assume that the vertical movement of the air
parcel is an adiabatic process before now.
Hereafter, assume that the air parcel rises adiabatically due to some lifting
force, which allows us to examine atmospheric stability of unsaturated and
saturated air parcels. Because of the adiabatic approximation, atmospheric
stability can be examined through the relationship between the environmental
lapse rate, the dry adiabatic lapse rate and the saturated adiabatic lapse rate.
The environmental lapse rate (often abbreviated as ELR) can be considered the
rate at which the air temperature changes with height in the surroundings of
the air parcel. It can be measured, for example by using weather balloons
equipped with radiosondes. If we assume a linear relationship between
temperature and height then the environmental lapse rate is constant.
If the rising air parcel is unsaturated then the temperature of the air parcel
changes in accordance with the dry adiabatic lapse rate. Therefore, the
following three cases can be examined:
1. If the environmental lapse rate is lower than the dry adiabatic lapse rate,
then the atmosphere is stable.
2. If the environmental lapse rate is higher than the dry adiabatic lapse
rate, then the atmosphere is unstable.
3. If the environmental lapse rate equals the dry adiabatic lapse rate, then
the equilibrium is called indifferent (neutral).
In summary:
• DALR > ELR => the unsaturated air is stable

• DALR < ELR => the unsaturated air is unstable
• DALR = ELR => the unsaturated air is indifferent (neutral)
If the rising air parcel is saturated then the temperature of the air parcel
changes in accordance with the saturated adiabatic lapse rate:
1. If the environmental lapse rate is lower than the saturated adiabatic

lapse rate, then the atmosphere is stable.
2. If the environmental lapse rate is higher than the saturated adiabatic

lapse rate, then the atmosphere is unstable.
3. If the environmental lapse rate equals the saturated adiabatic lapse rate,
then the equilibrium is called indifferent (neutral)
In summary:
• SALR > ELR => the saturated air is stable

• SALR < ELR => the saturated air is unstable
• SALR = ELR => the saturated air is indifferent (neutral)
We know that dry adiabatic lapse rate is always greater than saturated
adiabatic lapse rate. Consequently, the following terms can be introduced in
connection with atmospheric stability, regardless of whether the air is
saturated or not:
1. If the environmental lapse rate is lower than the saturated adiabatic

lapse rate then it is also lower than the dry adiabatic lapse rate;
therefore, the air is called absolutely stable. For example, inversion (in
which the temperature rises with height, so the environmental lapse rate
is positive) or an isothermal atmosphere can be considered absolutely
stable.
2. If the environmental lapse rate is greater than the dry adiabatic lapse
rate then it is also greater than the saturated adiabatic lapse rate;
therefore the air is called absolutely unstable.
3. If the environmental lapse rate is between the dry adiabatic and the
saturated adiabatic lapse rate then the air is called conditionally
unstable.
We can give the following summary:
• DALR > SALR > ELR => absolutely stable air

• DALR > ELR > SALR => conditionally unstable air
• ELR > DALR > SALR => absolutely unstable air
Atmospheric stability can be illustrated by the examples in the figure below

and Figure 3.16 in which temperature is plotted as a function of height. We
assume that the air temperature is 12 °C on the ground surface (0 km).
Figure 3.15. Examples of atmospheric stability
Examples of atmospheric stability illustrated in the figure above are as follows:
a. Stable atmosphere (the ELR is negative but lower than the DALR and the
SALR).
b. Stable atmosphere (inversion, the ELR is positive).
c. Conditional unstable atmosphere (the ELR is lower than the DALR but
higher than the SALR).
d. Unstable atmosphere (the ELR is higher than the DALR and the SALR).
isotherm atmosphere
Figure 3.16. Example of isotherm atmosphere
If the atmosphere is isothermal, then the temperature remains constant with

increasing height. The environmental lapse rate is 0 °C/100 m, which is lower
than the dry adiabatic lapse rate and the saturated adiabatic lapse rate;
therefore, the atmosphere is stable.
It is worth mentioning that advection may affect atmospheric stability. As was

mentioned in Section 1.2, advection is the horizontal transport of heat. More
precisely, in the case of cold (warm) air advection, air flows from colder to
warmer (from warmer to colder) areas.
Assume an air column with a given vertical profile of air temperature.
If colder air is advected at a lower level or warmer air is advected at a higher

level, then the stability of the air column is enhanced or the advection acts
against the instability.
If colder air is advected at a higher level or warmer air is advected at a lower

level, then the instability of the air column is enhanced or the advection acts
against the stability.
Atmospheric stability (illustration in p-T diagram)
In the following section, the previously introduced terms regarding

atmospheric stability (i.e. absolute stability, absolute instability, neutral
equilibrium and conditional stability) will be explained in p-T diagrams under
the assumption that the air parcel moves adiabatically. Among thermodynamic
diagrams we choose an emagram (or energy-per-unit-mass diagram) for the
illustration, which was invented by German physicist Heinrich Hertz in the
1880s. The diagram is suitable for a simple explanation because isotherms and
isobars are straight lines that are perpendicular to each other. Dry and moist
adiabats are slightly curved lines that are depicted with solid and dashed lines,
respectively. The mixing ratio and height are marked with dotted curves. The
former has a greater inclination to the isobars than the latter. On the y-axis a
logarithmic scale is used.
Let us examine the atmosphere between the pressure levels of 1000 hPa and
500 hPa. At 1000 hPa, the air parcel and its environment have the
*
temperature of 20 °C (denoted by To and To , respectively). Let the dew
point be 12 °C (denoted by Tj). Assume that the air parcel rises adiabatically,
so it starts to ascend along the dry adiabat (red curves in the diagrams). To find
the condensation level, we move along the mixing ratio line closest to the dew
point (pink curves in the diagrams) until it crosses the dry adiabat. (The
condensation level is marked with a yellow circle.) After the air parcel
becomes saturated, it continues to ascend along the moist adiabat (blue
curves in the diagrams). At 500 hPa, the temperature of the air parcel is
-17 °C. As in the examples of Figure 3.15, we assume that the environmental
lapse rate is constant (green curves in the diagrams):
1. Assume that the environmental lapse rate is lower than the saturated
adiabatic lapse rate (about 1.8 °C/1000 ft or ca. 0.6 °C/100 m), but not
positive. According to the figure below, the temperature of the
*
environment at 500 hPa (denoted by T ) is greater than the temperature
of the air parcel (denoted by T), which indicates absolute stability.
Absolute stability is indicated by a positive environmental lapse rate (i.e.
an inversion). In this case T * is greater than TO* and of course T;
therefore, the air is absolutely stable, as seen in Figure 3.18.
Please keep in mind that another prominent case of absolute stability is

the isotherm atmosphere. See Figure 3.19.
Figure 3.17. Absolute stability illustrated in an emagram

lompe/akire CC)
Figure 3.18. Absolute stability illustrated in an emagram: inversion

lompe/akire CC)
Figure 3.19. Absolute stability illustrated in emagram: isotherm atmosphere
2. In the second case, assume stability below the pressure (and height) level
marked with the light blue-coloured point in the figure below. Then, the
saturated air becomes unstable while the environmental lapse rate is
higher than the saturated adiabatic lapse rate but lower than the dry
adiabatic lapse rate. At 500 hPa T equals -20 °C, which is lower than T
. In this case the atmosphere is called conditionally unstable.
lompe/akire CC)
Figure 3.20. Conditional stability illustrated in an emagram
3. In the third case, the environmental lapse rate is higher than the dry
adiabatic lapse rate (about 3 °C/1000 ft or ca. 1 °C/100 m). T is greater
than T indicating absolute instability, which is shown in the figure
below.
Figure 3.21. Absolute instability illustrated in an emagram
4. The unsaturated (saturated) air is at an indifferent (i.e. neutral)

equilibrium if the environmental lapse rate coincides with the dry (moist)
adiabat, which can be seen in the figure below (Figure 3.23).
lompe/akire CC)
Figure 3.22. Indifferent (neutral) equilibrium in unsaturated air illustrated in

an emagram
lompe/akire CC)
Figure 3.23. Indifferent (neutral) equilibrium in saturated air illustrated in

emagram
Development of cumuliform clouds due to thermal reason
It was mentioned the parcel method was originally developed to model the
growth of cumulus clouds. The assumption of adiabatic processes allowed us
to examine atmospheric stability whether the air parcel is saturated or not.
Consequently, on the basis of what we have previously learnt about adiabatic
processes and atmospheric stability, now we are able to explain and illustrate
the development of cumuliform clouds. Denotations are similar to those in
Figure 3.17 - Figure 3.23. The temperature of the air parcel and its
* *
environment are denoted by To and To at 1000 hPa as well as T and T at
higher altitudes.
Looking at the following example, assume a weather balloon equipped with a

radiosonde that measures the dew point and air temperature of the
environment between the pressure levels 1000 hPa and 300 hPa. The
measured values are summarised in Figure 3.24. Consider an air parcel and its
*
environment with the same temperature at 1000 hPa, so To = To . Assume
that the unsaturated air parcel starts to rise adiabatically in dry conditions
because of a thermal reason. It cools down due to adiabatic expansion faster
than its environment; therefore, the air parcel will be colder than its
*
surroundings, so consequently T < T . After the air parcel gets saturated,
condensation starts. As we mentioned, the cloud base can be found at the
(lifting) condensation level. Above that height, inside the cloud the following
can be said. Just above the cloud base the air parcel is still colder than its
environment. It starts to ascend adiabatically in moist conditions; therefore, its
cooling slows down so its temperature will be equal to the temperature of its
*
environment at some height. The height where T = T is called the level of
free convection. Above that level the air parcel becomes warmer than its
environment, T > T .As the moisture content of the air parcel decreases, its
cooling speeds up, and consequently its temperature will be equal to the
temperature of the environment at some height again. This height where
*
T = T is called the equilibrium level. The cloud top can be found slightly
above the equilibrium level.
Finally, atmospheric energetics will be discussed in connection with cumulus

growth. Below the level of free convection, the air parcel is surrounded by a
warmer environment, which can be considered to have a "negative" buoyancy.
In other words, the force acts on the air parcel in the direction of the ground
surface. Therefore, work is done by the air parcel to reach the level of free
convection and cease the convective inhibition (abbreviated as CIN). Between
the level of free convection and the equilibrium level, the air parcel is warmer
than its environment, so the buoyancy force does work on it. The energy that
can be released during the ascending motion of the air parcel is called the
convective available potential energy (abbreviated as CAPE). The SI unit of
the CIN and the CAPE is J/kg. Illustrating cumulus growth in an emagram is
advantageous because the CAPE is proportional to the area between the level
of free convection and the equilibrium level. The CAPE can be considered a
useful measure of the intensity of convection. The possibility of
thunderstorms increases as CAPE increases. If the CAPE exceeds 1000 J/kg,
then the formation of thunderstorms can be expected.
Values of dew point and air temperature of the environment corresponding to different pressure levels
1000 hPa 900 hPa 800 hPa 700 hPa 600 hPa 500 hPa 400 hPa 300 hPa
dew point 5 °C 0°C 2 °C -14 °C -28 °C -45 °C -59 °C -55 °C
air temperature 20 °C 13 °C 15 °C 1 °C -18 °C -35 °C -44 °C -35 °C
Figure 3.24. Values of dew point and air temperature
Detailed explanation of adiabatic processes,

stability of the atmosphere
Introduction to adiabatic processes
Assume an air parcel (in the thermodynamic system) and its surroundings (the
environment). Adiabatic processes occur in isolated thermodynamic systems,
which means that there is no heat and mass transfer between the air parcel
and its surroundings. Adiabatic approximation of certain atmospheric
processes (e.g. vertical motion of the air parcel) provides us a relatively simple
mathematical and physical explanation.
According to Equation 3.4 in Section 3.1.1, during adiabatic processes the

change of the internal energy of the system originates from the pressure
volume work that is exerted on the system or done by the system. In other
words, when the volume of the system changes, expansion (contraction)
means that the system cools down (warms up).
As we discussed in Section 1.4, if an ideal gas is assumed, then the pressure

and temperature at a constant volume as well as the volume and temperature
at a constant pressure are proportional to each other, while the pressure and
temperature at a constant volume are inversely proportional to each other. If
we are speaking about thermodynamic processes, we can define isobaric,
isothermal and isochoric processes that occur at a constant pressure,
temperature and volume, respectively. These can be considered models of the
atmosphere. Thermodynamic processes at a constant potential temperature
are called adiabatic processes. Foran ideal gas, potential temperature
(denoted by 0) is defined as follows:
(3.17)
R
Po CP
p
where p, T are the pressure and temperature of an air parcel at a given height
level, respectively, and po is the reference pressure (it is usually chosen to
1000 hPa). The exponent is ca. 0.286, the quotient of the specific gas constant
of dry air is Rj = 287 and the specific heat of dry air is at the constant
pressure cp = 1005
Note: Pressure and temperature are given in units of hPa and K, respectively.
According to its definition, potential temperature is the temperature an air

parcel would have after it is brought adiabatically to the height that
corresponds to the reference pressure. It indicates adiabatic expansion and
cooling (compression and heating) below (above) the reference height.
The adiabatic process can be depicted in the p-V diagram shown in the figure
below. Note that the temperature increases (decreases) during adiabatic
compression (expansion).
Figure 3.25. The p-V diagram of an adiabatic process
Isotherms are denoted as Ti and T2 where Ti > T2 (grey-coloured curves).

Volumetric work done during the adiabatic process is equal to the area below
the green-coloured curve, called the adiabat It connects points with the same
potential temperature.
Please keep in mind that potential temperature does not vary in time during
adiabatic processes. This is why we can follow the route of an air parcel along
adiabats in a thermodynamic diagrams.
Atmospheric stability
In the following section, the air parcel method will be explained in more detail.
We assume that an air parcel rises to a given height due to a thermal reason or
some external forces. The air parcel at that height has density q and pressure
p. The pressure and density of the environment are q and p . Furthermore,
we assume hydrostatic equilibrium; therefore, the hydrostatic equation can be
used as follows:
(3.18)
The buoyancy force per unit mass of the air parcel can be described in
accordance with Newton’s second law as:
(3.19)
d2z _ _ — X dP
dt2 dz
Note that the buoyancy force is parallel with the direction of the movement.
-i' *
During the adiabatic process, let p = p . Therefore, — q g can be substituted

from Equation 3.18 into the equation above so:
(3.20)
d2z 1 *
Q g - g
dt2
Rearrange the equation above as follows:
(3.21)
— = gf—-1
dt2 e
The equation above is suitable to examine atmospheric stability. However, the

measurement of air density is more difficult to measure than air temperature.
As we learnt before, dry or unsaturated air can be approximated by the
concept of an ideal gas. Consequently, if we assume unsaturated air then the
equation above can be written by substituting air temperature from the
*
5|C p p
general gas law as follows. First, substitute q = ----- - and q = —— into the
Rd T* RaT
*
equation above where T and T are the temperature of the air parcel and its
environment, respectively, at the height where the lifting force acting on the
air parcel was removed. Furthermore Rj is the specific gas constant of dry air.
With the assumption that p = po, the following can be described:
(3.22)
Atmospheric stability can be explained according to the equations above as
follows:
j|c *
a. If q — q or T — T are positive, then the air parcel is less dense (lighter)

and warmer than its environment, and consequently the acceleration on
the left-hand sides of the above-mentioned equations is positive and the
air parcel will move upward with acceleration. In this case the
atmosphere is stable.
-T' -T'
b. If£> — q and T — T are negative, then the air parcel is denser (heavier)
and colder than its environment, so it stops rising and then starts to
descend with acceleration. The displaced air parcel returns to its original
position. In this case the atmosphere is unstable.
j|c *
c. If q = q and T = T then the air parcel remains in its new position to

where it has risen or continues its movement with a velocity that can be
measured at the time when the lifting force was removed. In the former
case the stability is said to be indifferent.
The acceleration and thus the speed of the vertical current increases as the
density and temperature differences between the air parcel and the
environment increase.
In the previous sections, we did not mention if the air is unsaturated or

saturated with water vapour. We only assumed that the atmosphere is in
hydrostatic equilibrium but we did not considered that the vertical movement
of the air parcel is adiabatic.
Hence, assume that the ascending motion of the air parcel can be modelled by
adiabatic processes. In this case, atmospheric stability can be expressed in the
terms of the dry adiabatic and the saturated adiabatic lapse rates, which
allows us to examine the stability of unsaturated and saturated air in more
detail.
Equation 3.21 is suitable for the substitution of the lapse rates as follows. As
we mentioned, we assume a linear relationship between temperature and
height. Henceforth, the environmental lapse rate, the dry adiabatic lapse rate
and the saturated adiabatic lapse rate are denoted by 7, Td and rs,
respectively.
Let the rising air parcel be unsaturated. In this case, the temperature of the
environment at the height level where the air parcel is displaced by some
*
external force (denoted by To ) and the height level where the force is
*
removed can be described (denoted by T ) as:
(3.23)
* *
T = To - 7h
where h is the difference between the height levels that correspond to T and
, _, *
To •
The temperature of the air parcel at the height level where it was displaced by
some external force (denoted by To) and the height level where the force was
removed (denoted by T) can be described as follows:
(3.24)
T = To - Tdh
Substitute Equation 3.23 and Equation 3.24 into Equation 3.22 and assuming
5|C
that To = To so,
(3.25)
[Math Processing Error]
According to the equation above, the atmospheric stability of an unsaturated

air parcel can be examined at a height where the lifting force is removed as
follows:
a. If 7 < Td, then the air parcel accelerates downward to the original
height from where it was displaced by some external force. In that case
the unsaturated air is stable.
b. If 7 > Td, then the air parcel travels upward to its original height with
accelerating movement. The unsaturated air is absolutely unstable.
c. If 7 = Td, then the air parcel has zero acceleration. If it stays at the
same height where the lifting force was removed, the unsaturated air is
indifferent (neutral).
Let the rising air parcel be saturated. In that case we have to substitute rs into
the equation above. Atmospheric stability of an air parcel in saturated air can
be examined at the height where the lifting force is removed as follows:
e. If 7 < rs, then the air parcel accelerates downward until it reaches the
original height where it was displaced by some external force. In that
case the saturated air is absolutely stable.
f. If 7 > I\, then the air parcel travels upward its original height with
accelerating movement. The saturated air is unstable.
g. If 7 = then the air parcel has zero acceleration. If it stays at the same
height where the lifting force was removed, the saturated air is
indifferent (neutral).
We can state the following about atmospheric stability, regardless of whether

the air is saturated or not.
According to case (b), 7 > Tj. Because rs is smaller than Tj, then 7 is always
larger than Ts. Therefore, the air is said to be absolutely unstable regardless of
whether the air is saturated or not.
According to case (e), 7 < Ts. The 7 is also always smaller than Tj, so the air
is absolutely stable, for example in the case of inversion or in the isothermal
atmosphere.
Please note that the following scenario can also occur in which Ts < 7 < Tj.
In that case the atmosphere is called conditionally unstable.
See Figure 3.15 and Figure 3.16 for an illustration.
Explanation of anabatic (upslope) and katabatic (downslope) wind
It is worth mentioning that Equation 3.21 and Equation 3.22 are also suitable
to explain the formation of anabatic and katabatic winds, which were
introduced in Section 2.4. Let us examine the height where the lifting force is
removed above the slope. Assume that the temperature of the air parcel
above the slope and the temperature of its environment are T and T ,
respectively.
*
If T > T then the air parcel continues its movement along the slope upward,
which indicates anabatic wind.
*
If T < T then the air parcel starts to sink along the slope downward, which
means katabatic wind may form.
Calculation of the dry adiabatic lapse rate
Please keep in mind that the lapse rate according to the ISA is -1.98 °C I
1000 ft (-0.65 °C 1100 m). As was mentioned, the lapse rates in unsaturated
and saturated are different. The dry adiabatic lapse rate can be calculated by
taking the logarithm of the potential temperature, which was given in
Equation 3.17, and deriving it with the height z. For the sake of simplicity,
assume that T and p only vary with height.
R
ln0= In I T( - CP
I \ p
= InT + T-lnpo - ~lnp

'-'P Vp
(3.26)
1 v ®
zx . -- I _ v
zx . I I v 1 v
ZX ZX 1 I
3 dz \T dz J \ cp P dz J
Multiply the equation above with T and substitute the hydrostatic equation
given by Equation 3.18 so:
(3.27)
T dfl dT T
e dz dz -p
RT 1
After the replacement of — with — according to the general gas law, the
following formula can be described.
(3.28)
T d^ _ dT . g
3 dz dz cp
In the equation above the lapse rates of temperature and potential
temperature are and respectively. During adiabatic processes =0
and therefore the dry adiabatic lapse rate is:
(3.29)
dT _ g
dz cp
If we consider g and cp as constants, then based on the equation above the

temperature decreases with a constant rate as height increases. Previously,
9.86 m/s2 was calculated as the average value of g and the specific heat
capacity of dry air at a constant pressure was considered to be 1005 J/kg K.
Based on these values, the dry adiabatic lapse rate can be calculated as
follows:
(3.30)
9.86 -22- 9.86
g ______ s2 _ ______s2
cp ~ 1005— kgx^
kgs K s2
1005 ----- —
kg K
= 0 .0098 -
111
« 0 .01 —
Ill
Based on the equation above, the dry adiabatic lapse rate in the atmosphere is
approximately 1 °C per 100 m.
As a side note, we mention that the saturated adiabatic lapse rate can be
deduced on the basis of the Clausius-Clapeyron equation, because in that
case the role of latent heat must be taken into account. Due to its complexity,
that calculation will not be explained here.
Thermodynamic diagrams
As we have seen, thermodynamic diagrams are suitable to examine the

development of cumuliform clouds on the basis of measurements by
radiosondes. We also assume that the air parcel that is compared to its
environment ascends adiabatically.
For meteorological purposes, not only emagrams are used. For example, in the
figure below, a simplified Stueve diagram is shown as a p-T diagram, which is
one of the most commonly used types of thermodynamic diagrams. It was
introduced by German meteorologist Georg Stueve in the 1920s. It is
constructed in such a way that not only isotherms and isobars but also dry
adiabats are straight lines with an inclination of 45° to the isobars. Moist
adiabats are represented with curved lines. However, the energy of the
depicted thermodynamic process is not proportional to the area in the
diagram. Please note that the emagram fulfils this requirement.
Figure 3.26. Stueve diagram
Isotherms and isobars are marked with blue straight lines that are
perpendicular to each other. Points with an equal mixing ratio or saturation
mixing ratio are depicted with nearly straight light brown dashed lines. Dry
and moist adiabats are represented with straight green dashed lines and blue
curved dashed lines, respectively.
Emagrams and Stueve diagrams are mainly used in Europe. In North America
and the United Kingdom, thermodynamic diagrams such as skew-T log-p
diagrams and tephigrams are commonly used.
Figure 3.27. Tephigram
On the x axis is temperature, on the y axis entropy is depicted. Isotherms have

an inclination of 45° to the right, while dry adiabats have an inclination of 45°
to the left. Isobars are dashed lines with a slight curve. Moist adiabats are
dashed curved lines. Points with an equal mixing ratio or saturation mixing
ratio are represented with dotted lines.
BEFORE EXAM L"
STUDY TEST
In humid air, which is composed of dry air and water, water is present in solid,
liquid and gaseous states. Humidity changes spatially and temporally. It varies
with altitude, geographic latitude and season.
In saturated humid air, water vapour starts to turn into water or ice.
Dew point is the temperature of the air parcel to which it must be cooled to get
saturated. It is always less than or equal to the actual temperature.
Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapour and the maximum
possible amount of water vapour for a given temperature in the humid air. It is
given in a percentage.
Relative humidity increases with increasing amounts of water vapour in the
humid air at a constant air temperature. It decreases with increasing air
temperatures if the amount of water vapour is constant.
As relative humidity increases the dew point comes closer to the actual
temperature. If the dew point equals the actual temperature then relative
humidity is 100 %.
We distinguish the following types of phase transitions: vaporisation

(evaporation and transpiration), melting and sublimation as well as
condensation, freezing and deposition.
The energy that is associated with phase transitions is called latent heat. Its SI
unit is the joule.
Freezing may occur on the surfaces of freezing nuclei while the significance of
deposition nuclei (sublimation nuclei) is much smaller.
At (1013.25 hPa) the temperature that corresponds to the freezing and melting
point and the boiling points of water (one-component system) is 0 °C (273.15 K
or 32 °F) and 100 °C (373.15 K or 212 °F), respectively.
The critical temperature of water is 374 °C (647.15 K or ca. 705 °F) and the
corresponding critical pressure is 220640 hPa.
Vertical movement of an air parcel can be modelled by adiabatic processes.
In adiabatic processes heat and matter are not exchanged between the air
parcel and its environment while the energy of the air parcel remains constant.
The critical temperature of water is 374 °C (647.15 K or ca. 705 °F) and the
corresponding critical pressure is 220640 hPa.
Vertical movement of an air parcel can be modelled by adiabatic processes.
In adiabatic processes heat and matter are not exchanged between the air
parcel and its environment while the energy of the air parcel remains constant.
In adiabatic processes, the temperature of the air parcel varies only because of
its changing volume.
During adiabatic expansion (compression) the air parcel expands (contracts) so
its volume increases (decreases) due to decreasing (increasing) pressure.
Because of this its temperature decreases (increases).
Adiabatic processes of dry or unsaturated humid air are called dry adiabatic
processes while adiabatic processes of saturated humid air are called moist
adiabatic processes.
In dry adiabatic processes the temperature decreases at the rate of the dry
adiabatic lapse rate of about 3 °C / 1000 ft or ca. 1 °C / 100 m.
In moist adiabatic processes the temperature decreases at a lower rate due to
the release of latent heat. The moist adiabatic lapse rate is about 1.8 °C I
1000 ft orca. 0.6 °C / 100 m.

The height where condensation starts is called the condensation level. It is also
identified as the base of clouds.
The formation of foehn winds can be considered a pseudoadiabatic process.
The air rises adiabatically in dry conditions and cools down on the upwind side
of a mountain. After becoming saturated, the air ascends adiabatically in moist
conditions while clouds and precipitation may form. After the lifting movement
ceases, unsaturated air descends adiabatically in dry conditions and warms up
on the downwind (lee) side of the mountain, causing a dry and relatively warm
air flow called foehn winds.
Subsidence inversion originates from adiabatic processes. It develops mainly
between the height level of about 3 000 ft and about 10 000 ft (ca. 900 m and
ca. 3050 m). The flow before entering the valley undergoes adiabatic
compression and heating. Flow above the valley will be warmer than the air just
below it.
The vertically displaced air parcel is said to be stable if it returns to its original
position after the lifting force is removed. It is unstable if it continues to rise
after the lifting force is removed. It is indifferent (neutral) if it stays at the same
ceases, unsaturated air descends adiabatically in dry conditions and warms up
on the downwind (lee) side of the mountain, causing a dry and relatively warm
air flow called foehn winds.
Subsidence inversion originates from adiabatic processes. It develops mainly
between the height level of about 3 000 ft and about 10 000 ft (ca. 900 m and
ca. 3050 m). The flow before entering the valley undergoes adiabatic
compression and heating. Flow above the valley will be warmer than the air just
below it.
The vertically displaced air parcel is said to be stable if it returns to its original
position after the lifting force is removed. It is unstable if it continues to rise
after the lifting force is removed. It is indifferent (neutral) if it stays at the same
height where the lifting force is removed.
If the process is adiabatic, then atmospheric stability can be examined whether
or not the air parcel is saturated.
Assume an unsaturated air parcel. In a stable (unstable) atmosphere, the
environmental lapse rate is lower (higher) than the dry adiabatic lapse rate. If
the environmental lapse rate equals the dry adiabatic lapse rate, then the
equilibrium is called indifferent (neutral).
Assume a saturated air parcel. In a stable (unstable) atmosphere, the
environmental lapse rate is lower (higher) than the saturated adiabatic lapse
rate. If the environmental lapse rate equals the saturated adiabatic lapse rate,
then the equilibrium is called indifferent (neutral).
The following statements are correct regardless of whether or not the air parcel
is saturated. In an absolutely stable (unstable) atmosphere the environmental
lapse rate is lower than the saturated (dry) adiabatic lapse rate. In a conditional
unstable atmosphere the environmental lapse rate is between the dry adiabatic
and the saturated adiabatic lapse rate.
Cold and warm air advection affect atmospheric stability.
If colder (warmer) air is advected at a lower (higher) level, the stability of the
atmosphere is enhanced or the advection acts against the instability.
If colder (warmer) air is advected at a higher (lower) level, then the instability of
the atmosphere is enhanced or the advection acts against the stability.
Clouds and Fog
In the previous chapter we examined the process that can lead to the
formation of convective clouds. However, convection is just one way of cloud
formation. In general, cloud formation means that gaseous particles in the air
turn to liquid or solid state. They are called cloud droplets and require the
presence of cloud condensation nuclei. Consequently, in the first half of this
chapter, we explain the formation of cloud droplets. It will be followed by the
classification of clouds.
Certain weather phenomena are often associated with clouds of a specific

shape. For example, thunderstorms often occur in the presence of large
convective clouds with anvil. Therefore, clouds are classified on the basis of
their shape. We distinguish ten main cloud types, and numerous species and
supplementary features. To understand the associated weather phenomena,
the formation of thunderstorms is also described in this chapter.
Cloud droplets are suspended in the air, they are not falling out. If the flow of
the suspended particles is observable near the surface of the Earth, then we
are speaking about the formation of fog. Consequently, in the second half of
the chapter, the development of fog and its types will be explained. As fog
reduces visibility, it is explained along with other visibility-reducing
phenomena, such as haze.
4.1. Cloud formation and
description
4.1.1. Cloud formation

Formation of clouds
The following two chapters cover the subject of cloud physics. In this main
chapter, the development of clouds, their types and their classification by
formation and structure will be discussed. Then, in Chapter 5, the physical
processes that lead to the development of precipitation will be described.
These processes belong to the discipline of cloud microphysics.
Clouds can be hazardous for aviation as they may be accompanied by severe

precipitation, decreased visibility, turbulence and icing of the aircraft surface
or engine system. See later in this chapter and in Section 9.1 and Section 9.2.
A cloud is a visible mixture of air and small particles, mainly water droplets and
ice crystals. Thus particles in gaseous, liquid and solid states are present at the
same time in a given volume of the atmosphere. The particles from which
clouds are comprised are called cloud droplets. Clouds form mainly via the
processes of condensation, freezing and deposition. As a reminder,
condensation is the process by which the water vapour in the air turns into
liquid water, freezing occurs when liquid water turns into a solid and
deposition takes place when water vapour turns directly into a solid. A
detailed discussion of these processes can be found in Chapter 3.
The classification of clouds follows from different aspects. Different types of

clouds may consist of water droplets,ice crystals or both. This primarily
depends on the air temperature and the water vapour content. Clouds can be
classified by the state of matter and the particles they consist of which are
listed as follows:
1. ice clouds (in other words, cold clouds) in which mostly ice particles are
present;
2. water clouds (in other words, warm clouds), which are composed of
liquid water droplets (even supercooled water droplets); and
3. mixed clouds that contain both ice and liquid water.
Clouds may also be classified into the following three categories based on
their heights:
1. low level clouds (on average at between about 0 km and 2 km);
2. middle level clouds (on average at between about 2 km and 8 km); and
3. high level clouds (on average at between about 8 km and 10 km).
Sometimes an additional group is distinguished called multi-level clouds.

Multi-level clouds have a cloud base at low levels while their cloud top may be
observable at a medium or high level.
Typically, high level clouds are ice clouds while middle level clouds are mixed
clouds. Low level clouds can be considered water clouds. Water droplets
above the 0 °C isotherm are present in a supercooled state. The state of
matter of the particles at a given level also depends on their season and
geographic latitude.
Three main groups can be distinguished by the shape and structure of the
clouds, which are related to the forming conditions: stratiform, cumuliform
and cirriform clouds. The main characteristics of the three types are as
follows:
1. Stratiform clouds:
• layered clouds
• horizontal extension is much greater than vertical
• typically form in a stable atmosphere
2. Cumuliform clouds:
• convective clouds
• vertical and horizontal extensions are of the same order of magnitude
• typically form in an unstable atmosphere with strong convective
movements inside
3. Cirriform clouds:
• high level ice clouds

• thin layers with a light, fibrous appearance
• may appear under both stable and unstable atmospheric conditions
Depending on the characteristics of the airmass in which clouds develop, they

can be differentiated as stable or unstable clouds. Unstable clouds are those
which form in unstable atmospheric conditions when a warmer air mass
occurs under a colder air mass. Thus lifting due to a thermal reason (in other
words, thermal lifting) happens. The vertical extent of unstable clouds
depends on the thickness of the unstable layer. Under stable atmospheric
conditions, clouds form if the air has enough moisture for condensation in the
presence of some mechanical (outer) forcing effect, which makes the air rise.
Generally speaking, stratiform clouds form in a stable atmosphere and
cumuliform clouds form in an unstable atmosphere. We emphasise that due to
orographic forcing in a stable atmosphere, standing waves form and lead to
the development of altocumulus lenticularis clouds and cap clouds above
mountain peaks. When unstable atmospheric conditions are observable above
the mountainous region, cumuliform clouds often form with showery
precipitation. On the downwind side of the mountain, rotor clouds may be
found. Clouds related to mountain waves are often accompanied by moderate
or severe turbulence. Further details about clouds related to mountains and
mountain waves are available in Section 2.5.1.
The amount of liquid water in a unit of air can be characterised by the liquid
water content (abbreviated as LWC), often expressed in SI units of g/m3 or
g/kg. For example, 1 g/m3 (or 1 g/kg) indicates 1 gram of water in 1 m3 of air
(or 1 gram of water in 1 kg of air). LWC is a crucial factor in cloud and
precipitation formation, as well as in the intensity of icing on the aircraft, as
icing increases with increasing LWC.
For the formation of cloud droplets, the air should not only be saturated but
supersaturated with liquid water or ice. We explain the following two cases:
1. If the air is supersaturated with liquid water, then cloud droplets in liquid
form develop.
2. If the air is supersaturated with ice, then cloud droplets in solid form
develop.
The air may become supersaturated with liquid water in different ways.
After solar radiation heats up the ground surface, it transfers heat to the layer
of air just above via conduction. Heat energy can be transferred to higher
levels in the atmosphere by convection. During convection the warm air parcel
expands, lifts upward and cools down adiabatically, which means that there is
no heat or mass exchange between the air parcel and the surrounding air.
Other mechanical effects may force the air to rise and cool down, such as
orographic or frontal effects, which will be discussed later in this chapter.
As the air parcel lifts, it expands due to the decreasing pressure. Adiabatic
expansion leads to decreasing temperature. If the temperature reaches the
dew point of the air, then the air becomes saturated and condensation starts.
We learnt in Section 3.1 that saturation of the air with liquid water indicates
an equilibria! state in which the number of particles that turn from gas to
liquid equals the number of particles which turn from liquid to gas. It means
that the actual vapour pressure (e) equals the saturation vapour pressure (es).
In a supersaturated state e must be higher than es (e > es). Consequently, the
number of condensing particles will be larger than the number of evaporating
particles. If the air is supersaturated, then the growing of droplets becomes
possible (e > es). The formation and growing of cloud droplets from pure water
require a high supersaturation, which cannot be reached normally in the
atmosphere.
However, if aerosol particles are introduced to the air, condensation may

occur on their surface at a lower level of saturation. In this case these particles
are called condensation nuclei. If they have a part in the formation of cloud
droplets then these particles are called cloud condensation nuclei (often
abbreviated as CCN). They must be wettable or water-soluble aerosol particles
that may originate from dust, from organic matter like pollen or sea salt, from
particles from volcanic activity or from anthropogenic sources. A good
example of the latter is the exhaust gas of aircraft that creates contrails. The
size of the condensation nuclei ranges between a few nanometres and 100
micrometres.
The process by which CCN are formed is called nucleation. It may happen in
different ways resulting in a liquid or solid particle on which the cloud droplets
may form through condensation. Condensation nuclei with a smaller size can
be formed due to the coagulation of gas particles as a result of their collision
with each other. The origin of condensation nuclei with larger sizes is mainly
the sea surface. Particles such as salt crystals or silicates are released into the
air during wave breaking and surface erosion, for example. Aerosol particles
with a size of around 100 nm (0.1 micrometres) are smaller aerosol particles
that may play a key role in cloud formation.
As a consequence of the above, the number and components of aerosol

particles depend on the type of ground surface. For example, a greater
number of CCN develops above land surfaces than above oceans. The main
components are sodium chloride above sea surfaces and ammonium sulfate
above land surfaces.
Cloud droplets that are formed through nucleation are still relatively small, a
few tens of micrometres. By definition, cloud droplets are smaller than 100
micrometres (0.1 mm). Larger particles are able to fall from clouds. Therefore,
these are called precipitation particles, which are the subject of Section 5.1.
The air can be supersaturated with respect to ice surface also (e > es).
If the cloud droplets form via deposition, then the number of particles that
turn from gas to a solid exceeds the number of particles that turn from solid to
gas. In other words, the number of depositing particles is larger than the
number of sublimating particles.
Another option is when cloud droplets develop through freezing. In this case
the number of particles that turn from liquid to solid exceeds the number of
particles that turn from solid to liquid. Consequently, the number of freezing
particles is larger than the number of melting particles. The process of freezing
requires freezing nuclei.
To summarise, the relationship between e and es determines the growing rate

of cloud droplets. If e > es, then the air is supersaturated, and cloud droplets
form and grow. If e = es, then existing cloud particles cannot grow further. If e
< es, then the air is subsaturated, which acts against cloud formation. Cloud
droplets evaporate; therefore, the diameter and the number of them decrease.
We emphasise that for the formation of cloud droplets generally an updraft of

air is needed, which is caused by convection. Updrafts can be classified with
regard to the effect that forces the air to rise. These are the following:
1. Updraft caused by thermal convection (or free/natural convection): In

this case a density difference (which is caused by a temperature
difference) leads to the lifting of the air parcel.
2. Mechanically forced lifting: Weather fronts, orographic reasons, low

level convergences, or divergences at high levels lead to the ascending
movement of the air parcel.
3. Mixed lifting: Effects of mechanical forcing help the air parcel to rise
until a certain height where conditions are appropriate for thermal
convection.
Note: Assume an air parcel (i.e. thermodynamic system) that is forced to rise.
Updraft caused by thermal convection happens if the single force that leads to
the upward motion of the air parcel originates from the instability caused by
density differences from the uneven heating of the Earth's surface. The
intensity of the updraft may be measured by CAPE®. During this process
cumuliform clouds develop.
Mechanically forced lifting happens when ascending movement of an air

parcel is caused by forces that originate from the environment of the system.
The main effects of mechanical forcing are derived from weather fronts (e.g. a
cold front which results in the advection of colder air at lower height levels
over which the warmer air climbs), convergence close to the surface or
divergence at higher levels. Orographic reasons also force the air to rise. These
effects may lead to the formation of different types of clouds. In general,
mechanically forced lifting is less intense compared to thermal convection.
Mixed lifting is when the above-mentioned two types occur at the same time,
which may increase the intensity of lifting, thus forming clouds and
precipitation. In certain cases, conditions close to the surface are not
appropriate for thermal convection (i.e. when the atmosphere is stable), but
cloud formation may be triggered if any of the above-mentioned effects of
mechanical forcing are present, and the updraft may reach the unstable layer
where thermal lifting can happen.
Further development of clouds depends on the strength of the updraft and

the characteristics of the airflow compared to its environment. If convection
happens due only to thermal reasons, then we are speaking about
unorganised convection. However, if the development and behaviour of
clouds is determined by the flows around it (in other words, because of
mechanical reasons), it can be considered organised convection.
To determine the conditions of cloud formation due to thermal reasons, the

terminology of convective temperature shall be introduced. Convective
temperature can be determined in the thermodynamic diagram seen in the
figure below. The vertical profile of the temperature of the environment is
indicated with a green line. To determine convective temperature, we should
follow the isogram upward from the dew point of the air close to the surface
(marked with blue line No. 1.) until it crosses the line indicating the
temperature of the environment (denoted with green line) where the
condensation level is found. From here we go down along the line of the dry
adiabat (marked with blue line No. 2) and we find the convective temperature
(marked with Tc). If we assume that the moisture content remains the same
during lifting to the condensation level, then the convective temperature is
the temperature that the air parcel close to the surface must reach to be able
to lift adiabatically until the condensation level where clouds can form.
lompe/akire CC)
Figure 4.1. Determination of convective temperature on thermodynamic

diagram
In this case, near the surface the dew point and the temperature of the
environment are 5 °C and 18 °C, respectively. The environmental lapse rate is
denoted by a green line. Therefore, the convective temperature is 24 °C.
The cloud base is the level where the cloud droplets reach the size and
quantity that makes them visible. This level can be found where the dew point
equals the air temperature; in other words, where condensation starts
(condensation level). This can be illustrated in a thermodynamic diagram, and
it is the same point where the relative humidity reaches 100 %. Cloud base
height is a crucial factor in aviation. It is measured by a ceilometer. The device
works with a light (e.g. a laser) to measure the height of the cloud base. When
the light reaches the cloud droplets, it scatters off them and partly returns to
the sensor of the instrument. The distance between the observer and the
cloud base can be calculated from the elapsed time. A ceilometer also can be
used to determine the aerosol and dust content of the air.
Cloud cover is measured in oktas (Greek for "eight") and can be determined
based on the division of the sky into eight equal parts. The amount of cloud
cover is determined by how many of the eight parts are covered by clouds. For
example, four oktas means that 50 % of the sky is covered by clouds.
A cloud ceiling is a similar concept to a cloud base, and it refers to the level
where the amount of cloud cover exceeds at least four oktas.
Note: Cloud base of certain cloud types (especially stratiform clouds) are irregular
and may change suddenly, which is mostly important to aviation in the case of low
level clouds.
The top of the cloud (cloud top) can be found slightly above the equilibrium
level where the temperature of the rising air parcel decreases to the
temperature of the environment. The air rises slightly above this level because
of its inertia. Determination of the height of the cloud top and the cloud base
on a thermodynamic diagram concerning cumuliform clouds can be seen in
Section 3.3. Knowing the height of the cloud top may be important when
flying above clouds becomes necessary because of icing and turbulence.
Dissipation of clouds
After the air parcel starts to rise, if the effect that supports its ascending
movement weakens so the formation of clouds decreases, and thus clouds
may dissipate. For example, the moisture content of the air is not sufficient
any more (the air dries leading to thinning and dissipating clouds), the
temperature difference (density difference) is not enough to support
convection or the temperature of the air in the clouds increases above the
dew point. Thus, updraft ceases or turns into downdraft, which leads to the
dissipation of the cloud due to adiabatic warming of the air parcel. These
processes can be observed in high pressure systems where sinking motions of
the air can generally be found. Presence of precipitation may accelerate the
dissipation of clouds as it cools the air via evaporative heat loss, thus
strengthening the downdraft.
4.1.2. Cloud types and cloud
classification
The World Meteorological Organization (abbreviated as WMO) classified
clouds into three base categories by their height and into ten main cloud types
(in other words, genera) based on cloud shape as shown in the figure below.
Furthermore, there is a more detailed classification with many species and
varieties, but they are beyond the scope of this book, and thus we will only
mention the most common ones.
Figure 4.2. Schematic depiction of the main cloud types
The meaning of the abbreviations can be found in the next paragraph.
In the following section we describe the three base categories (listed as l-lll)
and ten main types of clouds (listed as 1-10) as distinguished by the WMO.
Their abbreviations are given in parenthesis after their names:
I. Low level clouds
1. Stratus (St)
2. Stratocumulus (Sc)
3. Cumulus (Cu)
4. Cumulonimbus (Cb)
II. Middle level clouds
5. Altocumulus (Ac)
6. Altostratus (As)
7. Nimbostratus (Ns)
III. High level clouds
8. Cirrus (Ci)
9. Cirrocumulus (Cc)
10. Cirrostratus (Cs)
Specific height values that belong to different cloud types may change with
latitude because the height of the tropopause increases with decreasing
latitude.
Height category Type Over the poles Over middle latitudes Over the Equator
low level clouds stratus 0-2 km 0-2 km 0-2 km

stratocumulus 0-6500 ft 0-6500 ft 0-6500 ft
cumulus
cumulonimbus
middle level clouds altocumulus 2-4 km 2-7 km 2-8 km

altostratus 6500-13000 ft 6500-23000 ft 6500-25000 ft
nimbostratus
high level clouds cirrus 3-8 km 5-13 km 6-18 km

cirrostratus 10000-25000 ft 16500-45000 ft 20000-60000 ft
cirrocumulus
Figure 4.3. Typical height of cloud types on different latitudes

As we mentioned before, another category for multi-level clouds can be
recognised, including for example towering Cu, Cb and Ns, which extend
through more than one level.
Characteristics of main cloud types (general)

Types of clouds will be characterised based on the following six factors:
particles from which they are formed, general features, precipitation, icing,
turbulence and visibility inside and under the cloud.
Stratus (St)
• Particles: warm cloud type, mainly consist of water droplets, supercooled

water droplets or in the cold season rarely ice crystals
• General features: grey homogenous, generally coherent layer of low level
stratiform clouds, often form in an inversion situation, may cover the whole
sky or part of it, from above it may be confused with fog
• Precipitation: drizzle, snow grain, rarely light or moderate rain, snow
• Icing: trace, light, moderate
• Turbulence: light
• Visibility: poor inside and under when precipitation falls
Figure 4.4. Stratus
Stratocumulus (Sc)
• Particles: warm cloud type, consist of water droplets, sometimes

supercooled water droplets or in the cold season rarely ice crystals
• General features: layered continuous group of rounded elements of
cumuliform clouds at low levels
• Precipitation: no precipitation, drizzle, light rain, snow, or snow pellets
• Turbulence: light, moderate
• Visibility: poor inside
Figure 4.5. Stratocumulus cloud
Cumulus (Cu)
• Particles: consist mainly of water droplets, sometimes supercooled water

droplets, rarely ice crystals depending on the vertical extent
• General features: individually-forming clouds with a shape similar to
cauliflower and a flat, horizontal base
• Precipitation: no precipitation or rain, rain showers from light to heavy
intensity depending on the species, snow, snow showers, snow pellets, hail
(from towering Cu)
• Icing: moderate, severe
• Turbulence: severe, extreme in and under the cloud
Visibility: poor inside and under during showery precipitation
Figure 4.6. Cumulus clouds
Cumulonimbus (Cb)
• Particles: mixed, water droplets, supercooled water droplets and ice crystals
• General features: it is like a great cumulus with a high vertical extent and in
its mature stage a fibrous anvil shape at the top, strong updraft and
downdraft, sometimes the updraft is extremely strong and may break
through the tropopause into the stratosphere (called an "overshooting top"),
Cb is accompanied by lightning most of the time
• Precipitation: heavy rain, rain showers with large droplets, snow, snow
showers, ice pellets, or hail
• Icing: severe
• Turbulence: severe, extreme
Figure 4.6. Cumulus clouds
Cumulonimbus (Cb)
• Particles: mixed, water droplets, supercooled water droplets and ice crystals
• General features: it is like a great cumulus with a high vertical extent and in
downdraft, sometimes the updraft is extremely strong and may break
through the tropopause into the stratosphere (called an "overshooting top"),
Cb is accompanied by lightning most of the time
• Precipitation: heavy rain, rain showers with large droplets, snow, snow
showers, ice pellets, or hail
• Icing: severe
• Turbulence: severe, extreme
Visibility: poor in the cloud and in showers
Figure 4.7. Cumulonimbus cloud
Altocumulus (Ac)
• Particles: mixed type, ice crystals and supercooled water droplets

• General features: layered, connected group of small middle level cumulus
clouds
• Precipitation: no precipitation
• Visibility: poor in clouds and good under clouds
Figure 4.8. Altocumulus
Altostratus (As)
• Particles: mixed type, both water droplets and ice crystals

• General features: grey, connected layers of a middle level stratiform cloud
with a great horizontal extent, the sun is not completely obscured
• Precipitation: rain, snow, drizzle
• Visibility: poor in the cloud and in precipitation
Figure 4.9. Altostratus
Nimbostratus (Ns)
• Particles: water droplets, supercooled water droplets or ice crystals

• General features: grey thick cloud layer covering the whole sky or part of it,
the sun is obscured, may be at the low or middle levels
• Precipitation: generally continuous and sometimes heavy rain, snow,
freezing rain, rain or snow showers from the embedded Cu or Cb
• Icing: moderate or severe, especially where embedded Cu/Cb are found
• Turbulence: light, moderate, severe, and stronger where embedded Cu/Cb
are found
• Visibility: poor inside and under it
Figure 4.10. Nimbostratus
Cirrus (Ci)
• Particles: ice crystals

• General features: detached, white, light, fibrous structure, mostly
transparent and thin clouds at a high level, the name cirrus comes from
Latin and means "curling lock of hair"
• Icing: no icing, rarely trace or intake icing
• Turbulence: light, rarely moderate, or severe in the vicinity of the jet steam
• Visibility: good (above 1000 m)
Figure 4.11. Cirrus clouds
Cirrocumulus (Cc)
• Particles: ice crystals, rarely small supercooled water droplets

• General features: white, light, high level clouds consisting of small, quiet and
regularly-situated cumuliform elements
Figure 4.12. Cirrocumulus
Cirrostratus (Cs)

• General features: light, thin, connected layers of transparent high level
clouds, frequently accompanied by halo phenomenon (see the picture
below)
Figure 4.12. Cirrocumulus
Cirrostratus (Cs)

• General features: light, thin, connected layers of transparent high level
clouds, frequently accompanied by halo phenomenon (see the picture
below)
Figure 4.13. Cirrostratus with halo
Halo An optical phenomenon that occurs when light is reflected by ice

crystals in cirrus clouds (by cirrostratus clouds in the picture). Please note that
optical phenomena are also called photometeors (from phos, Greek for 'light').
The previously-described main cloud types can be classified by additional

features regarding their specific appearance. Based on this classification, cloud
species can be distinguished. We discuss some important cloud species in the
next section, which are the following: (Ac) castellanus, (Ac) lenticularis, (St)
fractus, (Cu) humilis, (Cu) mediocris, (Cu) congestus, (Cb) calvus and (Cb)
capillatus. Please note that in parentheses the most typical cloud genera was
assigned to a specific species. However, some of cloud species may have
characteristics similar to different cloud genera (e.g. castellanus or fractus).
In the following section, the above listed cloud species will be exemplified.
Castellanus A cumulus cloud with small, vertically-towering outgrowths

generally on the top of middle level clouds (see the figure below). These forms
are caused by the presence of small-scale instability at the level of
appearance, and can presage thunderstorm formation.
Figure 4.14. Altocumulus castellanus clouds
The term lenticularis refers to lens-shaped clouds. These forms are generally
in middle level clouds (most typically in Ac) near mountainous regions and
related to mountain waves.
Fractus Irregular cloud fragments change shape quickly and are typically at
low levels under or close to larger Cb or Cu clouds. Occasionally, individual
clouds can also appear in environments high in moisture close to the Earth's
surface.
According to WMO cloud classification, even more detailed classification can

be made with cloud varieties and supplementary features. The former refers
to the arrangement and the light transmission of the cloud; the latter refers to
further specific forms related to them. One related cloud layer may have the
characteristics of different cloud varieties. In this case all the varieties are
listed in their names. Accessory clouds are smaller clouds related to the
development of greater clouds, which develop as a side effect of the
processes in the greater cloud. In the case of thunderstorms, knowledge of
cloud varieties and supplementary features may help with the recognition of
the type of thunderstorm. We will discuss some of the more relevant
supplementary materials listed here: incus, mamma, murus (wall cloud), arcus
(shelf cloud) cauda (tail cloud), tuba and virga.
Incus Also called the anvil of Cb, consist of ice crystals that are spread radially
at the top of the Cb. It refers to a Cb in the mature stage of life. Presence of
mamma (or mammatus) clouds may belong to an intense Cb cloud, but they
may also form on several other types of clouds (Ci, Ac, As, Sc). They look like
humps on the cloud base hanging toward the ground and are formed by cold,
sinking air. Murus, arcus and cauda are typical features related to supercells
and will be discussed in Section 4.1.3. Arcus may also accompany squall lines.
Tuba A rotating cloud vortex that does not reach the ground or the water
surface. When the vortex touches the ground it is called a tornado, and when
it touches a water surface it is called a water spout.
When precipitation starts to fall toward the ground but has not yet reached it,
virga can be seen under the cloud base (see the figure below). Virga can
accompany any type of cloud that has precipitation.
Figure 4.15. Virga
Development of cumulonimbus
The following can be said about the life cycle of cumulus clouds based on
knowledge of the cloud species humilis, mediocris, congestus, calvus and
capillatus.
Cumulus clouds have different names in the stages of their life cycle. In the
first stage they are called humilis (Cu hum). They can be identified by their
horizontal extensions being greater than their vertical extensions They are
also called fair weather cumulus. Mediocris (Cu med) is the next stage when
horizontal and vertical extension are roughly the same. The third stage of
cumulus development is the congestus (Cu con) stage, also called towering
cumulus (abbreviated as TCu). From Cu med and Cu con rain may fall in the
form of showers. After the stage of Cu con thunderstorms (i.e. cumulonimbus)
Figure 4.15. Virga
Development of cumulonimbus
The following can be said about the life cycle of cumulus clouds based on
knowledge of the cloud species humilis, mediocris, congestus, calvus and
capillatus.
Cumulus clouds have different names in the stages of their life cycle. In the
first stage they are called humilis (Cu hum). They can be identified by their
horizontal extensions being greater than their vertical extensions They are
also called fair weather cumulus. Mediocris (Cu med) is the next stage when
horizontal and vertical extension are roughly the same. The third stage of
cumulus development is the congestus (Cu con) stage, also called towering
cumulus (abbreviated as TCu). From Cu med and Cu con rain may fall in the
form of showers. After the stage of Cu con thunderstorms (i.e. cumulonimbus)
may form under the appropriate conditions, which will be discussed in
Section 4.1.3. Depending on the forming conditions, Cu development may
stop at the humilis or mediocris stage.
Figure 4.16. Towering cumulus
The first stage of the development of cumulonimbus is cumulonimbus calvus,

which develops from Cu con. In this stage precipitation and lightning appear,
but the cloud top does not yet reach the tropopause. In the mature stage of
cumulonimbus, ice crystals form at the top of the cloud and spread along the
tropopause in the typical anvil shape. In this stage the Cb is called
cumulonimbus capillatus.
Flying conditions in each cloud type
When flying close to or inside a cloud, the main hazards are icing, turbulence
and decreased visibility. The strength of icing, turbulence and visibility
conditions depends on the cloud type as was listed regarding the main
characteristics of cloud types in this chapter. Details about the hazards of
turbulence will be found in Section 9.2 and of icing in Section 9.1.
Many additional hazardous phenomena may be related to Cb clouds, which

will be listed in the next section and discussed in Section 9.4.
4.1.3. Thunderstorms
Clouds may be accompanied by phenomena hazardous to aviation. Weather
phenomena accompanied by electrical discharges are called thunderstorms
(abbreviated as TS, also the METAR/TAF code). In this section, the main
characteristics, types and life cycle of thunderstorms will be described. Their
hazardous effects will be discussed in detail in Section 9.4.
Electrical discharges result in optical effects (lightning) and sound effects

(thunder). Related hazardous phenomena can vary widely. Thunderstorms
often go together with heavy rainfall, hail, wind storm, severe icing, severe and
extreme turbulence (including CAT) or in extreme cases tornadoes.
Thunderstorms are generally seen with Cb clouds. Development of clouds
with thunderstorms can be expected if Cu con can be observed. The presence
of Ac castellanus may also point to the possibility of thunderstorm formation.
Cb clouds of different sizes and structures may occur depending on the type
of thunderstorm and its forming conditions.
Clouds connected with thunderstorms can form in different ways similar to

the above-listed types of lifting effects leading to convective cloud formation.
We can distinguish clouds by the forming conditions of thermal (heat or
airmass) thunderstorms, frontal thunderstorms, orographic thunderstorms and
high level convection thunderstorms. Thermal thunderstorms develop in a
homogenous unstable warm air mass. Their formation is not related to
weather fronts, but only to thermal reasons inside an air mass. When a
thunderstorm is embedded in an Ns (called an embedded thunderstorm) that
covers a larger area, then it is one type of frontal thunderstorm. This type is
sometimes harder to visually detect during flight. In the case of cold fronts,
frontal thunderstorms may organise into a chain of severe thunderstorms
along the front line or ahead of it (squall line). Orography also contributes to
thunderstorm formation in unstable atmospheric conditions that increase the
updraft on the upwind side of the mountains. In this case is an orographic
thunderstorm. A high level convection thunderstorm often happens during the
night, but can also happen when the air mass at a higher level of the
troposphere cools down after sunset by radiation faster than the air mass
below or by advection of a colder air mass above. These conditions may lead
to convective uplifting and thunderstorm formation. In this case convection
does not start from the ground but from a higher level. It may also help
thunderstorm formation convergence on low levels, advection of warm air
mass on low levels or cold air mass on high levels.
Another aspect of differentiating thunderstorms is their structure. The main

types of thunderstorms by their structure are single-cell thunderstorms and
multi-cell thunderstorms. A single-cell thunderstorm in special circumstances
may develop into a supercell, which is a very severe type of thunderstorm
with a specific structure. In the following section, we will discuss
thunderstorms in the latter type of categorisation.
Explanation of the development of single-cell thunderstorms
Thunderstorms are made of cells that may develop from locally convergent
and ascending air, called an updraft. A single-cell thunderstorm may form from
one cell. The first stage of its development is called the developing stage
(initial stage, cumulus stage of a thunderstorm). Because of the uneven
heating of the surface, warm air starts to ascend because the warmer air is
less dense then the colder air. This phenomenon is called a thermal column (or
thermal). The air inside cools down with the upward motion, and if its
moisture content is appropriate, the water vapour condenses from it creating
cloud droplets that form Cu clouds. Then it reaches the mature stage, and the
updraft comes to the equilibrium level where the lifting air particle cools down
to the temperature of the environment and spreads radially. This creates the
typical anvil shape of the top of the Cb cloud, which is shown in the figure
below. When an updraft appears, eventually a downdraft also appears to
compensate for it creating the cell. A downdraft forms as follows. As the cloud
droplets grow, they turn into precipitation particles and they start to fall.
Precipitation particles evaporate during their fall. Due to the absorption of
latent heat that is required for the change in state of matter (from liquid to
gaseous), the air cools down. Consequently, it becomes denser than its
environment, leading to the formation of a downdraft. The last part of the life
cycle of the thunderstorm is the dissipating stage in which the downdraft flow
dominates. As the downdraft reaches the ground it spreads around radially.
Gust front of a thunderstorm originate from the strong downdraft and results
in an outflow of colder air. It may force the warm air ahead of it to rise, leading
to cloud formation and even to the development of a second Cb with
thunderstorms ahead of the initial one. In this sense, the gust front behaves as
a pseudo cold front. The wind direction and speed can change as well and may
obstruct the warm inflow into the Cb, resulting in the dissipation of the cloud
as shown in Figure 4.18.
Figure 4.17. Anvil of a single-cell Cb capillatus

a) Cumulus b) Mature c) Dissipating
Figure 4.18. Life cycle of a single-cell thunderstorm, (a) developing stage, (b)
mature stage and (c) dissipating stage
Previously we described the process by which a single-cell thunderstorm

forms, shown in the figure below. Its occurrence is most typical in the
afternoon in summer over middle latitudes with slightly low-pressure areas
providing the optimal conditions for its development. Generally, a single storm
cell (consisting of one updraft and one downdraft) develops and dissipates in
less than one hour. It is characterised by slow progress and accompanied by
heavy rainfall.
In summary, the main characteristics of single-cell thunderstorms are the

following:
• One single cell

• Typical occurrence on summer afternoons over middle latitudes
• Slow movement
• Heavy rainfall
• Less than one hour lifespan
Figure 4.19. Development of a single-cell thunderstorm and typical values of

the associated precipitation intensity at 6 km and at 0.5 km
The most (less) intense regions are indicated with red (blue). The term kft
means kilofeet, which is equal to a thousand feet. Areas where a gust front
may occur are indicated with blue triangles.
Under special circumstances, a multicellular or supercellular (abbreviated as

multi-cell and supercell, respectively) thunderstorm may develop from a single
cell. For example, strong wind shear enhances the formation of multi-cell
thunderstorms and supercells. However, in some cases it can weaken the
updraft.
Supercell, the most severe type of single-cell thunderstorms, has a long

lifespan (sometimes even 6-8 hours) and is accompanied by severe weather
phenomena like hail, extreme turbulence, downbursts or even tornadoes.
Supercells start to form in the same way that single-cell thunderstorms do, but
the necessary conditions are more fully fulfilled and associated with
appropriate vertical wind shear that creates rotational updraft. Therefore, in
the first stage it is like a "simple" single-cell thunderstorm. However, vertical
wind shear in certain cases will create a rotational movement with a horizontal
axis (in other words, a horizontal vortex), which is shown in the figure below.
Figure 4.20. Schematic illustration of vertical wind shear creating rotation

with horizontal axis (z indicates height)
When the updraft is strong enough it can "rise up" the axis of the vortex. It
turns the axis 90°, so the vortex rotates around a vertical axis called a vertical
vortex.
According to observations, in the case of supercells a pair of vortices may

appear one with a cyclonic and one with an anticyclonic rotational direction.
This means that the updrafts in the supercells make a rotating movement
around a horizontal axis, called mesocyclone. According to observations, the
vortex with cyclonic rotation becomes stronger while the one with
anticyclonic rotation dissipates. The updraft will be separated from the
downward flows and precipitation. Therefore, the heat supply is not hindered,
which leads to a long lifespan. Remember that in the case of single-cell
thunderstorms, falling precipitation cools the air down and weakens the
updraft, leading to the dissipation of the cloud.) Its movement may deviate
from the large scale air flow because of the strong local effects. Therefore, its
movement is rarely predictable.
Figure 4.21. Supercellular thunderstorm with a well-identifiable rotating

mesocyclone
It is worth mentioning that supercells can be identified on radar images that

show the intensity of precipitation. The precipitation zone associated with a
supercell has a typically-shaped region called a "hook echo". This indicates the
presence of a mesocyclone, and it indicates tornado activity. A hook echo can
be seen in Figure 4.23.
Supercells have a typical cloud structure (see the figure below) that makes
them easy to identify, like murus (frequently called wall clouds), arcus
(frequently called shelf clouds), tail-shaped caudas (frequently called tail
clouds) and mammatus clouds on the bottom of the anvil. Murus form before
the upward motion reaches the cloud base, when the air has a greater
moisture content. Arcus form on the edge of gust fronts. Caudas form on the
edge of wall clouds. Furthermore, an "overshooting top" may appear at the top
of the Cb, which means that the strong updraft may overshoot the tropopause
and create a bulge, along which the anvil can normally spread. Heavy
thunderstorms are often accompanied by towering cumulus clouds, which
indicates the strong updraft zones around it called flanking lines.
Figure 4.22. Typical shape and structure of a supercellular thunderstorm

Figure 4.23. Typical radar image of a supercellular thunderstorm ("hook
echo") indicating a great likelihood of tornado
In summary the main characteristics of supercells are the following:
• Rotating updraft e.g. mesocyclone

• Heavy rain showers and hail
• Downbursts
• Strong wind shear
• Rarely predictable movement
• Long lifespan (several hours)
• Tornadoes
• "Hook echo" on radar
• Overshooting top
• Wall cloud, shelf cloud, tail cloud
• Mammatus
If we consider the geographical distribution of supercells, the following can be
said. The strongest supercells occur in the United States of America from
spring to autumn. They can also form in Europe, but are less frequent and less
intense.
Explanation of the development of multi-cell thunderstorms
Multi-cell thunderstorms consist of a group of individual thunderstorm cells.

They develop as a result of a strengthening updraft next to a single-cell initial
storm cell via the uplifting effect of its gust front and with the help of wind
shear in an appropriate direction. A gust front of a thunderstorm behaves like
a pseudo cold front. It forces the surrounding air to rise, which leads to further
thunderstorm formations next to the original cell. During this process several
thunderstorms may develop beside each other. The lifespan of individual cells
is similar to a single-cell thunderstorm but the time interval between the
development of the first and the last cell may be several hours. Therefore, a
multi-cell thunderstorm may also last for several hours. Over a given time,
every cell goes through the stages of the single-cell thunderstorm lifecycle. If a
multi-cell thunderstorm moves slowly it may lead to a great amount of
showery precipitation in a small area. They are commonly associated with hail
. Multi-cell thunderstorms may develop from thermal effects (thermal
thunderstorm), but weather fronts may also facilitate their formation (frontal
thunderstorm).
In summary the following can be said about the main characteristics of multi
cell thunderstorms:
• A group of individual cells

• Vertical wind shear
• Lifespan of several hours
• Heavy rain, hail
Cell 3
Cell 2
Cell 1
Cell 4
Cell 5
Cell 6
Gust front
Figure 4.24. Typical structure of a multi-cell thunderstorm
The intensity of precipitation is indicated with colours from blue to yellow. In

the figure "Cell 1" is the cell that was formed first, called the oldest cell, and
"Cell 6" is the youngest.
Frontal thunderstorms
Thunderstorms sometimes form close to the border of air masses with

different characteristics e.g. along weather fronts. In this case a frontal
thunderstorm develops. Most of the time, these consist of multiple cells. They
usually form ahead of cold fronts because the warmer air mass is lifted by the
colder air mass. In other words, the colder air mass has a mechanical uplifting
effect on the warmer air mass. In the case of cold fronts, in the warm sector
(pre-frontal area ahead of the front line) the forthcoming colder air has an
additional lifting effect on the warmer and moister air, which creates or
intensifies convection. Typically, cold fronts have a vertical wedge shape (see
the details in Section 6.2.6), which means the colder air mass is situated
forward close to the ground instead of at a higher altitude, as is shown in the
figure below. In other words, the cold front arrives earlier and closer to the
ground. A warm front can also contribute to the upward motion of air as it is
lifted by the colder air mass ahead of it, but it rarely leads to thunderstorm
formation.
Figure 4.25. Lifting effect of a cold front surface on a pre-frontal warm air
mass
Thunderstorm formation related to weather fronts frequently leads to the

development of large clusters or lines of multiple thunderstorm cells. When
thunderstorms are arranged into a line-shaped group perpendicular to the
progress of the front line it is called a squall line, which is a hazardous
phenomenon with a strong gust front and heavy precipitation or large hail.
Squall lines have different characteristics based on their latitude of
occurrence. Further details will be discussed separately in Section 8.2 and in
middle latitudes and in Section 9.4.
4.1.4. Electrical discharges
By their definition thunderstorms are accompanied by electrical phenomena.
In the Earth’s atmosphere electricity is present even in places with fine
weather because of the existence of particles with electrical charges, called
positive and negative charges. Phenomena related to electric charges are
called electrometeors (from elektron, Greek for "amber") and are the subject of
atmospheric electricity.
To understand the formation of lighting, the term electric conductivity shall

be explained. This is the ability of a substance to allow the transport of electric
charges. For example, sea water is a relatively good electrical conductor while
air can be considered a nonconductive substance. In the latter the transport of
electric charges is not possible or is limited, making air a dielectric.
Electric conductivity of the atmosphere is strongest in the ionosphere, the

ionised layer of the Earth’s atmosphere. Ionisation can occur due to
radioactivity (typically close to the ground) or cosmic radiation (in the upper
troposphere). The lower boundary of the ionosphere can be found around
60 km (-200000 feet). Between the ionosphere and the Earth’s surface there
is the so called electrostatic layer where the air behaves like a dielectric. There
is an electric potential difference between the ground surface and the
ionosphere as a result of the different distributions of electrically charged
particles (ions). The electric potential difference between two points is
responsible for the movement of charges.
Note: Electric potential is the electric voltage compared to a reference point.

Electric voltage is the work of the electric field on a unit charge needed to move it
from one point to another.
The atmospheric electrical circuit is the transport of charges across the

atmosphere (see the figure below). The two main parts of this system are the
fair weather zones and the thunderstorms. Note that fair weather zones are
much larger than the areas covered by thunderstorms.
Figure 4.26. Schematic picture of the atmospheric electrical circuit
Generally (in fair weather zones), the Earth’s surface is negatively charged
while the air above it is positively charged. Therefore, positive charges move
downward and negative charges move upward in fair weather zones, while in
thunderstorms the charges and the direction of their movement are the
opposite. Therefore, the Earth’s surface has a positive charge and the lower
part of the clouds has a negative charge, so generally negative charges are
carried by discharges toward the ground. Electric discharges are created by
the flow of electric current in gases (in this case in the air) after the ionisation
of the gas.
An electric discharge in the atmosphere is called lightning. Lightning can occur

between clouds and the ground, called cloud-to-ground lightning (often
abbreviated as CG), between two clouds, called cloud-to-cloud lightning (often
abbreviated as CC) or inside a cloud. Lightning is associated with a sound
effect called thunder. The air expands as it is warmed up by lightning, causing
the pressure to rapidly increase in the channel, which creates a sound wave
called thunder.
We can characterise lightning as positive or negative. Lightning with negative

polarity is more common than that with positive. Polarity depends on the
electrical charge of the part of the cloud where the strike starts.
Besides lightning, another atmospheric electrical phenomenon is St. Elmo’s

fire, which forms when the air is ionised around a conductor and has small
electrical discharges (much smaller than in lightning) around it. This creates a
fire-like phenomenon with low light, which can only be seen during the night.
This typically occurs on sharp and pointed objects such as ships or the
wingtips of airplanes in strong electric fields inside or close to a thunderstorm,
but it can also form on the windshield of airplanes, as shown in the figure
below.
Figure 4.27. St. Elmo’s fire on the windshield of an aircraft
Development of lightning discharges

An exact explanation for the formation of lightning cannot be found in the
existing literature. The most accepted theory is roughly the following. Inside a
thunderstorm during the strong upward and downward motions, charge
separation occurs on water droplets and ice particles during mechanical and
microphysical processes as the particles interact with each other. As a result, a
typical charge structure forms. A strong positive zone develops on the top of
the cell, and negative charges gather inside the cell. In the cloud base a less
strong but also positive zone develops as can be seen in Figure 4.28.
Conductivity inside a cloud is much lower than areas outside of it, as inside
the charges attach to the cloud and precipitation particles.
A lightning strike has different stages. The first step is the so-called step
leader, a discontinuous process that creates an electrically-conductive
channel. This channel gathers the charges from the particles, starting from the
cloud to the ground, from the ground to the cloud (less frequently) or both.
The next stage is the return stroke or strokes, which are continuous discharges
in the channel transporting the charges. This type of discharge may be
repeated several times with approximately fifty microsecond breaks between
them.
Electrical discharges may happen not just from high altitudes downwards to
the surface of the Earth but also upwards, from the bottom of a thunderstorm
to its top or even horizontally. However, these phenomena generally are not
visible to the human eye.
The most probable scenario in which an aircraft is hit by a lightning strike is

around the isotherm of 0 °C inside a cloud. However, aircraft are not really
endangered by lightning as the aircraft behave like a Faraday-cage as they
provide a metal frame protecting the passengers and the plane from damage.
It is quite common that an airplane is struck by lightning during flight. It is only
hazardous for passengers during boarding when they are not protected by the
metal frame of the aircraft. It is worth mentioning that electrical discharges
emit electromagnetic radiation, which may disturb radio communication of the
aircraft.
Figure 4.28. Schematic representation of the tripolar structure of the
distribution of charges in a thunderstorm
4.1.5. Influence of inversions on cloud

development
Inversion is associated with non-typical temperature lapse rates. This means
that the temperature increases as the altitude increases, and therefore it acts
against convection. Thus, the temperature inversion may restrict the
development of convective clouds. The inversion leads to atmospheric
stability, and consequently the top of the clouds can be found mostly under
the inversion layer.
If the inversion layer is at a higher level and the air is close to the ground, a
warmer cumulus may form but will stay under the inversion as it inhibits
further growth. Therefore, cloud tops are often flat in this case. Sometimes a
severe updraft can break through this level, which may lead to the formation
of severe thunderstorms. If the condensation level can be found below the
inversion layer, then St clouds may form.
The tropopause can also be considered an inversion layer that restricts the
vertical growth of the clouds. In this case the air spreads horizontally below
the tropopause forming a cloud with an anvil-shaped top called Cb capillatus,
as was mentioned previously.
When the inversion develops close to the ground fog may form, for example
because of the radiational cooling of the ground surface during clear nights. If
wind starts to blow close to the surface or the Sun heats up the surface, fog
may become elevated and turn into stratus clouds. In the following section,
other formations and types of fog will be explained.
STU DY TEST
4.2. Fog, mist, haze

Fog, mist and haze are the most common phenomena that reduce visibility.
Concisely, visibility is the distance from which an object can be identified. Fog
and mist consist of small water droplets or wet water soluble particles, while
haze consists of dry particles floating in air.
By definition, fog (FG) occurs when the horizontal visibility is reduced to less
than 1000 m and is caused by small water droplets with a diameter less than
0.5 mm floating in the air. Mist (BR) is the same phenomenon as fog, but in
this case, visibility is over 1000 m but less than 5 000 m. It is also called light
fog.
Haze (HZ) is also a visibility-decreasing phenomenon, but it develops in dry

atmospheric conditions. In other words, its development does not require
water vapour in the air. It is caused by solid particles (e.g. dust, sand, smoke,
air pollutant or volcanic ash). Similar to mist, haze visibility is also less than
5 000 m. Smog is dense haze caused by air pollution.
Fog may fully cover a large area, or it may exist partially or in patches (these
are indicated as PRFG and BCFG in METAR/TAF, respectively). When the
height of fog does not exceed 2 m, shallow fog (MIFG) will be reported in
weather briefings.
It is worth mentioning that visibility of less than 1000 m or 5 000 m may be

caused by other phenomena (e.g. precipitation), which will be discussed in
Section 9.9.
The formation of fog and mist shows a similarity to cloud formation, except
that it takes place close to the surface. Thus, fog may be considered a cloud
close to the ground. Condensation happens in the presence of condensation
nuclei in real atmospheric circumstances. Particles that serve as condensation
nuclei are present in large numbers close to the ground, for example due to
industrial pollution sources. As with clouds, the air needs to be supersaturated
with water vapour. This condition can be fulfilled in different ways:
1. The first possibility is the evaporation of more water vapour into the air.
2. Another possibility is the cooling of the air to its dew point where its
moisture content starts to condensate.
3. Fog may also form when air masses with different temperatures and
appropriate moisture content mix.
In the case of cloud formation through the adiabatic process, the uplifting
effect forces the air to rise and the air reaches its dew point as a result of
adiabatic cooling. However, in the case of fog the air generally does not rise,
and thus it must be cooled down by other processes. Fog typically forms by
the processes of terrestrial radiation or advection of air masses, which will be
discussed later in this chapter.
We emphasise that with strong winds and high amounts of insolation, the
mixing of air acts against the formation of fog and mist. Therefore, these
phenomena are generally associated with calm weather and inversions, which
obstruct vertical mixing of air. Because of this, fog may lead to increase air
pollution.
The formation of haze is usually the result of the accumulation of air

pollutants or of any kind of small, solid particles in the air along with an area of
low moisture content under a low level inversion close to the ground surface,
as this restricts vertical mixing of air.
When the temperature is below 0 °C, water droplets may become

supercooled. In this case freezing fog (FZFG) may develop. When they contact
an object, the supercooled water droplets freeze on its surface immediately,
leading to ice deposition. Sometimes freezing fog is accompanied by freezing
drizzle. When the temperature is extremely low (around -40 °C), small ice
crystals may also appear in fog, which is called ice fog.
It is worth mentioning that the types of fog and mist and the types of
precipitation that will be described in Chapter 5 belong to the atmospheric
phenomena called hydrometeors. These liquid water droplets or solid ice
particles are either suspended by air currents or fall out of the atmosphere.
The above-mentioned particles as well as those particles that are condensed
or deposited on the surface of any object from the air can also be considered
hydrometeors.
Solid particles in the atmosphere like the kind that cause haze are called
lithometeors. They are suspended in the air or carried by the wind. Dust, sand,
volcanic dust, smoke or other solid air pollutants, dust devils and dust storms
are lithometeors.
In the following section the main types of fog will be discussed. They are
radiation fog, advection fog, steam fog, frontal fog and orographic fog.
4.2.2. Types of fog

Radiation fog
Radiation fog develops on cold nights (generally in late autumn and winter)
due to inversion caused by terrestrial radiation. Other necessary conditions
are a clear sky, calm conditions or a light wind (with a speed between 0 m/s
and 3 m/s) close to the surface and appropriate moisture content. These
conditions are fulfilled most of the time in high pressure areas. In these
circumstances long wave terrestrial radiation leaves the atmosphere, and
above the surface the air cools down via conduction, which leads to the
development of inversion (characterised by stable stratification). Therefore,
vertical mixing of the air is restricted. If the air temperature close to the
ground reaches its dew point, then condensation starts, which leads to
decreased visibility and the appearance of radiation fog. The vertical extension
of the layer in which fog is observable is a few hundred metres, generally
around 500 ft (appr. 150 m) above the ground. If the appropriate conditions
are fulfilled for several days, the inversion may be strengthened so that
radiational fog thickens and is maintained throughout the day. This situation
often occurs in basins or valleys and is called a cold air pool. In this case the
structure of the fog is similar to St clouds (see the figure below).
Radiation fog dissipates due to increased wind speed or insolation. After
sunrise if the insolation is strong enough radiation fog generally dissipates.
Therefore, the development of fog has a diurnal variation.
It is worth mentioning that radiation fog does not develop over large water
bodies. Because of the higher heat capacity of water compared to air,
inversions doe not form over sea surfaces after sunset.
Figure 4.29. Thick layer of radiation fog over Budapest
Advection fog
Advection fog may form when warm and moist air masses advect above a cold
and relatively smooth land or water surface (see the figure below). If a cold
surface cools the moist air mass until its dew point, then the condensation of
water vapour may start. In this case wind is needed for the advection of
airmass (ideal wind speed is between 5 m/s and 10 m/s). The development of
advection fog does not depend on the time of the day; it may form during the
day or night Generally, advection fog covers a much larger area than radiation
fog.
Note: While radiation fog only forms above land surfaces, advection fog may form
above both land and sea surfaces.
The dissipation of advection fog occurs when the wind speed increases above
the above-mentioned speed, or the ground surface is rough because of
vegetation or other obstacles. This mixes the air vertically; therefore,
advection fog may rise and turn into St or Sc clouds.
Figure 4.30. Advection fog over river Danube
Steam fog
Steam fog develops when a cold air mass moves above a relatively warm
water surface. As water evaporates, water vapour is introduced to the air.
Meanwhile, the air cools down via conduction. The warmer water surface also
heats the air above it and makes it unstable. Thus, the air starts to rise. If the
air cools down to the dew point, fog may form, and it will look like it flows
upward like smoke. (This type of fog is also called "sea smoke".) Steam fog
usually develops in the winter or in polar regions.
Dissipation of steam fog is caused by the change of wind direction, a

decreased wind speed or an increased wind speed.
Frontal fog
Frontal fog (mixing fog) may form ahead of a warm front or an occlusion front
where precipitation continuously falls through a colder and drier air mass.
Precipitation increases the relative humidity of the air mass. In a warm front
the temperature of the precipitation is frequently higher than the temperature
of the air mass ahead of it, which enhances the evaporation of water droplets
and leads to the saturation of the air mass. Thus, fog or a low stratus may
develop.
Frontal fog moves with the weather front, so it dissipates at a given location if
the front passes by.
Orographic fog (hill fog)

Orographic fog is formed (similarly to orographic clouds) by the ascent of the
air mass along the surface of an orographic obstacle (mountain, hill) as a result
from mechanically-forced uplifting (see the figure below). The air mass
adiabatically cools down, and when it reaches the temperature at which
condensation starts, fog may develop. If it forms above a mountain peak it can
also be called a cap cloud. Orographic fog forms when the moisture content is
appropriate, the condensation level is close to the ground (in this case, the
surface of the mountain) and the wind direction is perpendicular to the slope
of the mountain.
Figure 4.31. Orographic fog
BEFORE EXAM L"
STUDY TEST
Clouds are the mixture of air and cloud droplets, called water droplets and ice
crystals.
For cloud development, air needs to be supersaturated state with water vapour,
and needs the presence of condensation nuclei or freezing nuclei. Condensation
nuclei are generally water soluble aerosol particles.
For cloud formation, air updraft is needed, which can be the result of thermal
and mechanical effects.
Cloud types are generally classified by their shape, structure and vertical
location.
WMO distinguishes threes main types of cloud by vertical location (low, middle,
high), and ten subtypes by shape and structure. They are stratus, stratocumulus,
cumulus, cumulonimbus, altostratus, altocumulus, nimbostratus, cirrus,
cirrostratus and cirrocumulus.
Clouds can be hazardous for aviation as they may be accompanied by icing,
turbulence and other dangerous phenomena.
Clouds can be accompanied by thunderstorms, which are storms accompanied
by lightning strikes and thunder. Thunderstorms are also associated with heavy
showers, hail, severe turbulence, icing, wind storms and tornadoes.
Thunderstorms have three main stages of their life cycle: developing stage,
mature stage and dissipating stage.
Thunderstorms can be distinguished by their formation into the following types:
thermal, frontal, orographic and high level convection thunderstorms.
Lightning is a transport of electrical discharges. In a cloud, charge separation
happens on water droplets and ice particles during updraft and downdraft. This
process creates differently charged zones in the cloud. An electrically
conductive channel develops between the differently charged zones through
which the charges are transported during the strike.
Lightning is generally not hazardous for aviation during flight. However, it can
be dangerous to passengers during boarding and disembarking.
Fog forms when visibility decreases below 1000 m and it is caused by small
water droplets suspended in the air. Mist forms when visibility is between
1000 m and 5 000 m.
by lightning strikes and thunder. Thunderstorms are also associated with heavy
showers, hail, severe turbulence, icing, wind storms and tornadoes.
Thunderstorms have three main stages of their life cycle: developing stage,
mature stage and dissipating stage.
Thunderstorms can be distinguished by their formation into the following types:
thermal, frontal, orographic and high level convection thunderstorms.
Lightning is a transport of electrical discharges. In a cloud, charge separation
happens on water droplets and ice particles during updraft and downdraft. This
process creates differently charged zones in the cloud. An electrically
conductive channel develops between the differently charged zones through
which the charges are transported during the strike.
Lightning is generally not hazardous for aviation during flight. However, it can
be dangerous to passengers during boarding and disembarking.
Fog forms when visibility decreases below 1000 m and it is caused by small
water droplets suspended in the air. Mist forms when visibility is between
1000 m and 5 000 m.
Haze forms when visibility decreases under 5000 m due to solid particles
suspended in the air (e.g. dust).
The main types of fog distinguished by formation are radiation fog, advection
fog, steam fog, frontal fog and orographic fog.
Radiation fog generally forms during the night under clear skies when the wind
is calm. After sunrise it often dissipates and thus it has a typical diurnal
variation.
Advection fog develops when a warm and moist air mass flows above a cold
land or water surface.
Steam fog develops mostly in winter and in arctic regions when a cold dry air
mass moves above a warmer water surface.
Frontal fog is associated with warm fronts, occlusions and forming ahead of the
front line where continuous precipitation falls.
Orographic fog is formed because of the mechanical lifting effect of a hill or
mountain on a moist air mass along its slope.
Precipitation
We mentioned that clouds and fog contain droplets which are suspended in
the air. We also discussed that fog belongs to hydrometeors. Droplets of
clouds and fog can fall out from the atmosphere when they reach a critical
size. After reaching this size, we are speaking about falling hydrometeors, thus
precipitation.
In this chapter we explain the development and types of precipitation. Cloud

droplets mainly grow by condensation, freezing and deposition, which are
relatively slow processes. Please keep in mind that a cloud droplet is much
smaller than a precipitation particle. For a small precipitation particle to fall
out from the atmosphere, it has to reach the diameter of about a few tenths of
mm. Because of this, other mechanisms are required for the development of
precipitation particles such as the Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen process or
the coalescence process.
Precipitation particles are distinguished with respect to their diameters and

states of matter. These types will be described in the second part of this
chapter. From the aviation point of view, precipitation is one of the most
important phenomenon which is associated with clouds. It can reduce visibility
and in the case of freezing or frozen types of precipitation, aircraft icing can
happen.
5.1. Development of
precipitation
5.1.1. Process of development of

precipitation
Explanation of process of development of
precipitation
First, cloud-related physical processes that lead to the development of
precipitation are explained. Then, the main types of precipitation will be
characterised.
Previously, we discussed that water exists in three states of matter in the

Earth’s atmosphere, i.e. solid, liquid and gaseous, and we saw examples of
changes between the above-mentioned states. By definition, precipitation
consists of liquid and solid particles that fall from clouds and reach the ground
surface. Therefore, among the changes in states of matter, condensation,
freezing and deposition have significant roles in the development of
precipitation. On the contrary, evaporation and sublimation act against it.
Melting leads to a change in the state of the precipitation.
In general, water droplets and ice crystals that are suspended by vertical air
currents and are smaller than ca. 0.1 mm can be considered cloud droplets.
The growth of these particles is relatively slow; therefore, they do not
immediately fall down from the clouds. Cloud droplets should reach a
diameter of about 0.1 mm to be considered precipitation particles, which can
fall from clouds without evaporating within a few metres.
The growth rate of the precipitation particles depends mainly on the speed of
the updraft and the LWC00 of the clouds, which varies from cloud to cloud.
Stronger updrafts with higher speeds can suspend larger particles than weaker
updrafts. In general, the most intense updrafts are observable in Cb clouds, in
which the largest precipitation particles can be formed (i.e. hailstones). It is
worth mentioning that the velocity of the falling precipitation particle depends
on its diameter (henceforth the terms diameter and size are used
interchangeably). Calculations concerning the highest speed that can be
reached by the particle are available later.
As we discussed before, water vapour turns to liquid water through

condensation on condensation nuclei, while liquid water turns to ice via
freezing, which requires freezing nuclei. However, the growth of cloud
droplets into precipitation particles through condensation, freezing or
deposition is relatively slow. Consequently, other mechanisms are required for
the development of precipitation particles such as the coalescence process or
the Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen process. In the following section, the main
processes in which precipitation forms are described. A comparison of the size
of cloud droplets and precipitation particles is shown in the figure below.
Figure 5.1. Comparison of particles

Here we see a comparison of the size of a cloud droplet (denoted by A) and
precipitation particles (denoted by B, C and D). For the sake of simplicity, in
this example we assume the particles have a spherical shape. Among real
atmospheric conditions, precipitation particles often have conical, flat or
irregular shapes.
Assume that the cloud droplet A has a diameter of 0.1 mm. Then, precipitation
particles B, C and D have a diameter of 0.4 mm, 5 mm and 1 cm, respectively.
For example, B is a drizzle drop (its diameter is less than 0.5 mm), C is a
raindrop (its diameter is larger than 0.5 mm) while D is a hailstone (its diameter
is larger than 5 mm).
Precipitation particles exist in liquid and solid states or in a mixture of them

both. Because of this, different processes explain the growth of liquid water
drops (i.e. the coalescence process) and the growth of ice crystals (i.e. the
Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen process). The above-mentioned processes will
be described in connection with the development of the following types of
precipitation. Liquid precipitation (i.e. rain and drizzle) is composed of liquid
water droplets only. Below the freezing point it may exist in the form of
supercooled water droplets. If these droplets reach a surface then they freeze
on it, so consequently this type of precipitation is called freezing precipitation
(i.e. freezing rain and freezing drizzle). Frozen precipitation (i.e. snow and hail)
contains liquid water, ice particles or both when it hits the surface. After a
collision with a surface, precipitation particles often rebound off of it.
Formation of liquid precipitation: drizzle and rain
As we mentioned in Section 3.2, condensation takes place in the presence of

wettable or water-soluble condensation nuclei. It was stated that aerosol
particles may serve as condensation nuclei in the air. If the air is
supersaturated with enough liquid water, then particles of water vapour may
also serve as condensation nuclei because they form aggregates through their
random collisions through which condensation occurs. However, the required
level of supersaturation is unattainable among real atmospheric conditions.
In the atmosphere, the formation of cloud droplets occurs mainly in the

presence of water-soluble condensation nuclei because the saturation vapour
pressure over the solution is lower than over pure water. It can be explained
as follows. A solution contains two or more components. Because of this,
particles other than water are also present on the surface of the solution,
which reduces the number of the evaporating water particles. Therefore, the
number of condensing water particles increases compared to the number of
evaporating water particles, leading to supersaturation. On the contrary, the
saturation vapour pressure increases as the curvature of the surface increases
because the particles may leave the surface of the solution more easily than
flat surfaces.
As we mentioned, liquid water droplets grow relatively slowly via

condensation. Precipitation particles may form through the coalescence
process of the liquid water droplets after their collision with each other. The
possibility of coalescence is high when the colliding droplets are similar sizes
or when a large droplet (ca. 0.5 mm) collides with a small droplet (ca. 0.1 mm).
The possibility of the coalescence of two colliding droplets decreases as their
size increases. If the size of the water droplet reaches ca. 1 cm then the
cohesion forces inside it are not strong enough to maintain its spherical shape.
Consequently, two colliding droplets split up into two or more droplets,
leading to an increasing number of precipitation particles.
If the developing liquid water droplet has a size smaller than 0.5 mm then it is
called a drizzle drop. If it has a size larger than 0.5 mm then it is called a
raindrop.
Liquid precipitation may form in clouds when the air temperature is above the
freezing point. It is worth mentioning that liquid precipitation may also
develop through the melting of frozen precipitation.
Collision and coalescence are the dominant processes concerning the

development of precipitation along lower geographic latitudes (i.e. the tropics)
where strong updrafts may form in relatively thin clouds. However, it is
observable at higher latitude as well.
Growing of ice crystals: the Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen process

Like condensation, freezing ice crystals cannot grow as fast, so other
processes are required. In clouds over middle latitudes, supercooled water
droplets and ice crystals coexist at the same altitude, which allows the growth
of ice crystals through the Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen process as follows.
We have learnt in Section 3.1 that the saturation vapour pressure with respect
to (supercooled) water surfaces is higher than the saturation vapour pressure
with respect to ice surfaces, as shown in the figure below. Because of this,
water vapour cannot be in equilibrium with both of them. If the actual vapour
pressure is between the saturation vapour pressure of water and ice, then the
number of particles that evaporate from the surface of the supercooled water
is greater than the number of particles that condense. However, the air is
supersaturated with ice, and consequently the evaporated particles are
deposited on the surface of the ice crystals. If the number of ice crystals is
relatively small compared to the number of supercooled water droplets, then
ice crystals can grow large enough to become precipitation particles. It is
worth mentioning that the number of freezing nuclei is relatively small
compared to the number of condensation nuclei, but the former increases
with decreasing temperature. Therefore, the chance of the formation of ice
crystals increases with decreasing temperatures.
Figure 5.2. Saturation vapour pressure over supercooled water surface (red
line) and ice surface (blue line)
The values of saturation vapour pressure were estimated by using the

Magnus-Tetens formula (similar to Figure 3.1), which can be found in
Equation 3.7 in Section 3.1.
Ice has a significant role in atmospheric processes, and so the outlines of the
processes in which it may form are crucial to understand. Besides the
development of hail, which can cause serious damage, lightning always occurs
in the presence ice.
Formation of frozen precipitation: snow and hail
The time period that is available for the development of snowflakes and
hailstones is shorter than the time period that is required for the growth of ice
crystals by the Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen process. Because of this, the
aggregation of supercooled water droplets and ice crystals has a significant
role in the formation of snow and hail.
Figure 5.3. Possible path of hailstones in Cb
In general, the stronger the updraft is, the larger the hailstones that may
develop. Consequently, the largest hailstones are associated with severe
thunderstorms, mostly in summer over middle latitudes, due to the large
temperature difference between the cloud base and the cloud top. Along the
Equator, the occurrence of hail is very rare. After hailstones fall down from
clouds, their size starts to decrease because of evaporation and melting.
It is worth mentioning that the coalescence of frozen precipitation particles

may also occur. However, the chance of their aggregation is significantly lower
than the accretion of colliding liquid water droplets. After the collision of
frozen precipitation particles, ice crystals may break off of them. Therefore,
the number of ice crystals may increase.
In the following section, the main types of precipitation will be described in

more detail.
Remarks on process of development of
precipitation
The processes by which precipitation develops depends on whether clouds
have regions where the temperature is below the freezing point. If the air
temperature is above the freezing point in the clouds, drizzle or rain develop
through condensation as well as collision and coalescence. If the clouds have
regions in which the air temperature is below the freezing point, then
precipitation develops through various processes as follows. The formation of
frozen precipitation is the result of freezing, the aggregation of supercooled
water droplets and ice crystals, the Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen process,
riming and the collision and coalescence of ice crystals. If there are regions in
the clouds where the temperature is above the freezing point, then melting is
also observable, which can lead to the formation of liquid or freezing
precipitation.
If there are layers where the actual vapour pressure is below the saturation
vapour pressure, evaporation or sublimation decrease the size and number of
the precipitation particles.
The development of precipitation can be formulated mathematically. For

example, the growth rate of the droplets, the efficiency and probability of the
collisions and the coalescence between the droplets can be modelled
theoretically. The equations are valid for spherical droplets mostly but
empirical parametrisations are also available that allow us to approximate the
above-mentioned processes if the droplets have irregular shapes. To exemplify
the available formulas, the terminal velocity of the falling particles will be
derived below.
As we mentioned before, particles must reach a certain size before they will
fall from clouds. Particles below that size are sustained and carried by the air
flow. The speed of the falling particles is a function of their size. However,
there is a maximum speed that can be obtained by the particle during its
falling, which is called its terminal velocity. If the acceleration of the falling
particle is zero then the particle has reached its terminal velocity.
Consequently, terminal velocity can be calculated from the equilibrium of the
forces that act on the particle. Though the particle is small, fluid friction
cannot be neglected. Therefore, the forces affecting the particle are the
weight of the particle (denoted by Fg), the drag force (denoted by Fj) and the
buoyancy force (denoted by Fb), as shown in the figure below.
Figure 5.4. Forces acting on a spherical droplet
The weight of the droplet, the drag force and the buoyancy force are denoted
by Fg, Fj and Fb, respectively.
The weight of the particle was introduced in Equation 1.10 in Section 1.3. It is
defined as:
Fg = mg
Where:
• m is the mass of the droplet

• g is the gravitational acceleration
Replace m with qV on the basis of Equation 1.29 in Section 1.4 where q, V

are the density and volume of the droplet, respectively. We assumed a
spherical droplet, so V = -7rr , where r is the radius of the droplet, so:
o
(5.1)
Fg = eVg = £>|7rr3-g
The Fj is called Stokes’ drag, named after Irish physicist and mathematician
George Stokes, who in the middle of the 19th century described the friction
force acting on a droplet falling through a fluid as follows:
(5.2)
Fa = 67rr/r v
where rj is the dynamic viscosity that is given in the SI units of kg/ms and v is
the velocity of the falling droplet.
The buoyancy force is:
(5.3)
4 3—
Fb = ftV g g
where £f is the density of the fluid.
If Fg — Fb = Fd then v can be considered the terminal velocity of the falling

droplet. So, based on the equations above as well as Newton’s second law, the
equation of motion regarding the magnitudes of the forces is the following:
(5.4)
4?rr3g(^ - £f) = Gtvtfv
o
Rearranging equation above, the terminal velocity of the droplet is:
(5.5)
r2 ( g ~ gf) g
v
If we consider q, g and 77 constant, based on the equation above we can say
that the terminal velocity is the function of the droplet size. It increases as the
size of the droplet increases. Please note that the terminal velocity does not
depend linearly on the droplet's size.
As an example, calculate the terminal velocity of a falling ice particle with a

size of 10 pm and a density of 0.9 g/cm . Assume that the dynamic viscosity is
1.846 x 10'5 kg/ms and the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration is
9.81 m/s2. The density of the particle is much greater than that of the air,
therefore Qf is neglected. Thus,
(0.00001 m)2 x 900 — x 9.81 -

X ----------------------------
9 1.846 x 10“5 —
ms
^0.01 -
s
= 1 —
s
However, as the diameter of the falling particle increases, the terminal velocity
calculated from equation above becomes much larger than the actual velocity
observed. This is because the shape of a small particle can be considered
spherical. As its size increases, its shape becomes flat or irregular, and
therefore the buoyancy force acting on it increases and Equation 5.2 does not
remain valid.
STU DY TEST
5.2. Types of precipitation
5.2.1. Types of precipitation,

relationship with cloud types
Explanation of the types of precipitation,
In the previous section, we outlined the development of drizzle, rain, snow
and hail. Now the types of precipitation will be described. They can be
classified by the following aspects:
1. their state of matter;
2. the size of the precipitation particles;
3. their origins; and
4. the duration of the precipitation.
Regarding the state of matter, liquid precipitation and frozen precipitation can
be distinguished. Liquid precipitation may exist in the form of supercooled
water, which is called freezing precipitation.
The size of the precipitation particles varies widely. In general, they have a
diameter larger than 0.1 mm. Hailstones are the largest precipitation particles
with diameters of a few centimetres.
Because precipitation falls from clouds, it can be classified on the basis of its
origin; that is, whether it falls from convective clouds (e.g. cumuliform clouds)
or stratiform clouds.
The duration of the precipitation can be continuous, intermittent or showery.

The term "continuous" indicates that precipitation falls over a long time
period, i.e. hours. Showery precipitation means that it starts and ends
suddenly, and its time period is between a few minutes and a few tens of
minutes. Therefore, showers are always associated with convective clouds.
Intermittent precipitation means that there is at least a ten minutes break
between two observations of precipitation.
On the basis of the previously established criteria, the following types of

precipitation will be described. Rain and drizzle belong to liquid precipitation,
from which freezing rain or freezing drizzle may develop below the freezing
point. The types of frozen precipitation that contain ice are snow, snow grains,
ice pellets, snow pellets, small hail, hail and diamond dust (in other words, ice
crystals).
The intensity of precipitation will also be used to characterised the types of

the precipitation. In general, three categories are distinguished: light,
moderate and heavy.
Please note that in weather reports and weather forecasts such as the
Meteorological Actual Report (abbreviated as METAR) and the Terminal
Aerodrome Forecast (abbreviated as TAF), the above-mentioned types of
precipitation are denoted. METAR/TAF codes are given in parenthesis after
the name of each type of precipitation. The main characteristics of the
different types of precipitation are summarised in Figure 5.12.
Types of liquid precipitation
Precipitation in liquid form can be distinguished on the basis of droplet size.

Rain (RA) is the falling of liquid water droplets that have a diameter larger than
0.5 mm (called raindrops). The amount of rain is measured in the SI units of
mm. For example, 1 mm means that 1 litre of rain falls over an area of 1 m.
The intensity of rain is classified into four groups: light, moderate, heavy and
violent, as summarised in the table below. However, in METAR and TAF only
the first three categories are used. In general, rain falls from clouds such as St,
Sc and As with lower intensity, while heavy rainfall is associated with Cu con,
Cb or Ns. Rain falls continuously from Ns while a rain shower usually falls from
convective clouds such as Cu con and Cb. At middle latitudes over land
surfaces, 20-30 mm of rain can fall from a rain shower within one hour, but in
some extreme cases it exceeds 50 mm, which may be the average amount of
the monthly precipitation. If an embedded Cb develops in an Ns, then rain
showers may also associated with Ns.
In the tables below, the values are given in the SI units of mm/h, which are
based on a measurement period of three minutes.
Intensity categories of rain and rain showers
Condition Intensity
intensity < 2.5 mm/h light
2.5 mm/h < intensity < 10 mm/h moderate
10 mm/h < intensity < 50 mm/h heavy
50 mm/h < intensity violent
Another type of liquid precipitation is drizzle (DZ), which contains liquid

droplets with a diameter smaller than 0.5 mm (called drizzle drops). To
illustrate their different sizes, raindrops and drizzle drops are shown in the
figure below. The amount of precipitation from drizzle is much lower than
from rain; therefore, intensity categories of drizzle as found in table below
differ from the intensity categories of rain. Drizzle mainly falls from St, Sc and
As. Please note that it also can fall from fog. Typically, drizzle falls with a lower
intensity from Sc and As and with a greater intensity from St.
Intensity categories of drizzle
Condition Intensity
intensity < 0.1 mm/h light
0.1 mm/h < intensity < 0.5 mm/h moderate
0.5 mm/h < intensity heavy
Figure 5.5. Raindrops and drizzle drops
Types of frozen precipitation
Snow (SN) is the fall of ice crystals that may be aggregated after colliding with
supercooled water droplets (called snowflakes) at a higher temperature than
ca. -5 °C. In snowflakes, the hexagonal structure of ice crystals remains
recognisable, which can be seen in the figure below. The amount of snow can
be given in cm or it can be expressed in the amount of rain, called its water
equivalent. In general, 1 cm of snow is equivalent to 1 mm of rain. The
intensity of a snowfall can be determined on the basis of its water-equivalent.
Categories are summarised in the table below. As in the case of rain, snow
falls with a lower intensity from St, Sc and As and a greater intensity is
observable in convective clouds and Ns. Snow falls continuously from Ns,
while heavy snowfall such as a snow shower may be associated with
convective clouds.
Figure 5.6. Snow accumulates on leaves
The hexagonal structure of ice crystals remains recognisable in snowflakes.
Intensity categories of snow fall or snow showers based on the amount of

snow converted to liquid water
Condition Intensity
intensity < 1 mm/h light
1 mm/h < intensity < 5 mm/h moderate
5 mm/h < intensity heavy
Snow grains (SG) are white, opaque particles that usually have an elongated
or plain shape. Their average size is less than 1 mm. They typically form
between ca. -10 °C and ca. 0 °C. Snow grains are generated by St or fog,
similar to drizzle.
Figure 5.7. Snow grains
Ice pellets (PL) consist of ice as seen in the figure below. They are relatively
hard and transparent particles and usually have an irregular or spherical shape.
Ice pellets bounce after colliding with a surface without breaking up. The
collision is accompanied by a characteristic sound that helps us to distinguish
them aurally from snow grains and snow pellets. Their average diameter is
smaller than 5 mm, which makes them smaller than hailstones. Ice pellets are
mainly generated in Cb.
Figure 5.8. Ice pellets
Small hail (GS) is composed of translucent ice particles with a diameter of

about 5 mm. GS particles rebound from a surface after impact. Similarly to ice
pellets, they do not break up. They commonly have a spherical shape and a
relatively high density (higher than ice pellets). Small hail can be considered a
transition state between snow pellets and hailstones. It is always associated
with showers, which means small hail is generated in convective clouds.
Snow pellets Like snow grains, GS are also white and opaque ice particles. In
snow pellets, the hexagonal structure of the ice crystals becomes
unrecognisable because of riming. Snow pellets have a spherical or conical
shape and their diameter is about 5 mm. They bounce after hitting the surface
and often split up into two or more pieces. These particles often form in Cb;
however, they are observable in Sc and Cu con as well. Because of their origin,
snow pellets usually fall in the form of a shower and are often associated with
thunderstorms. As a side note, snow pellets are also referred as graupels.
Figure 5.9. Snow pellets
In hail (GR), hailstones fall with a diameter larger than 5 mm. See Figure 5.10.
As we have learnt before, hail is generated in Cb where updrafts are strong
enough to suspend those particles in the air so they may reach the above-
mentioned size. Hailstones may have irregular, conical or spheroidal shapes
and a layered structure. Both opaque and transparent hailstones may be
formed.
The average diameter and mass of a single hailstone can be 1 cm and a few
tens of grams, respectively. However, its size and mass are largely affected by
the topography. For example, over areas surrounded by mountains (i.e. over a
basin) or far from the sea, the speed of the updraft and LWC in clouds is
lower. Consequently, less intense thunderstorms are formed and therefore,
smaller but not necessarily harmless hailstones are generated. Even hailstones
with a relatively small size are still dangerous to agriculture, so its avoidance is
one of the main topics of weather modification. Larger hailstones may be life
threatening to all living beings. Hail may seriously damage buildings and
vehicles. Therefore, it may also be hazardous to aviation.
Different scales are available that classify hailstones on the basis of their size.
A common point is that the size of hailstones is compared to objects that have
spherical shapes. Examples of hail classification are shown in the table below.
Object Size (mm)

pea 5-9
mothball 10-15
grape 16-20
walnut 21-30
pigeon’s egg 31-40
pullet’s egg 41-50
hen’s egg 51-60
tennis ball 61-75
large orange 76-90
grapefruit 91-100
melon 100 <
Note: Data are based on the classification of the Tornado and Storm Research
Organisation.
It is worth mentioning that hailstones with a mass larger than 0.5 kg and a
diameter exceeding 10 cm also may form. The largest diameter ever measured
was ca. 20 cm, in South Dakota I USA in 2010, while the heaviest hailstone
had a mass of 1.02 kg, measured in Bangladesh / India in 1986.
Figure 5.10. Hailstones
Over middle latitudes and higher geographic latitudes near the poles, in
temperatures below -10 °C, ice crystals (IC), or diamond dust, may be
observed. Diamond dust can be considered a special type of precipitation
because it does not fall from clouds. It forms under cloudless skies. Because
single ice crystals are falling, the diameter of each is about 0.1 mm, smaller
than other precipitation particles.
Figure 5.11. Diamond dust
A halo phenomenon is also observable in the picture, which is associated with

sunlight (or moonlight) refracting off of ice crystals in the air.
Note: A precipitation particle is considered larger than about 0.1 mm.

Type of METAR/TAF Average diameter of Associated clouds
precipitation code precipitation particle or phenomenon
rain RA greater than 0.5 mm St, Sc, As, Ns, Cu con, Cb
drizzle DZ less than 0.5 mm St, Sc, As, fog
snow SN greater than 1 mm St, Sc, As, Ns, Cu con, Cb
snow grains SG less than 1 mm St, fog
ice pellets PL less than 5 mm Cb
small hail GS* about 5 mm Sc, Cu con, Cb
snow pellets GS about 5 mm Sc, Cu con, Cb
hail GR greater than 5 mm Cb
diamond dust IC about 0.1 mm clear sky
★Note: Snow pellets and small hail are denoted with the same letters (GS).
Figure 5.12. Main characteristics of the different types of precipitation
Types of freezing precipitation
As we discussed before, below the freezing point liquid precipitation may exist
in the form of supercooled water, which is called freezing precipitation. If
raindrops and drizzle drops remain supercooled until they contact a surface on
which they freeze, they are called freezing rain (FZRA) or freezing drizzle
(FZDZ). If supercooled water droplets have a diameter larger than 0.5 mm,
freezing rain develops. If they have a diameter smaller than 0.5 mm, freezing
drizzle forms.
The following atmospheric stratification is favourable for the development of

freezing precipitation. Assume a layer of air that has a higher temperature
than the freezing point. Below and above it the air temperature is lower than
the freezing point. Frozen precipitation falls through the warmer layer while it
melts and turns to liquid water droplets. After reaching the colder layer during
the fall, in the absence of any disturbances, the droplets do not freeze
immediately, but exist in the form of supercooled water. As it was mentioned
in Section 3.2, in clear air that is free from contamination, supercooled water
droplets may freeze below -40 °C if the air is supersaturated with ice. After
contacting the surface, the droplets start to freeze immediately, and an ice
layer of various thickness is formed.
The above-described atmospheric stratification can be the result of the
following weather conditions:
1. Assume a warm front approaching the observer over middle latitudes. A

warmer air mass is less dense than a colder air mass, so the former
climbs over the latter. It may result in a layer with a temperature above
the freezing point, while the layer below and above it may have a
temperature below the freezing point, as is shown in Figure 5.13.
2. In occluded fronts over middle latitudes, the colder air forces the
warmer air to rise aloft, which may lead to the above-described
stratification.
3. Subsidence inversion may also result in the fall of freezing precipitation.

If the air temperature in the inversion layer is above the freezing point
while the air temperature near the ground surface is below it, then
freezing precipitation may form.
The circumstances that are advantageous for the formation of rain (and
drizzle), freezing rain (and freezing drizzle), ice pellets, snow and the
corresponding vertical temperature profiles are illustrated in the figures below.
In summary, rain is a liquid precipitation and therefore its temperature remains
above the freezing point when it hits the ground. In the case of freezing rain,
the temperature must decrease slightly below 0 °C to become supercooled
water. Please keep in mind that this state is not stable, so small disturbances
may lead to rapid freezing. Therefore, the chance of the formation of freezing
rain is higher close to 0 °C. At lower temperatures, ice pellets may form. In the
case of snow, the temperature remains below 0 °C.
Rain Freezing rain Ice pellets Snow
Frozen precipitation Frozen precipitation melts Frozen precipitation melts Snow falls through
melts and reaches in warm air. in shallow warm air. cold air and reaches
the ground as rain. Rain falls and freezes Then refreezes into sleet the surface.
on cold surfaces. before reaching the surface.
Figure 5.13. Atmospheric stratification that is advantageous for the

development of rain, freezing rain, ice pellets and snow
Figure 5.14. Vertical temperature profiles
The 0 °C isotherm is depicted with dashed lines. Please note that the air
temperature is lower than the freezing point at higher altitudes in all cases.
When freezing precipitation reaches a surface, rime ice or glaze ice (in other
words, clear ice) often develop. In general, rime ice forms a white, opaque and
rough ice layer with a relatively low density. Clear ice (in other words, glaze
ice) forms a smooth, transparent, hard and dense ice layer on the surface,
which shows similarity to glass, making it hard to detect visually. Glaze ice is
harder to remove than rime ice, so consequently the former is more hazardous
to aviation than the latter.
We emphasise the importance of sleet (in the United States of America ice
pellets are also called sleet), which is the mixture of snow and rain. It develops
close to 0 °C and also can be deposited on surfaces below the freezing point,
forming a layer of clear ice.
Freezing precipitation can be dangerous to transportation,both in the air and

on the ground surface. For example, it may form an ice layer on the runway,
endangering takeoffs and landings, or it may lead to the icing of aircraft.
Further details about ice-related flight hazards can be found in Section 9.1.
In general, over middle and higher latitudes, freezing rain, ice pellets, snow and
sleet fall mainly in winter while rain and drizzle are observable in every season.
Snow pellets and hail may form in Cb in summer. Along the Equator, mostly
rain and drizzle fall. Hail, ice pellets, snow and sleet rarely occur.
Types of precipitation generated in convective and stratiform clouds
The occurrence of ice crystals and the number and size of water droplets
depend on whether they are generated in convective or stratiform clouds.
Therefore, different types of precipitation are associated with different clouds.
In general, precipitation may fall from the following stratiform clouds: St, Sc,
As, Ns as well as the following convective clouds: Cu con, Cb. Please note that
precipitation never falls from Ci, Cs or Cc.
As we have learnt in Chapter 4, the vertical extension of stratiform clouds is

less than their horizontal extension. The speed of the updraft is not strong
enough to suspend precipitation particles as long as in convective clouds;
therefore, the developing precipitation particles are smaller and uniformly
distributed in stratiform clouds. Please keep in mind that the speed of the
updraft is a few m/s in convective clouds while just a few cm/s in stratiform
clouds. Consequently, the processes of riming and the collision of supercooled
water droplets and ice crystals are also not as intense in stratiform clouds as in
convective clouds. As a side note, we mention that the number of water
droplets decreases with the increasing tallness of the cloud, and the number
of ice crystals increases as the temperature of the cloud top decreases.
To summarise, rain and snow fall from both stratiform and convective clouds,
while drizzle and snow grains fall only from stratiform clouds. Ice pellets and
hail are associated with Cb and therefore with convective clouds. Snow pellets
and small hail fall mainly from convective clouds, but they may also fall from
Sc and therefore from stratiform clouds.
Summary of aviation hazards associated with precipitation

As we mentioned above, hail may cause serious damage to the fuselage of
aircraft.
Precipitation may also effect the visibility, which is also hazardous to aviation.
In general, visibility decreases as the number of precipitation particles in a
given volume and their size increase. For example, heavy rainfall or heavy
snowfall may significantly reduce visibility even below 400 m, but other types
of precipitation such as drizzle or snow pellets can also reduce it. It is worth
mentioning that snow has the greatest effect on visibility among all the types
of precipitation.
If water droplets and ice particles are present in clouds, then different types of
electric charges form. Ice particles (water droplets) can be considered as
positively (negatively) charged particles. Collisions between them may lead to
the separation of positive and negative charges, causing phenomena that are
the subject of atmospheric electricity, such as lighting. These phenomena may
be dangerous to aviation.
Further details about flight hazards associated with precipitation are available
in Section 9.4 and Section 9.9 in Chapter 9.
Remarks on the types of precipitation,

Morphology of ice crystals
The hexagonal structure of ice crystals varies with air temperature and the
supersaturation of water vapour with ice. We are focusing on the most
prominent shapes of these crystals such as plates, columns, needles and
dendrites. If the supersaturation is relatively low, then snow crystals may grow
with the shape of plates near 0 °C and below -10 °C, while ice columns may
form between -5 °C and -10 °C. More complex crystal structures called ice
dendrites develop as the supersaturation increases. However, at about -5 °C
and below -25 °C needle-like ice crystals and columns may also exist,
respectively.
The effect of the surface on the formation of precipitation in convective
clouds
In Section 3.2 and Section 4.1, we mentioned that the number and type of
condensation nuclei differ based on whether they are present above a land or
a sea surface. Consequently, the number and size of the precipitation particles
depend on the type of the surface above which precipitation forms.
The number of precipitation particles is higher and their size is smaller over
land surfaces than over sea surfaces. Over land surfaces, larger numbers of
condensation nuclei are available, which enhances cloud formation and the
development of precipitation if enough moisture is present in the air. Over sea
surfaces, the number of condensation nuclei is lower, and therefore a smaller
number of precipitation particles form, but their size is larger compared to
precipitation particles formed over land surfaces.
Measurement of precipitation and evaporation
As we have learnt in this chapter, the amount of precipitation is measured in

the SI unit of mm while its intensity is given in the SI unit of mm/h. The
smallest amount of liquid (solid) precipitation that is measured is 0.1 mm
(0.2 cm). Less than 0.1 mm (0.2 cm) of a liquid (solid) precipitation is called a
trace.
In general, a rain gauge (in other words, an ombrometer or pluviometer - from

ombros, Greek for "rain" and from pluvius, Latin for "rain") serves as a device
to measure precipitation. In the following section, two main types of these
devices that are used widely by meteorological services will be described. The
ordinary rain gauge consists of two cylindrical containers with a funnel. The
diameter of the pipe of the funnel should be small to minimize the effect of
evaporation. Rain accumulates in the inner cylindrical container, which is also
a measuring tube. After rain overflows, it accumulates in the outer cylindrical
container.
In a tipping-bucket rain gauge, a balance with two buckets can be found. After
one of them is filled with rain, the lever of the balance tips and the water
dumps out of the bucket while rain starts to fill the other bucket. The amount
of rain is determined by the number of tips.
The amount of snow also can be measured. Snow that has accumulated in the
precipitation gauge must be melted. During the warming process evaporation
also intensifies, which should be taken into account. The vicinity of the rain
gauge should be free from any obstacles. It should be placed at about 1 metre
high (or above the snow cover).
As a side note, we mention that evaporation can be measured by using

evaporation tanks. These are open tanks that are filled with water. The
evaporation of the water surface is measured in units of mm. In addition, the
evaporation and transpiration of plants are measured with lysimeters.
BEFORE EXAM L"

Precipitation consists of liquid and solid particles that fall from clouds and hit
the ground surface. Cloud droplets must reach the size of about 0.1 mm to
become precipitation particles.
The velocity of a falling precipitation particle depends on its size.
The saturation vapour pressure over a solution is lower than over pure water.
The saturation vapour pressure increases as the curvature of a surface
increases.
At lower geographic latitudes, liquid precipitation develops mainly via the
coalescence process after the collision of water droplets. At middle latitudes, ice
crystals grow via the Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen process.
In the Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen process, the air is supersaturated with
supercooled water and subsaturated with ice. If the clouds contain ice crystals
and supercooled water droplets, then water vapour originating from the surface
of the supercooled water is deposited on the surface of the ice crystals.
Precipitation particles do not always coalesce after colliding. They may also
break up, which increases the number of particles.
Ice crystals may also coalesce via the coalescence process.
Supercooled water droplets freeze on the surface of ice crystals via the process
of riming. As a result, the hexagonal structure of the ice crystals becomes
unrecognisable.
Drizzle drops (raindrops) are liquid water droplets smaller (larger) than 0.5 mm.
Snowflakes are the aggregations of ice crystals.
Hailstones are solid precipitation particles that exceeds 5 mm in size.
Rain and drizzle can be considered liquid precipitation. Snow grains, ice pellets,
small hail, snow pellets (graupels), hail and ice crystals are frozen precipitation.
Sleet is the mixture of rain and snow.
The three main categories of intensity concerning precipitation are: light,
moderate and heavy.
Rain (RA) is the fall of liquid water droplets that have a diameter larger than 0.5
mm. It falls from the clouds St, Sc, As, Ns, Cu con and Cb. The heaviest rainfall is
associated with Cb. The amount of rain is measured in the SI unit of mm.
unrecognisable.
Drizzle drops (raindrops) are liquid water droplets smaller (larger) than 0.5 mm.
Snowflakes are the aggregations of ice crystals.
Hailstones are solid precipitation particles that exceeds 5 mm in size.
Rain and drizzle can be considered liquid precipitation. Snow grains, ice pellets,
small hail, snow pellets (graupels), hail and ice crystals are frozen precipitation.
Sleet is the mixture of rain and snow.
The three main categories of intensity concerning precipitation are: light,
moderate and heavy.
Rain (RA) is the fall of liquid water droplets that have a diameter larger than 0.5
mm. It falls from the clouds St, Sc, As, Ns, Cu con and Cb. The heaviest rainfall is
associated with Cb. The amount of rain is measured in the SI unit of mm.
Drizzle (DZ) is the fall of liquid water droplets that have a diameter smaller than
0.5 mm. It falls from the clouds St, Sc, As, and from fog.
Snow (SN) is the fall of ice crystals aggregated after colliding with supercooled
water droplets at temperatures higher than ca. -5 °C.
Snow grains (SG) are white, opaque particles with an elongated or plain shape,
below the size of 1 mm. They are associated with St or fog.
Ice pellets (PL) are relatively hard and transparent ice particles with irregular or
spherical shapes below the size of 5 mm. They rebound after hitting a surface
without breaking up.
Small hail (GS) is composed of translucent and spherical ice particles with a
diameter of about 5 mm. It falls in the form of a shower. It rebounds from a
surface after impact without breaking up.
Snow pellets (GS) are white and opaque ice particles. They bounce after hitting
a surface and often break up. The hexagonal structure of the ice crystals
becomes unrecognisable due to riming. Snow pellets are often associated with
thunderstorms but they are also generated in Sc, Cu con.
Hail (GR) is associated with Cb. Hailstones have a diameter larger than 5 mm.
They can be both opaque and transparent and have irregular, conical or
spheroidal shapes.
Air Masses and
Fronts
In the previous chapters - with the exception of the cloud and fog types - the
physical processes and characteristics of a single air parcel were examined. In
this chapter, groups of air parcels, thus air masses and their related
phenomena such as weather fronts, will be described.
6.1. Air masses
6.1.1. Description, classification and

source regions of air masses
The term air mass was used in the previous chapters to refer to a large group
of air parcels characterised by similar properties horizontally, e.g. temperature,
pressure and humidity. Air masses originate near the Earth's surface, so their
characteristics are determined by the type and conditions of the surface.
Consequently, distinct air masses are characteristic for distinct regions around
the globe. The location where an air mass originates is called its source region.
However, the atmosphere is a dynamic system, so air masses do not stay in
their source regions; in other words, they are not stationary. For example, an
air mass that originates in the North Pole may move south causing cold-air
outbreaks in the middle latitudes, mainly in winter and spring. Air masses are
separated from each other by weather fronts, so their movements are
especially important in determining the weather of a specific region. Types
and characterisations of weather fronts will be discussed in Section 6.2.
In this chapter, the main characteristics of the main air masses will be
explained in more detail and are determined by the following:
1. Surface temperature of the source region
2. Surface type of their source region
3. Temperature of the air mass compared to the temperature of the surface

below
Based on these aspects the following air masses can be distinguished:
1. The characteristic temperature of the air mass is primarily determined by

the latitude of their source area. From this aspect four main types are
distinguished:
• Arctic air mass/Antaretie air mass (both abbreviated by the letter A)
• Polar air mass (abbreviated as P)
• Tropical air mass (abbreviated as T)
• Equatorial air mass (abbreviated as E)
Arctic/antarctic air masses are situated above the poles. Their

temperatures are primarily determined by a surface covered with snow
and ice. The horizontal extension of the air mass changes with the
extension of these surfaces (i.e. it changes with the season, and is
smaller in summer and larger in winter).
Polar air masses can be found at somewhat lower latitudes compared to

arctic/antarctic air masses, but they are sometimes not completely
separated from the arctic air mass in the Northern Hemisphere. They are
milder than arctic air masses most of the year but have greater seasonal
variability. In winter, they can sometimes be even colder than air masses
closer to the poles.
Tropical and equatorial air masses are much warmer than the other
types.
2. The humidity of air masses is determined primarily by the type of surface

of the source region. Primarily, the humidity of sea and land surfaces
significantly affects the moisture content of the air mass. From this
aspect two main types of air masses can be distinguished:
• Continental air mass (abbreviated as c)

• Maritime air mass (abbreviated as m)
Generally, maritime air masses have higher moisture content while

continental air masses have lower moisture content. Drier air masses
change their temperature more rapidly with changing conditions than
moister air masses. Please remember that moist air has a higher specific
heat than dry air due to its water content and it therefore warms
up/cools down more slowly than dry air.
3. As we mentioned above, an air mass can relocate from its source region
to another region. Based on the temperature of the air mass relative to
the temperature of the surface, the following types can be distinguished:
• Warm air mass (abbreviated as w)

• Cold air mass (abbreviated as c)
A warm air mass indicates that its temperature is higher than the surface
temperature. This situation may lead to inversion, and thus a stable
atmospheric condition with a lack of vertical mixing. It can cause poor
visibility as well as fog and low-level stratiform cloud formation. A cold
air mass has a lower temperature than the surface below it. It is
generally characterised by strong winds, good visibility and unstable
atmospheric conditions, resulting in the formation of cumuliform clouds.
Sometimes an additional notation is used combining their abbreviations
on weather maps.
Bergeron classification
Please note that a common classification of air masses was created by

Swedish meteorologist Tor Bergeron in the first half of the 20th century.
This classification system is based on aspects 1) and 2) listed above.

Consequently, eight main types of air masses can be distinguished as shown in
Figure 6.2. The first letter refers to the underlying surface type of the source
region and the second letter refers to the latitude of the source region
(sometimes the two letters are used in reversed order):
• Maritime and continental arctic air mass (mA, cA)

• Maritime and continental polar air mass (mP, cP)
• Maritime and continental tropical air masses (mT, cT)
• Maritime and continental equatorial air masses (mE, cE)
The terms cold, warm and hot must be interpreted relatively to the
surrounding area.
Average
Moisture
Type Source region Temperature Stability visibility
content
mA Arctic Ocean cold low stable, unstable if moving good

above warmer surfaces
cA Siberian Plain, Greenland, cold low stable poor

Canada, Antarctica
Atlantic Ocean at lower in winter, high stable in winter, good

mP mid-latitudes, South-Pacific milder in summer unstable in summer
Ocean at mid latitudes
cP Siberian Plain lower in winter, low stable in winter, poor, especially

milder in summer unstable In summer in winter
mT Subtropical Atlantic Ocean warm high unstable good
cT North Africa, South Africa, warm low unstable good

Australia
mE Equatorial Atlantic Ocean, hot high unstable poor

Equatorial Pacific Ocean
CE North and Central Africa hot low unstable good
Figure 6.1. General characteristics of the types of air masses

Figure 6.2. Source regions of the main air masses
Air masses that affect the weather of Europe
The weather of Europe is primarily determined by three main air masses:

maritime polar (mP), continental polar (cP) and continental tropical (cT).
A more detailed examination shows that Europe is influenced by the following

air masses:
• Maritime arctic air mass (mA) from the North

• Maritime polar air mass (mP) from the West
• A maritime tropical (mT) and a continental tropical (cT) air mass from the
South and Southwest
• Continental polar air mass (cP) from the East and the Northeast
Less frequently the effect of equatorial air masses (mE, cE) also can be
observed, especially at higher altitudes. (Please remember that it the reason is
the southerly air current in the Hadley cell, which is observable aloft.)
A brief description of the weather characteristics of the air masses influencing
Europe can be found below.
The source region of the maritime arctic air mass is the Arctic Ocean;
therefore, its temperature and humidity content are low, because cold air
contains less humidity and because the Arctic Ocean is covered with ice for
most of the year (ice surfaces evaporate less than water surfaces). Typically,
atmospheric conditions are stable in this air mass, but if it moves to a warmer
land surface then it becomes unstable, causing convection and the
development of Cu and Cb clouds producing showery precipitation,
thunderstorms and turbulence.
The polar air mass is greatly affected by the seasons, and so the maritime
polar air mass is cold in winter but mild in summer, resulting in stable
atmospheric conditions in winter but unstable conditions in summer, when it
is generally characterised by strong winds and good visibility. The continental
polar air mass shows more significant differences with seasons, as it is cold in
winter (sometimes extremely cold), but quite warm in summer, because of the
larger fluctuations in temperatures above land surfaces than above maritime
regions.
The maritime tropical air mass is warm and moist (because warm air is able to
contain more moisture than cold), so it is characterised by great instability and
poor visibility especially on summer afternoons. Frequently mist and haze can
be observed. The continental tropical air mass is originally dry and hot at its
source region, but if it flows across the Mediterranean Sea then it gains
moisture. It is also characterised by unstable atmospheric conditions and
moderate or poor visibility. The equatorial air mass reaches Europe at higher
altitudes, bringing hot and humid air with it, leading to enhanced cloud and
precipitation formation.
6.1.2. Modifications of air masses

Properties of a developing air mass are determined by the properties of the
source region as was described above. A progressing air mass that shifts above
new surfaces with different characteristics compared to the source region is
modified by the effects of its new environment. The main modifying factors
are:
1. Type of the underlying surface, namely sea or land surfaces, and in the
case of land surfaces the texture of the surface (e.g. soil, vegetation).
A drier air mass may become humid as it moves above a water body, and
vice versa: a humid air mass may become drier above land. Remember
that the temperature of water bodies varies less than that of land
surfaces, because of their different specific heats. The case of land
surfaces is more complicated because different types of soils also have
different heat capacities and albedo and moisture contents. Topography
can also be a modifying factor above land surfaces. If the air mass
crosses an orographic obstacle, it is elevated, which leads to convection.
As its temperature decreases to the dew point, its moisture content may
fall on the upwind slopes of the mountain. A drier air mass on the
downwind (lee) side descends, which leads to the formation of foehn
winds, as was discussed in previous chapters.
2. The temperature of the surface relative to the temperature of the

approaching air mass.
As was mentioned above, when a cold air mass (mA, cA, mP, cP) flows
above a warm surface, the air becomes unstable and convection may
occur, creating Cu and Cb clouds, showers and sometimes
thunderstorms. In the opposite case, when a warm air mass flows above
a cold surface, stable atmospheric stratification and thus inversion can
develop. Fog and low-level clouds may form causing drizzle and poor
visibility.
STUDY TEST
6.2. Fronts

In the previous, we discussed air masses, the large groups of air parcels with
approximately homogeneous properties. These are separated by weather
fronts.
Three meanings can be associated with the term front. First, a front is
considered to be a one-dimensional object, a line along which atmospheric
variables (e.g. temperature, humidity) change abruptly. Second, a front can be
seen as a surface, and as such, a two-dimensional object. In this sense, a
front's surface separates two air masses with different characteristics.
Commonly, the line where a frontal surface intersects the ground surface is
called a front. These lines are shown in surface weather charts (e.g. in
Figure 10.36 and Figure 10.37) represented with symbols that can be seen in
Figure 6.3. Third, and closest to reality, fronts are considered three-
dimensional objects, frontal zones, where atmospheric variables change over a
short distance. These are transitional zones between two air masses.
In this section, the different characteristics of fronts and related weather

phenomena will be discussed.
Let us consider a frontal surface. In general, it is not perpendicular to the

ground surface, but is at an angle with it (henceforth, a slope). The intensity of
the related weather phenomena and the speed of change depends on the
slope because of the following. As previously mentioned, a frontal surface
separates two air masses with different temperature. Among stable
atmospheric conditions, colder air masses can be found closer to the surface
and warmer air masses are found aloft. Consequently, along a steeper slope
warmer (colder) air ascends or descends faster than along a smaller slope. In
the case of ascending warm air, the intensity of convection increases with the
increasing steepness of the slope, leading to the formation of intense
convective weather phenomena (e.g. formation of Cb clouds).
Four main types of weather front can be distinguished:
• Stationary front
• Warm front
• Cold front
• Occluded front
Briefly, in a stationary front the air masses cannot replace each other, and the
frontal surface does not move between them. In the case of the three other
types, the movement of the frontal surface is observable. Consequently, these
can be called moving fronts. By definition, a warm front (cold front) occurs
when the warm (cold) air mass replaces the cold (warm) air mass. The front
becomes occluded when the cold front overtakes the warm front because of
its higher speed.
From the aviation point of view, the following can be said about fronts. Above
weather fronts, severe turbulence (frequently CAT) can be experienced, as jet
streams often accompanying them. If an aircraft crosses a frontal surface, then
a significant and rapid change of temperature and pressure is expected, and
therefore new altimeter settings are needed.
Stationary front
Cold front
Warm front
A A Occluded front
Figure 6.3. Notation of weather fronts on weather maps
On weather maps, a warm (cold) front is indicated with red semicircles (blue
triangles) on a red (blue) line. An occluded front is indicated by purple
semicircles and triangles alternating on a purple line.
6.2.2. Stationary front, associated clouds

and weather
As we discussed previously, air masses are separated by fronts; however, they
are not very distinct in some cases. Remember the polar and arctic air masses
in the Northern Hemisphere are sometimes not completely separated from
each other. Because air masses are observable throughout the year, the
formation of fronts between air masses are always observable. There are
cases when two air masses are separated by a linear-shaped weather front
that is more or less in the same position for a long time. Mainly seasonal
changes are observable. Therefore, these are called stationary or quasi-
stationary fronts.
Stationary fronts are accompanied by a cloud band and precipitation of

varying intensity. Stationary fronts may turn into warm or cold fronts if the
conditions change and any of the air masses starts to replace the other. Of
course, the frontal surface between the two air masses is not rigid, so
differences between temperature, humidity etc. can be balanced between
them, which leads to the dissipation of the stationary front.
The most important large scale stationary fronts are the arctic/antarctic front
and the polar front. The location and intensity of these fronts change
seasonally as shown in Figure 6.4 and Figure 6.5.
Arctic/antarctic front
The arctic/antarctic fronts separate the arctic/antarctic air masses and the
somewhat milder polar air masses from each other, accompanied by the arctic
jet stream above them. They can be found over approximately 60°N and 60°S,
respectively. Some differences between the Northern and the Southern
Hemisphere are observable regarding the characteristics of these fronts.
Arctic fronts can be stationary but may turn to a cold front that moves
southward. In this case it is accompanied by convective clouds and may bring
showery precipitation. Antarctic fronts exist only in winter, while arctic fronts
are stronger in winter and weaker in summer.
Polar front
The polar front separates the polar and subtropical air masses from each other
and is present in both hemispheres. Its position varies with the season,
primarily in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 20°N and 70°N.
In January in the Northern Hemisphere, the polar front moves closer to the
Equator, especially above North America. It can be found between 20°N and
50°N. Meanwhile in the Southern Hemisphere, its position is more persistent
during the year and can be found between 50°S and 70°S. In July in the
Southern Hemisphere, the polar front comes somewhat closer to the Equator.
It is observable between 40°N and 70°N.
We emphasise that the polar front of the Northern Hemisphere above Europe
is typically located farther north in every season compared to its location
above North America and the Pacific Ocean. The average location of the polar
front is between Florida and the Southwest region of Great Britain, while in
summer it moves north and commonly extends from Northeast Canada to
Great Britain.
Please note that, along the polar frontal surface, low-pressure areas may
develop that can lead to cyclone formation. Consequently, its position is
important to know to avoid the related hazards to aircraft. Low-pressure areas
in this region are called polar lows or depressions. Therefore, weather around
the polar front is highly variable, depending on the stage of the cyclone
formation (discussed in the next chapter). Sometimes the ITCZ (intertropical
convergence zone) above the Equator is also listed as a stationary frontal
zone, where the tropical air masses of the two hemispheres meet. The ITCZ
moves with the Sun seasonally, i.e. moves southward in the Southern
Hemisphere’s summer and northward in the Northern Hemisphere’s summer.
Along the ITCZ, strong convection frequently occurs causing the thick cloud
cover and heavy precipitation characteristic for this region.
In meteorological literature, the Mediterranean front is also mentioned as a

stationary front over the Mediterranean Sea. It only exists in winter between
polar and subtropical air masses.
As we mentioned, there are air masses that separate with less distinct fronts.
For example, the subtropical front can be found at higher levels on the polar
side of the Hadley-cell, but it is not observable close to the surface (unlike the
above-mentioned fronts) because it is a descending air mass, creating
divergence above the ground.
January
Figure 6.4. Stationary fronts around the globe in January
In the figure above, the blue line indicates the average position of the arctic
front, the yellow lines indicate the polar fronts of the two hemispheres, the
red line indicates the average position of the ITCZ and the purple line
indicates the Mediterranean front.
July
Figure 6.5. Stationary fronts around the globe in July
In the figure above, the blue lines indicate the average position of the arctic
and antarctic fronts, the yellow lines indicate the polar fronts of the two
hemispheres and the red line indicates the average position of the ITCZ.
6.2.3. Movement of fronts and pressure

systems, life cycle
Formation of the mid-latitude cyclones and their life cycle
When a frontal surface forms, first it has a linear shape and is stationary. It
starts to move because of some disturbances on the frontal surface. When the
boundary of two different air masses starts to move we can distinguish fronts
by the temperatures of the air masses relative to each other. The formation of
moving fronts at the mid-latitudes is related to the above-mentioned
disturbances and may continue to develop into cyclones (in other words,
depressions). Cyclones are large scale horizontal vortices with vertical axes
rotating around a low-pressure area in their centre.
The above-mentioned weather fronts are the result of the typically

changeable weather of the mid-latitudes, with rapid changes in the
temperature, humidity and wind often bringing large amounts of precipitation.
The characteristics of a moving weather front are highly variable.
The life cycle of weather fronts is related to the life cycle of mid-latitude
cyclones along the polar front. The frontal zone of the polar front is
accompanied by large-scale waves in the high troposphere called Rossby
waves, with the jet stream above them as a consequence of the Earth’s
rotation. Rossby waves are associated with a chain of pressure systems, cold
troughs (low-pressure regions) called polar lows (in other words, a subpolar
low zone) and warm ridges (high-pressure regions). Troughs and ridges are
related to mid-latitude cyclones and anticyclones. Troughs contain cold polar
air masses, while ridges contain warm subtropical air masses. Cyclones form
because of troughs and gain intensity with the Rossby waves.
Remember that mid-latitude cyclones are important in the global heat

transport to balance the unevenly distributed solar radiation energy.
The theory of the development of mid-latitude cyclones (in other words,

cyclogenesis) and their life cycles was first published by Norwegian
meteorologist Vilhelm Bjerknes in 1922. His theory is called the polar-front
theory, as the fronts of mid-latitude cyclones generally form along the polar
front. Firstly, the temperature difference between two adjacent air masses
intensifies through a process called frontogenesis. In this stage, wind blows
parallel to the frontal surface on both sides. The stages of development are
depicted in Figure 6.6. In the first stage, waves develop on the frontal surface
called frontal waves (a). Waves generally form every two days on average on
the polar front. At the wave crest, as the wave is deepening, a low-pressure
area develops close to the ground surface (polar front depression) (b). Around
the low-pressure centre, closed isobars form (c) and a cyclonic circulation
develops in the Northern Hemisphere (anticyclonic in the Southern
Hemisphere); therefore, a colder air mass starts to penetrate the warmer air
mass, resulting in a cold front, and a warmer air mass penetrates the colder air
mass, resulting in a warm front. Because of the surface friction, the circular air
flow deviates into the centre of the cyclone, leading to the formation of its
typical spiral shape. Low pressure extends upward into the troposphere during
the cyclone development.
The cold front of the cyclone propagates more quickly than the warm front,
therefore after a while (generally on the second day of its development) the
cold front overtakes the warm front. This stage is called occlusion. Occlusion
first happens at the centre of the cyclone and spreads radially. This happens in
the mature stage of cyclone development; after that, it starts to lose its
intensity and the cyclone dissipates. The whole life cycle takes place over
three to five days.
Moving weather fronts (both cold and warm fronts) have two main types:
1. Anabatic front
2. Katabatic front
In the case of anabatic (katabatic) fronts, the air mass ahead of the front rises
(sinks) (similarly to the anabatic and katabatic winds along mountain slopes in
Section 2.4). The differences in weather phenomena caused by anabatic and
katabatic fronts are greater in relation to cold fronts, so we will only discuss
the differences between anabatic and katabatic cold fronts (see Section 6.2.6).
Figure 6.6. Illustration of the polar-front theory of cyclogenesis
Note: Black lines indicate isobars and the letter L indicates a low-pressure area.
Grey-shaded areas indicate zones of precipitation.
6.2.4. Warm front, associated clouds and

weather
As we mentioned before, in the case of a warm front the warm air mass
replaces a cold air mass. We emphasise that "warm" and "cold" air masses are
determined in relation to each other. Along the frontal surface, the warm air
mass is lifted by the denser and colder air mass ahead, which becomes wedge-
shaped below the warm air mass. The colder area ahead of the warm front is
called the cold sector and the zone behind the warm front and ahead of the
cold front is called the warm sector. Its movement in the Northern
Hemisphere is generally from the Southwest towards the Northeast.
Typical clouds and precipitation patterns related to warm fronts
In general, the surface of the warm front has a relatively slight slope that is
tilted forward in the direction of its travel. Therefore, the lifting of the warm
air mass by the cold air mass ahead is relatively slow. Because the cloud
formation is less intense, the development of stratiform clouds is typically
related to warm fronts. When a warm front arrives, at first Ci clouds appear,
which then turn into Cs then As. Right ahead of the front, Ns can be found
that drop continuous precipitation. Rarely, Cu or Cb may accompany a warm
front, embedded in Ns clouds. In this case, showery precipitation and
thunderstorm may also be expected. In winter, freezing rain may fall. Fractus
clouds are typically associated with warm fronts, especially close to the
precipitation zone. Warm frontal clouds can be seen in Figure 6.7. Clouds are
present at multiple levels at the same time. The passing of a warm front above
an area lasts approximately around a day. The horizontal cross section of the
warm front varies between ca. 700 to 1000 km. Precipitation falls within a
400-600 km wide range.
Pressure and temperature
Mean sea level pressure decreases significantly as the warm front approaches
the observer. Typically, the temperature increases rapidly after the front
passes. However, in special cases, if the insolation was great ahead of the
front, after the front passes, the temperature may temporarily decrease
slightly because of clouds and precipitation.
Visibility conditions
Visibility is good before the arrival of the front, but sometimes frontal fog may
form (especially in winter), because the warmer moist air contacts the colder
air mass ahead. In the frontal zone, visibility is very poor due to continuous
precipitation.
Wind direction and speed
Wind direction ahead of the front is typically southerly (northerly) in the

Northern Hemisphere (Southern Hemisphere). Wind speed increases as the
front arrives. As it passes, the wind speed decreases and the wind direction
rapidly veers (turns) right, from south to southwest in the Northern
Hemisphere, and backs (turns) left, from north to northwest in the Southern
Hemisphere.
Figure 6.7. Structure of a typical warm front in the mid-latitudes. The warm
sector can be found behind it.
Seasonal variation
The effect of a warm front greatly depends on the season. In winter a

significant increase in temperature can be observed after a front passes, while
in summer the temperature changes are not so remarkable. In winter the
amount of precipitation is typically greater than in summer. Embedded Cu and
Cb are more likely to occur in summer.
Hazardous phenomena related to warm fronts
The principal hazardous phenomena related to warm fronts are icing,

turbulence, temperature and pressure change (change in altimeter reading),
wind shear and hazards related to embedded Cb. In winter icing is more likely
to occur in Ns, St and Sc. In summer embedded Cu and Cb may cause severe
icing. Turbulence can be observed above the front (CAT around the jet stream)
and inside the clouds, especially in Ns and Cb. Visibility decreases because of
precipitation and strong wind shear can be expected as the aircraft crosses
the frontal surface.
6.2.5. Warm sector, associated clouds

and weather
A warm sector is the area behind a warm front and ahead of a cold front.
Generally it is dominated by warm air with a high moisture content.
Precipitation stops as the thick stratiform clouds pass. Behind the front
visibility can be expected to be poor as well. Because of the high moisture
content, clouds with a low cloud base (Sc or St) and advection fog may form,
as the warm air mass moves over colder surfaces, especially in winter
(sometimes accompanied by light rain, drizzle, or snow). In summer Cu
formation is more typical. In a warm sector after the front, the wind is typically
coming from the southwest and its speed is steady.
6.2.6. Cold front, associated clouds and

weather
A cold front occurs when a colder air mass replaces a warmer air mass by
forcing the warmer air mass to rise ahead of it. The slope of the cold front is in
the opposite direction of the slope of the warm front. It is tilted in the
opposite direction than the direction of travel. Furthermore, the slope of the
cold front is steeper because the colder air mass is larger than the warmer air
mass, causing greater surface friction.
As we mentioned before, there are two types of cold fronts: an anabatic cold
front and a katabatic cold front. The type of front depends on the movement
of the warm air mass ahead of the front. The movement of an anabatic cold
front is much faster than a katabatic cold front, that is why the frontal surface
of an anabatic cold front is also steeper. In one particular cold front, both
anabatic and katabatic characteristics may appear at the same time. Their
differences will be highlighted below.
Typical clouds and precipitation pattern related to anabatic cold fronts
The clouds of an anabatic cold front are similar to the clouds of a warm front,
but in reverse order. When a cold front approaches the observer, St and Sc
clouds appear first. Depending on the stability of the conditions, a cold front
may lead with a line of thunderstorm (squall line). Close to the front, As then
Ns clouds may form, frequently accompanied by embedded Cu and Cb. As the
front moves away, As, Cs and Ci clouds are observable as can be seen in
Figure 6.8.
The intensity of precipitation accompanying cold fronts varies greatly.

Sometimes showery precipitation may fall ahead of the front from convective
clouds. Along the front, heavy precipitation generally falls from Ns and Cb
with decreasing intensity as the front passes. Light rain falls in a 100-200 km
wide range. The full length of the anabatic cold front varies between
approximately 600 km and 800 km.
Typical clouds and precipitation patterns related to katabatic cold fronts
Clouds typically develop ahead of a katabatic cold front. Rapid movement and
strong winds characterise it. The air mass ahead of the front is characterised
by strong instability. Therefore, first Ac castellanus can be observed, followed
by Cu con and Cb ahead of the front and inside the frontal zone. After the
front passes, precipitation stops quickly and the sky clears. Generally, the
precipitation zone is less wide (50-100 km) but precipitation can be more
locally intense than in the case of an anabatic cold front. A katabatic cold front
may be associated with relatively dry air. In this case, it may pass through
without precipitation.

Generally, mean sea level pressure increases and temperature decreases
rapidly after a cold front passes.
Visibility conditions
Visibility ahead of the front (in the warm sector) is poor because of the high
humidity content of the warmer air mass, which may associated with the
formation of mist and fog as well as convective precipitation. In the frontal
zone, visibility is also poor if precipitation falls. Behind the front, visibility
improves rapidly.
Wind direction and speed
Wind direction close to the surface veers (backs) after the front in the
Northern Hemisphere (Southern Hemisphere) and turns from southwest to
northwest (from northwest to southwest).
Wind is typically gusty and wind speed increases as the front approaches the
observer and further increases can be observed behind the front, especially in
the case of a katabatic cold front.
Hazardous phenomena related to cold fronts
Above the frontal zone, a strong jet stream with severe turbulence can be
found. In Ns, Cu and Cb clouds severe icing is expected. Due to precipitation,
visibility may be reduced significantly. Along the frontal surface, strong wind
shear can be observed in every case.
As thunderstorms are accompanied by lots of hazardous phenomena, cold

fronts with Cb clouds shall be avoided.
Figure 6.8. Structure of a typical (anabatic) cold front in the mid-latitudes
Seasonal variation
In summer, embedded Cb clouds may grow higher and more intense

thunderstorms can be expected, especially in the case of a katabatic cold
front.
6.2.7. Weather behind the cold front

Generally, temperatures drop rapidly after a front passes. In special cases,
increasing temperatures also can be detected temporarily, when in winter
strong inversion can be found ahead of the cold front. In a cold sector,
convection may occur depending on other conditions (especially because of
strong insolation due to clear skies) causing showery precipitation in isolated
regions.
Behind the front, visibility improves rapidly and it is only considered poor in
showery precipitation. Wind speed increases significantly and after the front
passes, it turns right compared to the area ahead of the front.
6.2.8. Occlusions, associated clouds and

weather
Occlusion is the last stage of the cyclone’s life cycle. It forms when a cold
front overtakes a warm front. The warm sector is forced to ascend from the
ground to a higher level. Therefore, the two cold air masses (formerly the
warm front ahead and the cold front below) stay close to the ground and only
one, elongated front called an occluded front stays between the cold sectors.
There are two types of occluded front, depending on the temperatures of the
cold air masses related to each other. If the cold sector ahead of the original
warm front is warmer (colder) then the cold sector behind the cold front, then
it is called a cold (warm) occlusion, which is shown in Figure 6.9. Therefore,
after a cold (warm) occlusion passes, temperatures drop (rise). Cold (warm)
occlusion behaves similarly to a cold front (a warm front).
Typical clouds and precipitation patterns related to occluded fronts
Cloud formation depends on the type of occlusion, but it does not differ
significantly. In both cases, clouds appear in an order similar to that of a warm
front. First Ci and Cs, and then As and Ns form. Above the front, Ns and
embedded Cu and Cb can be found. In the case of a warm occlusion, the
thickness of the clouds is greater. In the case of a cold occlusion, the
probability of embedded Cu and Cb is higher.
As the occluded front approaches the observer, regardless of the type of

occlusion, precipitation is often showery but can have any intensity, as the
frontal clouds of the original warm and cold fronts are melting. Within the
front, continuous precipitation occurs (especially in a cold occlusion). Behind
the front precipitation intensity decreases.
Visibility and wind patterns in the case of a cold (warm) occlusion are similar to
a cold (warm) front
Mean sea level pressure decreases as the front approaches the observer. It is
nearly steady when a front passes over and slightly increases behind the front
Change in temperature depends on the type of occlusion. In the case of a
warm (cold) occlusion, increasing (decreasing) temperatures are expected.
Hazardous phenomena related to occluded fronts
Hazardous phenomena like icing and turbulence are the strongest above the
front, often in Ns and Cb clouds. Precipitation and low-level clouds cause poor
visibility, especially close to the frontal surface. Wind shear is expected as the
aircraft crosses the frontal surface at any level.
Cold occluded: warm front loses contact with ground
Warm occluded: cold front loses contact with ground
Figure 6.9. Cold and warm occlusion

6.2.9. Changes of meteorological
elements in a frontal wave
As a summary, let us consider the typical changes of weather conditions as a
frontal wave passes over in an idealistic case, first with a warm front followed
by the warm and humid warm sector, and then by a cold front and cold sector
behind it, which are shown in Figure 6.11 and Figure 6.12.
Summary of the changes of pressure, temperature and wind patterns in a typical frontal wave along the polar front
Area Pressure Temperature Surface wind Upper wind
cold sector ahead slightly decreasing cold/cool NH: South NH: Northwest
of warm front SH: North SH: Southwest
passing warm front rapidly drops increasing veering
warm sector steady warm NH: Southwest

SH: Northeast
passing cold front increasing decreasing veering depends on the type

of cold front
cold sector behind slightly increasing cold NH: West, Northwest NH: Southwest
cold front SH: East, Southeast SH: Northwest
Figure 6.10. Frontal wave characteristics
The acronyms NH and SH mean the Northern and the Southern Hemisphere,
respectively.
1000
Figure 6.11. Surface wind pattern in a young mid-latitude cyclone (frontal

wave)
Note: Black lines indicate isobars. Arrows indicate wind direction.

Figure 6.12. Cross section of an ideal frontal wave with cold front and warm
front
BEFORE EXAM L"
STUDY TEST
An air mass is a large group of air parcels with nearly homogenous conditions
horizontally.
The main characteristics of a specific air mass are determined by the
temperature and the type of the surface of the source region.
The Bergeron classification is the most frequently used classification of air
masses.
The weather of Europe is mainly affected by five main types of air masses,
which are the maritime arctic (mA), maritime polar (mP), continental polar (cP),
maritime tropical (mT), and continental tropical (cT). The weather is also
sometimes influenced by equatorial air masses (mE, cE).
Generally, maritime air masses bring humid and mild air above the land,
resulting in unstable atmospheric conditions, and leading to cloud formation
and precipitation. Continental air masses have great seasonal variability. They
are generally warm in summer and cold in winter. Maritime air masses vary less
with the season.
Properties of progressing air masses are modified by the underlying surface. The
key factors are the temperature and the type of the surface.
Air masses with different characteristics are separated by weather fronts.
A front can be considered as a one-, two- or three-dimensional object called a
front, a frontal surface and a frontal zone, respectively.
The four main types of weather fronts are the stationary front, cold front, warm
front and occluded front.
In the case of a warm (cold) front, a warmer (colder) air mass replaces a colder
(warmer) air mass.
When an aircraft crosses a frontal surface, rapid changes of atmospheric
conditions can be observed, e.g. in the pressure and temperature fields and in
wind characteristics.
Moving weather fronts in the mid-latitudes are related to mid-latitude cyclones,
which form along the polar front.
Formation of mid-latitude cyclones is described by the polar front theory.
Typically, a cold front that follows a warm front is faster than the latter;
therefore, the cold front overtakes the warm front and an occluded front forms.
resulting in unstable atmospheric conditions, and leading to cloud formation
and precipitation. Continental air masses have great seasonal variability. They
are generally warm in summer and cold in winter. Maritime air masses vary less
with the season.
Properties of progressing air masses are modified by the underlying surface. The
key factors are the temperature and the type of the surface.
Air masses with different characteristics are separated by weather fronts.
A front can be considered as a one-, two- or three-dimensional object called a
front, a frontal surface and a frontal zone, respectively.
The four main types of weather fronts are the stationary front, cold front, warm
front and occluded front.
In the case of a warm (cold) front, a warmer (colder) air mass replaces a colder
(warmer) air mass.
When an aircraft crosses a frontal surface, rapid changes of atmospheric
conditions can be observed, e.g. in the pressure and temperature fields and in
wind characteristics.
Moving weather fronts in the mid-latitudes are related to mid-latitude cyclones,

which form along the polar front.
Formation of mid-latitude cyclones is described by the polar front theory.
Typically, a cold front that follows a warm front is faster than the latter;
therefore, the cold front overtakes the warm front and an occluded front forms.
As a warm front passes, decreasing pressure and increasing temperature is
measurable. During the passage of a cold front, increasing pressure and rapidly
decreasing temperature is observable.
A warm front is generally accompanied by stratiform clouds, while a cold front is
often associated with embedded convective clouds.
The weather of an occluded front is a mixture of the weather of warm and cold
fronts and depends on the type of occlusion. The cloud structure is similar to
the clouds of a warm front.
Hazardous effects related to weather fronts vary with the type of front but
generally include wind shear, turbulence and icing.
Pressure Systems
This chapter begins with the characteristics and locations of the different
types of pressure areas. You will learn the difference between highs and lows,
and what ridges and troughs are. Thermal, orographic, polar and secondary
depressions are explained as well.
The last part of this chapter is dedicated to tropical revolving storms, their
characteristics, origins, locations, names and periods of occurrence.
7.1. The principal pressure areas
7.1.1. Location of the principal pressure

areas
High- and low-pressure areas are determined relative to their environment
and are often referred to simply as "high" and "low". Around the globe there
are quasi-permanent (more or less permanent) high- and low-pressure centres.
Their development is related to the general global circulation i.e. to the wind
systems as was described in Section 2.3. Their distribution is also associated
with the location of the land and sea surfaces and their location and strength
somewhat changes seasonally (Figure 7.1 and Figure 7.2).
High-pressure areas close to the ground that are generally related to

downward motions of air are called ridges while low-pressure areas are
related to rising air and are called troughs. When around a high-pressure area,
closed isobars can be found. Where clockwise (counter-clockwise) circulation
develops in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere, this is called an anticyclone.
Around a low-pressure area with closed isobars circulation is the opposite,
counter-clockwise (clockwise) in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere and
called a cyclone.
High-pressure zones can be found under the Hadley-cell sinking region in the
area around 30° latitude in both hemispheres (Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of
Capricorn), resulting in the subtropical high-pressure zone (also called the
subtropical ridge). The subtropical high zone moves closer to the Equator
during winter and in the opposite direction during summer. Above the poles
where sinking air motions of cold dense air can be found, there are also high-
pressure systems developing especially above land surfaces.
Low-pressure zones are typically found in the region of the polar fronts in
both hemispheres (polar lows), which also have seasonal movements
especially in the Northern Hemisphere. The polar low moves southward
during the winter. Low pressure areas related to polar fronts intensify in
winter. Above the Equator close to the ground, low-pressure zones develop
because of the strong updraft (ITCZ) of warm air. In January (July) they move
Southward (Northward). The location of ITCZ and the associated low-pressure
zones are highly related to the monsoon phenomena (in summer in the
Northern Hemisphere).
These low- or high-pressure zones may deepen locally, where circular air flows
may develop around pressure centres. Therefore, cyclones and anticyclones
form. Around the globe there are some typical locations of high- and low-
pressure centres if we examine mean sea level pressure over longer time
periods. On the polar front, waves typically form that consist of warmer
subtropical air masses (southward) and the colder polar air masses
(northward), resulting in alternating ridges and troughs along the front.
The main quasi-permanent pressure centres of the Northern Hemisphere,

(Figure 7.1) which have a significant effect on the weather are categorised by
the underlying region as follows:
Siberian high The largest cold quasi-persistent anticyclone around the globe,
strengthening in winter (from September to April). In summer months it is
replaced by the northern edge of the Asiatic low. It has a centre generally
located above North and Central Asia but at times may extend over Eastern
and Central Europe. Inside, cold and relatively dry polar air mass can be found
with an often extremely low daily mean temperature (around -40 °C) and
mean sea level pressure of around 1040 hPa at its centre. Inside the Siberian
high-pressure system, the lowest temperature in the Northern Hemisphere
(-67.8 °C) was measured at Oymyakon’s weather station on 6 February 1933.
Also, the global highest mean sea level pressure (1083.3 hPa) was recorded in
Agata, Siberia on 31 December 1968, according to the World Meteorological
Organization.
Azores high The centre of the Azores high can be found over 30°N in the
North Atlantic region but may extend above Southwestern Europe and
Northern Africa. It is a warm anticyclone and is part of the subtropical high
zone. It strengthens in summer and extends polewards, but also exists in
winter. The weather inside is cloudless and warm because of the sinking air
motions. Along its southern edge, easterly perturbations forms associated
with the African easterly jet stream, called tropical easterly waves. These
waves are similar to the waves along the polar front but with less intensity.
This is highly related to tropical cyclone formation in the summer in this
region.
Canadian high (North American High) This is a less intense cold anticyclone
compared to the Siberian high, which also exists only in winter. In summer it
dissipates and is often replaced by a less intense low-pressure air mass.
Aleutian low Located above the North Pacific Ocean at the western coastal
region of Alaska and North Canada, it strengthens in winter and dissipates in
summer when it is sometimes replaced by high pressure. It is the main centre
of mid-latitude cyclone formation over the Northern Pacific region. Cyclones
that are formed in this region move toward Northern Canada.
Icelandic low The centre of this low is generally located above the Atlantic
Ocean between Iceland and Southern Greenland. It strengthens in winter and
weakens in summer. Great parts of mid-latitude cyclones that affect the
weather of Europe originate from this region.
Asiatic low (Monsoon low) Located above South and Southeast Asia, with its
centre generally above Northern India. Its formation is associated with the
monsoon phenomenon. It only exists during summer, as in winter it is replaced
by the Siberian high. Less intense low-pressure zones related to monsoon
phenomena can be found in the Southern Hemisphere as well.
Mediterranean low In winter, a less intense low pressure centre develops

above the Mediterranean Sea, which results in the formation of
Mediterranean cyclones, bringing lots of precipitation into Southern and
Central Europe during winter.
In the Southern Hemisphere, pressure centres are less variable with the
season. Subtropical high-pressure systems are situated primarily above the
maritime regions above the southern Indian Ocean and above the southern
Pacific Ocean and they weaken in winter. Polar high pressure is located above
the Antarctica. Low-pressure zones can be found around 60°S latitude quite
persistently regardless of the season.
Figure 7.1. Mean sea level pressures in January

Average sea-level atmospheric pressures in July
Hectopascal of Pressure
Over 1.024 1.016 to 1.024 1.008 to 1.016 1.000 to 1.008 under 1.000 High-Pressure Low-Pressure
Cell Cell
Figure 7.2. Mean sea level pressures in July
STUDY TEST
7.2. Anticyclone
7.2.1. Anticyclones, types, general

properties, cold and warm anticyclones,
ridges, subsidence
As was already discussed in the previous chapter, anticyclones are high-
pressure areas with closed isobars and with horizontal clockwise (counter
clockwise) circulation around a vertical axis in the Northern (Southern)
Hemisphere and with mostly sinking vertical air flows inside.
High-pressure areas close to the ground are generally related to the

convergence of air flow at high altitudes. Therefore, sinking movements of the
air are observed. As the area reaches the ground, wind blows outward from
the centre, which is called divergence. Sinking air creates high-pressure zones
close to the ground.
As was described in Section 1.3, high- and low-pressure centres can also
develop at higher levels, called upper-level highs and upper-level lows when
they are not recognisable on surface pressure maps, but only at higher levels.
In the case of upper-level highs the primary driving factor of formation is the
cold and dense air close to the ground extending upward, resulting in sinking
air motions.
Ridges
Warm high-pressure systems with thicker layers vertically between isobars
(because of their relatively high temperature in relation to their environment)
lead to a ridge-shaped (also could be characterised as "U"-shaped)
phenomena; therefore, it is called a ridge or wedge. Ridges do not necessarily
have closed isobars or at least they may in a smaller area; therefore, anti
cyclones in certain cases can be considered a component of a ridge. Ridges do
not necessarily contain anticyclones with closed isobars. Large-scale regions
of high pressure frequently form along the polar front as a part of the Rossby
waves, alternating with low-pressure areas.
Types of anticyclones
Anticyclones generally form as part of a ridge. Two main types can be
distinguished beyond the classification by their temperature relative to the
environment as we saw in Chapter 7:
1. Anticyclones that exist quasi-permanently (more or less permanently)

belong to the first group.
High-pressure systems that were described in Chapter 7 are contained

in this group. They are associated with areas around the globe where
sinking movements of the air are observable (e.g. the subtropical high
zone, polar high zone).
2. Anticyclones that form in mid-latitudes and show great variability belong

to the second group.
In Section 1.3 and Section 6.2.3, we discussed how along the polar front
a chain of low- and high-pressure zones (troughs and ridges) alternate
with each other. They propagate with the Rossby waves. The second
group contain these types of anticyclones that are located between low-
pressure areas along the polar front.
However, sometimes the movement of cyclones and anticyclones can slow

down if some obstacle crosses their tracks. In this case, blocking anticyclones
may form, which are considered a subtype of 2). They are explained in more
detail below.
Other classifications of anticyclones are based on their temperature relative to

the surrounding environment. Therefore, we can distinguish cold and warm
anticyclones. Warm anticyclones form mainly because of sinking air that
originates from the Hadley cell. Therefore, they are built from higher altitudes
toward the ground. In other words, the air pressure decreases as the height
decreases. On the contrary, cold anticyclones form above colder land surfaces;
therefore, they contain colder and denser air. Because cold anticyclones are
built from the ground up, the air pressure decreases as height increases.
Consequently, at higher levels low-pressure zones can sometimes be found.
Vertical cross sections of isobars of the above-mentioned cases can be seen in
Section 1.3.4 in Figure 1.42 and Figure 1.43.
Weather in ridges and anticyclones in the mid-latitudes
Both ridges and anticyclones are characterised by sinking air motions

(subsidence), which may cause stable atmospheric conditions. This can lead to
the dissipation of clouds because of the adiabatic warming of the sinking air.
These processes may lead to the formation of an inversion layer (subsidence
inversion) at middle level. Therefore, in summer, weather characteristic of a
ridge and an anticyclone is fair most of the time: clear, warm and dry. In winter
these conditions favour the formation of fog, low-level St clouds and the
accumulation of air pollutants. If the conditions are appropriate for several
days and the winds are calm, cold air pools may develop, especially over
basins. Therefore, in winter visibility conditions are generally poor. In St clouds
at low level, icing may occur and sometimes drizzle is also expected.
Furthermore, freezing fog may form leading to icing of the aircraft even during
parking. Regarding winds, the following can be said. Close to the centre, the
wind is calm. It strengthens toward the edges of the system. It flows clockwise
(counter-clockwise) around the centre in the case of closed
isobars(anticyclones) in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere. Ideal wind
patterns close to the surface and at higher levels related to anticyclones were
depicted in Section 2.3 from Figure 2.34 to Figure 2.37 and in Figure 2.38.
Weather in cold and warm anticyclones
Warm anticyclones are associated with the "classic" summer anticyclonic

weather in mid-latitudes, which was described above. Air at high altitudes is
warmer than its environment and so high pressure can be identified on high-
level weather charts. It typically forms over subtropical regions and in mid
latitudes. The temperature increases from the edges to the centre.
In cold anticyclones, the air is colder than its environment. Typically, they form
over the arctic and polar regions. Temperatures decrease from the edges to
the centre. Inside, sometimes light precipitation (drizzle) may occur.
Blocking situation
As we mentioned before, sometimes cyclones and anticyclones that
propagate with Rossby waves slow down if an obstacle crosses their tracks.
For example, if an intense anticyclone builds up then it can obstruct the
propagation of the pressure systems behind it. In a blocking situation,
characteristic flow patterns can be recognised on the upper levels of the
tropopause, with more or less stationary air flows. The term blocking comes
from the obstruction of the main flow, which is directed west to east (called
zonal flow).
Note: It is worth mentioning that sometimes blocking can be so intense that it may
lead to the formation of east-to-west flow. In this case pressure systems make
retrograde movements. As an example, the Rex blocking is mentioned.
In this case the flow turns to be meridional (directed north to south or south
to north). Based on the above, pressure systems in a blocking situation are
stationary; in other words, they stay in the same place for several days or even
for weeks. In low-pressure systems, this may cause an extreme amount of
precipitation while in high-pressure systems it may cause drought or the
formation of cold air pools in winter at mid-latitudes.
These blockings can be recognised by characteristic pressure distributions on

high-level charts. The main types of blocking are as follows:
Blocking anticyclone (blocking high, cut-off high) It is a high-pressure system

cut away from the main zonal flow. It causes calm, dry and warmer weather
resulting in droughts or the formation of cold air pools in the affected areas.
Cut-off cyclone (cut-off low) In this case a low-pressure system cut away
from the polar front with closed isobars and their movement is not connected
to the main westerly air flow any more. Because of this they slow down and
they may get stuck in one place for several days until their dissipation. This
can be considered to be cold-air drops, which are the subject of Section 8.3.
Rex blocking Consists of an intense low-pressure area and a strong high-
pressure area. They are located more or less at the same longitude. The high-
pressure area is located northward and the low is southward in the Northern
Hemisphere. Between them a westerly flow is reversed and becomes easterly;
in other words, a retrograde motion is observable.
Omega blocking Consists of two low-pressure systems and one high-

pressure, which forms an omega-shaped structure.
There is no characteristic seasonality in their development, but spatially there

are locations where blocking typically occur. See the figure below.
Figure 7.3. General location of blocking situations
STUDY TEST
7.3. Non-frontal depressions
7.3.1. Thermal, orographic, polar and

secondary depressions; troughs
After the description of high-pressure systems, low-pressure systems (also
called depressions or simply lows) will be described. They develop in different
ways at ground level; most of the time they form because of a high-level
divergence or a low-level convergence, which leads to upward motions of air.
If we consider the three-cell model of general global circulation, then we can
conclude that zones between the Ferrel cell and the polar cell as well as along
the Equator are advantageous for the formation of low-pressure systems.
Low-pressure areas may also form in other ways. They may form locally by
uplifting thermal effects, called thermal lows, and by orography, called
orographic lows. It is a common phenomenon for low pressure to develop on
the edge of a well-developed or a dissipating mid-latitude cyclone, called
secondary lows. Cyclonic rotation and low-pressure areas may form on smaller
scales (mesoscale) i.e. in the case of strong thunderstorms like supercell
storms (mesocyclone). Low-pressure areas may also develop at higher levels of
the atmosphere. These are called upper-level lows when they do not have any
noticeable effect on the surface pressure field.
Troughs
The most prominent areas in mid-latitudes where low pressure systems
develop are along the polar front in the troughs of the Rossby waves. Troughs
are "V"-shaped low-pressure areas, which do not necessarily contain closed
isobars. However, they may contain cyclones on their eastern sides. Troughs
may form along the polar front. They alternate with ridges as they propagate
with the Rossby waves. Sometimes they can be found separately from the
polar front as well.
Cyclones
If a counter-clockwise (also called cyclonic) rotation forms around a low-
pressure centre in the Northern Hemisphere and at mid-latitude cyclones (in
other words, extratropical cyclones) form, one of the most important weather
phenomena. Their formation and associated weather fronts were already
discussed in detail in Section 6.2.3 related to weather fronts.
Low-pressure systems can also form in the subtropical and tropical regions.
Depressions in tropical regions are a type of thermal low and will be discussed
in Section 7.4.
In the following section, the formation of low-pressure systems besides polar

lows will be discussed. These are as follows:
1. Thermal lows
2. Secondary lows
3. Orographic lows
4. Upper-level lows
Thermal lows
Low-pressure systems may develop as the consequence of strong convection,

without any connection to larger-scale weather phenomena. Because of the
strong insolation, air close to the ground warms up while it becomes less
dense. It starts to rise, resulting in the decrease of pressure close to the
ground, forming a low-pressure system there. These are called thermal lows.
Local winds such as sea breezes and mountain winds are associated with
thermal lows, because of the different degree of warming regarding sea and
land surfaces as well as mountain valleys and slopes. Low-pressure zones (thus
the ITCZ) along the Equator are also a result of the above-mentioned thermal
effect. Tropical storms and tropical cyclones, which are the topic of the next
chapter also form because of thermal effects.
Secondary lows
When a mid-latitude cyclone weakens in the vicinity of the occluded front
with a low-pressure area forming, a new (secondary) low-pressure area may
form. Generally, these secondary lows circulate counter-clockwise (clockwise)
around the primary pressure centre in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere.
Orographic lows
Formation of low pressure areas also may relate to orographic winds.

Orography, as was mentioned several times, has a great effect on air flows. In
special cases these lows are situated on the lee side of large mountains (e.g.
the Andes, Rocky Mountains and Alps) and a low-pressure area may develop,
which may lead to cyclone formation, or more precisely, the formation of an
orographic low. Orographic lows generally form when the edge of a mid
latitude cyclone crosses an orographic obstacle.
Upper-level lows
Upperlevel lows are only observable at higher levels in the troposphere. In this
case a low-pressure area does not extend to the surface and closed isobars
can only be detected at high levels. This situation may happen in relation to
the troughs of the polar front, when a high level low-pressure centre is cut off
(also called cut-off lows or cold-air drops). Typically, it causes persistent
weather for several days above a region as it is detached from the main zonal
(westerly) flow.
Polar vortex is also a low-pressure area over the poles in the upper
troposphere, which makes it an upper-level low with cyclonic rotation. It can
extend into the lower stratosphere. Inside the vortex cold and dense air mass
can be found. It is more intense in winter than in summer when it often breaks
down into several smaller vortices. When it is weaker it may move to mid
latitudes causing strong cold outbreaks.
Weather in low-pressure systems

Weather in low-pressure systems is accompanied by ascending air flows.
Therefore, the formation of clouds is generally observable, as the sky is
cloudy. However, precipitation and other weather phenomena show great
variability. Idealised wind patterns close to the surface and at high-levels
related to lows were depicted in Section 2.3 from Figure 2.34 to Figure 2.37
and in Figure 2.38.
In summary severe weather phenomena are generally related to low-pressure

zones because in these regions upward motions are prevalent, which are
essential for the formation of clouds and precipitation.
STUDY TEST
7 A. Tropical revolving storms
7.4.1. Characteristics of tropical

revolving storms
Tropical revolving storms (henceforth called tropical cyclones) rotate
thermally-formed low-pressure systems in a counter-clockwise (clockwise)
direction in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere. Their axis of rotation is
perpendicular to the ground surface. We emphasise that tropical cyclones do
not contain weather fronts. They are often accompanied by strong winds and
heavy precipitation.
Necessary conditions for formation

The key factors regarding the formation of tropical cyclones are as follows.
They form only above sea surfaces where the temperature is at least 26.5 °C.
Furthermore, unstable atmospheric conditions and large amounts of humidity
are required. Tropical cyclones form between 5° and 30° in both hemispheres.
They do not form along the Equator.
Note: In a rotating reference frame, it can be explained with the lack of the Coriolis
force, which does not act on horizontal movement along the Equator. Therefore,
cyclonic rotation cannot develop.
Strong and permanent air flow does not help its formation. After reaching the
land surface, due to the reduced amount of available humidity, they are
quickly weakened and so they dissipate. Along the southern edge of the
subtropical high region, wave-like disturbances with easterly flows (tropical
easterly waves) can be found over the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. These
show a similarity to the Rossby waves along the polar front, with their
alternating ridges and troughs, but on smaller scale. The low-pressure areas of
these waves are highly related to the formation of tropical cyclones.
Generally, tropical cyclones reach their strongest stage at the west coastal
region of the oceans. Over the eastern regions colder sea currents reduce the
sea surface temperatures. Another effect is related to the subsidence
inversion of the Hadley cell, which is also stronger above the eastern regions,
restricting convection. Furthermore, as tropical cyclones move to the west
they accumulate more warm and moist air and therefore they strengthening.
Movement of tropical cyclones

After their development tropical cyclones typically move westward but do not
leave the tropical latitudes. Later, in the Northern Hemisphere, their
movements tend to be to the northwest, north and finally northeast but exact
movements are difficult to forecast. Please note that tropical cyclones may
reach mid-latitudes but with a significantly altered structure, which is similar
to the mid-latitude cyclones.
Stages of development
Stages of tropical cyclone development are determined by the maximum wind
speeds they contain. The thresholds were assigned by the National Hurricane
Centre (abbreviated as NHC) of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (abbreviated as NOAA) of the United States of America. The
four main stages of development, distinguished by wind speed threshold
values, are tropical disturbance, tropical depression, tropical storm and the
strongest, severe tropical cyclone:
1. In the first stage, convective cells develop above the warm sea surface
with a strong updraft resulting in thunderstorms. This irregular group of
heavy thunderstorms is called a tropical disturbance. As the updraft
reaches the tropopause the air spreads radially, creating a divergence.
This process results in the convergence of the air near the surface,
causing low pressure. Convergence helps the warm and moist air inflow
toward the low-pressure area. Release of latent heat during
condensation is generally mentioned as the main reinforcing factor
during tropical cyclone formation, which gives additional heat for
convection.
2. In the next stage, a tropical depression develops. Thunderstorms are
formed in bands around a deepening low-pressure centre (with closed
isobars). These are bands of alternating upward and downward flows,
with increasing strength and increasing wind speeds inward. A weak
irregular but circular rotation can be observed around the low-pressure
area. Surface winds inside the cyclone may reach approximately 61 km/h
(34 kt).
3. In the next stage, a tropical storm develops. The low pressure becomes
concentrated, a horizontal cyclonic rotation develops around it, and
therefore a symmetric circular system forms. In the centre the air rises
and the tropopause spreads radially. In this stage the maximum surface
winds may reach approximately 61-119 km/h (34-63 kt) (This stage is
sometimes further divided into the tropical storm and severe tropical
storm categories.)
4. As the cyclonic rotation strengthens, downward air motions appears in

the centre, which leads to the dissipation of clouds and the formation of
a cloudless area inside, called the "eye" of the system. It can be seen in
Figure 7.4 and Figure 7.5. When wind speeds exceed 119 km/h (above
64 kt), we call the system a severe tropical cyclone (its name varies with
location such as hurricane, typhoon, etc.). In the low-pressure centre,
mean sea level pressure may decrease under 900 hPa. Hereinafter for
the sake of simplicity, this stage will be referred to as a tropical cyclone.
Based on the damage caused by the tropical cyclone, five categories of

tropical cyclones are distinguished, categorized by numbers from 1 to 5.
Characteristic wind speeds are associated with these numbers, as summarised
in the table below.
Categories of tropical cyclones
Category Wind speed

’ 119-153 km/h
_______________ ____________________________ (64-82 kt)____________
154-177 km/h
2 (83-95 kt)
3 178-208 km/h
(96-112 kt)
209-251 km/h
4
(113-136 kt)
252 km/h <
5
137 kt
The size of a tropical cyclone in its mature stage is generally smaller than a
mid-latitude cyclone. Its diameter varies between 400 to 800 km and rarely
reaching 1000 km. The diameter of the eye varies between 20 to 40 km.
Weather in tropical cyclones

Cb clouds in tropical cyclones may reach the tropopause. On the top of the
tropical cyclone a thick Ci cloud layer can be found, which is spread radially
and which indicates the presence of the storm. As is expected, because of its
structure, precipitation falls in bands and the eye is cloudless. A warm and
calm area can be found inside the cyclone while as the observer reaches the
wall of it, strong winds are expected on both sides of the wall with opposite
wind directions. All in all, tropical cyclones cause massive destruction because
of their extremely strong winds and utmost care is necessary near such
storms. On the edge of the tropical cyclone, winds and precipitation are not as
intense.
Altitude (km)
Figure 7.4. Typical structure of a tropical cyclone in its mature stage

Figure 7.5. Hurricane Irma above the Bahamas in 2017 captured by NASA’s
satellite
7.4.2. Origin and local names, location

and period of occurrence
The occurrence of tropical cyclones is more typical in the Northern
Hemisphere (two-thirds of them are formed here) and they never cross the
Equator. They form from spring to the middle of autumn, especially in late
summer in both hemispheres. This period is often called the hurricane season.
The annual number of tropical cyclones globally varies approximately from 30

to 60 cases per year, while tropical storms are between 70 and 100 cases per
year (based on the data of the NHC from 1981-2016).
By region, tropical cyclones occur most frequently in the northwest region of

the Pacific Ocean (off the coast of southeastern China and above the
Philippines) on an average of 17 times per year. On average, nine cases per
year occur in the northeast and central regions of the Pacific ocean. In the
Atlantic region, on average six cases per year are detected. They causes the
largest damage in the USA along the coastal line of its southeastern region.
Five cases per year are observable above the southwest region of the Indian
Ocean and on average five cases per year happen along the coastal line of
Australia over southwest Pacific also. Four cases per year happen above the
western side of Australia over the southeastern portion of the Indian Ocean.
Tropical cyclones are also detected some years above the north Indian Ocean
at an average of two cases per year.
Tropical cyclone distribution
Figure 7.6. Typical regions of the occurrence of tropical cyclones and their
names in different regions
In different areas tropical cyclones have different names. In North America, in

the west Atlantic and east Pacific region, it is known as a hurricane. In the
western Pacific region, at the coastal region of Asia and Indonesia it is called a
typhoon. At the eastern coast of Africa, above the Indian-Ocean and in
Australia it is known as a tropical cyclone or simply a cyclone.
Tropical cyclones with great intensity get custom names for easier
identification. Names are given according to their place of origin in slightly
different ways depending on their geographic location. For example, in the
USA they get their names in alphabetical order from a predefined list with
alternating female and male names, created by the World Meteorological
Organization. It starts over again every year from the letter A.
BEFORE EXAM L"

Large areas with a typical mean sea level pressure pattern are related to the
large-scale sinking and rising of air flows in the general global circulation.
High-pressure areas are called ridges, low-pressure areas are called troughs.
High- (low-) pressure areas with closed isobars close to the surface with
clockwise (counter-clockwise) circulation in the Northern Hemisphere are called
anticyclones (cyclones).
Main zones of quasi-permanent high pressure can be found at the Hadley cell
sinking branch around 30° latitudes in both hemispheres.
Typical low-pressure zones can be found along the polar front and along the
Equator.
Main pressure centres over the Northern Hemisphere were named by the
underlying area (e.g. Azores).
The most important high-pressure centres of the Northern Hemisphere are the
Siberian high, Azores high and Canadian high. The quasi-permanent low-
pressure centres of the Northern Hemisphere related to mid-latitude cyclone
formation are the Aleutian low and the Icelandic low.
Other low-pressure zones with a significant extent can be found in the summer
above Southern Asia and are related to the monsoon phenomenon. These
quasi-permanent pressure zones have typical seasonal variations in their
location and strength.
Anticyclones are high-pressure areas with closed isobars on surface weather
maps. They have a clockwise (counter-clockwise) rotation around their centres
in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere.
High pressure areas are related to convergence of the air flow at high levels and
divergence close to the ground.
Ridges are large-scale high-pressure areas. Anticyclones can result, but not
necessarily.
Weather inside ridges and anticyclones is similar. In summer it is clear, warm
and dry. In winter it is cold because of the cooling of the surface from terrestrial
radiation. Therefore, fog and low-level St formation is expected with poor
visibility conditions.
Warm anticyclones form at higher altitudes in the subtropical high zone and are
Anticyclones are high-pressure areas with closed isobars on surface weather
maps. They have a clockwise (counter-clockwise) rotation around their centres
in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere.
High pressure areas are related to convergence of the air flow at high levels and
divergence close to the ground.
Ridges are large-scale high-pressure areas. Anticyclones can result, but not
necessarily.
Weather inside ridges and anticyclones is similar. In summer it is clear, warm
and dry. In winter it is cold because of the cooling of the surface from terrestrial
radiation. Therefore, fog and low-level St formation is expected with poor
visibility conditions.
Warm anticyclones form at higher altitudes in the subtropical high zone and are
characterised by fair weather.
Cold anticyclones form at the lower levels of the atmosphere. Above them,
sometimes low-pressure systems can be found; therefore, light precipitation
may occur..
In a blocking situation, the propagation of Rossby waves is obstructed.
There are four main types of blocking situations: blocking anticyclone, cut-off
cyclones, rex blocking and omega blocking.
Blocking anticyclones are high pressure systems that obstruct the flow at the
mid-latitudes, resulting in permanent weather above large regions.
Low pressure areas may develop in different ways than in high pressure areas.
The main types of low-pressure systems are polar low, thermal low, secondary
low, orographic low and upper-level low.
Thermal low develops when the air warms up close to the ground.
Orographic lows form on the lee side of large mountains.
Secondary lows form in relation to existing low-pressure systems.
Upper-level lows are cut off from the upper level westerly flow along the polar
front.
In low-pressure systems the sky is often cloudy, and often holds precipitation.
Severe weather is usually related to low-pressure systems.
Tropical cyclones are rotating low-pressure systems that form above warm sea
surfaces in the tropical region between 5-30°. Their average diameter is
between 400 km and 800 km.
may occur..
In a blocking situation, the propagation of Rossby waves is obstructed.
There are four main types of blocking situations: blocking anticyclone, cut-off
cyclones, rex blocking and omega blocking.
Blocking anticyclones are high pressure systems that obstruct the flow at the
mid-latitudes, resulting in permanent weather above large regions.
Low pressure areas may develop in different ways than in high pressure areas.
The main types of low-pressure systems are polar low, thermal low, secondary
low, orographic low and upper-level low.
Thermal low develops when the air warms up close to the ground.
Orographic lows form on the lee side of large mountains.
Secondary lows form in relation to existing low-pressure systems.
Upper-level lows are cut off from the upper level westerly flow along the polar
front.
In low-pressure systems the sky is often cloudy, and often holds precipitation.
Severe weather is usually related to low-pressure systems.
Tropical cyclones are rotating low-pressure systems that form above warm sea
surfaces in the tropical region between 5-30°. Their average diameter is
between 400 km and 800 km.
Tropical cyclones are often accompanied by heavy rainfall and extremely strong
winds. Even though they quickly weaken over land surfaces, they can cause
significant damage to islands and coastal areas.
Their formation requires an unstable atmosphere and a sea surface temperature
above 26.5 °C, with a large amount of humidity and calm winds.
The life stages of its formation are tropical disturbance, tropical depression,
tropical storm and (severe) tropical cyclone. To distinguish between stages, wind
speed threshold values are used. In the fourth stage wind speed reaches
119 km/h (64 kt).
The occurrence of tropical cyclones is recorded to be between 30-60 cases per
year. Two-third of them occur in the Northern Hemisphere.
Climatology
For a particular flight, current weather conditions and forecast regarding the
flight route are the most important meteorological information. Climatology
focuses on average and extremal values of atmospheric variables over longer
time periods, for example over years or decades. This information seems not
to be so important for a particular flight. However, climatological datasets
provide useful supplementary information about weather conditions that are
specific for a region. For example, at FL250 over the polar regions, we do not
expect the formation of severe thunderstorm in summer, but we expect to
encounter severe clear-air turbulence and wind shear in the tropopause.
Another example is the orientation of an aerodrome. Runway shall be
constructed so that it takes into account the prevailing wind direction which is
specific to the region.
Regions with similar distribution of temperature and precipitation, can be

divided into climate zones. In the last 150 years, several classifications were
published. We explain climate zones according to Koeppen’s climatic
classification. After that, climatic conditions of the tropics and mid-latitudes
will be explained in more details. Tropical climate weather phenomena
associated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone such as mesoscale
convective systems, tropical easterly waves and monsoon are described. Mid
latitudes climate weather phenomena concerning low and high pressure areas
such as cold-air drops and cold-air pool, respectively, will be explained. Finally,
we discuss local winds associated with specific regions, such as foehn winds,
fall winds and desert winds.
8.1. Climatic zones
8.1.1. Explanation of general circulation

in the troposphere and lower
stratosphere
In the previous chapters, we have described atmospheric processes both on
larger and smaller scales that determine the weather on the Earth. The
average states of larger scale atmospheric motions such as wind systems can
be characteristic for certain areas. For example, the region where the
prevailing westerlies are observable in the Northern Hemisphere is well-
determined, i.e. between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle. Because
of this, regions can be characterised by the long-term average values of
atmospheric variables such as temperature, pressure, humidity, wind and
precipitation over a long time period. This is called the climate. The discipline
among atmospheric sciences that focuses on climate is called climatology.
To understand the climatic conditions of the Earth, first the general circulation
of the Earth’s atmosphere should be explained, which can be seen in
Section 2.3. We described the atmosphere in an idealised state, called the
three-cell conceptual model of general global circulation. Please have a look at
Figure 2.30 where three circulation cells can be found symmetrical to the
geographical Equator in both hemispheres. It is also shown in section a) in
Figure 8.1. Assume that:
1. the surface of the Earth is built from the same substance; and
2. the Earth has a non-zero axial tilt.
In this case, the surface is heated unevenly, so the largest amount of insolation
can be measured along the Equator where the warmer and lighter air starts to
ascend and a low-pressure zone is formed. The air diverges just below the
tropopause and flows in the direction of the poles. The air becomes colder and
starts to sink along the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, which
results in subtropical high zones. After reaching the Earth's surface, the air
diverges. Firstly, some air flows in the direction of the Equator in both
hemispheres, leading to convergence and the development of the Intertropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) as well as of Hadley cells, whose rotation is
clockwise. Secondly, some divergent air flows in the direction of the higher
latitudes. The smallest amount of insolation can be measured over the poles.
The mass of the air increases as its temperature decreases; therefore, the air
starts to sink over the poles, creating the polar high-pressure zone. It diverges
above the surface and flows in the direction of the Equator. The warmer air
mass that flows in the direction of the poles collides with the colder air mass
and begins to rise up over it. The resulting rising air diverges above the
tropopause and flows in the direction of the poles and the Equator, causing
the formation of polar circulation cells with clockwise rotation as well as Ferrel
cells with anticlockwise rotation.
Winds that blow most frequently over certain latitudes, called prevailing
winds, and the associated atmospheric pressure distribution were described in
Section 2.3.1. It is worth mentioning that each wind system has a name used
mainly by Spanish, Portuguese, English and French sailors in the Age of
Exploration between the 15th and 18th centuries. A summary can be seen in
section b) in Figure 8.1. The tropical easterlies (in other words, trade winds)
are observable between the geographic latitudes ca. 10° and ca. 20°. Along
the Equator the northeasterly and southeasterly trade winds meet in a
confluence, leading to calm conditions or light wind near the surface, which is
dangerous for sailing. This zone between ca. 5°N and 5°S is known as the
doldrums. Above the subtropical high zones, along ca. 30°, sinking movements
of the air lead to wind calm. This zone is known as the horse latitudes because
sailors once had to throw horses off their ships due to shortages of fresh
water and food (assumption, not proven). Westerly winds and low-pressure
systems (e.g. cyclones) at middle latitudes (henceforth, mid-latitudes) may
form between ca. 40° and ca. 60°. This is the zone of the prevailing westerlies.
Due to their strong and steady nature, these winds are called the roaring
forties, indicating the latitude of their occurrence. Polar easterlies are found at
latitudes higher than ca. 60°. To understand the flow directions of the above-
mentioned wind systems, forces acting on atmospheric motions shall be
examined. For this purpose, see Chapter 2.
Please keep in mind that close to the troposphere and in the lower
stratosphere, increasing wind speeds can be measured in association with jet
streams. Seasonal variability is observable regarding wind directions. In
general, easterly (westerly) winds blow in the summer (winter).
From a climatological point of view, we emphasise that on the basis of the

three-cell model, one can expect the formation of horizontally-distributed
climate zones (in other words, climate groups) around the globe as is shown in
Figure 8.1. These idealised climate zones can be called solar climate zones and
may form symmetrically around the Equator in both hemispheres. They are as
follows:
• Tropical rain climate

• Subtropical climate
• Temperate climate
• Polar (or subpolar) climate
On the basis of what was previously described, we can easily list the main
characteristics of the solar climate zones.
Regions with tropical rain climate may be hot and rainy because of the strong
convergence of the ITCZ there.
Subtropical climate may be associated with the zone of the tropical easterlies
as well as the subtropical high zone where a strong downdraft is present,
acting against the formation of precipitation. Hot and dry weather as well as
large diurnal variations in the air temperature may be expected.
In regions with a temperate climate, westerly winds and mid-latitude cyclones

prevail. This climate zone may be rainy and colder than the tropical and
subtropical climate zones since it is at a greater distance from the Equator.
The coldest weather may occur in the polar (or subpolar) climate zone. In
these regions the air pressure is relatively high, which acts against the
development of precipitation. Dry weather may be observable within
prevailing easterly winds.
b)
90’N
Polar (or subpolar)
climate zone J Polar easterlies
Temperate climate zone
( Westedies (roanng forties)
Subtropical climate zone Horse latitudes
Tropical easterlies (trade winds)

Tropical climate zone O' Dotdiums
Tropical easterlies (trade winds)
Subtropical dimate zone 30 Horse latitudes
'*■ Westerfies (roaring forties)

Temperate climate zone
Polar (or subpolar) \ Polar easterlies
climate zone
90° S
Figure 8.1. Three-cell conceptual model of the general global circulation

associated with idealised climate zones
Note: Numbers 1, 2 and 3 indicate the Hadley cells, the Ferrel cells and the polar
circulation cells, respectively. Letters L and H denote low-pressure zones and high-
pressure zones, respectively. Arrows indicate the typical wind directions.
However, among realistic conditions, the solar climate zones are modified by
the following external influences:
1. The surface of the Earth is not homogeneous, which means that

different surface types are observable with varying heat capacities,
leading to uneven heating of the surface over the same latitude.
2. Distribution of continents and oceans as well as mountainous regions

lead to the formation of climate zones that are asymmetric to the
Equator. The amount of landmass is smaller in the Southern Hemisphere
than in the Northern Hemisphere.
Because of influences in 1. and 2., the Northern Hemisphere warms up

and cools down more slowly than the Southern Hemisphere during the
year, causing a different distribution of the climate zones in the two
hemispheres.
3. The axis of the Earth is not perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic,
causing seasonal changes in insolation.
One of the prominent effects above is that the ITCZ does not coincide with
the geographical Equator. Another consequence is the seasonal movement of
the ITCZ. The formation of climate zones and the influences of the above-
mentioned factors on them are the subject of climatology.
8.1.2. Climatic classification

Explanation of the climatic classification
On the basis of different climatic conditions, the Earth's climate can be
classified into groups, which is called climatic classification. In the following
section, one of the prominent climatic classifications Koeppen’s climatic
classification, will be explained. It was introduced by Russian-born German
geographer and climatologist Wladimir Koeppen in the last decades of the
19th century.
According to Koeppen’s climatic classification five main climate zones can be

distinguished, which are denoted by uppercase A, B, C, D and E, respectively.
These are as follows:
A. Tropical rain climates
B. Dry climates (or arid climates)
C. Mid-latitude climates (or temperate rain climates)
D. Snow-forest climates
E. Polar climates
The above-mentioned main climate zones are distinguished on the basis of the
monthly mean temperature of the coldest or warmest month over the year
(except the dry climate).
The main climate zones can be divided into groups (henceforth, subclasses)
based on the amount and distribution of precipitation, with the exception of
the polar climate. These subclasses are denoted by f, m, w, s, W, S, T, F, which
means:
• f: humid (uniformly distributed precipitation during the whole year)

• m monsoon
• w: dry winter
• s: dry summer
• W: desert
• S: steppe
• T: tundra
• F: frost
In the following section,the main climate zones and their subclasses according
to Koeppen’s climatic classification are characterised and the typical locations
of these climatic zones are described.
The distribution of the main climate zones on the Earth can be seen in the
figure below.
World map of Koppen climate classification for 1901-2010
Tropical Mild temperate Polar
Figure 8.2. Main climate zones according to Koeppen’s climatic classification
A: Tropical rain climates
Regions with tropical rain climates can mostly be found along the Equator.
Due to the previously-listed factors that influence the Earth’s climate, these
zones are between ca. 10°N and 30°S. For example, areas in Central America,
Central Africa, Southeast Asia and the northern part of Australia belong to this
climate zone. The mean temperature of the coldest month is above 18 °C. The
following four subclasses can be distinguished.
Af - Tropical rainforest climate
In regions that belong to the subclass of tropical rainforest climate, the

amount of precipitation exceeds 60 mm every month. Therefore, these are hot
and wet areas of the Earth. Due to the uniformly distributed precipitation and
temperature, no seasonal changes are observable in this climate.
Am - Tropical monsoon climate

Over regions with tropical monsoon climates some months are relatively dry.
In general, the amount of precipitation does not reach 60 mm in the driest
month but exceeds 4 % of the total yearly precipitation. We will see in
Section 8.2.3 that over monsoon areas, the driest months occur mainly in
winter. Consequently two seasons, namely dry and wet seasons, are
recognisable over these territories.
Aw and As - Tropical savanna climate (or tropical transitional climate)
In regions with a tropical savanna climate, the amount of precipitation does

not reach 60 mm in the driest month and is less than 4 % of the total yearly
precipitation. The notation As is used when the driest month occurs close to
the summer solstice. Otherwise Aw is used. The tropical savanna climate is
also known as a tropical transitional climate. Two seasons can be recognised: a
drier season when the tropical easterlies with northeasterly wind directions
dominate and a wetter season when the ITCZ penetrates this region and the
formation of Cb clouds intensifies.
B: Dry climates
Regions with dry climates are located mainly along the subtropical high zones
between ca. 10°N and ca. 40°N as well as between ca. 30°S and ca. 40°S. The
proportion of these areas in the Southern Hemisphere (e.g. Australia’s interior)
is much smaller than in the Northern Hemisphere (e.g. the western part of
North America, the Sahara, the Arabian Peninsula and Inner Asia). However,
they also can form over higher geographic latitudes, for example in Patagonia
and Argentina due to orographic reasons. Dry climates can be classified into
two subclasses, which are as follows.
BS - Steppe climates
Over regions with steppe climates precipitation falls regularly one or two
months of the year. Two seasons are distinguishable in which the air
temperature differs significantly.
BW - Desert climates
Over regions with desert climates precipitation falls occasionally throughout

the year. The strongest diurnal variations in air temperature can be measured
on the Earth in this climate zone.
C: Mid-latitude climates (temperate rain climates)
Regions with mid-latitude climates show greater variability regarding the

temperature than tropical and dry climates. The mean temperature of the
coldest month is between -3 °C and 18 °C. In these climate zones all four
seasons are observable. Temperature and precipitation have strong
seasonality. Strong annual variations in temperature are observable. However,
which season is the wettest and the driest depends on the region. The
following three subclasses can be distinguished.
Cs - Mediterranean climates (or temperate transitional climates)
These climate zones are associated with wet winters and dry summers. Similar
to the tropical savanna climate, Mediterranean climates can be considered
transitional climates. In summer, the subtropical high zone is closer to these
regions; therefore, the chance of clouds and precipitation formation
decreases. Hot or warm summers are expected. In winter, mid-latitude cyclone
tracks can be found over lower latitudes, consequently increasing the amount
of precipitation and mild weather, which can be expected in winter as the
effect of the ocean increases. The Northern Hemisphere, the coastal areas of
the Mediterranean Sea, the Southern Hemisphere and the southwest part of
Australia all belong to this type of climate zone.
Cw - Subtropical highland climates
Over regions with subtropical highland climates, warm temperate rain climates
with wet summers and dry winters are characteristic.
Cf - Humid subtropical and oceanic climates
In humid subtropical and oceanic climate zones, warm temperate rain climates
with uniformly distributed precipitation are observable. Territories that belong
to these subclasses are under the influence of the ocean; therefore, rain
occurs frequently there throughout the year. For example, these climate zones
can be found in the Northern Hemisphere, the eastern part of the United
States of America, Western and Central Europe, the eastern part of China,
Japan (except its northern territories) and in the Southern Hemisphere in the
eastern parts of Australia and New Zealand.
D: Snow-forest climates (or continental climates)
Over regions with snow-forest climates, the mean temperature of the coldest
month is below 3 °C and the warmest month is above 10 °C. A temporary
snow cover is formed in winter. Temperatures vary most widely in snow-forest
climates. Areas between ca. 45°N and ca. 70°N belong to this class. Due to
the small amount of land surfaces, snow climates are absent in the Southern
Hemisphere. Snow-forest climates are grouped into two subclasses as follows.
Dfand Dw - Humid continental and subarctic climates
In climate zones denoted with "Df", cold and wet winters as well as uniformly
distributed precipitation are expected. Areas such as Canada and Russia as
well as parts of East-Central Europe that belong to these subclasses are humid
throughout the year. In climate zones marked with "Dw", cold and dry winters
as well as wet summers are observable. Territories such as parts of East Asia,
the Korean Peninsula (with the exception of its southern areas) belong to
these climate zones.
E: Polar climates
At latitudes higher than the Arctic Circle and the Antarctic Circle (66.5°) the
Sun remains visible at night and remains below the horizon at least one day of
the year, respectively. Over the poles these time periods extend to six months.
Because of this, the lowest monthly mean temperatures can be measured over
these areas. Regarding polar climates, the following two subclasses can be
distinguished.
ET - Tundra climate
Over regions with tundra climates the mean temperature of the warmest
month is between 0 °C and 10 °C. A permanent snow cover is formed over a
part of the region.
EF - Ice cap climate
Over regions with ice cap climates the mean temperature of every month is
blow 0 °C. Territories with polar climates are found over the inner parts of the
Arctic and Antarctic. The top of high mountains (e.g. the Andes or the Mount
Everest) can also be considered regions with polar climates.
We emphasise that the previously-described classification is a simplified

version of Koeppen’s climatic classification. The reason we used plural terms
in some cases of the subclasses (e.g. Mediterranean climates, oceanic climates)
is now explained. Koeppen’s climatic classification can be extended with a
third letter. It indicates the temperature differences regarding territories
belonging to the same subclass. For example, Prague, Czech Republic belongs
to the class Cfb, which is characterised by an oceanic climate with warm
summers, while Budapest, Hungary belongs to the class Dfb, which indicates a
humid continental climate with warm summers.
For the sake of simplicity, we only used the first two letters to characterise
climates.
MORE INFO L"
Remarks on the climatic classification

Weather means that on a particular day and in a particular region, certain
values of atmospheric variables can be measured that indicate certain types of
atmospheric processes (e.g. cyclones, anticyclones). Climate does not concern
a certain day but rather a longer period of time. In climatology, 30-year-long
periods are used for this purpose (e.g. 1961-1990, 1971-2000 or 1981-2010),
which are called climate normals, because this period is sufficiently long
enough to characterise the average values of atmospheric variables over a
region. For example, the global monthly mean temperatures of 2018 should be
compared to the monthly average values of temperature over the time period
of 1981-2010, according to the recommendation of the WMO. Of course,
comparisons can be made over other time periods than climate normals.
As we mentioned in Section 1.1, the Earth can be considered the complex

Formation of the transitional climate zones
As we have seen previously, the tropical savanna climate and Mediterranean

climates can be considered transitional climates. Characteristics of these climate
zones are largely affected by the seasonal movements of the ITCZ that can be
seen from the Earth’s surface as the seasonal movement of the Sun. In the
following section the formation of transitional climate zones will be explained in
more detail.
In Section 2.3, seasonal shifts of the ITCZ were explained. These lead to the
seasonal movements of the circulation cells. Because of this, the distribution of air
pressure as well as pressure systems changes with the seasons.
Regarding the formation of the tropical savanna climate (or tropical transitional
climate) as well as Mediterranean climates (or temperate transitional climates) the
following can be said on the basis of what was previously learnt in Section 2.3.
Because of the Earth’s non-zero axial tilt, the largest insolation reaches the Earth’s
surface at higher latitudes than the geographical Equator.
In the Northern Hemisphere’s (Southern Hemisphere’s) winter the ITCZ deviates

to the south (north) from the Equator as shown in Figure 2.32.This leads to the
following events: the subtropical high zone, the subpolar low zone and the polar
front move closer to the Equator in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere.
Consequently, in regions with a tropical savanna climate, a northeasterly
(southeasterly) trade winds blows. As the subtropical high zone comes closer to
the Equator, strong downdrafts are observable, so the weather became drier and a
cloudless sky can be expected. This can be considered the drier season.
Meanwhile, a mid-latitude cyclone penetrates the Mediterranean climate zones,
leading to rainy and mild weather. Because of the relatively high heat capacity of
the ocean, these areas warm up and cool down more slowly than areas that are
distant from the ocean. Therefore, chilly summers and mild winters can be
expected.
In the Northern Hemisphere’s (Southern Hemisphere’s) summer the ITCZ

deviates to the north (south) from the Equator as seen in Figure 2.33, causing the
following the subtropical high zone, the subpolar low zone and the polar front
Regarding the formation of the tropical savanna climate (or tropical transitional
climate) as well as Mediterranean climates (or temperate transitional climates) the
following can be said on the basis of what was previously learnt in Section 2.3.
Because of the Earth’s non-zero axial tilt, the largest insolation reaches the Earth’s
surface at higher latitudes than the geographical Equator.
In the Northern Hemisphere’s (Southern Hemisphere’s) winter the ITCZ deviates

to the south (north) from the Equator as shown in Figure 2.32.This leads to the
following events: the subtropical high zone, the subpolar low zone and the polar
front move closer to the Equator in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere.
Consequently, in regions with a tropical savanna climate, a northeasterly
(southeasterly) trade winds blows. As the subtropical high zone comes closer to
the Equator, strong downdrafts are observable, so the weather became drier and a
cloudless sky can be expected. This can be considered the drier season.
Meanwhile, a mid-latitude cyclone penetrates the Mediterranean climate zones,
leading to rainy and mild weather. Because of the relatively high heat capacity of
the ocean, these areas warm up and cool down more slowly than areas that are
distant from the ocean. Therefore, chilly summers and mild winters can be
expected.
In the Northern Hemisphere’s (Southern Hemisphere’s) summer the ITCZ

deviates to the north (south) from the Equator as seen in Figure 2.33, causing the
following the subtropical high zone, the subpolar low zone and the polar front
move farther from the Equator and closer to the North (South) Pole. So, the ITCZ
penetrates regions with a tropical savanna climate, replacing the tropical
easterlies. This results in a strong convergence, leading to a decrease in pressure;
therefore, the development of precipitation is associated with Cb clouds. This is
called the wet season. Meanwhile, the subtropical high-pressure zone penetrates
the territories that belong to the Mediterranean climate zones, thereby decreasing
the movement of the air that is observable, which acts against clouds and
precipitation formation. This leads to cloudless, dry and sunny weather as well as
mild winters, as was mentioned.
In the Section 8.2 and Section 8.3, typical weather patterns in the tropics and the
mid-latitudes will be described. They have a significant influence on aviation.
system of the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the biosphere and
the atmosphere. From a climatological point of view, interactions between the
above-mentioned spheres also should be taken into account
The climate changes as time goes by. If we exclude anthropogenic

contributions, changes still remain observable because of the internal natural
variability of the system. Consequently, updating maps of climatic
classification is necessary. Koeppen’s climatic classification is widely used (e.g.
for educational purposes). It was based on the observation of changing
vegetation in different regions. However, some modifications to it have been
implemented. We emphasise the importance of the modifications that were
made by German meteorologist Rudolf Geiger in the middle of the 20th
century.
As a side note, we mention that other climatic classifications are also available,
for example one introduced by American geographer Glenn Thomas Trewartha
in the second half of the 20th century. Trewartha’s climatic classification
divides Koeppen’s mid-latitude climates into the following three regions:
subtropical climates, temperate and continental climates, and boreal climates.
STU DY TEST
8.2. Tropical climatology
8.2.1. Cause and development of

tropical showers and thunderstorms:
humidity, temperature, tropopause
Regions with a tropical climate are located between the Tropic of Cancer
(23.5°N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°S). Generally speaking they can be
found between about 30°N and 30°S and the region has a width of a few
hundred kilometres. Based on the distribution of air pressure, the zone of the
tropics consists of the ITCZ along its middle line and the subtropical high
zones that border it. It also incorporates the geographical Equator, but please
keep in mind this does not coincide with the ITCZ.
The distribution of temperature, pressure and humidity leads to the formation

of weather patterns that are characteristic for the tropical zone such as:
1. Tropical thunderstorms associated with mesoscale convective systems
2. Wind systems (tropical easterlies, doldrums, monsoon)
3. Sandstorms
4. Easterly waves (related to tropical revolving storms)
In the following section factors resulting in the above-listed phenomena will

be discussed on the basis of previously-learnt information, especially in
Section 2.3, Section 3.3 and Section 8.1.
In the tropical regions convective clouds develop along the ITCZ where
convergence of the air is observable near the surface. Because the ITCZ
surrounds the Earth, groups of clouds known as cloud clusters may form. If
clusters of Cb clouds are circularly or linearly organised and reach the
horizontal extent of 100 km in at least one direction, then these cloud clusters
are called a mesoscale convective system (abbreviated as MCS).
Various types of MCS can be distinguished. We will highlight the following
two types. If the MCS has a large circular cloud top with a temperature less or
equal to -32 °C (-52 °C), which covers an area of at least 100000 km2
(50000 km2) and lasts for at least six hours, then it is known as a mesoscale
convective complex (abbreviated as MCC). It is worth mentioning that by
definition MCC does not have a circular shape, as its eccentricity should be at
least 0.7. If a row (or chain) of Cb clouds is formed and their movement is
perpendicularly to the line along which the Cb clouds are organised, then the
MCS is called a squall line.
The knowledge of the development of convective clouds is necessary to

understand the formation of MCS. We have learnt about the development of
convective clouds in Section 3.3. Based on this we are able to understand the
step-by-step formation of a single-cell thunderstorm. We discussed how the
air parcel starts to rise because of thermal or other external reasons. If the air
parcel reaches the level of condensation, cloud formation begins. This process
continues until the environmental lapse rate is between the dry adiabatic and
the saturated adiabatic lapse rates; in other words, the atmosphere is
conditionally unstable. Along the ITCZ, northeasterly and southeasterly trade
winds converge, forcing the air parcel to ascend. On the basis of the air
temperature and dew point near the surface as well as the environmental
lapse rate, the height levels of the cloud base and the cloud top can be
determined. In general, the stronger the convergence, the more intensely the
thunderstorm forms if enough moisture is available.
MCS such as MCC and squall lines may form when atmospheric variables are
uniformly distributed over an area with large horizontal scale, if these
conditions are advantageous for the formation of convective clouds. Along the
ITCZ, advantageous conditions are granted because high air temperatures and
high moisture content, which originate in the tropical oceans,are measurable.
Also, the wind direction is constant leading to the convergence of air. Please
note that warmer air can contain more water vapour. Therefore, the
energy(which may be released through condensation by the Cb) increases with
increasing moisture content, so a greater amount of CAPE is available, which
results in more intense thunderstorms.
Multi-cell thunderstorms may form in various ways. One possible way is as
follows. If the Cb decays in its dissipating stage, then downbursts may develop
that originate from the intense sinking movement of the air. After reaching the
surface, it flows radially. The direction of the most intense flow coincides with
the direction the Cb moves. In this direction, the air carried by the downburst
is colder than its surroundings; therefore, as was mentioned in Section 4.1.3, it
may serve as a pseudo cold front, also known as a gust front. It may be forced
to rise with the warm air ahead of it, leading to cloud formation, and even to
the development of a second Cb ahead the initial Cb. However, stratiform
clouds from which precipitation may fall can also develop. If downbursts of
two Cb clouds collide then a secondary convergence zone can form. This may
force the air to rise and form a third Cb and so on. This process can lead to the
development of multi-cell thunderstorms, and so to the development of MCS.
MCS such as MCC and squall lines can be recognised on infrared satellite
images and in images from weather radars. The tops of the Cb clouds can be
detected on infrared satellite images as a continuous surface, like a "shield",
because brighter colours indicate a lower temperature. MCC is associated
with precipitation and so it can also be identified by using weather radar.
Zones with the lowest (highest) precipitation intensities are shaded with blue
(red).
Squall lines are associated with an intense linear-shaped precipitation zone

originating from convective clouds, which can be detected on radar images
similarly to the MCC. However, a secondary precipitation zone can be seen
behind the squall line, which originates from stratiform clouds.
Figure 8.3. Infrared satellite image of a squall line
It is worth mentioning that MCS may form over higher geographic latitudes as
well, usually from late spring to early autumn. However, MCS in the mid
latitudes may have different characteristics than tropical MCS. The most
prominent difference is the effect of the Earth’s rotation. Please keep in mind
if the observer is fixed to the Earth, then the rotating movement can be
considered to be the effect of the Coriolis force. Information about flight
hazards related to mid-latitudinal squall lines is available in Section 9.4.
The highest tropopause can be found above the tropical regions of the Earth.
The tropical tropopause occurs at the altitude of approx. 50000 ft and
60000 ft (ca. 15 km and 18 km) as has been stated in Section 1.1.
Consequently, Cb clouds with the largest vertical extent may develop in the
tropical regions, as shown in Figure 8.4.
As was mentioned in Section 8.1, according to Koeppen’s climatic

classification, tropical regions belong to the tropical rain climates where the
mean temperature of the coldest month is above 18 °C. Tropical regions are
the most humid areas of the Earth. Along the ITCZ, the amount of
precipitation exceeds 60 mm every month. In regions that belong to the
tropical monsoon climate, monthly amounts of precipitation do not reach
60 mm in the driest month but exceeds 4 % of the total yearly precipitation. In
the tropical transition climate zones, the amount of precipitation is smaller.
Due to the high air temperature near the surface and the high relative
humidity, the cloud base of convective clouds is to be found relatively low and
below the height level of the zero-degree isotherms. Consequently, mostly
liquid precipitation may fall.
The freezing level of the atmosphere (in other words, the height level of the
zero-degree isotherm), is between about 13 000 ft and 17 000 ft (ca. 4 km and
5 km). As we mentioned, the moisture content of the atmosphere is relatively
high. Humid air cools down more slowly than dry air because of the heat
released by the air parcel after its temperature decreases to the dew point and
because of the greenhouse effect of water vapour.
Figure 8.4. Heights of Cb clouds in the tropics and in mid-latitudes
8.2.2. Seasonal variations of weather

and wind, Intertropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ), weather in the ITCZ,
general seasonal movement
In Section 2.3 and Section 8.1, the three-cell model of atmospheric circulation
in the troposphere and the lower stratosphere was described. We emphasise
that an idealised state of the atmosphere was presented in which the ITCZ
coincides with the geographical Equator. Among real atmospheric conditions
the seasonal variation of the ITCZ as well as its meandering movement are
observable due to the following factors:
1. Earth’s non-zero axial tilt;

2. the distribution of sea and land surfaces; as well as
3. topography.
These factors will be described in detail below. On average, the ITCZ is

located about ca. 15°N (ca. 5°S) in July (January). However, in extreme cases it
may exceed 30°N (30°S). The changes in the location of the ITCZ lead to the
movement of the atmospheric cells on the seasonal time-scale causing
seasonal changes in the pressure field on the surface of the Earth. In summary,
the weather changes with the season.
Concerning the weather in the tropics the following can be said. Please note
that average pressure distribution and the typical location and speed of
related winds near the surface of the Earth such as the tropical easterlies, the
prevailing westerlies and the polar easterlies in January and July can be
examined on maps in Figure 2.32 and Figure 2.33.
It is also worth noting that on visible satellite images ITCZ can be identified by
the band of convective clouds near the geographical Equator.
Based on what was previously mentioned, in the tropics there are regions
where the ITCZ passes through twice a year causing two periods when the
weather is rainier compared to other months in the tropical rain climate zones.
In other words, there are two rainy seasons at lower latitude.
To identify the above-mentioned region with tropical rain climates, the

position of the ITCZ should be examined. Because of the Earth’s non-zero
axial tilt the belt that receives the largest amount of solar radiation;
consequently the ITCZ deviates from the Equator to the north (south) in the
Northern Hemisphere’s summer (winter) as well as to the south (north) in the
Southern Hemisphere’s summer (winter). However, the extent of the deviation
depends on the surface beneath the ITCZ because of their different thermal
inertia. As we have learnt in Section 1.2, surfaces with higher specific heat
warm up and cool down more slowly than surfaces with lower specific heat.
Typically, the specific heat of land surfaces is lower than the specific heat of
sea surfaces. Consequently, the ITCZ deviates from the Equator more above
land surfaces than sea surfaces. The typical position of the ITCZ in January
and July is shown in Figure 2.32 and Figure 2.33. Topography is also a key
factor that affects the location of the ITCZ. Due to orographic reasons,
enhanced convergence of the air may be observable. The largest deviation
from the Equator can be found over the Indian subcontinent because the
Himalayas, the tallest mountain range on the Earth, are located in its northern
region. As we discussed in the previous chapters, the formation of
precipitation may be enhanced by orographic reasons because the slope of the
mountain forces the air parcel to ascend. Consequently, a larger amount of
precipitation is expected leading to the development of intense monsoons,
which will be described in Section 8.2.3.
Intensity of the trade winds increases as the difference between the air
pressure along the ITCZ and the subtropical high zone increases. In other
words, increasing pressure gradient, which points in the direction of the ITCZ,
leads to the formation of stronger trade winds. Moreover, the intensity of the
convergence increases as the trade winds become stronger. Therefore, the
intensity of the developing convective clouds along the ITCZ also increases.
As we have learnt previously, in the zone of the doldrums, in which the trade
winds converge along the ITCZ, the wind is calm or light. The direction and
average speed of northeasterly and the southeasterly trade winds are also
illustrated in Figure 2.32 and Figure 2.33. Their direction was explained in
Chapter 2. Close to the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere (Southern
Hemisphere) southwesterly (northwesterly) winds called monsoons are
observable in July (January). Monsoons are observable especially over West
Africa in the vicinity of the ITCZ, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and
the northern part of Australia. Main regions affected by the monsoon are
shown in the figure below. Their origins are described in Section 8.2.3.
Figure 8.5. Monsoon regions on the Earth denoted with black slanted lines
Over the subtropical high zone along the horse latitudes ascending movement
of the air leads to the formation of calm wind. Because of the seasonal
movement of the ITCZ, the high-pressure zone also shifts with the seasons. It
can be found closer to (farther from) the Equator in winter (in summer) in both
hemispheres. In the subtropical high zone stable atmospheric stratification is
observed, resulting in anticyclonic weather conditions. Border regions
between the equatorial site and the subtropical high zone as well as between
the subtropical high zone and the mid-latitudes (which belong to the tropical
savanna climate and the Mediterranean climate, respectively) are
characterised by significantly different weather conditions based on the
season. The associated weather is described in Section 8.1.
Flight hazards associated with the ITCZ are the main hazards related to Cb
clouds, namely turbulence in the zones of updrafts and downdrafts, clear-air
turbulence in the vicinity of Cb clouds, reduced visibility because of
precipitation, lightning strikes, icing and hail.
It is worth mentioning that the impacts of the above-mentioned hazards are
different in the tropics and in the mid-latitudes. For example, severe hail and
tornado may form in mid-latitudes but develop rarely in the tropics. Further
details about hazards related to the ITCZ can be found in Section 9.4.
8.2.3. Monsoon, sandstorms, cold-air

outbreaks
Development and definition of the monsoon
As we mentioned in Section 2.3.1, monsoon (from mausam, Arabic for

"season") phenomenon is related to the migration,or seasonal variability,of the
ITCZ. In the following section, the development of monsoon systems will be
explained. Its schematic is shown in the figure below.
As we have learnt, as the ITCZ varies with season, it deviates from the
geographical Equator. In the Northern Hemisphere’s summer, the Southern
Hemisphere’s Hadley cell enters the Northern Hemisphere. Because of the
Earth’s rotation, wind direction changes and so the Southern Hemisphere’s
southeasterly trade winds deflect to the west, leading to the formation of the
Northern Hemisphere’s monsoon with southwesterly winds. Meanwhile, the
Northern Hemisphere’s Hadley cell with northeasterly trade winds shifts
poleward. Therefore, the ITCZ does not originate from the confluence of
northeasterly and southeasterly trade winds but rather from the confluence of
southwesterly monsoon winds and northeasterly trade winds.
In the Southern Hemisphere’s summer, the Northern Hemisphere’s Hadley cell

enters the Southern Hemisphere. Because of the Earth’s rotation, the
Northern Hemisphere’s northeasterly trade winds deflect to the west
developing the Southern Hemisphere’s monsoon with northwesterly winds.
Meanwhile, the Southern Hemisphere’s Hadley cell with southeasterly trade
winds shifts poleward. Therefore, the ITCZ develops from the confluence of
the northwesterly monsoon winds and the southeasterly trade winds.
a) b)
Northern Hemisphere's summer Southern Hemisphere's summer
(Southern Hemisphere's winter) (Northern Hemisphere’s winter)
30°N---------------------------------------------------- 30°N---------------------------------------------------
▼x.
30° S---------------------------------------------------- 30°S----------------------------------------------------
Figure 8.6. Formation of the monsoon
Arrows denoted with red (blue) indicate monsoon (trade winds). The ITCZ is
marked with a green line.
After the description of its formation, the definition of the monsoon is given.
Monsoons exist over an area if:
1. there is a change in the wind direction between January and July and
the angle of the change is at least 120°.
2. the prevailing wind occurs in at least 40 % of all cases in January and

July.
3. average wind speed exceeds 3 m/s (ca. 6 kt) in January or in July.
4. only one cyclone and one anticyclone form every two years.
Please note that the fourth criterion means that monsoons cannot be formed
in the mid-latitudes where cyclones and anticyclones often alternate with
each other during the year.
As we described in Section 8.1, monsoon regions belong to the tropical

monsoon climate zone, and thus have two seasons, a dry and a wet season,
that alternate with each other. This means that there are not only changes in
the direction of the prevailing wind but also changes in precipitation.
The main regions over which the monsoon is associated with particularly
intense winds and precipitation development are West Africa, the Indian
subcontinent, Southeast Asia and the northern part of Australia. The reasons
for this are the as follows. On one hand, large differences between the
temperature of sea and land surfaces are observable in these regions due to
thermal inertia, leading to a significant pressure gradient that points in the
direction of the land. Since the above-listed regions are located east of the
oceans, the pressure gradient enhances the intensity of the southwesterly
(northwesterly) airflow over the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere. On the
other hand, southwesterly (northwesterly) winds blow above sea surfaces in
the Northern Hemisphere (Southern Hemisphere) in summer; therefore, they
carry moist air to the land surfaces enhancing the formation of precipitation.
Concerning the terms, it is worth mentioning that monsoons in the Northern

Hemisphere are often known as summer monsoons. They typically form in
June and retreat October. Monsoons in the Southern Hemisphere are called
winter monsoons. In general, they form in November and retreat February.
Monsoons over the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia are often called
southwest monsoons.
Depending on the distance from the Equator, delay in the formation of the
monsoon is observable within a year. The monsoon forms later and retreats
sooner as the distance from the Equator increases. In other words, the
duration of the monsoon increases with decreasing distance from the Equator.
In the following section, characteristics of monsoon associated with the

previously-listed areas will be described.
Monsoon over West Africa

Monsoons mainly affect the vicinity of the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa. From
late autumn to early spring, the prevailing winds over West Africa are the
northeasterly trade winds that blow across the Sahara Desert. Consequently,
trade winds carry dry and hot air containing significant amount of dust. This
wind is called a Harmattan, traditionally. It is shown in the first part of the
figure below. Dry air acts against the formation of precipitation while
accumulation of dust in the air may lead to the formation of haze, which
reduces visibility.
From early summer the Southern Hemisphere’s Hadley cell approaches West
Africa and penetrates the Northern Hemisphere. Consequently, northeasterly
trade winds are replaced with southwesterly monsoon winds carrying air with
relatively high amounts of moisture from the Atlantic Ocean as seen in the
second part of the figure below. This may lead to rainier weather, causing
thunderstorms and even the formation of MCS such as squall lines.
Rainfall (cm) Jan.-March Rainfall (cm)June-Sept.
10-20 40-60 > 60
Figure 8.7. Prevailing winds over West Africa and the amount of precipitation
between January and March and between June and September.
Monsoon over India
Since the Indian subcontinent is located in the Northern Hemisphere, similar

to West Africa the formation of the monsoon means that the northeasterly
trade winds are replaced with southwesterly winds after the Southern
Hemisphere’s Hadley cell enters the Northern Hemisphere. However, there is
a large delay in the formation of the monsoon over the subcontinent. The
duration of the wet season increases as distance from the Equator decreases.
Over the northern part of India the starting and closing date of the summer
monsoon, known as the onset and withdrawal dates,are in the middle of July
and in early September, while over the southern part of India the summer
monsoon endures from late May to early January.
As we mentioned previously in this chapter, orography may enhance the

formation of precipitation over the Indian subcontinent. Because of the
Himalayas, air flows northeastward and collides with the slope of the
mountain and is therefore forced to rise. Assuming an adiabatic processes, the
formation of convective precipitation can be explained on the basis of what
was previously learnt in Section 3.3. The highest amount of yearly
precipitation forms ahead of the southern slopes of the Himalayas, in the
northeastern part of the Indian subcontinent. It is worth noting that the
largest yearly amount of precipitation was measured in Cherrapunji (ca.
26470 mm) between 1860 August and 1861 July.
Because of the steady air flow with relatively high moisture content, thick
convective clouds develop that reduce the amount of insolation.
Consequently, over this region the air temperature may be lower than in mid
latitudes where northeasterly trade winds blow and cause drier weather,
which acts against cloud formation. This situation may lead to the
development of the tropical easterly jet stream as described in Section 2.7.
Monsoon over Australia
Since Australia is located in the Southern Hemisphere, from autumn to spring

the prevailing winds are southeasterly trade winds, causing drier weather in
the northern part of Australia as be seen in the first part of the figure below.
As the wind blows across the desert (like in West Africa), it may carry a
significant amount of dust, which causes haze. In summer the Northern
Hemisphere’s Hadley cell enters the Southern Hemisphere, and thus changes
in the wind direction and increased precipitation are expected over Northern
Australia. The southeasterly trade winds are replaced with northwesterly
monsoon winds as shown in the second part of the figure below.
Rainfall (cm) April 1-Nov. 30 Rainfall (cm) Oct. 1-April 30
0-20 20-60 > 120
Figure 8.8. Prevailing winds over Australia and the amount of precipitation
Sandstorms
If the wind is strong enough, sand and particles with smaller diameters known
as dust can be introduced into the air for thermal reasons (i.e. convection) or
mechanical reasons (i.e. strong winds carry up the particles). The diameter of
the particles usually does not exceed 1 mm. If dust and sand are suspended by
the air then sandstorms (or dust storms) may form, which may last a few
hours.
Note: For the sake of simplicity terms sandstorm and dust storm will be used
interchangeably in this chapter. Please note that in meteorological literature dust
often indicates particles with smaller diameter than sand.
Sandstorms frequently occur over deserts where enhanced erosion facilitates

the introduction of particles into the air. Consequently, desertification
increases the chance of the development of a sandstorm. As a side note, since
regions with desert climates are not only located near the subtropical high
zones, as can be seen in Figure 8.2, sandstorms may form over higher latitudes
as well.
MORE INFO L"
Sandstorms may form as a result of convection. For example, if a gust front

develops in relation to a thunderstorm, it may not only force the warm air but
also dust particles to rise ahead of it. Similar to gust fronts, cold fronts may
also take part in the formation of sandstorms. However, in regions with dry
climates, sandstorms develop due to strong pressure gradients. This leads to
the formation of intense winds that carry up dust particles. Concerning the
Sahara, which is the largest desert on the Earth, the following can be written.
In winter, the tracks of mid-latitude cyclones shift to the south, leading to
decreasing pressure and enhanced cyclone activity in the region of the
Mediterranean Sea. In spring, cyclonic activity is still significant in this area.
Between the Mediterranean region and the subtropical high zone over the
Sahara, a strong pressure gradient forms, and therefore sandstorms develops.
As a side note, sandstorms that develop in the previously described way (i.e.
due to strong winds) are known as haboob all over the world.
Furthermore, dust may be transported to higher latitudes by local winds. For

example, dust originating in the Sahara Desert), can reach Europe carried by
the scirocco wind, which is the topic of Section 8.4.
Sandstorms are dangerous to aviation as they may decrease visibility to a few

metres. They can block sunshine almost entirely. Moreover, dust particles may
block the engine of the aircraft or small particles may get through the filters
and spread into the cabin, causing breathing problems.
Note: On visible satellite images dust storms and sandstorms can be detected.
A notable example of sandstorms is the Dust Bowl in the 1930s in the United
States of America and Canada which was caused by the usage of improper
agricultural techniques - leading to enhanced erosion - and drought. Another
example is the yellow dust which originates in the deserts of Inner Asia and
causes sandstorms over China. As a consequence, dust in the atmosphere can be
detected over the Korean Peninsula and Japan also.
It is worth noting that small-scale convective activity may lead to the
formation over loose surfaces of vortices with vertical axes, called dust devils.
Cold-air outbreaks
In winter cold air accumulates around the North Pole (South Pole). If the
prevailing westerly winds become weaker in mid-latitudes, then polar air may
flow southward (northward); it even intrudes into regions close to the tropics,
which is known as a cold-air outbreak. Cold-air outbreaks may cause record
low temperatures. If polar air flows over warmer and moist air, the latter may
climb up over the former to restore stability in the atmosphere, leading to the
development of precipitation or even stormy weather such as blizzards. If the
polar air still has a temperature below the freezing point then frozen
precipitation may fall in regions where it is hardly expected, for example, over
territories between the ITCZ and the subtropical high zone. A practical
example of this would be the snow that fell in the Sahara Desert in Algeria in
January 2018 caused by cold polar air flowing over the Sahara across the
Mediterranean region where its moisture content increased.
Please keep in mind that cold-air outbreaks also have a great impact on
weather in mid-latitudes.
Cold-air outbreaks entering lower latitudes are expected in regions where

mountain ranges have a north-south alignment, for example over the southern
part of North America and over the pampas in South America. Because the
Himalayas have a west-east alignment, cold-air outbreaks are rarely
observable in South Asia.
It is worth mentioning that winds associated with cold-air outbreaks have

traditional names around the globe. For example, northerly air that blows from
the Arctic region is called a norther in the United States of America and a
norte in Mexico. In South America a cold-air outbreak that originates in the
Antarctic region is called a pampero. In this case a polar wind blows
northward.
As we mentioned above, cold-air outbreaks may cause blizzards, defined as

storms associated with snow in which the wind speed exceeds 56 km/h (ca.
15.5 m/s or 30 kt) and the visibility decreases to less than 400 m for at least
three hours. Because of the low visibility and the possibility of heavy
precipitation, a blizzard should be avoided by aircraft. As a side note, the term
blizzard derives from North America but it is used for the above-described
weather phenomena in other countries as well. A blizzard is not a typical
phenomenon close to the tropics. However, rarely it can occur at lower
latitudes. For example, it has led to natural disaster in Iran in 1972 where a
blizzard formed and existed for a week.
8.2.4. Easterly waves

Easterly waves (tropical easterly waves or tropical waves) can be considered
wave-like disturbances in the troposphere between the ITCZ and the
subtropical high zone in the Northern Hemisphere, i.e. in the belt of the trade
winds. A prominent area in which easterly waves form is located between the
ITCZ and the Azores High, in the coastal region of West Africa. Since the
waves propagate from east to west, they are observable over other oceanic
regions as well, for example over the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean. Their
characteristic horizontal wavelength is about 2 500 km while their life span is
between three and five days. Easterly waves form mainly between June and
early October.
The formation of easterly waves over the Atlantic Ocean may be explained by
the existence of the tropical easterly jet stream and the Azores High, as can be
seen in the figure below. The Azores High is a high-pressure area, which
means that the air pressure at the surface is higher than its environment. It
can be considered an anticyclone, which indicates closed but somewhat
elongated isobars and clockwise circulation in the Northern Hemisphere, as
was described in Section 1.3.1. Because of the African easterly jet stream,
which blows from east to west,the troposphere becomes unstable, leading to
the formation of troughs in the southern part of the Azores High. We have
also learnt that troughs are elongated, V-shaped phenomena that can be
considered atmospheric pressure valleys. Troughs related to easterly waves
are not as large as troughs associated with the polar front over higher
latitudes; therefore, these belong to mesoscale phenomena. In the case of
easterly waves, reverse V-shaped troughs with cyclonic curvature are first
observable at about the height level that corresponds to 700 hPa (10000 ft or
3050 m according to the ISA).
Figure 8.9. Easterly waves over the Atlantic Ocean in the Northern
Hemisphere
Note: Dashed lines indicate the axes of troughs related to the easterly waves.
In the figure below, the axis of the trough and zones of convergence and
divergence are emphasised related to a single tropical wave. Regarding the
weather associated with easterly waves, the following can be said. The
formation of convective clouds is expected over the zone of convergence and
consequently clouds can be detected to the east of the trough axis. Over this
area we see the formation of Cb clouds, and thus thunderstorms are also
expected, leading to severe weather such as turbulence, reduced visibility due
to heavy rain and atmospheric electricity. To the west of the trough axis,
divergence acts against the formation of clouds and precipitation.
Figure 8.10. Satellite image of an easterly wave
Streamlines (from east to west) and trough axes are denoted with red and
green continuous lines, respectively. A high-pressure zone is observable to the
north of the easterly wave (denoted with dashed yellow curve). The zone of
convergence (divergence) is to be found to east (west) from the trough axis.
It is worth mentioning that easterly waves have a major impact on the

formation of tropical revolving storms. It was pointed out that more than 80 %
of all hurricanes originate from easterly waves. Further details about their
development can be found in Section 7.4.
STUDY TEST
8.3. Typical weather situations in
the mid-latitudes
8.3.1. Westerly situation (westerlies)

After the explanation of the tropical climate, typical planetary-scale weather
patterns in the mid-latitudes and associated phenomena will be described.
Please note that smaller-scale phenomena such as thunderstorms related to

mesoscale convective systems and squall lines are also observable, especially
from late spring to early autumn; however, their impact on the climate is much
less than in the tropics.
The most important planetary-scale weather phenomenon in the mid

latitudes is the polar front that separates the Equatorial warmer and polar
colder air masses in both hemispheres. Because of the Earth’s rotation in an
anticlockwise direction, the polar front travels from west to east around the
poles all year. It makes a wave-like movement forming atmospheric ridges and
troughs (sometimes referred to as wedges). The schematic of the development
of the wave-like motion is shown in Figure 2.40. Please remember that
because of the large temperature gradient between the two air masses, the
polar front is associated with the polar jet stream.
Troughs are low-pressure systems while ridges are high-pressure systems. In

troughs, cyclones may form, though not necessarily. Over the areas of ridges,
anticyclones may develop. Cyclones, which are associated with weather fronts
in the mid-latitudes, have an important role in the transfer of heat from lower
latitudes to higher latitudes. Consequently, the changes between low- and
high-pressure systems as well as the westerly winds (historically known as the
roaring forties),determine the weather in the mid-latitudes. For example, in
summer cold fronts often cause strong and gusty winds as well as
thunderstorms with showery precipitation while warm fronts lead to
continuous precipitation. In winter, dense and cold air may accumulate in
topographic lows among anticyclonic weather conditions. Further details are
available about pressure systems and associated weather in Section 1.3,
Section 2.3 and Chapter 7. Typical weather related to weather fronts is
described in Section 6.2.
As we discussed in Section 2.3 and Section 8.1, the ITCZ moves with the
season because of the changing amount of solar radiation. The seasonal
movement of the pressure systems was discussed in detail in connection with
Figure 2.32 and Figure 2.33. Consequently, the position of the polar front also
varies with the seasons: it comes closer to the poles in summer while it can be
found closer to the Equator in winter.
Upper-level air charts that contain (geopotential) height values of 500 hPa
pressure surface, such as Figure 10.42, are suitable to identify the polar front;
therefore, they are associated with troughs and ridges.
The wave-like movement of the travelling polar front leads to great variability
in the weather compared to other latitudes because cyclones and anticyclones
alternate with each other over a short time period (one or two days). This
alternation can be described as a typical westerly situation. An example is
shown in the figure below in which a polar front can be identified over Central
Europe. In the figure, cyclones are located in troughs with which weather
fronts are associated, causing changeable weather.
Figure 8.11. Westerly situation in the mid-latitudes
Because of the larger oceanic area in the Southern Hemisphere, the air warms
up and cools down more slowly due to the higher heat capacity of the ocean
than land surface, so the ITCZ has a smaller deviation from the geographical
Equator than the Northern Hemisphere. Moreover, westerly winds are
stronger over the Southern Hemisphere due to the smaller number of
mountains. Please note that mountains can be considered significant obstacles
to the flow of air in the Northern Hemisphere.
8.3.2. High-pressure area

As was explained in Section 1.3, in high-pressure systems, the air converges
aloft and starts to descend. Near the surface the air diverges, which acts
against the formation of clouds and precipitation. Due to the adiabatic
warming of the air, inversions may form. This leads to the development of fog
or even the formation of cold-air pools in winter that may persist for days or
weeks. Detailed descriptions of high-pressure areas and the associated
weather can be found in Section 7.2.1.
In summer, high-pressure systems are mainly associated with clear weather

conditions without precipitation. However, if winds blow from the direction of
the deserts, then dust can be accumulated in the air, leading to haze that
reduces visibility. Further details can be found in Section 8.4.
As we discussed before, in an anticyclone isobars are closed but less

concentric than in the case of cyclones. Moreover, in their centres the air
pressure has its local maximum. Therefore, high-pressure systems can be
easily detected both in surface and upper-air charts, for example, in the region
of the Azores Island in Figure 10.42.
Note: On surface charts, low- and high-pressure systems are often indicated by the
letters L and H, respectively.
8.3.3. Flat-pressure pattern

As was also discussed in Section 1.3, cyclones can be represented by nearly
concentric isobars with the minimums of the local air pressure. Therefore, the
wind blows inward to the centre near the surface where it converges and
starts to rise. The humid air cools down via a dry adiabatic process until it is
saturated with water vapour. Until that point visibility is relatively good. Then
the formation of clouds and precipitation may start, which may lead to poor
visibility. In general, the intensity and type of precipitation depends on the
season and the type of front in cases when the latter is observable in a low-
pressure system.
There are cases when a cyclone cannot be recognised in an atmospheric

trough. However, the atmospheric pressure can be considered relatively low.
This pressure system can be called a flat-pressure pattern. In these systems,
isobars near the surface are spaced relatively far from each other, resulting in
a weaker pressure gradient compared to cyclones. However, this pressure
distribution still enhances the formation of convective precipitation if the
insolation is sufficiently large and the air is humid enough. It is worth
mentioning that in summer, flat-pressure patterns lead to the development of
clouds and convective precipitation mainly in the afternoon.
Similar to high-pressure systems, flat-pressure patterns can be identified in

surface and upper-air charts based on the analysis of isobars. For example, in
Figure 10.42, the low-pressure area to the east of Greece can be considered a
flat-pressure pattern.
8.3.4. Cold drop and cold-air pool

Cold drop
Cyclones and anticyclones can be detected by examining isobars at lower and
higher levels of the atmosphere (henceforth, on the surface and aloft,
respectively). However, there are cases when these pressure systems can be
identified only near the ground surface without any effect on the isobars aloft.
Inversely, there are cases when pressure systems are observable aloft without
any effect on the surface pressure. These cases are shown in sections b) in
Figure 1.42 and Figure 1.43.
Regarding the latter case, if a low-pressure system forms aloft then it may lead
to the formation of a cold drop (also called a cold-air drop or cold pool). If a
high-pressure system forms aloft then it may lead to the development of a
warm drop (also called a warm-air drop or warm pool).
In section b) of Figure 1.42 an upper-level low, or more precisely, a cold drop

is shown.
Cold drops form in the following ways. As we mentioned before, the polar
front travels from west to east around the poles all year. It makes a wave-like
movement forming atmospheric ridges and troughs. If the wave has a
sufficiently large amplitude then it can be cut off. A cut-off trough may form
an upper-level low (i.e. cold drop) while a cut-off ridge may form an upper
level high (i.e. warm drop).
Regarding cold drops, the following can be said. Due to their inertia, they
move in the direction of lower latitudes with decreasing speed. Therefore,
they can exist above the same area (with a diameter of a couple of hundred
km) for several days until they are dissipated.
Because they form aloft, on surface charts closed isobars cannot be identified.
These pressure systems are only observable in upper-level weather charts, for
example in charts corresponding to the isobaric surface of 500 hPa. An
example can be seen in the figure below. Between the 7th and 8th January
2018, a trough was cut off so a cold drop developed over the Iberian
Peninsula. We conclude this on the basis of a closed isohypse at 500 hPa
denoted by a solid black line while isobars on the surface,originally denoted by
white lines,are not observable.
0 UTC on 7'" January 2018 0UTC on 8'" January 2018
Figure 8.12. Upper-level weather chart over Europe
Similar to Figure 10.42, colours indicate the (geopotential) height of the

500 hPa pressure surface, so the border between the two colours can be
considered an isohypse. Isobars are white lines with a spacing of 5 hPa. Grey
dashed lines and texts indicate air temperature of the 500 hPa pressure
surface, expressed in the units of °C.
Regarding the weather of cold drops, the following can be said. In general,
cold air advection is observable aloft, while warmer air can be found near the
surface. This leads to unstable atmospheric stratification that enhances the
formation of convective clouds and precipitation if the air contains enough
moisture. In summer, Cu clouds and even Cb clouds may form, which can
cause severe thunderstorms endangering the safety of aviation. Further
information can be found in Chapter 9. In winter, because of the reduced
amount of insolation, thunderstorms are rarely formed; however, showery
precipitation through rainfall or snowfall may occur.
Cold-air pool
Finally, the most important details about cold-air pools will be summarised.
The formation of a cold-air pool is mainly associated with inversion during
winter in high pressure areas, as was discussed in Section 3.3.
Cold-air pools form in topographic lows (in valleys or basins, e.g. in a city
surrounded by mountains). This means that areas of tens of hundreds of km2
can be affected. They are associated with absolutely stable atmospheric
conditions, mainly in winter. Stable atmosphere means that air temperature
increases with increasing altitude.
During winter, among anticyclonic conditions (no precipitation and calm wind),
the air will be colder and denser from day to day due to the decreasing
amount of solar radiation. As the surface becomes cooler than the air just
above it, stable atmospheric conditions develop and fog can also form. After
sunrise, the amount of solar radiation is insufficient to dissolve the fog, so it
ascends to a certain altitude but does not disappear. If the observer stands on
the ground surface, they can see the sky completely covered with St clouds.
After sunset the air becomes colder and denser so the clouds descend close to
the ground, which can be perceived as fog. Furthermore, the previously-
described process occurs again: stable atmospheric conditions develop in
which the formation of fog continues. Consequently, a cold-air pool may
persist for weeks.
MORE INFO L"
That process can cease if a strong cold front reaches the affected area or the
advection of warmer air starts aloft, which acts against inversion. As the
winter comes to its end, the amount of insolation increases, enhancing the
formation of turbulent air flows. Turbulence enhances the mixing of air, which
acts against the development of a stable atmosphere.
In cities where air pollution is significant, particles from fumes serve as

condensation nuclei, which enhances the formation of fog. A very small
amount of precipitation may also develop (i.e. drizzle and snow grains). Due to
the lack of wind and turbulence, the amount of pollution increases from day to
day. Pollutants can lead to the formation of haze. Because of the above-
mentioned processes, cold-air pools can lead to poor visibility during takeoff
and landing.
STUDY TEST
For example, in Budapest, Hungary cold-air pool was experienced several times
during December and January in recent years. A remarkable cold air pool occurred
in January 2009, when the traffic was significantly restricted after smog alert was
issued. However, this was just one part of the problem, as emission from heating
was also another factor contributing to the formation of smog. To summarise,
anticyclonic conditions, record-low air temperature and pollution led to the
escalation of the situation. During cold-air pool, even ca. 300-400 m above the
ground surface we were able to experience a dense cloud/fog layer above the city
while the sky was almost cloudless.
8.4. Local winds and associated
weather
8.4.1. Foehn, Mistral, Bora, Scirocco,

Ghibli, Khamsin and Harmattan
Introduction
For the last topic of this chapter, we emphasise the importance of local wind
systems such as foehn winds, fall winds and desert winds because they may
have a significant affect on aviation. Their average wind speeds may exceed
100 km/h (ca. 28 m/s, ca. 54 kt) while wind gusts associated with them can
reach up to 150 km/h (ca. 42 m/s, ca. 81 kt). Local winds are smaller-scale
atmospheric processes (or meso-scale atmospheric processes) than monsoons,
trade winds, mid-latitude cyclones or anticyclones, which were also the topic
of this chapter. However, local winds can also be characteristic for the climate
of certain areas, for example foehn winds in mountainous regions.
Some types of local winds occur over different latitudes, for example foehn
and fall winds, which belong to the group of downslope winds. However,
some local winds are connected to specific areas, such as sirocco winds to the
Mediterranean Sea. The characteristic life span of local winds varies from a
couple of hours to a couple of days. Local winds can be observed near the
surface but in some cases they are detectable at the height of a few km;
consequently, they mostly impact takeoff and landing.
Please keep in mind that in Section 2.4 and Section 3.3 the formation of the
main types of local winds, including downslope winds, was explained. In the
following section, the most prominent foehn, fall and desert wind will be
described that are characteristic for certain regions, for example the chinook,
bora and scirocco. As a side note, we mentioned that land and sea breezes can
also be considered local winds; however, their average wind speed (and its
effect on aviation) is much lower than foehn, fall and desert winds.
To summarise, the most prominent local winds (i.e. foehn, fall and desert
winds) are extended with the cold-air outbreaks. Please see the figure below.
Figure 8.13. Examples of cold-air outbreaks, downslope winds (foehn and fall
winds) and desert winds
Foehn winds
As was described in Section 2.4, foehn winds are warm and dry downslope
winds. Depending on the geographical region, foehn winds have different
names. The term foehn originates from the German word "Foehn". The Foehn
is observed above the Alps. In North America it is called a Chinook wind on
the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains. In South America, on the eastern
side of the Andes, a foehn wind is referred to as the Zonda.
Please keep in mind the formation of foehn wind was explained in detail in
Section 3.3, stability of the atmosphere. Its schematic can be seen in
Figure 3.12. In summary, its development can be considered a
pseudoadiabatic process. The air rises via a dry adiabatic process and cools
down on the upwind side of a mountain. After becoming saturated, the air
rises in a moist adiabatic process and clouds and precipitation may form. After
the cessation of the lifting movement, unsaturated air descends in a dry
adiabatic process and warms up on the downwind (lee) side of the mountain,
causing dry and relatively warm air flows, namely the foehn wind.
Because of the origin of the foehn winds, on the upwind side of the mountain
cloud formation, precipitation or fog is expected, which educes visibility.
Precipitation may fall continuously as drizzle, rain, snow grains or snow. On
the downwind side of the mountain, dissolution of the clouds and dry weather
can be observed associated with dry and warm wind. The visibility is good, but
clear air turbulence is expected. The air warms through the dry adiabatic
process, so the air temperature increases compared to its initial value on the
upwind side of the mountain. The temperature may rise more than 10 °C. In
winter it may lead to the intense melting of snow.
Regionally distinguished types of foehn winds such as Foehn and Chinook

winds develop in the previously-described way. However, their direction is
determined by the air flow on a larger scale, which is observable around
mountainous regions. For example, if the air flows from south to east over the
Alps, then south foehn winds can be observed on the northern side of the
mountains over Austria and north foehn winds blow on the southern side of
the mountain over Italy.
Fall winds
Previously, downslope winds were discussed as warm and dry air flows
descending along a slope. However, in some cases the sinking of the air is so
intense that there is no time for the air parcels to warm up. Consequently,
downslope wind remains cold relative to its environment, which is called a fall
wind. Similar to the foehn winds, fall winds have different names depending
on their geographical region.
For example, a strong northeasterly fall wind blows along the slopes of the
Dinarides, reaching the area of the Adriatic Sea, especially in winter and early
spring. It is called a bora wind (from boreas, Greek for "northerly wind") and it
originates from the cold air accumulated over Siberia. It may be associated
with precipitation but not necessarily. Northerly fall winds in the Rhone Valley
of Southern France are called mistral winds (magistralis, Latin for "master
(wind)") and originate from the pressure gradient between the Azores High
and the Genoa Low. Similar to the bora, it also forms primarily in winter and
early spring. This phenomenon is called the tramontana (from trans montanus,
Greek for "across the mountain") over the territories of Northwest Italy and
the Balearic Islands.
Desert winds
Winds that blow from the direction of a desert can be called desert winds.
Because of this, desert winds may carry a significant amount of dust. They
may carry hot air if they blow in the day. However, due to the large diurnal
variation of temperature over the desert they may carry cold air if they blow at
night.
A desert wind that blows from the Sahara Desert in the direction of the
Mediterranean region is called the scirocco (or sirocco). It originates from the
strong pressure gradient that leads to decreasing air pressure in the
Mediterranean region and increasing air pressure over North Africa. This
southerly wind may carry hot and dusty air. Dust particles of small diameters
may ascend to great heights. Over the Mediterranean Sea its moisture content
increases. Therefore, the formation of precipitation containing dust is
expected, such as mud rain in Europe. This type of southerly desert wind is
called the ghibli in Libya, and the khamsin in Egypt. The latter may lead to the
formation of sandstorms reaching the Middle East.
The Harmattan can considered a local wind since it is characteristic for the
region of West Africa. From early winter to early spring, the zone of
northeasterly trade winds and the subtropical high zone come closer to the
geographical Equator, and consequently trade winds carry dust from the
Sahara Desert. Since they blow from the region of the subtropical high zone,
they can be considered hot and dry. This hot, dry and dusty northeasterly air
flow is referred to the Harmattan, which is shown in the first part of
Figure 8.7.
Because of the above-mentioned processes, the Harmattan wind acts against

the development of precipitation, so dry weather can be expected. Due to the
significant amount of dust in the troposphere, haze or even sandstorms may
form.
BEFORE EXAM L"
STUDY TEST
Climate can be considered to be the average value of atmospheric variables that
characterise a certain region on the surface of the Earth over at least a 30-year
period.
The uneven heating of the Earth’s atmosphere, its seasonal variabilities and the
distribution of continents, oceans and mountainous regions lead to the
formation of various climate zones.
The following five main climate zones are distinguished according to Koeppen’s
climatic classification:
1. Tropical rain climates (A)
2. Dry climates (B)
3. Mid-latitude climates (C)
4. Snow-forest climates (C)
5. Polar climates (E)
Climate zones can be divided into subclasses on the basis of the amount and
distribution of the precipitation, which are denoted as follows:
o Humid (f)
o Monsoon (m)
o Dry winter (w)
o Dry summer (s)
o Desert (W)
o Steppe (S)
o Tundra (T)
o Frost (F)
Cloud clusters of convective clouds form along the ITCZ. If they reach the
horizontal extent of 100 km and are associated with precipitation then a
mesoscale convective system may form.
A mesoscale convective system with a large circular cloud top, a temperature
less or equal to -32 °C (-52 °C) that covers an area of at least 100000 km2
(50000 km2) and lasts for at least six hours is called a mesoscale convective
complex.
Cloud clusters of convective clouds form along the ITCZ. If they reach the
horizontal extent of 100 km and are associated with precipitation then a
mesoscale convective system may form.
A mesoscale convective system with a large circular cloud top, a temperature
less or equal to -32 °C (-52 °C) that covers an area of at least 100000 km2
(50000 km2) and lasts for at least six hours is called a mesoscale convective
complex.
A mesoscale convective system in which Cb clouds are aligned and their
movement is perpendicular to the line along which the Cb clouds are formed is
called a squall line.
In the tropical region the zero-degree isotherm is between about 13000 ft and
17 000 ft (ca. 4 km and 5 km).
Seasonal variation of the ITCZ is affected by the Earth’s non-zero axial tilt, by
the distribution of sea and land surfaces and by topography.
On average, the ITCZ is located along ca. 15°N (ca. 5°S) in July (January).
However, in extreme cases it may exceed 30°N (30°S).
The formation of a monsoon is connected with the seasonal movement of the
ITCZ. The intensity of the monsoon is the highest over West Africa, the Indian
subcontinent, Southeast Asia and over the northern part of Australia.
In monsoon regions, in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere’s summer
southwesterly (northwesterly) winds blow while during winter northeasterly
(southeasterly) trade winds blow.
Sandstorms (or dust storms) form because of a strong pressure gradient, gust
fronts or cold fronts.
In winter polar cold air may flow southward (northward) in the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere, resulting in strong cooling and even record low
temperatures. This may be associated with the formation of blizzards.
Easterly waves are east-to-west propagating wave-like disturbances in the
troposphere between the ITCZ and the subtropical high zone.
Concerning easterly waves, the formation of convective clouds is observable to
the east of the trough axis.
Easterly waves have a major contribution to the development of tropical
revolving storms.
(Southern) Hemisphere, resulting in strong cooling and even record low
temperatures. This may be associated with the formation of blizzards.
• Easterly waves are east-to-west propagating wave-like disturbances in the
troposphere between the ITCZ and the subtropical high zone.
• Concerning easterly waves, the formation of convective clouds is observable to
the east of the trough axis.
• Easterly waves have a major contribution to the development of tropical
revolving storms.
• The climate at the mid-latitudes is determined by the polar front, which travels
from west to east with a wave-like movement.
• Changes between low- and high-pressure systems as well as westerly winds
determine the weather in the mid-latitudes.
• Areas with flat-pressure patterns are characterised by widely spaced isobars
resulting in weaker pressure gradients. However, this enhances convection and
the formation of showery precipitation.
• In the mid-latitudes, in connection with the wave-like movement of the polar
front, upper-level lows (i.e. cold drops) and highs (i.e. warm drops) may also
form.
• Because of its formation, a cold drop is only observable in upper-level weather
charts. It may persist for several days.
• Cold-air pools mainly form in winter, among anticyclonic conditions in an
absolutely stable atmosphere. Inversion may lead to the development of fog
that may persist for weeks.
• Local winds such as foehn, fall and desert winds may affect aviation, especially
during takeoff and landing. Their life span may vary from a couple of hours to a
couple of days. Associated wind gusts may exceed 150 km/h.
• Desert winds may blow from the desert and may therefore carry a significant
amount of dust.
• Chinook and Zonda winds are types of foehn winds.
• Bora, mistral and tramontana winds belong to the fall wind group.
• The scirocco, ghibli, khamsin and harmattan belong to the desert wind group.
Flight Hazards
Hazardous aspects of weather phenomena that were described previously are
emphasised in this chapter. This chapter is considered as a summary of the
previously learnt phenomena that are the most important from the aviation
point of view.
9.1. Icing
9.1.1. Conditions for ice accretion

General conditions for ice accretion on aircraft
surface
Under certain meteorological circumstances icing forms on the Earth's surface
and in the engine of the aircraft. Icing is a very dangerous phenomenon as it
increases the weight of the aircraft, and may change the aerodynamical
behaviour of it in different ways that affect the aircraft's performance. It can
cause other negative effects on aircraft performance, e.g. engine malfunction
and obstruction of takeoff or climbing (see later in Section 9.1.3).
Classification of icing can be made in various ways, e.g. by the location of the
aircraft. Icing can occur while the plane is at the aerodrome, and the
phenomenon is called ground icing. For example, ground icing can be caused
by freezing rain (it happens similarly on the surface of other objects on the
ground),or icing can happen during flight, called in flight icing.
Other classifications can be made depending on the origin of the icing on the
aircraft. Based on these origins, three categories can be distinguished: surface
icing, internal icing and ice inflowing.
On the outer surface of the aircraft surface icing (or structural icing) may
occur, which may form not only during flight but also on the ground. The main
concern with this type of icing is that it changes the aerodynamical behaviour
of the aircraft and leads to increasing weight. It may also obstruct the proper
operation of instruments placed outside like antennas or the pitot tube.
Icing may occur not only on the surface of the aircraft, but can also affect its
internal parts.
Internal icing (or induction system icing) occurs when ice develops inside the
engine induction system, hereinafter referred to as induction system icing.
This can lead to severe engine malfunctions. The engine is mainly operated by
using a carburettor or fuel injection. Carburetted engines are more susceptible
to icing than engines with fuel injection, so carburettor icing will be discussed
in more detail. The freezing of liquid components in the fuel can also lead to
ice crystal formation in the induction system called fuel icing. Fuel icing may
affect both types of the above mentioned engines.
Ice inflowing is related to the drifting ice crystals and supercooled water
droplets carried by the cold air flow that gets into the induction system. For
example, as a consequence of flying through the upper parts of Cb clouds, ice
may accumulate in the intake gap of the engine or in the Venturi tube of the
carburettor. Ice inflowing affects both a carburetted engine and a fuel injected
engine.
Note: Surface icing may occur both on the ground or in flight while internal icing
and ice inflowing can only happen during flight.
The above mentioned types of icing will be explained in detail in the next
sections and are summarised as follows:
• Surface icing (structural icing)

• Internal icing (induction system icing)
o Carburettor icing
o Fuel icing
• Ice inflowing
Ice protector systems are used to protect the aircraft from the effects of icing
and utilise different methods to help terminate ice accumulation on the
surface or in the engine of the aircraft. The two main types of methods are the
de-icing and the anti-icing systems that eliminate or prevent ice deposition,
respectively. There are different types of operating mechanisms for these
devices such as electro-thermal, electro-mechanical and chemical techniques.
Electro-thermal mechanisms warm up the vulnerable areas of the aircraft.
Electro-mechanical techniques mechanically remove the accumulated ice,
while chemical methods (anti-icing fluid) are used before flight to prevent ice
formation on the aircraft surface.
Surface (structural) icing
Definition and types of surface (structural) icing
As was written previously, surface icing happens when ice forms and
accumulates on the surface of the aircraft (e.g. on the fuselage or on its wings).
In the following section, typical cases of surface icing will be listed.
We distinguish the following main cases:
1. The temperature of the air and the surface of the aircraft is below 0 °C.
2. Air temperature is above 0 °C but the temperature of the surface of the

aircraft is below 0 °C.
In case 1, surface icing is typically caused by supercooled liquid water

droplets, and is less frequently caused by ice crystals. It has been observed
that icing occurs most commonly when the air temperature is below 0 °C, but
mostly when the air around the plane has a temperature between 0 °C and
-20 °C. Supercooled water can be found even at -40 °C but less commonly.
Icing caused by ice crystals happens mostly at temperatures below -20 °C.
In case 2 (air temperature is above 0 °C), icing occurs if the temperature of the
aircraft surface is below 0 °C, and it flies into a warmer air mass where water
droplets are present. The water droplets can cool below the freezing point and
accumulate on the aircraft's surface.
Key factors in surface icing
For the previously listed types of icing, the following factors are crucial for the
formation and accumulation of ice:
1. Air temperature
2. Liquid water content of the air
3. Size and number of particles in connection with cloud types
4. The geometry of the airframe

5. The speed of the airflow and the speed of the aircraft
The most important factors are the air temperature and the temperature of
the aircraft's surface. The highest risk is between 0 °C and -20 °C. At lower
temperatures (below -20 °C) the amount of supercooled water droplets
decreases, and ice crystals are more commonly present. As a result, the risk of
icing decreases as temperature decreases. Furthermore, icing depends on the
liquid water content (abbreviated as LWC) of the air, the size and number of
particles that can accumulate on the surface of the aircraft such as
supercooled water droplets, and ice crystals in the air that are connected to
the cloud type. The intensity of icing increases with the increasing size of the
supercooled droplets. The bigger the droplets the stronger the icing. Surface
icing most commonly occurs in St and Cu clouds and near the surface in fog.
Another factor influencing the strength of the icing is the shape of the aircraft.
Curved surfaces enhance icing, and thus the front edge of wings, the
propellers and antennas may be highly endangered by icing. Another
important factor is the speed of the airflow and the speed of the aircraft. At
higher speeds the surface collides with more droplets per unit time, and icing
will be more significant.
As was discussed in Section 3.2.1, water can exist in a liquid state of matter
much below 0 °C, which is called supercooled water. This supercooled state
occurs because of the lack of nuclei for the freezing process. In this case if a
disturbance arises, e.g. contaminations flow into the air, then these particles
can serve as nuclei for freezing. An aircraft can serve as an ideal surface where
liquid water droplets may turn into ice.
As was discussed previously, in St and Cu clouds between 0 °C and -20 °C

supercooled water droplets dominate, and thus is the most dangerous
temperature interval for icing. Between -20 °C and -40 °C the amount of
supercooled water droplets decreases with decreasing temperature. As the air
temperature decreases to under -40 °C the amount of supercooled water
droplets becomes negligible.
The size and number of supercooled water droplets depend on the cloud type.
The droplet size is the largest in cumuliform clouds like Cu and Cb clouds
because of their strong updrafts, and is somewhat smaller in Ac clouds. The
size and number of droplets are generally smaller in stratiform clouds,which
may often cause moderate icing. In respect to icing, hazardous stratiform
clouds are Sc and St, but As and Ns may also be dangerous, especially if they
are accompanied by embedded Cu and Cb. Stratiform clouds can cover large
areas especially in winter, which makes them more hazardous than Cu or Cb.
The Cu or Cb clouds can easily be avoided by aircraft because of their smaller
horizontal extension. In stratiform clouds the risk of collision with large
supercooled water droplets is the highest right above the freezing level. The
smallest amount of supercooled water droplets can be found in Ci clouds and
in fog. However, Ci clouds are composed of ice crystals that may cause icing,
but it is less frequent., Icing is more common around instruments on the
surface of the aircraft, e.g. on pitot tubes (see details in Section 9.1.3).
Generally, the number of droplets increases upward in clouds while the size of
droplets decreases.
Sometimes supercooled water droplets reach the ground surface where they
start to freeze after contacting objects (e.g. on a standing aircraft at the
aerodrome). This type of precipitation is called freezing rain (see details in
Section 5.2.1) and can cause icing on airframes while flying in precipitation. As
we mentioned above ice can accumulate on the surface of the fuselage and
wings when standing on the ground, a phenomenon called ground icing. If the
fog contains small supercooled droplets it is called freezing fog (details in
Section 4.2). When the fog contacts objects that also have a temperature
below 0 °C, or during the night when dew may freeze on the surface of the
plane (hoar frost) rime ice forms. Before takeoff any accumulated ice must be
removed because it reduces aerodynamical efficiency and enhances additional
ice accumulation.
Surface icing is more difficult to handle during flight. It often happens when
flying through clouds or precipitation.
Internal icing (induction system icing)

Another possible hazard for aviation is the icing of the internal parts of the
aircraft. It can be defined as the internal icing of the aircraft engine, or more
precisely icing of the induction system that operates with a carburettor or a
fuel injection system. We emphasize that engine induction system icing is
mainly an engineering problem rather than a meteorological one. However, we
discuss the primary conditions and processes this may cause. The induction
system serves as the device to mix fuel with air, and therefore may be affected
by icing. As was mentioned previously, a carburetted engine is more
susceptible to icing than a fuel injection engine, and so will be discussed in
more detail.
In the case of carburettor engines, ice can form internally, which is called
carburettor icing. Furthermore, both carburettor and fuel injected engine
systems are affected by fuel icing.
The icing of induction systems is very dangerous as it may reduce the

operation efficiency, and can even cause engine failure. Furthermore, the
occurrence of internal icing is difficult to predict.
In general, ice develops on the surface and moving parts of the aircraft below
0 °C. However, ice may form in the internal parts of the induction system
above 0 °C in special circumstances. For example, a carburettor can
experience icing because of the Venturi effect and the absorption of latent
heat via evaporation. Thus, carburettor icing in general may happen not only if
the outside temperature is below 0 °C but also if it is between 0 °C and 15-
20 °C, or even around 30 °C.
The most prominent part of the carburettor affected by icing is the Venturi
tube. In a Venturi tube the air speeds up as the cross-section of the tube
decreases, which leads to decreasing pressure (called the Venturi effect) and
temperature. As we saw earlier, in real atmospheric conditions air always
contains water vapour. Phase changes may occur if the temperature of the
moist air decreases to the saturation level with respect to water vapour. This
leads to the formation of water droplets and ice crystals. The latter can
accumulate in the carburettor. The moisture content of the air deposits onto
the wall of the tube, and as it freezes it blocks the mixed fuel and air from
getting into the engine. See Figure 9.1. The chance of carburettor icing
increases as the moisture content of the air increases. In other words, the
higher the relative humidity the higher the risk of carburettor icing. As is
shown in Figure 9.2, the severity of icing increases as the relative humidity
increases. The most severe cases of icing are observable when the relative
humidity of the air exceeds 60 %, and light icing can occur from around 30 %.
As was discussed in Section 3.1, dew point is the temperature at which the air
parcel gets saturated at a given air pressure. If the dew point of the moist air
gets closer to the actual temperature, then the chance of cloud, fog and
precipitation formation increases. If the inside temperature falls below 0 °C,
the chance of ice accretion in the aircraft engine also increases. The following
statement seems controversial, but if the outside air temperature is below
0 °C then carburettor icing is less likely to occur because the colder air might
contain less water. Therefore, the most favourable conditions for carburettor
icing are a moist air mass with a temperature above 0 °C in which icing is
enhanced by the Venturi effect, while the temperature is below 0 °C inside the
carburettor. Consequently, carburettor icing shows a seasonal cycle. It is more
likely to happen in a relatively moist and warm air mass during the summer,
and it is less likely to occur in a colder and drier air mass during the winter.
Besides the Venturi effect, another effect plays a significant role in cooling. As
was discussed in Section 3.2, heat is absorbed by the environment during
evaporation. The air temperature decreases via evaporation, which also leads
to the formation of ice.
Engine power also plays a key factor in icing because it affects the
temperature of the engine. Carburettor icing often happens if the engine
power is low (e.g. during landing), or if the engine temperature is also low (a
warmer engine may help prevent icing).
Figure 9.1. Illustration of carburettor icing
Figure 9.2. Probability chart of carburettor icing that shows its dependence
on the moisture content of the air
The most favourable conditions for carburettor icing are denoted by the
shades of blue. Different combinations of engine power and meteorological
conditions result in icing. Intensity categories of icing can be found in
Section 9.1.3.
From the chart, one can estimate relative humidity and intensity of icing. For
example, if the actual temperature is 3 °C and the dew point is 0 °C, then
relative humidity is about 80 %, which indicates severe icing at any power.
Please compare Figure 9.2 to Figure 3.3 in which dependence of relative
humidity on the actual temperature and dew point is shown. Using the simple
empirical formula in Equation 3.6 in Section 3.1, a slightly different but
appropriate approximation can be made. Based on this, the relative humidity is
about 85 %, which also means there will be severe icing at any power at the
given actual temperature and dew point.
In summary, the most advantageous circumstances of carburettor icing are as
following. If the aircraft flies in a moist air mass, in cloud or fog, or above a
large wet surface or water body (e.g. sea), it will increase the water content of
the air.
Using a probability chart (introduced in Figure 9.2) with an actual weather

briefing may be helpful to assess the possibility of carburettor icing.
Carburettor icing has notable physical signs regarding the engine performance
such as the engine starting to work more slowly, i.e. its revolutions per minute
drop. The risk of carburettor icing may be decreased by heating the induction
system with the appropriate equipment, but it must be used carefully as
overheating can be dangerous to the system as it also reduces the operation
efficiency.
Icing can also happen in the induction system's other processes. Fuel icing of
aircraft engines happens less frequently, but must be considered regarding
other types of engine induction systems, i.e. if the aircraft operates with a fuel
injected engine.
Fuel icing can happen in different ways, e.g. if incoming air has a temperature
below 0 °C and the water content of the fuel freezes. It can also be caused by
the heat loss during the fuel vapourisation process. It happens most of the
time while the engine power is low because the temperature of the engine is
lower in this case and it therefore does not heat up the incoming air.
Ice inflowing
Ice inflowing is a less frequent type of icing. It is caused by cold air that
contains ice crystals, snow, granular snow or supercooled water droplets that
flow through the moving parts of the aircraft, including the engine. Compared
to internal icing (induction system icing), in this case ice is not developing
inside, but is drifting in from the outside. It may happen when the aircraft flies
through clouds containing small ice crystals, and especially through the top of
Cb clouds. Ice can accumulate in the intake gap of the induction system,
blocking the air intake.
Effect of topography on icing
Mountainous areas increase the risk of icing as they help the formation of
stratiform or cumuliform clouds with a large supercooled water content.
Orography enhances the updraft of air and thus also enhances the
development of water droplets that are large in size, but mostly on the upwind
side of a mountain above the ridge. Furthermore, if the rate at which the
temperature is being lowered is relatively high, the water droplet reaches
much lower temperatures while retaining its liquid state. Thus, relatively large
supercooled water droplets can also be found at lower temperatures above
mountains. If frontal systems cross a mountainous region, icing can be
extremely strong as the uplifting effect becomes much stronger by it.
9.1.2. Types of ice accretion

We can distinguish three main types of ice that form on the surface of an
aircraft. They are clear ice, rime ice and mixed ice. The latter is the mixture of
clear ice and rime ice. Air temperature and droplet size can be considered the
main factors that determine the type of ice forming. In the table below,
general temperature ranges can be seen regarding the formation of different
types of ice on the surface of the aircraft.
General temperature range for

Main ice types of surface icing
formation
clear ice from 0 °C to -5 °C
rime ice from-5 °C to-15 °C
mixed ice from -15 °C to -40 °C
Clear ice (or glaze ice) is the most dangerous type of ice accretion. It is a
smooth, sometimes transparent (but not necessarily), hard and dense ice sheet
on the surface that is similar to glass, and thus hard to detect visually. It sticks
to the surface easily, but it is hard to remove even with de-icing equipment.
Clear ice forms from large supercooled water droplets (with a diameter greater
than 50 micrometres). It develops when freezing precipitation contacts the
surface, most commonly between 0 °C and -5 °C.
During the formation of clear ice, the water content of the droplet does not
freeze immediately because of its large size. Therefore, a part of it stays in
liquid form and flows around the surface of the aircraft. This is because latent
heat releases during the process, which slows the freezing of the droplet and
forms a continuous ice surface including on the rear sections. In this case, ice
can spread to the areas of the aircraft that are not beyond the areas protected
by the de-icing equipment.
Clear ice may accumulate after sleet hits the surface of the aircraft. As was
mentioned in Section 5.2, it develops close to 0 °C when the snow is partially
melted, and consequently it is a mixture of snow and rain. It may form a layer
of clear ice. At lower temperatures this type of icing is not likely to occur.
During icing processes rime ice forms most frequently, since the necessary
circumstances are the most common. Rime ice crystals are white, opaque and
rough, with a low density and are mostly long in shape. Similar to clear ice,
rime ice develops when freezing precipitation hits the surface. Rime ice can
change the aerodynamical behaviour of the aircraft significantly.
Rime ice forms at a lower temperature than clear ice, and generally much
further below -10 °C in the presence of smaller supercooled liquid water
droplets (with diameter smaller than 50 micrometres). These kind of droplets
can generally be found in the higher parts of the cloud or in freezing fog. It is
easily removable from the aircraft compared to clear ice.
Mixed ice can be considered the combination of clear ice and rime ice. It
forms on the surface of the aircraft if ice crystals and water droplets or
supercooled water droplets of various sizes are present in clouds or
precipitation. This is also quite a dangerous type of ice, as it can be strong,
hard and thick. It forms at a temperature between the ideal temperature of
clear ice and rime ice, most commonly from -5 °C to -15 °C.
Besides the three main ice types, hoar frost is another important product of
icing. Hoar frost is the frozen form of dew. It often develops after clear cold
nights when the air has gone below 0 °C with a relatively high moisture
content. The water content of the air directly turns from water vapour into ice
(via the process of deposition), and creates light, white ice crystals. Thus, the
air must have enough moisture content to reach the saturated condition with
respect to ice. It often forms on aircraft while parked outside during clear
winter nights or in an inversion situation when the aircraft flies from an air
mass below 0 °C (so the fuselage is also below 0 °C ) into a moist air mass
above 0 °C temperature. Hoar frost is less dangerous than clear ice and rime
ice, but it is not harmless, because it can decrease the flight performance as
well.
Figure 9.3. Schematic representation of icing types
9.1.3. Hazards of ice accretion,

avoidance
Intensity categories of icing by ICAO
The ICAO Doc 4444 distinguishes four types of icing by severity referring to
the rate at which ice accumulates. These are trace, light, moderate and severe
icing. Trace icing creates a light and barely noticeable ice layer, and it is not
hazardous if the aircraft is not affected by trace icing for more than one hour.
In the case of light icing, ice accumulates faster than in the case of trace icing.
Similarly, it may be hazardous only if the aircraft is exposed to icing for at least
one hour. Sometimes de-icing is necessary. Moderate icing means that less
than one hour is enough for ice accretion to become hazardous for aviation,
and so flight diversion may be necessary. Most of the time rime ice formation
leads to light and moderate icing. Cloud types accompanied by light or
moderate icing are Sc, St, As, Ac, and Ns.
Severe icing means the affected areas should be avoided because ice
accretion is so intense that de-icing equipment may not be able to remove the
accumulated ice. The probability of severe icing is the highest in Cb and Cu
clouds, in Ns with embedded Cb clouds, and in St clouds, particularly above
mountains. Regarding moderate and severe icing, a warning is required in a
special air report form to inform other aircraft (see details in Section 10.3.2).
Severe icing happens most often if the meteorological conditions are
favourable for clear or mixed ice formation.
Meteorological severity of icing for different ice accumulation rates can be

expressed in g/m3 LWC (table below).
Category LWC (g/m3)

trace < 0.1
light 0.1-0.6
moderate 0.6-1.2
severe >1.2
Hazards of icing on aircraft in flight

As was mentioned earlier, icing has several hazardous effects on flight that
may weaken the aircraft performance. These effects are summarised in the
figure below. First, consider surface icing. One major effect is the weight of
the accumulated ice, which increases the full weight of the aircraft. The
aerodynamical conditions are also worsened as ice accumulates on the surface
of the wings and other parts, restricting the proper flow around the aircraft.
An additional problem can be the icing of antennas which can block
communications, or the icing of windshields, which can obstruct the view. The
movement of aircraft control surfaces can also be obstructed. Furthermore, ice
accretion may cause vibrations of smaller parts of the aircraft surface, which
can then break off.
Because of the above-mentioned effects of ice accumulation on the surface of

an aircraft, lifting and thrust may decrease, and weight and drag may increase.
Thus, additional power is needed to keep the altitude. This may enhance icing
because as the nose of the aircraft lifts the surface exposed to icing increases.
Different types of ice have different effects on aircraft. For example, clear ice
can increase the weight of the aircraft greatly, while aerodynamical conditions
are more influenced by rime ice, mixed ice and hoarfrost.
Engine malfunction can also be caused by induction system icing and ice
inflowing.
Pitot tubes can also be obstructed both by ice crystals and by supercooled
water droplets. Ice crystals may clog the gaps as supercooled water covers its
surface, preventing its proper operation. The pitot tube measures the speed of
the aircraft and may operate incorrectly if ice accumulates inside it. This may
lead to poor decision-making by the pilot.
Presumably, icing of the pitot tube along with thunderstorms are what led to
the tragic crash of Air France Flight 447 when its route crossed the ITCZ in
2009. Ice can develop in a cluster of Cb clouds over the ITCZ at FL350. Three
pitot tubes were mounted on the aircraft as part of the airspeed measuring
system. An electrical heating system was used on the aircraft to prevent icing.
According to an analysis of the crash, the malfunction of the air speed
measurement system (i.e. the pitot tube) could have caused the
underestimation of the speed of the aircraft. Consequently, the aircraft’s
autopilot was turned off. It is assumed that the aircraft flew too fast, leading it
to break up and crash.
Description of weather situations typically accompanied by icing and

avoidance
As was mentioned above, the presence of supercooled water is the biggest

risk for surface icing. Knowing the weather patterns that are the most
favourable for the development of icing is the most useful skill for avoiding
hazardous situations.
Surface icing is more intense in clouds related to weather fronts. On one hand,
supercooled water can be found in stratiform clouds (mostly in Sc, St and Ns)
and are most likely to occur in winter due to warm fronts and inversions. The
precipitation originating from a warmer air mass, falls through a colder air
mass where the temperature of the water droplets may decrease and become
supercooled. On the other hand, Cu and Cb clouds can also contain
supercooled water droplets, mostly in the middle section of clouds (details of
required meteorological conditions for Cu and Cb formation can be found in
Section 4.1.3). The risk of icing is higher when Cb are embedded in Ns
associated with cold fronts. As was mentioned earlier, larger droplets can be
found in cumuliform clouds and smaller droplets in stratiform clouds, for the
updraft is more intense in cumuliform clouds. Consequently, in cumuliform
clouds supercooled water droplets found higher (as a result of a strong
updraft) have a lower temperature. Thus, the probability of the formation of
clear ice (which is the most hazardous ice type) is higher in Cu clouds. Weather
fronts are generally accompanied by clouds with a high risk of ice accretion,
and thus it is recommended that aircraft fly through them on the shortest
route possible..
In clouds at higher levels, i.e. middle level clouds such as Ac and As, the risk of
surface icing is lower but not negligible. Most often rime and mixed ice can
occur in them. Surface icing is not typical in high level clouds (i.e. Ci, Cs, Cc) as
they only contain ice crystals at temperatures below -40 °C, without
supercooled water content. However, ice inflowing and pitot tube icing can
occur in clouds with small ice crystals, e.g. in the tops of Cb clouds and in Ci
clouds.
The strongest surface icing is observable just above the level of the 0 °C
isotherm, as seen in the figure below. The probability of icing and its expected
strength increases with the thickness of stratiform clouds.
Freezing rain is the most dangerous precipitation type concerning icing.

Besides that, ice pellets on the ground can be another indication of the
presence of supercooled water droplets at higher levels, as it indicates that
liquid water decreased below 0 °C while droplets fell to the ground.
Internal icing (i.e. carburettor icing and fuel icing) may also occur in fair
weather (above 0 °C, without clouds) if the moisture content is appropriate.
Figure 9.5. General location of potential icing hazard in clouds
Aircraft must be protected from significant icing to avoid accidents. First,

before takeoff the ice accumulated on the surface of the aircraft needs to be
removed. Secondly, ice hazards can be avoided with prudent flight planning,
which means having the proper meteorological forecasts and the appropriate
knowledge of the meteorological conditions that lead to icing. Furthermore,
most aircraft contain ice protector systems (de-icing or anti-icing systems),
which can be used when icing is observed to remove the accumulated ice and
prevent ice accretion on the surface of the aircraft. If there is a high possibility
of icing predicted, more fuel may help avoid the risky area when a path takes
longer than planned, but also because ice accumulation itself may increase
fuel consumption by increasing the weight of the aircraft. Third, climbing
above a risky altitude can also be helpful.
Intensity of ice accretion can be monitored with mechanical equipment

mounted so it can be seen from the cockpit and on which the speed of ice
accretion can be observed, or with electronic measurements on modern
aircraft. If icing is detected, then the aircraft needs to leave the hazardous
region on the shortest path.
9.1.4. Ice crystal icing (ICI)

Convective clouds (CBs), typically resulting in thunderstorms, lift high moisture
concentrations to high altitude. As water droplets and other small humid
particles are raised, they will freeze and become ice crystals. You can find ice
crystals as low as at the freezing level; however, the highest concentration is
at the top of the convective cloud at temperatures close to -60 °C.
Several cases of engine power loss have been reported following

thunderstorm avoidance. After investigation, it was found that engines had
failed due to a high concentration of ice crystals. At the engine power loss,
Total Air Temperature probes erroneously reading 0 °C were noticed. This is
because ice crystals were building up on the heated TAT probe and they were
melting.
The onboard weather radars display convective weather by detecting

precipitation droplets. The higher the relative humidity of precipitation, the
higher the reflectivity. This is why dry hail, dry snow, and ice crystals give little
to almost no reflections and are difficult to avoid. A good indicator of an ice
crystal area is the thunderstorm’s anvil, which will form downwind of the CB.
So, if you avoid the thunderstorm on the downwind side, which is not
recommended, you will most probably find a high concentration of ice
crystals.
STUDY TEST
9.2. Turbulence
9.2.1. Effect of turbulence on flight,

avoidance
Intensity categories for turbulence
In this chapter the effects and possibilities of avoidance concerning
atmospheric turbulence are discussed. Please keep in mind that general
descriptions of types and formations of turbulence can be found in
Section 2.6. As we discussed previously, turbulence is an abrupt change in
airflow caused by vortices of different sizes. Severity of turbulence depends
on the rate at which the direction or the speed of an airflow changes in a
turbulent airflow. Stronger turbulence can have hazardous effects on airflow.
Hazards of turbulence largely depend on the size and mass of the affected
aircraft. Generally, smaller aircraft are more vulnerable. The following severity
categories of turbulence are distinguished by the ICAO:
• Light
• Moderate
• Severe
• Extreme
Aircraft generally have devices called accelerometers for the measurement of

acceleration experienced by an object (e.g. an aircraft in the air). This helps to
determine the intensity of turbulence as it is associated with sudden changes
in the direction of acting forces. Acceleration on an aircraft is often given in
units of gravitational acceleration. One unit (often called as 1 g) is about
9.8 m/s2.
In light turbulence the change in the airflow is weak and not continuous. It is
shown on an accelerometer reading as less than ca. 0.5 g acceleration at the
aircraft’s centre of gravity.
Moderate turbulence has a constant and greater intensity, but these effects
can still be easily controlled by the pilot. In this case the accelerometer reading
changes from 0.5 to 1.0 g at the aircraft’s centre of gravity.
In severe turbulence abrupt and strong changes in airflow occur when the
aircraft becomes hard to control or uncontrollable for short time periods, and
when the changes in accelerometer reading reach or exceed 1 g at the
aircraft’s centre of gravity.
Extreme turbulence is the category for the strongest turbulence in which

aircraft can become completely uncontrollable and can be damaged.
Turbulence categories are summarised in the figure below.
There are other aspects used as a basis for classification such as air speed.
Severity of turbulence is sometimes characterised by fluctuations of the
indicated airspeed.
Note: During flight it is hard to rank the current turbulence into the above
described categories, and thus it can be said its classification is quite subjective.
Severity of turbulence Aircraft behaviour Impact on passengers
light Slight changes in aircraft behaviour Light vibration or shaking.

(pitching, rolling, yawing). Smaller, unfixed objects
Controllability of aircraft unaffected. may notremain in place.
moderate Turbulence with greater intensity Larger objects are moving.

but still not affecting control. Walking is difficult on board.
severe Abrupt and major changes in Walking is impossible on board.

aircraft behaviour. It is Possible injury to passengers.
hard to control the aircraft.
extreme Loss of control above the plane. Walking is impossible on board.

May cause damage to the aircraft. Possible injury to passengers.
Figure 9.6. Severity categories of turbulence by ICAO
Effect of turbulence in flight, avoidance

Although there have been some well-known accidents related to turbulence in
the past, they are very rare due to developments in aircraft design over the
last few decades. However, even light turbulence may cause weak vibrations
and the shaking of the aircraft's body, which could be uncomfortable to the
passengers. Inside the aircraft smaller objects can be displaced. Ultimately,
turbulence rarely leads to the crash of the aircraft. In severe or extreme
turbulence, passengers can be injured by moving objects. It can also be
dangerous if they do not fasten their seat belts.
One accidents caused by turbulence is the crash of British Overseas Airways

Corporation Flight 911 near Mount Fuji, Japan in 1966. The aircraft was flying
close to a mountain where turbulence originated from strong mountain waves.
Presumably, it caused a break in the fuselage of the aircraft, leading to the
death of 124 persons.
There are three main types of turbulence effects on an aircraft, illustrated in

the figure below. They are pitching, rolling and yawing. Pitching means
turbulence has a diverting effect on the lateral axis of the plane. Rolling
indicates a diverting effect on the longitudinal axis of the plane, while yawing
means turbulence has a diverting effect on the vertical axis.
Figure 9.7. Diverting effects on aircraft caused by turbulence
Prediction and avoidance of turbulence
Light turbulence can be experienced during almost every flight and does not
have any hazardous effects. However, areas with strong turbulence need to be
avoided.
There are two categories of actions to help pilots avoid turbulence:
1. On one hand, appropriate flight planning with the help of accurate

weather forecasts is required before flight.
2. On the other hand, during flight appropriate altitude and speed should
be chosen and necessary track corrections should be made.
For appropriate flight planning, the knowledge of phenomena associated with

turbulence have to be known. Most of the time turbulence is related to visible,
easily recognizable weather patterns, such as weather fronts and convective
phenomena, except in the case of clear-air turbulence (abbreviated as CAT).
Turbulence is mostly accompanied by typical clouds. Note that although CAT
is invisible, it is also related to weather phenomena or typical circumstances
that are observable indirectly or by using remote-sensing devices. For
example, in the vicinity of a jet stream or any obstacle turbulence can be
expected. A mountain or any man-made object of a large size can be
considered an obstacle. In addition, there are typical clouds related to the jet
stream that are visually observable. The location of turbulence related to the
jet stream can also be determined well if we know the location of cyclones
and related weather fronts from weather briefings. Turbulence caused by low
level jet streams may endanger the aircraft during takeoff and landing.
Remember that the main types of turbulence from the perspective of forming
factors are convective, mechanical and frontal turbulence, which were
introduced in Section 2.6. Every intensity category may be associated with the
above-listed categories of turbulence. Different types of turbulence are
expected in different situations , so knowing the potential factors leading to
turbulence is necessary. For example, the prediction of weather fronts, jet
streams and convective phenomena may be helpful to avoid highly turbulent
areas. It is worth mentioning that significant turbulence must be reported by
other aircraft, which can be useful in avoidance. Typical weather patterns
associated with the three main types of turbulence are listed below:
i. Convective turbulence is expected near convective clouds (i.e. Cu, Cb)

and areas where convective updraft occurs (e.g. in the vicinity of
thermals). This type of turbulence can be experienced at any level of the
troposphere.
ii. Mechanical turbulence is expected around mountain ranges and other

major obstacles (e.g. buildings, vegetation) and it mainly affects smaller
aircraft. Mechanical turbulence is greater when wind speed is higher.
iii. As expected, frontal turbulence occurs in the vicinity of weather fronts

and it can be experienced from the surface up to higher levels. Weather
front-related turbulence is caused by wind on the aircraft's front surface
or by the embedded convective clouds (Cu, Cb).
If during flight someone unexpectedly or inevitably enters a turbulent zone, it
is necessary to keep in mind the following. For every type of aircraft there is a
known recommended speed for the safest flight across a turbulent zone
(called the optimum turbulence penetration speed), which should be
respected during flight. When someone experiences unexpected turbulence
(e.g. CAT) a change of flight level could be helpful with an appropriate
decrease of speed. If convective turbulence is encountered during the flight,
decreasing speed and climbing above the convective zone could be a proper
way to avoid his zone.
Presumably, a special type of mechanical turbulent vortex called wake

turbulence caused the tragic crash of American Airlines Flight 587 in 2001.
This type of turbulence is not related to any meteorological phenomenon, but
is caused by aerodynamical factors. Behind an aircraft, especially during
takeoff and landing, pairs of vortices are created by the wing tips of the
aircraft. They have opposite rotational directions (as shown in the figure
below) and exert force on the fuselage of an aircraft during flight. The
direction of the force points to the ground surface. It may lead to yawing, but
in the most severe cases it may cause a collision with the ground. Vortices can
be visualised as clouds as seen in Figure 9.9. These turbulent vortices are
highly dangerous for other aircraft with the same route, as the vortices can
persist over several minutes. This is why a minimum safe distance between
aircraft must be kept.
Figure 9.8. Pairs of vortices and rotational direction in connection with wake
turbulence
Figure 9.9. Wake turbulence behind an aircraft visualised as clouds
STUDY TEST
9.3. Wind shear
9.3.1. Definition of wind shear

As we discussed in Section 2.6.1, wind shear can be defined as an abrupt
change in wind speed (called speed shear) or wind direction (called directional
shear) over a relatively short distance. Wind shear can occur vertically and
horizontally or in both directions at the same time.
In the following section, two main types of wind shear will be distinguished:
vertical wind shear and horizontal wind shear. Furthermore, we emphasise the
significance of low level wind shear, which is hazardous for aircraft during
takeoff and landing.
In the case of vertical wind shear, wind speed or wind direction changes with
height, while in the case of horizontal wind shear, changes in the flow can be
observed at the same height. Vertical wind shear is depicted in the figure
below. Wind shear may originate from friction concerning the boundary
surface of two air masses.
A) speed shear B) directional shear
Figure 9.10. Illustration of vertical wind shear, which is an abrupt change in

wind speed or direction with altitude
The length of the arrows indicates the changes in wind speed with height, and
the direction of arrows indicates the changes of wind direction with height.
Speed and direction may also change together. In figure (A), the barrel and the
red arrow indicates a vertical wind shear can lead to rotation on a horizontal
axis, which may enhance the possibility of the formation of a supercell. See
Section 9.4.
Wind shear may occur at any height level in the atmosphere, but from the
aviation point of view the most hazardous kind forms in lower levels and is
called low level wind shear. Low level means a few hundred metres above the
ground, which is roughly the height of the friction layer. In this case, wind
shear occurs close to the ground near the aerodrome and may have an impact
on aircraft during takeoff and landing. It is hazardous as the space is limited for
correcting manoeuvres, i.e. between the aircraft and the ground surface.
It is worth mentioning that vertical wind shear can be represented with a
hodograph. It contains concentric circles indicating the magnitude of wind
speed. The circles are divided by the points of the compass to give the wind
directions. To determine the wind shear, wind vectors are drawn from the
centre of the circles corresponding to the height levels at which wind speed
and wind direction were measured (marked with red vectors in the figure).
Then, every adjacent pair of vectors is subtracted. As a result the wind shear
vector can be given between two adjacent height levels. The length of each
vector gives the magnitude of the wind shear between two height levels in the
SI units of m/s. They are represented by green lines in the hodograph. In the
figure, every height level is numbered. For example, the magnitude of the wind
shear vector between height levels 1 and 2 can be represented by the leftmost
green line. In the example we assume an atmospheric layer in which wind
speed and wind direction were measured at seven height levels. We can
determine the direction of the wind shear between the lowest and the highest
height levels if we examine the shape of the green curve made of the green
lines between the adjacent height levels.
Figure 9.11. An example of using the hodograph
The figure shows the wind vectors on different height levels with connected
endpoints (marked with green line). Numbers represent the wind vectors
corresponding to different atmospheric levels from the ground surface (1) to
the uppermost level (7), respectively. In the depicted case, the hodograph
indicates both speed shear (wind vectors have different lengths) and
directional shear (wind vectors have different directions).
9.3.2. Weather conditions for wind

shear
In general, wind shear can be related to several weather patterns. In the
following section, the most important weather conditions contributing to the
occurrence of wind shear are:
1. Convective weather systems

2. Mountain waves
3. Local winds
4. Friction layer
5. Inversion
6. Weather fronts
7. Jet streams
8. Flows around obstacles
(1) Wind shear is often linked to convection. It can typically be experienced

around thunderstorms (Cb) at all height levels but also around Cu clouds.
Extremely strong wind shear occurs in connection with downbursts,
microbursts and gust fronts, which are also related to Cb, but wind shear may
also accompany (2) mountain waves and (3) local winds like sea and land
breezes in the vicinity of large water bodies. Furthermore, (4) air flow changes
related to the friction layer and (5) air flows above a strong temperature
inversion. In cases (4) and (5), stronger winds blow on a higher level while
weaker winds are observable on a lower level. They are separated from each
other, and thus on the boundary surface between the air masses, strong wind
shear can form. Wind shear can also be related to the synoptic scale weather
systems like (6) weather fronts. In this case the reason for shear is weather
fronts are boundaries between air masses with different characteristics often
including differences in wind direction and wind speed. Cold fronts are
typically accompanied with stronger wind shear. We emphasise that the
formation of jet streams is related to the occurrence of wind shear.
Consequently, (7) the main jet streams (i.e. polar, subtropical, tropical easterly
and arctic) and low level jet streams may cause a strong wind shear. Jet stream
is a tunnel of strong air flow that has a boundary surface with the surrounding
air where strong wind shear occurs. Wind shear can also be observed in (8)
flows around obstacles like large buildings (sometimes even around an
aerodrome).
In the following section, typical situations will be listed in which the main
types of wind shear occur.
Vertical wind shear can be experienced during climbing or descending, e.g.,

ascending above or descending into the friction layer as well as climbing
above a strong inversion.
Horizontal wind shear occurs if the aircraft horizontally crosses a boundary on

which wind can be experienced, e.g. crossing a weather front or during
entering horizontally into a jet stream. Furthermore, horizontal wind shear
occurs in the case of downbursts and heavy updrafts or downdrafts in and
around a Cb.
Low level wind shear may be similarly caused by thunderstorms, low level jet
streams, weather fronts or by local wind systems (e.g. sea and land breezes,
mountain winds, inversion layers). These phenomena cause wind shear on the
border of air masses with different characteristics.
Wind shear can contribute to the formation of turbulent air flow on the shear
boundary surface as shown in the figure below, and thus the hazard of wind
shear is highly related to the hazard of turbulence (most of the time, CAT). To
summarise, the hazards of wind shear and turbulence often occur together.
Figure 9.12. Wind shear induced turbulence
9.3.3. Effect in flight, avoidance

As we mentioned before, the effects of wind shear depend on altitude.
Occurrence of wind shear is the most critical at lower levels during takeoff and
landing. Sudden changes in the direction and speed of the air flow may cause
a loss of altitude, and being too close to ground, the altitude will not be
enough for correction. Vertical wind differences, e.g. entering a zone with
weaker wind speed, can cause unexpected sinking. Wind speed can also cause
rapid changes in heading.
Note: The effect of wind shear and the required correction manoeuvres during
flight are highly dependent on the type, weight and size of the aircraft.
A crucial factor is the weather pattern to which the development of wind

shear is associated. Among the notable weather patterns, we emphasise the
significance of temperature inversion, which is dangerous at lower height
levels. In this case, air flow is calm close to the ground, but after crossing the
boundary layer to higher levels, relatively strong winds blow. This situation
may suddenly change the flight circumstances so much that the pilot may lose
control over the aircraft. Furthermore, wind shear related to thunderstorms
can occur at any level in the vicinity of the Cb, even close to the ground. For
example, it is associated with downbursts or gust fronts. These may have fatal
consequences on aircraft. See the figure below.
Figure 9.13. The effects of turbulence associated with strong downdrafts on

aircraft (e.g. downburst or microburst)
When entering a stronger headwind zone a lifting effect can be experienced. If

the wind blows from above, it forces the aircraft against the ground surface.
When the wind changes back to horizontal, a lifting effect can be experienced
again.
Wind shear can force the plane to move rapidly downward or upward. Aircraft
can also be dislocated by horizontal direction changes, sometimes repeatedly
in a short distance. These effects can cause the aircraft to drift away from its
original direction and height level, as this may cause sudden changes in air
speed.
To avoid wind shear, pilots need to know the weather phenomena, which are
related to wind shear and are listed above. The usage of an appropriate
weather forecast during flight planning before the flight is also necessary, but
it is important to recognise wind shear if it happens unexpectedly during
flight. As was mentioned above, sudden heading changes and vertical speed
changes may indicate wind shear. Wind shear can be detected by devices able
to measure the vertical profile of wind speed and wind direction, for example,
weather balloons equipped with radiosondes or measuring instruments
mounted on high towers around an aerodrome. Measuring devices installed
on board aircraft can also be used to recognise wind shear.
Vertical wind shear can also be detected visually if Cu clouds have an inclined
vertical axis as can be seen in the figure below. Thunderstorms are highly
recommended to avoid because of the likeliness of strong wind shear. Please
keep in mind that there are several other aspects that make Cb clouds
dangerous for aviation, such as icing or turbulence, which were mentioned
earlier or will be discussed in more details in the next section in Section 9.4.
Figure 9.14. Photo of Cu clouds affected by vertical wind shear
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9.4. Hazardous effects of
thunderstorms

The main characteristics of thunderstorms were described in Section 4.1.3. In
this chapter their main hazards to aviation will be discussed. Thunderstorm is
the name of the phenomena accompanied by electrical discharges and
generally related to Cb clouds. They are related to several hazardous
phenomena depending on their type and intensity. Thunderstorms may occur
individually or in groups arranged in different shapes. One of the most severe
types is a supercell, which consists of a strong individual cell with a rotating
motion along a vertical axis. This type of cell may even be associated with the
formation of tornadoes. However, even small single-cell thunderstorms are
accompanied by several hazardous phenomena, like heavy rainfall (resulting in
poor visibility), hail, turbulence, wind shear, lightning strikes and occasionally
downbursts. Note that among all weather phenomena, the most severe
turbulence and icing can be expected in thunderstorms. Weather fronts
(especially cold fronts) are often accompanied by thunderstorms.
In summary, the hazardous phenomena related to thunderstorms that

endanger flight are the following:
• Heavy rainfall
• Hail
• Strong winds
• Gust fronts
• Wind shear
• Downbursts
• Severe icing
• Severe and extreme turbulence
• Lightning strikes
• Tornadoes (in supercells)
Atypical occurrence of these phenomena in a general mature stage

thunderstorm can be seen in the figure below. Heavy precipitation and hail are
the strongest in the downdraft zone but can also be found in any part of the
thunderstorm and may reduce visibility. Hailstones may break the windshield
of the cockpit. Gust fronts, downbursts and related wind shear are especially
dangerous close to the ground. The most severe icing generally occurs in the
middle zone of the Cb and above it, while severe turbulence occurs on every
level inside the cloud. CAT is also often associated with Cbs, above the cloud
top or below the cloud base. It can be observed even horizontally from some
km away from the cell. Electromagnetic radiation emitted by lightning may
disturb radio communications between operators on the ground and the
aircrew. Passengers are protected from lightning by the Faraday Cage effect,
but the aircraft e.g. the onboard electrical equipment, may be damaged.
In the previous chapters we discussed the effects and types of icing,

turbulence and wind shear. In the following chapters, we will discuss
downbursts and squall lines in mid-latitudes.
Figure 9.15. Flight hazards related to a typical thunderstorm in its mature
stage
9.4.2. Development and effects of

downbursts
One of the most dangerous and hazardous phenomena related to
thunderstorms is a downburst. A downburst is a strong downward flow in a
thunderstorm resulting in a strong wind storm at ground level. Generally, it is
related to single-cell thunderstorms in the mature stage. It often affects a
circular area on the ground with around a diameter of 4 km. In this case it is
called a microburst. However, it can occasionally cover a larger area and then
is called a macroburst. In downbursts the vertical or horizontal wind speed
may exceed 200 km/h. Generally, downbursts last only a few minutes, but
frequently result in major destruction. The life cycle of a downburst is shown
Downbursts form due to the cooling effect of the evaporation of water
droplets in clouds and precipitation. During evaporation heat is absorbed. If
the droplets get into a relatively dry air mass, the evaporation and thus the
cooling occur rapidly, resulting in a strong downward flow, as the colder air is
more dense. As the air flow reaches the ground, it spreads radially and causes
strong winds. On its edge horizontal vortices may form.
Figure 9.16. Life cycle of a downburst
Note: This process takes a few minutes from formation until dissipation.
A downburst is a major threat to flight and causes strong wind shear. In good
visibility conditions and from an appropriate angle it has a typical appearance
illustrated in the figure below.
Figure 9.17. Photo of a downburst
Occasionally, it is also related to squall lines. In this case, a downburst does

not dissipate in a few minutes, but accompanies thunderstorms as a strong
gust front moving ahead into the relatively dry and warm air mass.
A downburst can be wet or dry. A wet downburst occurs if the droplets reach
to the ground, and thus a wet downburst is associated with precipitation. In
the case of dry downburst, droplets evaporate before reaching the ground
surface. In the latter case strong CAT may be expected close to ground level.
9.4.3. Squall lines

A squall line is a special type of frontal thunderstorm. It is organised in a line
shape with perpendicular progress to this line. In this chapter the
characteristics of a squall line on mid-latitudes will be discussed, but they may
also form in tropical regions. A squall line is a chain of thunderstorms usually
formed along a cold front or in a warmer air mass ahead of a cold front (warm
sector), but sometimes it can also be organised inside an air mass from an
individual thunderstorm. Its width changes between 20-200 km. It is
accompanied by strong winds and large hail in a wide band. This phenomenon
is a type of mesoscale convective system (abbreviated as MCS) that is an
organised cluster of thunderstorms. A squall line mostly consists of single
thunderstorm cells, but sometimes supercells can be found in it. In the mature
stage, its shape could become curved. On radar images this can be recognised
as a bow echo. It can be seen for example on the right-hand side of
Figure 4.23. On the two sides of this bow-shaped phenomena, circulation with
a vertical axis is observed, one with cyclonic and the other with anticyclonic
circulation. At first the bow is symmetric, but later the cyclonic circulation
strengthens. Therefore, the system becomes asymmetric, and shaped like a
comma. A squall line is typically preceded by a wide band of shelf clouds. It is
formed by a strong gust front of the system. Those shelf clouds are considered
a typical indicator of a squall line and is shown in the left-hand side of
Figure 4.23.
Figure 9.18. Squall line development and downburst
Shelf clouds belonging to a squall line (on the right) and the development of a
bow echo (on the left) are indicated by typical precipitation intensity on a
radar from a to b, respectively. A and C indicate the anticyclonic and cyclonic
vortices on the two sides of the system.

Previously, we described thunderstorms based on the number of cells that
constitute the thunderstorms and their shape. The avoidance of
thunderstorms is supported by weather briefings on aerodromes and during
flight. In flight documentation the following types of thunderstorms are
distinguished based on how they affect the safety of flights:
Figure 9.18. Squall line development and downburst
Shelf clouds belonging to a squall line (on the right) and the development of a
bow echo (on the left) are indicated by typical precipitation intensity on a
radar from a to b, respectively. A and C indicate the anticyclonic and cyclonic
vortices on the two sides of the system.

Previously, we described thunderstorms based on the number of cells that
constitute the thunderstorms and their shape. The avoidance of
thunderstorms is supported by weather briefings on aerodromes and during
flight. In flight documentation the following types of thunderstorms are
distinguished based on how they affect the safety of flights:
1. Obscured thunderstorm (abbreviated as OBSC TS)
2. Embedded thunderstorm (abbreviated as EMBD TS)
3. Frequent thunderstorm (abbreviated as FRQ TS)
4. Squall line thunderstorm (abbreviated as SQLTS)
Obscured thunderstorm refers to a thunderstorm that is hard to detect

visually because of poor visibility conditions. Embedded thunderstorm means
a thunderstorm is embedded into frontal stratiform clouds, and is therefore
hard to detect. Frequent thunderstorm means that more than 75 % of the area
is covered by thunderstorms. Squall line thunderstorm refers to a chain of
thunderstorms that can only be avoided by flying above them.
Another type of classification is based on the area covered by Cb clouds:
I. Isolated Cb (abbreviated as ISOL CB): Isolated refers to the presence of

single-cell Cb over less than 50 % of any given area.
II. Occasional Cb (abbreviated as OCNL CB): Occasional means that SO-

75 % of the are is covered with Cb.
III. Frequent Cb (abbreviated as FRQ CB): Frequent indicates that clouds

cover more than 75 % of the area.
The probability of occurrence for thunderstorms on a flight route can be

known from the pre-flight weather briefing in the above-described way.
The most obvious way to avoid thunderstorms is the visual observation of Cb

clouds if the visibility conditions are appropriate. The most spectacular sign is
the anvil-shaped top of the cloud, which spreads along the tropopause. At
night lightning illuminates the clouds and helps with their visual detection.
Further tools for detecting and avoiding thunderstorms are weather radar
images, measurements by lightning detectors (stormscopes) and satellite
images. One of the most important meteorological instruments for detecting
already existing thunderstorms on a route is the weather radar, which detects
the precipitation intensity with radio waves emitted by the instrument and
reflected off the precipitation particles. From radar observations many
conclusions can be drawn about the location and structure of thunderstorms.
Radar images can be created by ground measurements or by airborne radar.
Devices used for lightning detection are also available both on the ground and
onboard. They also support the determination of the location of
thunderstorms.
MORE INFO L"
If possible, it is recommended to avoid any thunderstorm at least

approximately 20 km (ca. 65 000 ft) horizontally. At lower levels close to the
ground a distance of ca. 10 km (ca. 32000 ft) is required for safe flight in the
case of average thunderstorms, but if the signs of supercells or squall lines can
be recognised on a radar intensity image (remember the hook echo and bow
echo) then at lower levels, 20 km (ca. 65 000 ft) is the recommended distance
for avoiding a storm. When it is impossible to avoid a thunderstorm, then
overflying is recommended at least 5000 ft (ca. 1.5 km) above the cloud top.
It is recommended that aircraft avoid the back side of multi-cellular

thunderstorms, opposite to the front side of the storm's progress, because
new cells generally develop on this back side. Embedded frontal
thunderstorms are more dangerous as they cannot be seen due to the
surrounding frontal clouds. It is worth mentioning that thunderstorms often
progress with the main, large-scale airflow. Frontal thunderstorms move with
the progress in the front. It is also worth mentioning that supercells may
deviate in any direction related to the main large-scale flow, and thus its
direction of movement is hard to predict.
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Stormscopes are able to detect radio atmospheric signals, which are broadband
electromagnetic impulses. They are a result of natural atmospheric lightning
discharges. A stormscope does not - compared to a weather radar - emit own
signals. The measured energy develops due to intense vertical movements of the
air. It is already measurable, before visible lightning occurs.
The operating principle is similar to a radio compass. There are two different types
of antennas, measuring the direction to the cloud. The distance is calculated by
comparing the measurement with an electronic signature of a typical
thunderstorm. The display looks like a normal weather radar.
A stormscope is a highly sophisticated system that detects, locates and maps

areas of electrical discharge activity contained within thunderstorms permitting
avoidance of the associated hazards.
9.5. Tornadoes
9.5.1. Properties and occurrence

One of the most devastating weather phenomenon is a tornado. It is typically
related to cumuliform clouds and to Cb clouds with intense thunderstorms. A
tornado is a vortex with high intensity and vertical axis of rotation. It
originates from a cloud base and reaches the ground. Its duration is between a
few minutes and a few hours. A tornado that forms above a water body is
called a waterspout. When a tornado does not reach the ground, it is called a
funnel cloud (or tuba). As a side note, the expression "funnel cloud" in
METAR/TAF codes is also used for tornadoes and waterspouts.
Tornadoes typically form in supercell thunderstorms from a rotating

mesocyclone. The two main types of tornadoes by the conditions of
development are the supercellular (mesocyclonic tornadoes) and non-
supercellular (a non-mesocyclonic tornado is, in other words, a landspout).
However, the latter type is more common, and the former type causes more
damage. Therefore we will discuss supercellular tornadoes in more detail.
The wind speed in tornadoes varies between 100 km/h (appr. 54 kt) and
500 km/h (appr. 270 kt), while the speed of its progress is around 50 km/h
(27 kt). The horizontal extension of a tornado varies between a few metres
and a few kilometres (in general a few hundred metres). Please see the figure
below.
Figure 9.19. Diameter of tornadoes
Tornadoes can have a diameter of a few metres to more than 3 kilometres. A

very big tornado appeared in Oklahoma, USA on May 3, 1999, and shows one
of the most devastating tornadoes of all time. It destroyed more than 8 000
houses and killed 41 people.
The most commonly used categorisation for the intensity of tornadoes is the
Fujita scale (described by a Japanese meteorologist Theodore Fujita in 1971)
and the Enhanced Fujita scale (the corrected version of the former). They
categorise tornadoes by the damage caused from F0 to F5 (or from EFO to
EF5). F5/EF5 indicates the strongest (most devastating) tornadoes.
Enhanced Fujita scale
Notation Wind speed km/h (kt) Damage

Ill
Figure 9.19. Diameter of tornadoes
Tornadoes can have a diameter of a few metres to more than 3 kilometres. A

very big tornado appeared in Oklahoma, USA on May 3, 1999, and shows one
of the most devastating tornadoes of all time. It destroyed more than 8 000
houses and killed 41 people.
The most commonly used categorisation for the intensity of tornadoes is the
Fujita scale (described by a Japanese meteorologist Theodore Fujita in 1971)
and the Enhanced Fujita scale (the corrected version of the former). They
categorise tornadoes by the damage caused from F0 to F5 (or from EFO to
EF5). F5/EF5 indicates the strongest (most devastating) tornadoes.
Enhanced Fujita scale
Notation Wind speed km/h (kt) Damage

EFO 105-137 (57-74) light
EFl 138-178 (75-6) moderate
EF2 179-218(97-117) significant
EF3 219-266 (118-143) severe
EF4 267-322 (144-174) devastating
EF5 322 (174) < incredible
The formation of supercellular tornadoes during the formation of supercell

thunderstorms was already discussed before.
Life stages of tornadoes:
1. Formation - funnel cloud stage: The rotating mesocyclone (the updraft

region of the supercell) lowers and creates the wall cloud under the
original cloud base. The updraft gets stronger and the diameter becomes
smaller, and thus an increased low-pressure region can be found close to
the ground. The funnel does not reach the ground yet.
2. Mature stage: The funnel reaches the ground (touchdown), and damage
is the strongest in this stage.
3. Dissipation stage: Tornado weakens then lifts off.
The occurrence of (supercellular) tornadoes is associated with the occurrence

of supercell thunderstorms. They most typically form between spring and
early autumn, but they may occur in any season. The possibility of an
occurrence during the day is also related to the thunderstorm frequency, and
thus in mid-latitudes they most often occur in the afternoon.
Typically, most of tornadoes form in the central region of the USA as the
conditions for development there are ideal (the annual number is above 1000
in this area). However, tornadoes can form almost everywhere on the Earth.
They can form in Europe, but happen less frequently there, with lower
intensity and cause less damage. Tornadoes also frequently occur in Mexico,
Australia and West Africa.
A dust devil is a vortex but on a smaller scale, similar to a tornado. While dust
devils build upward from the ground surface, tornadoes extend downward
from a cloud.
Dust devils are formed in fair weather, when the insulation is intense. Because
of the uneven heating of the surface, a pressure gradient forms over an area of
a relatively small size. Therefore, a small-scale updraft develops and rotates
around a vertical axis. It often forms above dry land surfaces without
vegetation where it can easily pick up dust, sand and smaller objects, making
the vortex visible.
A comparison of tornadoes and dust devils is found in the table below. We

emphasise the diameter of dust devils may change from a few centimetres to
close to 100 metres. Their vertical extension is regularly smaller than that of
tornadoes, as dust devils generally do not reach the cloud base. On average,
they vary from a few metres to around a few kilometres.
The wind speed inside a dust devil is also highly variable. It may exceed
100 km/h (appr. 54 kt). However, its regular lifespan is only a few minutes.
Sometimes, the damage of a larger dust devil can be compared to a weaker
(EFl) tornado.
Main properties Tornado Dust devil

~3 ft (~1 m) - 30000 ft
-1 ft (0.3 m) - 330 ft
(10000 m)
diameter (100 m)
(on average a few
(on average a few feet)
hundred feet)
duration from minutes to hours a few minutes
maximum wind speed may exceed 100 km/h
500 km/h (appr. 270 kt)
inside (appr. 54 kt)
Figure 9.20. Dust devil
Tornadoes and dust devils also differ on the basis of their spatial distribution.
For the formation of tornadoes more specific conditions are required such as
the presence of heavy thunderstorms. Dust devils may form almost
everywhere on Earth where small-scale pressure differences occur over a
smooth and dusty surface.
The dangers of tornadoes to flight are unequivocal. Dust devils may also be
hazardous during takeoffs and landings. The winds inside dust devils can be
strong enough to endanger the safety of flight, especially in the case of light
aircraft. Accurately predicting the appearance of tornadoes and dust devils is
impossible.
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9.6. Inversions

Formation and consequences of inversions were discussed in Section 1.2.5.
We also discussed in Section 4.2 that an inversion close to the ground often
produces mist and fog, which are hazardous, visibility-reducing phenomena. In
addition, in Section 8.3 we discussed cold-air pools, which mainly form in
connection with inversions.
Inversions, especially inversions close to the ground (in other words, low level
inversions) may have other hazardous consequences for aviation. In the
following section, the main effects of an inversion on aircraft performance will
be listed:
1. Wind speed shear
2. Wind directional shear
3. Turbulence
4. Temperature difference
An inversion may produce wind shear with varying intensity, depending on the
intensity of the inversion and the large-scale weather conditions. For aviation,
a low level inversion is the most hazardous type, as the altitude level may not
allow enough space for the correction of the consequences of wind shear.
Inversions obstruct the vertical mixing of air, and wind speed and direction
may be significantly different above the inversion than below. Under the
inversion surface, friction often slows down the wind compared to the large-
scale flows.
As wind speed suddenly changes when aircraft cross the top of an inversion,
lifting may change rapidly. The two main types of the cases related to wind
speed shear are the following:
• During landing, sudden descent may occur with the rapid decreasing of
wind speed, when entering an inversion layer.
• After take-off, sometimes much stronger winds are present that lead to a
stronger ascent above the inversion.
Change in wind direction can also be observed as an aircraft crosses an

inversion layer. In extreme cases, the wind direction suddenly changes around
180°, which leads to a significant diversion from the original direction. In more
detail with respect to the aircraft during takeoff, the wind changes from a
headwind to a tailwind, so the aircraft may stall. This situation may be
prevented by taking off in a slight tailwind. Wind speed shear and wind
directional shear often occur together.
Wind shear around inversions is often accompanied by turbulent vortices

forming along the shear boundary surface.
Another additional factor is the strong temperature difference between the

two sides of the inversion layer; more than a 10 °C change may happen.
Remember that warmer air is less dense, so lifting may decrease (increase)
when aircraft reach a warmer (colder) layer.
The top of the inversion varies in a wide range, between a few hundred
metres (feet) and 2 km (appr. 7 000 ft). Above the inversion layer (besides the
above-mentioned effects) visibility often improves suddenly, as a vertical
mixing of the air is no longer restricted.
Subsidence inversion occurs at a higher level in high pressure systems. It may

cause the sudden descending or ascending of the aircraft, depending on if the
wind speed is increasing or decreasing.
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9.7. Stratospheric conditions

Main characteristics of the stratosphere
Above the troposphere, the adjacent vertical layer of the Earth’s atmosphere is
the stratosphere. General atmospheric conditions inside this layer were
described in Section 1.1.1 and Section 1.1.3.
The lower boundary of the stratosphere can be found between 8 km (approx.

25 000 ft) and 18 km (approx. 60 000 ft) depending on the season and the
latitude (lower in the cold season and toward the poles). Its upper boundary is
around approximately 50 km (approx. 164000 ft). As we saw in the previous
chapters, temperature does not decrease further at the top of the
troposphere. Above the tropopause, the temperature starts to increase
because of ozone-related chemical reactions. Ozone is decomposed by the UV
radiation of the Sun, therefore energy is released into the stratosphere. As a
result, temperature inversions and stable atmospheric conditions are
observable.
Ozone is present in larger concentrations in the stratosphere, and it may cause

health damage during longer stratospheric flights if it infiltrates the cabin.
Modern aircraft are equipped with an ozone converter that removes ozone
from the cabin (converting it into oxygen).
We can draw the conclusion from the previously-mentioned information that

stronger cosmic radiation reaches the passengers in the stratosphere than in
the troposphere, which may cause health damage especially to pilots who
often fly in the stratosphere.
Higher layers of the stratosphere can only be used by special (non

commercial) aircraft because of the low atmospheric pressure at this level.
Aircraft often use the lower layers of the stratosphere for flight where a
pressurised and heated cabin is needed. The outside pressure and
temperature is much lower than at the ground and these conditions are not
suitable for passengers. Pressurisation is also needed higher in the
troposphere, but with height it becomes harder to keep the appropriate
conditions inside, which is a limitation factor in flight altitude increase.
Weather in the stratosphere

Weather phenomena do not or rarely occur in the cases present here because
of the lack of water vapour. Please keep in mind the troposphere contains
more than 90 % of all water vapour in the atmosphere, and half of all water
vapour can be found in the lower 2 km above the surface. However, in the
case of strong thunderstorms, the top of the Cb cloud may penetrate the
tropopause, introducing water into the stratosphere. This can be associated
with CAT. Atmospheric stratification is absolutely stable here, which limits
vertical mixing. Air density continuously decreases upward. In less dense air,
drag is weaker and therefore less power is needed for aircraft to reach the
same speed. For this reason, severe turbulence and wind shear are also less
frequent. Larger mountain waves can also penetrate the lower stratosphere,
which may cause turbulence.
At last, we mention two phenomena related to specific latitudes. The Quasi

Biennial Oscillation and the polar vortex. Above the tropical latitudes a special
phenomenon called Quasi Biennial Oscillation can be found approximately
every two years when the prevailing easterly winds turn westerly. At higher
(lower) stratospheric levels the easterly (westerly) period is longer.
Above the poles the polar vortex extends from the higher troposphere into
the lower stratosphere, which is an upper level low-pressure area. It is
stronger in winter, and at the edge of the vortex, strong zonal wind speeds can
be found. More information about the polar vortex can be found in
Section 7.3.
9.8. Hazards in mountainous
areas
9.8.1. Influence of terrain on clouds and

precipitation, frontal passage
Relief significantly influences the weather as we discussed in Section 2.4 and
Section 2.5. Generally, the higher and steeper the mountain the greater its
effect on weather. Airflow is forcibly diverted as it reaches a mountain. The
direction of diversion depends on the spatial extension of the mountain.
When the horizontal extension of the mountain is much larger than the
vertical, the flow cannot divert horizontally, and therefore it must rise upward.
The following is a commonly known phenomenon. As the air is forced to

ascend on the upwind side of the mountain, it cools down adiabatically to its
dew point. This leads to the formation of clouds, and even precipitation.
Therefore, on the downwind (lee) side dryer air starts to descend, which
warms up adiabatically and is called a foehn wind. Clear skies and higher
temperatures are expected. Remember that foehn winds were discussed in
Section 3.3.1 and in Section 8.4.1.
As wind moves across a mountain ridge the pressure drops; therefore it is

often accelerates after reaching the downwind side. Its speed may reach
extremely high values causing a downslope wind storm. It may cause
significant damages to forest areas. On 19th November 2004, a severe
downslope wind storm was observed in the Tatras which affected a large area
(exceeding 100 km2) covered by forest.
Weather fronts are also modified if they reach mountainous regions. An

additional mechanical lifting effect strengthens the updraft, so embedded Cu
and Cb clouds may form. This enhances icing, turbulence and the formation of
precipitation primarily on the upwind side, while on the downwind side
weather fronts are expected to be less intense as the clouds "dry out" on the
upwind side due to the foehn effect.
9.8.2. Vertical movements, mountain

waves, wind shear, turbulence, ice
accretion
Mountain waves form when the airflow (forced to rise by mountains) is stable
in certain layers, the wind speed is constant, and the wind direction is
approximately perpendicular to the mountain ridge. As the airflow reaches the
lee side it is gravitationally forced back to its original level. Because of the
inertia of the air parcel, oscillational movement forms and creates mountain
waves, which sometimes reach hundreds of kilometres away. Mountain waves
may also penetrate the lower stratosphere. Formation and characteristics of
mountain waves were the topic of Section 2.5. Along the mountain waves, a
strong wind shear is expected at any level due to the ascending and
descending branches of the wave. Under the wave peak, if the wind speed is
strong enough, turbulent vortices may form with rotor clouds on the top,
which are hazardous to aviation. Turbulence is the strongest under the first
wave on the lee side. This zone must be avoided during flight. The following
stationary clouds refer to the presence of mountain waves: lenticularis clouds,
cap clouds and rotors. It is worth mentioning that CAT is also expected in
these regions when there is no visual attendant.
Uplifting effects of mountainous regions enhances ice accretion on the aircraft

surface, as seen in Section 9.1.1.
9.8.3. Development and effect of valley

inversions
Because of nocturnal terrestrial radiation the air above the ground becomes
colder and denser during the night. When it happens on the slope of a
mountain, the air descends into the valley. This leads to an inversion in the
valley called valley inversion, which often causes fog in the valley. Remember
that as described in Section 9.6, above the inversion layer the wind may
change significantly (in speed and direction) compared to the air flow below.
Consequently, as aircraft cross the top of an inversion layer they may expect
strong wind shear.
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9.9. Visibility-reducing
phenomena
9.9.1. Reduction of visibility caused by

precipitation and obscuration
Aviation hazards related to meteorological phenomena may reduce visibility in
the atmosphere, and will be discussed in this chapter. Poor visibility may make
landing impossible. In this chapter visibility refers to the horizontal visibility.
In summary, visibility is the distance from where an object can be identified.

Regarding the direction, horizontal and vertical visibility are defined. In the
case of horizontal visibility, visibility during the day and visibility during the
night can be distinguished. Visibility during the day is the greatest distance on
the ground at which a black object can be identified. Visibility during the night
is the same but it depends on artificial illumination. The conditions for the
measurement of visibility are significantly different during the day and night.
Visibility during the night is much harder to determine correctly as it depends
on the illuminated objects used as a reference point.
Visibility is often characterised qualitatively by the terms "good" or "poor".
Good visibility is important during flight. The pilots perceive the ground at a
slant angle. Therefore, slant visibility also needs to be determined as much as
possible, but an exact method for it is not available. We distinguish ground
visibility, in-flight visibility and slant visibility. Ground visibility is the
horizontal visibility observed on the ground. In-flight visibility is the horizontal
visibility observed during flight. Slant visibility is observed at a slanted angle
(not horizontally) as the aircraft approaches the runway.
Good values for all visibility types are needed for a safe flight. These values
may be significantly different. For example, in the case of shallow fog in-flight
visibility may be good, but ground visibility can be poor at the same time.
Visibility may change in different directions, and in this case it is also
important to give the minimum and maximum values, and the prevailing
visibility value. Prevailing visibility is the value observed at more the 50 % of
the horizon.
There are three main factors on which visibility primarily depends. They are:
1. the properties of the object (e.g. size);
2. conditions that determine the object observability (illumination,

distance, background illumination); and
3. the atmospheric conditions regarding the optical properties.
Note: Only point 3 belongs to the subject of meteorology.
For aviation, good visibility is the most important along the runway, as it is
important to see the objects on and around it during landing and takeoff. For
this reason, the concept of Runway Visual Range (RVR) is defined, and
designates the distance from where the lights of the runway can be seen.
In meteorological practice, visibility can be measured by a human observer

with the recognition of objects at known distances from the place of
observation, but visual observation is subjective because of the differences of
humans visual acuity. For more accurate observations, a technical device
called visibility meter can be used. Further details about the measurement of
visibility can be found in Section 10.2.1.
The most common meteorological phenomena that lead to poor visibility are
precipitation, fog, mist, haze, smoke, volcanic ash, sand and dust or flight
inside a cloud. The formation and characterisation of fog, mist and haze were
discussed in Section 4.2. Remember that in fog, visibility is reduced below
1000 m by small water droplets suspended in the air, while mist is the same
phenomena but with somewhat better visibility (1000 to 5 000 m).
In haze the visibility is reduced below 5 000 m, but it is caused by small solid
particles floating in the air that can consists of dust, sand, volcanic ash or any
type of solid air pollutant.
As was mentioned earlier, flying in precipitation like drizzle, rain and snow may
cause a significant reduction of visibility. The degree of visibility reduction
depends on the intensity and type of the precipitation.
Drizzle may reduce visibility between 500 m and 3000 m. In moderate rain,
visibility is somewhat better between 3000 m and 5 000 m, while in heavy
rain, visibility may decrease below 1000 m, similar to fog. In snow,depending
on its intensity, visibility may decrease below 1000 m or in more intense cases
below 200 m.
9.9.2. Reduction of visibility caused by

other phenomena
Blowing snow may reduce visibility extremely, to even below a few metres.
Dust storms (DS) and sand storms (SS) also belong to visibility-reducing
phenomena. The Harmattan is a wind that occurs in winter in northwest
Africa, resulting in dust or sand storms.
Visibility reduction by precipitation is enhanced by the deposition of

precipitation particles on the windscreen. Conditions appropriate for ice
accretion on the windshield may also lead to poor visibility.
The position of the Sun (angle) related to the sight of the pilot may also affect
visibility. Objects are harder to detect by pilots during sunset and sunrise.
Furthermore, sunlight may be reflected by clouds or other particles suspended
in the air, which can also ruin the sight of the pilot.
BEFORE EXAM L"

Icing is one of the most hazardous meteorological phenomena concerning
aviation and can happen at various height levels, e.g. on a parked aircraft on the
ground or during flight at any level.
Ice accumulation on the surface of an aircraft has many negative effects. It can
increase the weight and change the aerodynamical behaviour of the aircraft. Lift
and thrust can decrease, and drag can increase because of icing.
From a meteorological point of view, the most important factor in surface icing
of aircraft is the number and size of supercooled water droplets. The most
typical temperature at which structural icing happens is between 0 °C and
-20 °C.
The three main types of ice are clear ice, rime ice and mixed ice. The most
dangerous type is clear ice, which forms in the presence of large supercooled
water droplets.
Hazardous icing regions need to be left immediately on the shortest path.
Severity of turbulence is the rate of change in speed or direction in a turbulent
airflow.
Turbulence is classified into four categories by the ICAO based on its severity.
These categories are light, moderate, severe and extreme. In severe and
extreme turbulence the possibility of loss of control of the aircraft is high.
Wake turbulence is a highly dangerous phenomenon that develops behind an
aircraft.
Wind shear is an abrupt horizontal or vertical change of wind speed or wind
direction, or both.
The most hazardous type of wind shear for aircraft is low level wind shear, as it
can lead to critical situations (e.g. unexpected sinking) during take-off or landing
because there is not enough distance from the ground for correction.
Wind shear is related to different kinds of weather patterns. Typically, it forms
around thunderstorms and related phenomena like microbursts or downbursts.
Furthermore, wind shear is related to jet streams, to the boundary of local wind
systems and mountain waves, weather fronts, especially to cold fronts and also
to inversion layers.
Wind shear is often associated with turbulence.
Wind shear is often associated with turbulence.
Thunderstorms may be associated with poor visibility caused by heavy
precipitation, hail, severe icing and turbulence, strong wind shear related to gust
fronts or downbursts, or even in the case of supercells with tornadoes.
A downburst is a strong downdraft of air inside a thunderstorm. It is created by
the cooling effect of the evaporating precipitation.
With respect to the affected area we can distinguish microbursts and
macrobursts.
When a downburst reaches the ground with precipitation it is called a wet
downburst and if only the dense cold air hits the ground we are speaking about
a dry downburst.
A squall line is one of the most hazardous types of thunderstorms. It is a wide
chain of thunderstorms that is hard for aircraft to avoid. Overflying is the
recommended method to avoid this type of storm.
In weather reports, thunderstorms are distinguished on the basis of visual
observability. From this point of view, we distinguish obscured, embedded,
frequent and squall line thunderstorms.
Avoidance of thunderstorms can be supported by visual observation of typical
features like anvil-shaped cloud tops.
One of the most destructive phenomena related to supercellular thunderstorms
is tornadoes. Wind speed in tornadoes varies between 100 km/h and
500 km/h. The life stages of tornadoes are the funnel cloud stage, mature stage
and dissipation stage.
A dust devil is a small-scale vortex created by the updraft of warm air above dry
land surfaces. Dust devils are less dangerous than tornadoes but can be
hazardous to aviation, especially for small, light aircraft flying close to the
surface.
An inversion is often accompanied by wind shear when an aircraft is crossing it,
both in speed and direction, and may lead to changes in the behaviour of the
aircraft. For example, lifting is reduced when the wind speed decreases and vice
versa.
A wind direction change may divert the aircraft from its appropriate direction or
in extreme cases may lead to its stalling.
Turbulence often accompanies wind shear in a layer with inversion.
Turbulence is also much less common in the stratosphere, and is only expected
wind direction change may divert the aircraft from its appropriate direction or
in extreme cases may lead to its stalling.
• Turbulence often accompanies wind shear in a layer with inversion.
• Turbulence is also much less common in the stratosphere, and is only expected
above large Cb clouds or high mountains.
• Because pressure and temperature are much lower than close to the ground,
the air of the cabin needs to be pressurised and heated. Because of this, special
aircraft are needed.
• Higher ozone concentrations and stronger cosmic radiation in the stratosphere
may cause health damage, but in modern aircraft these effects are minimised.
• Orographic obstacles may significantly change the weather around them.
• Cloud and precipitation formation are enhanced by the mechanical lifting effect
of mountains. Therefore, accompanying phenomena like turbulence and icing
may also become more intense.
• When the airflow is perpendicular to the ridge and the stratification is stable,
mountain waves may form on the lee side accompanied by strong wind shear
and turbulence, especially under the first wave crest.
• Valley inversions form during the night. Wind speed is higher and leads to
strong wind shear above it.
• Various types of visibility shall be determined in aviation. Horizontal, vertical
and slant visibility have to be given. In-flight and ground visibility are also
required to be distinguished for a safe flight.
• Good visibility is essential for a safe flight, especially when approaching the
runway. Therefore, the concept of Runway Visual Range is determined for safe
flight performance.
• Poor visibility can be caused by water droplets (fog, mist) or solid particles (haze)
suspended in the air as well as by precipitation.
• Precipitation may also reduce visibility by the deposition of water or the
accumulation of ice on the windscreen of the cockpit.
• During sunset or sunrise, the angle of the Sun may cause the reduction of the
observability of objects in the air. Sunlight can also be reflected by clouds or by
any type of particle floating in the air.
Meteorological
Information
In the last chapter, we explain meteorological observations related to the
previously discussed weather phenomena. The measurement of atmospheric
variables (e.g. air temperature, air pressure) and transmission of the measured
data are conducted in a standardised way. Results and information about
these phenomena are provided to the aircrew and civil aviation services. This
information is provided to the aircrew before the flight as a part of the flight
documentation in written and graphical format. The former are coded textual
weather messages while the latter are weather charts. We describe the basics
of the measurements as well as code form and content of the weather
messages. Note that there are several types of weather messages available
that contain actual or forecast meteorological information regarding the take
off, landing and alternate aerodromes as well as the flight route. During the
flight, the aircrew may also receive information by voice communication or
even in digital format if an air-ground data link is available.
To prepare flight documentation, operators from various fields (e.g.

meteorological offices, tropical cyclone and volcanic advisory centres) work
with each other in close cooperation. The international framework of this
cooperation (i. e. the issuance of recommendations and standards) is mainly
provided by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the
World Meteorological Organization (WMO). To gain a deeper understanding in
regard to the issuance of weather-related documents, we also explain the
organisational background of the cooperation in the fields of aviation and
meteorology.
10.1. Meteorological services
10.1.1. International organisations

Basics and purposes
To recognise the development of the weather phenomena that were explained
in the previous chapters, observations and measurements are required.
Measuring instruments such as the thermometer and barometer were
invented hundreds of years ago. Moreover, simple devices such as the wind
vane were used in ancient times. However, measurements were carried out
irregularly in both time and space. Therefore, the data were insufficient to be
the basis of weather forecasts. To prepare weather forecasts, measurements
have to be taken regularly, applying the same type of device on the basis of a
standardised method. National measuring networks became established in
Europe in the second half of the 19th century. For the sake of the build-up of
international networks, standardised terminologies that are relevant
concerning the given discipline were required as well as standardised
procedures and international cooperation. Forthat purpose, international
organisations were founded in the last decades of the 19th century and the
first half of the 20th century, not only in the field of meteorology but also in
aviation, chemistry, mathematics etc.
For civil aviation, the role of two intergovernmental organisations are

emphasised, namely the World Meteorological Organization and the
International Civil Aviation Organization. The World Meteorological
Organization (abbreviated as WMO) was founded in 1950. However, its
predecessor, the International Meteorological Organization was established in
1873. In 2018 it has 185 member states and six member territories.
The main objectives of the WMO are as follows. The WMO aims to issue
technical regulations that provide standards and recommendations for
member states. The WMO facilitates data collection, storage and the
processing of data concerning weather, climate and water management and
makes them available in a standardised format for the services of the member
states. The WMO enhances cooperation between those services to fulfil their
tasks. Through coordination, these services are able to make better weather
forecasts, climate predictions and sustainable water management plans.
Furthermore, the WMO facilitates the avoidance or reduction of the effects of
dangerous weather phenomena.
As we previously mentioned, the WMO enhances the activity of services in

various fields. Regarding civil aviation, the WMO cooperates with the
International Civil Aviation Organization (abbreviated as ICAO), which was
founded in 1947, but its predecessor was established in 1903. In 2018 the
ICAO has a membership of 191 states. In summary, the ICAO aims to facilitate
the safety and economic efficiency of civil aviation, as well as increase the
responsivity of civil aviation services by using standardised procedures.
As a side note, we mention that the WMO and the ICAO are now specialised
agencies of the United Nations (abbreviated as UN). The headquarters of the
WMO and the ICAO are located in Geneva, Switzerland and Montreal,
Canada, respectively.
International cooperation in the field of civil

aviation
In the case of civil aviation, the release of actual weather reports and weather
forecasts in the standardised format are the results of the cooperation
between aviation and weather services as well as other operators concerned
with civil aviation.
Meteorological services provide information for civil aviation services on

aerodromes in line with the standards and recommendations of the WMO and
the ICAO. They issue actual weather reports and forecasts to services
concerning aviation. Reports are released by meteorological services in regular
time intervals;however, special reports may also be issued if they are needed,
for example in cases where dangerous weather phenomena are observed or
forecast. In summary, the main concerns with respect to aviation are as
follows: conditions that may lead to icing are turbulence, regions with intense
wind shearand thunderstorm activity, tropical revolving storms, visibility
reducing phenomena, inversion and related phenomena as well as volcanic
ash. However, certain weather conditions may be advantageous for aviation
economically, for example flying in the lower stratosphere due to the reduced
drag.
In accordance with what was previously mentioned, we emphasise that

providing meteorological information for operators concerning civil aviation
requires the cooperation between numerous personnel. The framework of this
cooperation is ensured by international organisations such as the WMO and
the ICAO. As a result of their cooperation, weather phenomena that have a
significant effect on civil aviation can be provided to aircraft pilots during any
phase of flight.
Weather observations can be conducted by automatic devices, henceforth

called an automatic observation system, as well as those conducted by
humans,known as human observers. There are several aerodromes where
automatic observation systems operate. However, the employment of trained
human observers remains a common practice. They are able to prepare
qualitative descriptions about present and past weather conditions.
Note: Advanced automatic observation systems are able to provide qualitative

description to a certain degree. For example, they can identify thunderstorms
based on the detection of atmospheric electricity (i.e. electrometeors).
Please note that it is not required to maintain a meteorological office at an

aerodrome, but it is required to assign a meteorological office that can fulfil
tasks with regard to aviation.
Information is received by aircraft pilots through radio, which is called voice

communication, and via air-ground data links, which enable the transmittance
of information in digital form. Two-way communication is required because
not only pilots but also the meteorological services are provided with
information by aircraft pilots, such as routine aircraft observation, special
aircraft observation and other non-routine aircraft observation as we will
discuss in Section 10.3. In other words, pilots make weather reports during
their flights.
In the following section, the main tasks of meteorological services for

international civil aviation will be described. They issue weather-related
information in textual and graphical formats. Please note that issuance of
aviation weather messages and the display of information in charts will be
explained in detail in Section 10.3 and Section 10.4.
10.1.2. The World Area Forecast System

and meteorological offices
In the field of civil aviation, meteorological services work in line with the
standards and recommendations of the WMO and the ICAO. Therefore, they
support civil aviation to operate in safety and in economically effective ways.
Because of this, information is provided by qualified meteorological personnel
(i.e. meteorologists and trained observers) for any operator who is concerned
with civil aviation (e.g. flight operators, rescue units). Operators are supplied
with weather-related data that are required to perform their duties.
Meteorological services are supplied with actual weather and forecast data in
the framework of the World Area Forecast System (abbreviated as WAFS),
which was founded by the ICAO in 1982 by the World Area Forecast Centres
(abbreviated as WAFC).
World Area Forecast Centres

Two WAFCs are operating simultaneously: one in Washington, in the United
States of America, and the other one in London, in the United Kingdom. They
issue data and charts in standardised and digital forms for aircraft during flight
without any interruption. Gridded forecasts are available at upper height
levels,between FL050 and FL630. These are for the following atmospheric
variables:
1. Air temperature
2. Humidity
3. Wind direction and wind speed
4. Temperature of the tropopause
5. Wind speed, wind direction and flight level of maximum wind
6. Geopotential altitude of the flight levels
7. Cumulonimbus clouds, turbulence and icing
These forecasts are issued at 0 UTC00, 6 UTC, 12 UTC and 18 UTC, which are
known as the main synoptic hours. Forecasts are valid for different time
intervals: for 6 hours, 9 hours, 12 hours etc. up to 36 hours. An example is a
chart that contains gridded data of upper wind directions, wind speed and air
temperature. As a side note, we mention that 3 UTC, 9 UTC, 15 UTC and
21 UTC are known as intermediate synoptic hours.
The WAFC issues forecasts of significant weather phenomena, which are

called SIGWX forecasts. They are released at the main synoptic hours for a
validity of 24 hours for different height levels. These are displayed on SIGWX
charts. Examples are available in Figure 10.38 and Figure 10.39.
The WAFC cooperates with the WMO and the volcanic ash advisory centres
to acquire information about radioactive particles and volcanic ash introduced
to the atmosphere, which are also contained in SIGWX charts.
Meteorological offices
If a meteorological office is established at the aerodrome then it acquires and
prepares meteorological forecasts both for the flight routes and for the
aerodrome, for example the General Aviation Meteorological Information,
abbreviated as GAMET. A message is issued for a Flight Information Region
(abbreviated as FIR) or a Control Area (CTA) concerning low level flights, lower
than FL100 or concerning mountainous areas lower than FL150. It provides
and presents information about the actual weather concerning the aerodrome
and other meteorological information for operators who are concerned with
civil aviation. It also releases briefing documents about the meteorological
conditions and forecasts. Because volcanic ash is dangerous for aviation, the
meteorological office provides information about possible volcanic eruptions
and volcanic ash clouds that have originated from volcanic eruptions for
meteorological watch offices as well as for air traffic services (abbreviated as
ATS) and aeronautical information services.
If there is no meteorological office on the aerodrome but a meteorological

office is assigned to it then the latter supplies personnel who are concerned
with civil aviation with the required information.
Meteorological watch offices

One or more meteorological watch offices (abbreviated as MWO) operate at
the aerodrome to prepare and issue aviation weather messages such as the
Significant Weather Information message, abbreviated as SIGMET, and the
Airmen’s Meteorological Information message, abbreviated as AIRMET.
The SIGMET consists of information about significant weather phenomena

that endanger the safety of aircraft during their route. The AIRMET contains
information and forecasts about weather phenomena that are less dangerous
for the safety of the flight. For example, moderate turbulence and moderate
icing at low levels are indicated.
The SIGMET and the AIRMET are issued by the MWO for a FIR or CTA. These
aviation weather messages are sent to meteorological offices, other MWOs
and WAFCs as well as international databanks such as the operational
meteorological databanks (abbreviated as OPMET databanks), which store
weather reports regarding aviation. If the SIGMET contains information about
volcanic ash clouds than it is disseminated to volcanic ash advisory centres.
Aeronautical meteorological stations

Aeronautical meteorological stations are installed in aerodromes to make
routine observations in accordance with the recommendations of the WMO,
for example the measurement of near-surface air temperature, dew point,
wind direction and wind speed as well as visibility, runway visual range,
present weather, cloud type and height and the amount of clouds.
The above-listed routine observations are made each half hour (or hour)
during the day. Aeronautical meteorological stations issue the Aerodrome
Routine Meteorological Report, abbreviated as METAR and the Aerodrome
Special Meteorological Report, abbreviated as SPECI, which are applied to
flight-planning. These aviation weather messages are also used by other
aerodromes and are stored in the OPMET databanks.
The stations are also responsible to issue local routine reports, abbreviated as
MET reports and local special reports, abbreviated as SPECIAL reports. These
are used by departing and arriving aircraft as well as local air traffic services
(abbreviated as ATS) units, operators and other users of the aerodrome.
Volcanic ash advisory centres

Volcanic ash advisory centres (abbreviated as VAAC) provide 24-hour services.
They release advisories about possible volcanic eruptions, erupted volcanoes
and information about the location and development of volcanic ash clouds.
To simulate the extent and spread of the ash, numerical dispersion models are
run by VAACs. Results are provided, among others, to other VAACs, MWO
and WAFCs. The volcanic ash advisory is also stored in the OPMET databanks.
Tropical cyclone advisory centres

Tropical cyclone advisory centres (abbreviated as TCAC) observe the
development and tracks of tropical cyclones. They disseminate advisories
about the observed and forecasted position, atmospheric pressure and wind
near the centre of tropical cyclones, to MWOs, other TCACs, WAFCs and
OPMET databanks.
Similarly to the VAAC, the TCAC releases information every six hours for
MWOs. This information is used by the MWOs to issue the SIGMET message.
10.1.3. Remarks on international
cooperation and types of observations
To issue proper weather forecasts, not only regular and current observations
and measurements are required. Those observations and measurements are
the basis for creating forecasts, and physical and mathematical equations are
required to make any predictions. Those equations consider the processes of
the atmosphere and have been described since the 18th century. A system of
differential equations that includes for example, the equation of motion, the
first principle of thermodynamics and the general gas law, that are also
discussed in this book, must be resolved to give a proper forecast. However,
an exact forecast is usually hard to find due to the non-linearity and
complexity of the system (i.e. atmosphere and weather). Solving these
equations requires numeric methods; therefore, an advanced capacity of
computers is required, which has only been possible since the second half of
the 20th century. Today, numerical weather prediction models are used to
make forecasts globally and regionally, which are mainly run by national
meteorological services and research institutes. These models solve the
above-mentioned equation system to provide gridded values of atmospheric
variables at different height levels, which can be displayed in charts etc.
Meteorological observations and measurements are made by the following

instruments:
1. Weather stations both on land or sea surfaces (e.g. synoptic stations,

moored buoys)
2. In-situ devices (e.g. radiosondes, floating buoys)
3. Remote-sensing devices with passive sensors (e.g. geosynchronous and

Sun-synchronous satellites)
4. Remote-sensing devices with active sensors (e.g. ground weather radars

and airborne weather radars)
In meteorology, first the surface measurements were standardised, which was

especially important for maritime transportation. As technology advanced,
there was a need to elaborate procedures concerning airborne measurements.
In the second half of the 20th century techniques based on remote sensing
started to be increasingly applied; therefore, these disciplines were also
standardised.
The above-mentioned observational and measuring devices can be fixed to a

certain point on the Earth or they can float in the air, sea or space. Examples
of fixed devices are weather stations at aerodromes, synoptic stations,
weather radars or moored buoys on the sea. It is worth mentioning that
synoptic stations make observations at main and intermediate synoptic hours.
Data are issued in surface synoptic observation (SYNOP) messages. They
contain, for example, information about air temperature at 2 m, dew point,
mean sea level pressure, the amount of clouds at low, middle and high levels
as well as visibility and present and past weather. Geostationary satellites can
also be considered fixed devices because their orbital period is 24 hours.
Examples of floating devices are floating buoys as well as instruments
mounted on board ships or aircraft and radiosondes.
Weather stations on land and sea surfaces are used to observe and measure
meteorologically relevant atmospheric variables near the surface. For example,
near-surface air temperatures and wind are recommended to be measured at
the height of 2 m and 10 m, respectively. Devices mounted on aircraft take
measurements during flights from takeoff until landing. Vertical profiles of
atmospheric variables can be determined by using remote-sensing devices.
These can be either passive or active instruments based on whether they emit
some kind of electromagnetic signals. Remote-sensing devices with passive
sensors are installed on satellites while active sensors are mounted on
weather radars.
As a side note, we mention that measurements in the deep sea are also
conducted but they are beyond the scope of this book.
Standards and recommendations issued by the WMO and the ICAO are
available in special documents, such as in annexes in the case of the ICAO.
Until 18 June 2018 annexes were issued by the ICAO, for example regarding
aerodromes, aeronautical charts and telecommunications, air traffic services
and environmental protection. We emphasise that information about the
meteorological service for international air navigation is available in Annex 3.
As was written in Section 10.1.1, members of the WMO and the ICAO are
states (e.g. the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary). These states are also
members of the UN. Standards and recommendations regarding aviation
issued by the WMO and the ICAO are executed by the member states. For
that purpose, a system of required services is established and maintained by
member states.
As an example, let us consider the schematic of the operation of the volcanic

ash advisory in Japan, which is shown in the figure below. Meteorological
services at aerodromes are provided by the nation’s weather service. The
VAAC operates in the capital city (Tokyo), which collects data from weather
stations on land or sea surfaces, aircraft and remote-sensing devices. After
processing data and running numerical dispersal models, the VAAC issues
volcanic ash advisories for the region of Japan and the related region over the
Pacific Ocean. These advisories are provided to MWOs and aeronautical
weather stations operating on the aerodrome and to the personnel of
authorities whose work is concerned with aviation. They transmit information
to the pilots of aircraft. However, pilots can also make air reports that may
contain information about volcanic activity. This information is disseminated
to services concerned with civil aviation on the ground.
Volcanic Ash
Cloud
I
Satellite
Image
I
Satellite
I
Meteorological
Satellite Center
Pilot Report
Domestic Volcano
Information
Foreign Volcano
Information
Figure 10.1. The schematic of volcanic ash advisory in Japan
STU DY TEST
10.2. Observations
10.2.1. Surface observations

In the following section, surface observations and measurements of surface
wind, visibility, clouds, air temperature and dew point as well as atmospheric
pressure (which are provided via weather messages such as METAR, SPECI,
TREND, TAP, SIGMET and AIRMET) will be explained or referred to in cases
where their definition was given previously. In certain cases, we emphasise
how they are reported in METAR and SPECI. However, decoding methods of
these weather messages can be found in Section 10.3.
Note: Regulations and recommendations about the previously-listed atmospheric

variables and parameters are issued by the WMO.
Surface wind
In general, wind is characterised by its direction, speed and gustiness.
Surface wind is the average direction and average wind speed, typically
measured over 10 minutes at the height about 30 ft (ca. 10 m). Wind direction
is the direction from which the wind blows. It is expressed in degrees
referenced to the North Pole (referred as true north), or to the North
Magnetic Pole(referred as magnetic north).
In weather messages, wind speed is given in units of knots or in the SI unit of

m/s. It also can be converted into km/h. Please note that a detailed
explanation about wind direction and speed and its measurement is found in
Section 2.1.
Wind direction can be determined by windsocks and wind vanes, while

velocity of the surface wind is measured by anemometers (e.g. cup and
propeller anemometers). Remote sensing devices are also available that
measure wind direction and wind speed at different height levels. They can be
useful to determine the vertical profile of wind. It is worth mentioning that the
device known as an anemograph is applicable to record the measured wind
velocity and display it in charts.
A wind gust can be considered an abrupt increase in wind speed. By

definition, it is reported in weather messages such as METAR and TAP in the
following two cases:
1. When the wind direction changes at least 30° or more while the wind
speed changes at least 5 m/s (10 kt) or more.
2. When the wind speed changes at least 5 m/s (10 kt) and it is measured
over two minutes or more. The WMO recommends that wind gust is
determined as the average of a three-second measure.
We mention that in weather messages the term squalls indicates rapid

changes in the wind. In detail, squalls are reported when the wind speed
increases rapidly to 8 m/s (16 kt) or more as well as in cases where the wind
speed exceeds 11 m/s (22 kt) for at least one minute.
Please note that in METAR, surface wind is given in such a way that it
concerns all runways at the aerodrome. However, in local routine air reports
(called MET reports) and local routine special reports (called SPECIAL reports)
information about surface wind differs depending on when aircraft is
departing or arriving. During takeoff, information concerning the entire
runway is used. During landing, information about the so-called touchdown
zone is provided, which is the zone where the runway and the aircraft landing
gear contact for the first time.
Horizontal visibility and runway visual range

In Section 1.2.3, transmittance and atmospheric transparency were
mentioned. We discussed that the atmosphere is completely transparent to
visible light. In general, visibility is a measure of the transparency of the
atmosphere in regard to light. The rate of transparency increases with a
decrease in the extinction of light. With respect to direction, horizontal and
vertical visibility are distinguished. First, horizontal visibility is explained.
Information about vertical visibility can be found later in this section.
Horizontal visibility varies on the basis of the time of day:
• Horizontal visibility at day is defined as the largest distance at which a black

object close to the ground with an appropriate size can be identified in front
of a bright background near the horizon.
• Horizontal visibility at night is defined as the largest distance at which lights
with the intensity of 1000 candelas can be detected in front of an unlit
background near the horizon.
In both cases horizontal visibility is given in the SI unit of m in METAR and

SPECI. It is measured at the height of about 7.5 ft (ca. 2.5 m).
Note: The term appropriate size indicates an object with an angular diameter of
about 0.5°. For comparison, the full Moon and the Sun have an angular diameter
of about 0.5°. Candela (denoted by cd) is the SI base unit of luminous intensity. It is
the quotient of the radiative power of visible light (measured in watt, denoted by
W) per unit solid angle (measured in steradian, denoted by st).
According to the definition of horizontal visibility, it is measured on the

ground surface; therefore, it may be considered to be ground visibility. As a
side note, we mentioned that a horizontal visibility that can be measured from
the cockpit during the flight is known as flight visibility.
In METAR and SPECI, prevailing visibility is indicated, which is the largest

value of horizontal visibility that can be measured with at least half of the
airfield’s surface or within at least half the horizon. It can be measured over
areas that are either connected to each other or not.
Visibility can be measured not only horizontally but also vertically. This is
called vertical visibility and will be explained later.
From an aviation point of view, the term runway visual range has a great
importance. To understand this concept, first visual range will be explained.
For the sake of simplicity visual range at day and at night will not be
distinguished in the book. The human eye has a threshold contrast that
indicates the minimum contrast that is adequate to distinguish objects from
each other visually without getting blurred. Visual range can be defined as the
distance at which the contrast between an object and its background is equal
to the observer’s threshold contrast. The runway visual range (often
abbreviated as RVR) is a specific type of visual range that is the adequate
distance for a pilot along the centre line of the runway to detect marks or
lights on it. It is illustrated in the figure below. If the horizontal visibility is
relatively low, then the runway visual range can still be sufficiently large
enough to make takeoff and landing possible.
Figure 10.2. Runway visual range
Above is an illustration of a runway visual range in fog. Lights that delineate

the centre line of the runway can be identified from a distance of a few
hundred metres. Typically, the runway visual range is measured in the SI unit
of m.
Measurement of visibility and runway visual range can be conducted both by

human observers and automated devices. If an automatic measuring system is
used then it is measured at a height of about 7.5 ft (ca. 2.5 m). If a human
observer is employed then it is measured at the height of about 15 ft (ca. 5 m).
METAR and SPECI contains a runway visual range measured between 50 m

and 1500 m. It is worth mentioning that an instrument approach procedure
chart contains information about the runway visual range, which is required
for approaching runways.
In the case of the human observations of visibility, reference points can be

defined at fixed and known distances from the measuring point; thus, black or
at least dark objects with appropriate sizes, in accordance with the measuring
steps that depend on the type of weather messages. For example, in METAR
and SPECI visibility should only be specified below 10 km, as described in
Section 10.3.2.
As a side note we mention that in messages of surface synoptic observations

(abbreviated as SYNOP), which are mainly used by meteorologists, visibility is
specified in a much wider range than in METAR and SPECI. Its range is
between 500 m and 50 km.
The runway visual range can also be determined by human observations.

Because distances between the marks or lights that indicate the centre line of
the runway are fixed, the runway visual range can be determined based on
counting them.
Automated observations are mainly based on the measurement of the

extinction of light, which depends on the absorption and scattering of light on
atmospheric particles. Visibility and runway visual range can be derived from
the rate of extinction.
In the following section, two types of measuring devices of visibility and

runway visual range (known as visibility meters) will be described -
transmissometers and visibility meters based on the measurement of
backscatter or forward scatter.
Transmissometers consist of two main units. The first unit is a light source, for
example a light-emitting diode (abbreviated as LED). Its second unit mounted
at a known distance could be either an active or a passive remote sensing
device. In the case of the former it is a photodetector that receives the
emitted light as shown in section a) of the figure below. In the case of the
latter it is a reflector (called a retroreflector), which reflects the incoming light
as can be seen in section b) of the figure below. In this case the photodetector
is a part of the first unit. From the received signal, visibility or runway visual
range is derived.
Figure 10.3. Schematic of transmissometers
Devices that measure the scattering of emitted light beams can also serve as
visibility meters. These instruments also contain two prominent units, a
transmitter that emits light and a receiver. Different arrangements of the units
can be used. If the transmitter is above the receiver then the instrument is
called a backward scatter meter, shown in section a) in the figure below. The
emitted light by the first unit is backscattered on atmospheric particles which
are received by the second unit. However, due to its higher precision, forward
scatter meters are widely used. In this case the emitted light is forward
scattered on atmospheric particles before it reaches the receiver unit. Please
note that scattering depends on the angle between the transmitter and the
receiver units. It was pointed out that an angle between 20° and 50° is
advantageous, which can be seen in the upper side of section b) in the figure
below. However, the configuration that is shown in the lower side of section
b) in the figure below can also be used when two diaphragms are installed in
front of the transmitter and the receiver. Visibility or runway visual range is
calculated from the rate of backscattering or forward scattering.
Transmitter Sampling
volume
Sampling Receiver
volume
Transmitter Receiver
Figure 10.4. Schematic of visibility meters based on the measurement of a)

backscatter and b) forward scatter
In general, measuring devices are sensitive to air pollution because they detect
reflected or scattered light. Consequently, sensors must be cleared regularly.
Instruments should be mounted in areas that are free from direct
contaminations (e.g. industrial facilities, roads with high traffic etc.).
Furthermore, measuring instruments should be protected from direct solar
radiation because such radiation can cause a disturbance to the sensors.
To determine the runway visual range at aerodromes, measuring devices are
mounted along the runway at three locations: near the touchdown zone, the
midpoint of the runway and at the end of the runway. To gain a deeper
understanding, assume that the runway is 2 km long and the touchdown zone
and the rollout area are 500 m from the ends of the runway. If the runway
visual range at the rollout area is 1200 m then, from this point, the pilot can
see the midpoint (which is 1000 m far from them) but cannot see the
touchdown zone of the runway (which is 2 000 m far from them).
Runway visual range is a part of METAR and SPECI weather messages.

Therefore, pilots are supplied with this information in the flight
documentation as well as via voice transmission to aircraft pilots (e.g. as part
of ATIS or VOLMET) and via air-ground data links if accessible (e.g. as part of
D-ATIS or D-VOLMET). Further information about flight documentation and
about the possibilities of data transmission can be found in Section 10.3.
Present and past weather

Weather phenomena can be described not only by measuring atmospheric
variables but also qualitatively. In the case of present weather, it means that
weather messages contain the exact name of the forecast or observed
weather phenomena. In the case of past weather, the weather phenomena is
denoted in weather reports that ceased before the observation in a given time
interval.
Some weather phenomena are especially important in regards to aviation,

because they may be adversary or even dangerous to flights (e.g.
thunderstorms, freezing precipitation or fog). These are called significant
weather phenomena, which are covered by the METAR and SPECI, for
example. Moreover the issuance of SIGMET messages is based on the
observation or prediction of significant weather phenomena. Falling,
suspended or blowing hydrometeors, lithometeors and electrometeors that
are associated with thunderstorms can be considered significant weather
phenomena. A detailed list can be found in Figure 10.16.
Cloud amount, cloud height and vertical
visibility
Observation of clouds is important because of the altering atmospheric
processes associated with them. As has been said, clouds are the visible
mixture of air and small particles, mainly water droplets and ice crystals. This
means that changes of states of matter occur, which are associated with the
release and the absorbance of latent heat and the formation of solid and liquid
hydrometeors. These processes may lead to hazardous phenomena in regard
to aviation such as icing, heavy precipitation, reduced visibility, strong
updrafts and downdrafts, turbulence and atmospheric electricity.
In the following section, we emphasise the definitions of the following

previously-learnt terms: okta, cloud base and ceiling, in accordance with
Section 4.1.
Assume humid air. At the height level where the temperature of the air parcel
decreases to the dew point, the air parcel gets saturated with water vapour
and condensation starts, which determines the lowest part of the cloud
known as the cloud base. In the case of convective clouds, the temperature of
the rising air parcel decreases to the dew point. The dew point and the air
temperature do not vary rapidly in the vicinity of the developing cloud;
therefore, it has a flat base. If the cloud develops with advection, with colder
air flowing parallel to the surface, then air parcels cool down to the
temperature at which condensation starts. Furthermore, the cloud base
cannot be seen as distinctively as in the case of convective clouds. A cloud
base, which is referenced to the level of the airport, and the amount of clouds
are measured at least 4 000 ft (1200 m) from the first part of the runway that
can be used for landing, known as the landing threshold.
Note: A cloud top can be found above the height level where the temperature of
the air parcel increases above the dew point. In the case of convective clouds this
level is slightly above the equilibrium level. In the case of clouds that form via
advection, the cloud top can be found at the height level where the cold advection
is not intense enough to cool down the air parcel to the dew point.
The amount of clouds,in other words the cloud cover,is measured in oktas.
The sky is divided into eight equal parts. One okta means that one part of the
sky is covered by clouds while eight oktas means that the sky is fully covered
with clouds. Please note that in weather messages the amount of clouds is
characterised by the terms few, scattered, broken and overcast. These
categories and the corresponding values of oktas can be found in
Figure 10.18.
A cloud ceiling is the lowest height at which the amount of clouds is at least
four oktas.
Please note that in METAR and SPECI the cloud base is given in units of ft.
The cloud ceiling is not part of the above-mentioned weather messages.
However, its height can be assumed because the base and the amount of
cloud layers at different height levels are denoted.
There are weather phenomena,for example winds and turbulence on upper

height levels as well as icing, that cannot be observed properly from the
ground. In METAR and SPECI only convective clouds with large vertical
extensions are indicated: towering cumulus (in other words, cumulus
congestus) and cumulonimbus. The former is abbreviated as TCU while the
latter is abbreviated as CB. These abbreviations will be used in Section 10.3.
Vertical visibility is the largest distance at which an object can be identified, in

the direction that is perpendicular to the Earth's surface from the point of
view of the observer. In METAR and SPECI it is expressed in units of ft.
Vertical visibility is given in METAR and SPECI in cases when the cloud base
cannot be determined but information is available about vertical visibility.
Both the height of the cloud base and vertical visibility can be measured
(among other devices) by a ceilometer. Similarly to the visibility meter, it
consists of a transmitter and a receiver. In laser ceilometers the transmitter
emits laser beams nearly perpendicular to the ground surface. If there are
cloud droplets in the air then the laser beam scatters off of them. The
backscattered beams partly reach the receiver. The distance between the
observer and the cloud base can be calculated from the elapsed time. The
schematic of the laser ceilometer is shown in the figure below.
Figure 10.5. Schematic of laser ceilometers
In the figure above, a recorder unit is also attached to the ceilometer.
The receiver and the transmitter are placed in the same sealed box that is
covered by a transparent surface with low reflectivity. The solid angle that is
covered by the emitted light beam and the solid angle that is scanned by the
receiver overlap; therefore, the transmitter and the receiver should be
installed as close to each other as possible. Overlapping can be realised
through one sensor that is able to both emit and receive signals.
Air temperature and dew point

Temperature is measured by various types of thermometers. For example,
liquid, bi-metal or resistance thermometers can be used, which are discussed
in Section 1.2.1. Please note that each type of thermometer has its
advantages and disadvantages. For example, in regards to liquid
thermometers, the alcohol thermometer is suitable to measure minimum
temperatures because of the low freezing point of ethanol. To measure
maximum temperatures, mercury thermometers can be used due to their high
boiling point, but they are highly toxic.
Near-surface temperature is usually measured at 2 m above the ground in a

shelter that protects the thermometer from insolation, rain and strong wind.
However, it is ventilated naturally. In general, the Stevenson screen is used,
which was invented by Scottish engineer Thomas Stevenson in the 18th
century. The shelter is shown in the figure below. It is made of wood and it is
painted white for a high albedo and therefore reduced absorbance of heat.
Conventionally, it faces south.
In Stevenson screens, thermometers to measure near-surface air temperature,

maximum and minimum temperatures can be found, as well as devices for
measuring humidity known as psychrometers (wet-and-dry-bulb
thermometers).
For further details about the measurement of humidity, please read

Section 3.1.2. In summary, relative humidity is measured with hygrometers, for
example with absorption, hair tension and resistive hygrometers. The so-
called wet-bulb temperature can be measured by psychrometers. Based on
the measurement of wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperatures, vapour pressure
can be calculated. To determine the dew point, for example the chilled mirror
dew point, a hygrometer can be used.
Thermographs can be used to record the measured temperature and display it

in charts.
As was mentioned in Section 1.2.1 regarding air temperature, today the Kelvin
scale, the Celsius scale and the Fahrenheit scale are widely used. Dew point is
also given in units of K, °C or °F.
As we learnt in Section 3.1.2, atmospheric humidity can be expressed in

various measures, for example by relative humidity, which is a dimensionless
quantity. Its values vary between 0 and 1. It also can be expressed in a
percentage if we multiply it by 100. Usually it is given in a percentage in
weather messages.
Please remember that the relative humidity of the air can be estimated based
on the actual air temperature and the dew point. The empirical formula is
given in Equation 3.6.
Atmospheric pressure
The units and measurement of atmospheric pressure are discussed in detail in
Section 1.3.1. In summary, atmospheric pressure is given in the Sl-derived unit
of Pa; however, it can also be expressed in mbar, mmHg, inHg, torr, atm or psi.
In regards to atmospheric pressure, in METAR and SPECI the QNH is given in
units of hPa.
Barometers are used to measure atmospheric pressure. The two prominent

types of measuring devices are liquid and aneroid barometers. Barographs can
be applied to record the measured atmospheric pressure and display it in
charts.
10.2.2. Radiosonde observations

Basics and purposes
In the following section, airborne observations and measurements will be
explained. Two prominent types of measurements can be distinguished:
1. In-situ measurements
2. Remote sensing measurements
First radiosonde observations are explained, which belong to the in situ

measurements. This means that the measurement takes place where the
measurement sensor is located (in situ = on site). In the next two chapters
remote sensing measurements through satellites and weather radars will be
discussed.
As we discussed in Section 2.1, in the case of radiosonde observations,

radiosonde and measuring instruments are attached by a rope to balloons
filled with hydrogen or helium. These measurements are called radiosonde
observations and are used to determine the vertical profiles of atmospheric
variables such as air temperature, dew point, wind direction and wind speed. It
is worth mentioning that generating vertical profiles of the above-listed
variables is also known as atmospheric sounding. Measured values are
depicted in thermodynamic diagrams such as the p-T diagram.
Examples of application
Due to their high cost, radiosonde observations are made only a few times a
day (e.g. once or twice a day) at stations that are a few hundred kilometres
apart from each other. However, the usefulness of the measurement is
indisputable. We provide an overview about the possibilities of its application.
As we learnt in Section 3.3, on the basis of the measured air temperatures at
different height levels, the environmental lapse rate can be determined, which
is depicted in p-T diagrams. During an adiabatic processes, the route of a
rising air parcel as well as atmospheric instability, and the formation of Cu
clouds due to thermal reason can also be examined. In connection with this,
please see Figure 3.15 to Figure 3.27.
If wind direction and wind speed are measured then they are often indicated
by wind barbs on the secondary y-axis of a p-T diagram. An example can be
seen in the figure below. At the height level which corresponds to 200 hPa an
abrupt change in the wind direction is observed. Above that level, stronger,
easterly winds are replaced by weaker, westerly winds. On the basis of this
and other factors the height level of wind shear can be determined. Wind
shear can be expected at the altitude of ca. 39 000 ft (ca. 12 km).
Figure 10.7. Radisonde observation depicted on a thermodynamic diagram
MORE INFO L"

A weather balloon was launched in Budapest, Hungary (station number 12843) on
19 July 2018. Please note that a cyclone approaching the Pannonian Basin from a
northerly direction, and was associated with strong and gusty wind near the
surface. Dew point and environmental lapse rate are denoted with black lines.
Based on the wind barbs, near the surface (at about 1000 hPa) the measured wind
speed was about 10 kt (ca. 5 m/s) while at higher levels (between about the
pressure levels of 950 hPa and 450 hPa) it was about 20-25 kt (ca. 10-13 m/s).
Warm or cold air advection at different height levels and weather fronts can
also be observed based on the wind barbs and the difference between the
environmental lapse rate and the line that connects the measured dew points.
The latter means that height levels in the atmosphere can be detected where
the air temperature is closer (farther) to (from) the dew point; in other words,
the air is closer (farther) to (from) being saturated.
Inversion can also be identified based on radiosonde observations. For

example, in the figure below, subsidence inversion is detected between the
pressure levels of 900 hPa and 850 hPa, where the air temperature increased
more than 10 °C. If we look at it carefully, an inversion layer can also be
identified in the figure above between the pressure levels of 950 hPa and
900 hPa. However, the temperature lapse rate is quite slow.
Figure 10.8. Radisonde observation depicted on a thermodynamic diagram

A weather balloon was launched in Prague, Czech Republic (station number
11520) on 20 December, 2016. Please note that during December a cold air pool
formed in East-Central Europe.
10.2.3. Satellite observations
Basics and purposes
Vertical profiles of atmospheric variables can be determined through remote
sensing measurements. Remote-sensing devices can be passive or active
instruments whether or not they emit some kind of electromagnetic signals.
Satellites can have remote-sensing devices with passive sensors, which detect
electromagnetic waves emitted, scattered or reflected by the surface of the
Earth or atmospheric particles. Alternatively, weather radars are equipped
with active sensors, which emit electromagnetic waves and receive the
scattered or reflected signals. Please note that in this sense, visibility meters
and ceilometers can also be considered remote sensing devices with active
sensors.
Data received by the satellites are transmitted to stations located on the

ground surface where the data are processed and different types of images
are generated. We emphasise that on the basis of these images, clouds and
humidity of the upper troposphere can be observed. Furthermore, dust, sand
or volcanic ash released into the air can also be detected.
For meteorological purposes, two main types of satellites are used:
1. Geosynchronous satellites
2. Near-polar orbiting satellites
The orbital period of geosynchronous satellites is the same as the Earth’s

orbital period. In meteorology, geostationary satellites are used among
geosynchronous satellites that orbit along the geographic Equator, with a
rotation period of 23 hours and 56 minutes, similar to the rotation period of
the Earth. This means that the satellite is always located above the same point
of the Earth’s surface at a height between about 30000 km and 40000 km.
These devices are able to observe the region of the Equator and the Tropics.
Near-polar orbiting satellites orbit along geographical longitude circles;

therefore, they nearly pass above the North Pole and the South Pole at a
height between about 700 km and 800 km. In meteorology, Sun-synchronous
satellites are among near-polar orbiting satellites. These satellites pass over
the same location at the same time every day. The usage of these satellites is
advantageous to observe middle and higher latitudes as well as polar regions.
Typically, the resolution of the near-polar orbiting satellites is higher than the
resolution of geosynchronous satellites.
Examples of application
The previously described meteorological satellites measure different
wavelength ranges. In other words, satellites have different channels that
correspond to visible light and infrared. For example, satellites that belong to
the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites
(abbreviated as EUMETSAT, established in 1986 as an intergovernmental
organisation to launch and maintain satellites for meteorological purposes. It
had 30 member states in 2018) have the following channels:
• Visible channel centred at 0.6 pm (abbreviated as VIS 0.6)

• Infrared channel centred at 0.39 pm (abbreviated as IR 0.39)
• Infrared channel centred at 10.8 pm (abbreviated as IR 10.8)
• Water vapour channel centred at 6.2 pm (abbreviated as WV 6.2)
Please note that WV 6.2 is distinguished from other infrared channels. For
example, it provides information about the water vapour content of the upper
troposphere.
Initially, images are grey-coloured; however, false-colour images are also

available, which are known as RGB (abbreviation of red, green, blue) image
composites. First, the usage of grey-coloured satellite images, and then the
application of RGB composites will be explained.
Based on the images of the previously listed channels, different aspects of

weather phenomena can be examined.
Apparently, the VIS 0.6 channel can be only used during the day, while the
usage of the other three channels does not depend on the time of day. Clouds
with higher cloud tops look brighter than clouds with lower cloud tops on
VIS 0.6 images because high level clouds contain more ice particles than low
level clouds; therefore, the former has greater albedo than the latter.
In IR channels, sensors detect heat. The amount of the emitted heat is greater
(smaller) when the cloud top is warmer (colder). This means that low level
clouds emit, scatter and reflect waves with larger intensity than clouds with
higher cloud tops. In images generated by IR 0.39 and IR 10.8 channels,
colours are inverted (similarly to the VIS 0.6 channel) and clouds with higher
cloud tops are brighter than clouds with lower cloud tops. Land and sea
surfaces can be considered warmer areas than clouds; therefore, they are the
darker areas on the images.
In WV 6.2 channel the distribution of water vapour in the upper troposphere

can be displayed. Brighter (darker) colours indicate larger (smaller) amounts of
water vapour. This channel is also useful to detect areas with fog.
10.2.4. Weather-radar observations

Ground weather radar
Weather radars are remote sensing devices with active sensors. The
transmitter of the weather radar emits EM waves, specifically radio waves
(often called "radar waves") with a wavelength of a few cm. This type of EM
wave is partly absorbed, scattered and reflected off of precipitation particles.
For some of the emitted radio waves, precipitation particles are transparent.
For meteorological purposes, ground weather radars and airborne weather

radars are used. In the case of a ground weather radar, the transmitter and the
receiver (i.e. an antenna), are installed at an appropriate height above the
surface, usually in a radar dome (often abbreviated as radome), which is shown
in the figure below. It serves as a shelter to the devices; however, it is made of
materials that are transparent to the radio waves.
Figure 10.9. Example of a radar dome installed on a tower
As we learnt in Section 1.2.3, a wavelength is inversely proportional to the

emitted radiant energy. Therefore, radio waves carry a small amount of
energy. Radio waves that are reflected by precipitation particles are received
by radars. More precisely, energy per a unit time that was carried by the
reflected radio waves is measured by radars. This is known as radar echo.
Values of reflectivity can be associated with the value of precipitation
intensity, which is commonly given in the SI unit of mm/h.
The schematic of a weather radar can be seen in the figure below.

Figure 10.10. Schematic of a weather radar
The received signals are significantly weaker than the emitted signals.
Therefore, the measurement of reflectivity is relatively sensitive to
disturbances. The emitted signals (i.e. radio waves) tend to attenuate and be
shadowed by obstructions. For example, even a flock of birds can cause
disturbances. The radar should be located on a site that is free from obstacles
or any devices that can have an adversary effect(i.e. buildings).
Today, Doppler radars are widely used in meteorology as ground weather

radars. Their application is advantageous not only because of the intensity of
precipitation but also because the movement of the precipitation zone is
trackable on the basis of the Doppler effect, which is explained as follows.
Note: The Doppler effect provides an explanation for the phenomenon, why we
hear the siren of an emergency rescue vehicle higher as it approaches us. As the
vehicle passes away, the sound of the siren becomes immediately lower.
Assume there is a transmitter that emits EM waves. From the place where the
observer stands the wavelength (frequency) of the emitted waves decrease
(increase) as the transmitter approaches the observer. On the contrary, the
wavelength (frequency) of the emitted waves increase (decrease) as the
transmitter recedes from the observer. By using Doppler radars velocity is
measured, but not reflectivity.
In the following section, the application of ground weather radars is

illustrated:
1. As we mentioned, ground weather radars are used to determine the

intensity of precipitation by examining reflectivity values. Areas with
different precipitation intensity are often indicated by different colours.
As we have seen for example in Figure 8.3, areas with low, medium and
high intensity are blue, green-yellow and red-shaded, respectively.
Note: Ground weather radars are not able to detect electrometeors, i.e.
lightning. Therefore, intense precipitation does not indicate the existence of
thunderstorms.
2. Because the reflectivity depends on states of matter and droplet size,

precipitation type can be determined indirectly by using weather radars.
However, because of the varying reflectivity, not every type of
precipitation can be "seen" equally well. For example, frozen
precipitation and liquid precipitation cannot be detected.
3. Based on the shape of the radar echo, observers can identify different
types of weather phenomena. For example, the hook echo can indicate
the formation of a tornado and the bow echo can indicate the formation
of squall lines.
4. Based on a velocity measured by a Doppler radar, the direction and

speed of the movement of the a precipitation zone can be
determined;therefore, the associated weather phenomenon (e.g. cold
fronts, gust fronts or squall lines) can be determined. Wind shear and
turbulence can also be detected.
Airborne weather radar

Airborne weather radars are installed under the nose cone of aircraft. Their
principle of operation is similar to ground weather radars. In this case, the
nose cone serves as a radar dome that is transparent to radio waves. An
example can be seen in the figure below.
Figure 10.11. Airborne weather radar of an Airbus A320
Note: The front side of helicopters may also be equipped with airborne weather
radars.
An airborne weather radar aims to estimate precipitation intensity and size

during flights. On the basis of this information, pilots may draw conclusions
about whether or not thunderstorms have formed in front of the aircraft.
Therefore, the pilots can indirectly conclude there is turbulence and
atmospheric electricity for example, which may be associated with
thunderstorms.
However, the application of airborne weather radars is limited. As we

mentioned earlier, the presence of a thunderstorm means that lightning can
be seen; however, weather radars are not able to detect lightning. Moreover,
frozen precipitation cannot be detected as well as liquid precipitation can. A
common problem is the attenuation of the emitted signals and their
shadowing. In some cases it makes the detection of severe weather
phenomena impossible. Below the freezing point ice can be deposited on the
nose cone of the aircraft; therefore, the radar dome may become opaque to
radio waves.
In general, precipitation intensity is shown in images of airborne weather

radars. Typically, the range of the radars can be switched. Areas with light,
moderate, heavy and very heavy precipitation are denoted by green, yellow,
red and purple, respectively. These categories are associated with turbulence
of increasing intensity. In radar images, cells of thunderstorms in different
arrangements can be identified, for example embedded cumulonimbus
clouds(shown in the figure below), squall lines or other mesoscale convective
systems. We emphasise that black-coloured areas may either be regions
without precipitation or regions where signals are shadowed or attenuated.
Therefore, these areas can also be considered hazardous regions.
Measurements by an airborne weather radar lead us to the following topic:

aircraft observations.
Figure 10.12. Image of airborne weather radar
The distribution of precipitation intensity indicates that embedded

cumulonimbus clouds are observable in front of the aircraft.
10.2.5. Aircraft observations and

reporting
As we have mentioned before, observational and measurement devices are
mounted on aircraft. Therefore, not only meteorological services but also
pilots are able to make weather reports in flight. These are called routine
aircraft observations, special aircraft observations and other non-routine
aircraft observations.
Routine aircraft observations

Routine aircraft observations are conducted during the climb-out and en
route phases of the flight.
In cases when automated routine observations are possible and air-ground

data links are available, the ICAO recommends making routine aircraft
observations every 30 seconds during the climb-out and every 15 minutes
during the flight. It is worth mentioning that according to the ICAO’s
recommendation, helicopter observations should be made at the times and
locations previously determined by agreement between the helicopter
operator and the meteorological authorities.
Special aircraft observations

Special aircraft observations are made throughout the flight and as soon as
possible when at least one of the following phenomena, determined by the
ICAO Annex 3, can be observed:
1. Moderate or severe turbulence
2. Moderate or severe icing
3. Severe mountain waves
4. Thunderstorms with hail or without hail
5. Heavy dust storms or heavy sandstorms
6. Pre-eruption volcanic activity, volcanic eruptions or volcanic ash cloud
Ways of transmission and the form of the code can be found in

Section 10.3.2.
Other non-routine aircraft observations

Other non-routine aircraft observations are made if the pilot considers them
important concerning the safe and efficient operation of the aircraft.
Please keep in mind that if the air-ground data link is not available then special
and other non-routine aircraft observations are made via voice
communication.
STUDY TEST
10.3. Information for flight
planning
10.3.1. Use of meteorological

documents
In the last two chapters of this book, weather reports, forecasts, advisories
and warnings (i.e. aviation weather messages) will be explained. These can be
issued both in the form of text messages and charts or in textual and graphical
form. In general, these are available to members of the flight crew and other
operators who are concerned with civil aviation.
Before the detailed description, a summary will be presented that helps us

review the most commonly used weather messages and charts in civil aviation.
Please note that standards and recommendations are found in documents
such as the ICAO Annex 3 and WMO-No. 306.
Meteorological information is provided for pre-flight planning and in-flight

replanning by the aerodromes that are used for departure and landing as well
as those that serve as alternate aerodromes if the aerodrome designated for
landing is impossible to use. Relevant meteorological information is also
available throughout the flight.
In general, the below-listed meteorological information is available to

members of the flight crew and operators who are concerned civil aviation:
I. Aviation weather messages:
1. METAR, SPECI and - if it is available - TREND forecast
2. TAF
3. SIGMET and special air-reports
4. GAMET and AIRMET for low-level flights (below FL100)

5. Volcanic ash advisory information
6. Tropical cyclone advisory information
7. Aerodrome warnings
II. Charts:
1. Forecast information of upper-air temperature and upper wind
2. Forecast information of upper-air humidity
3. SIGWX charts (charts of expected significant weather phenomena)
4. Surface charts
5. Meteorological satellite images
6. Weather radar information
Note: METAR, SPECI, TREND, TAF, significant weather phenomena, volcanic ash
and tropical cyclone advisory information can be issued not only in textual but also
in graphical form.
Before take-off, from the information listed above in section I and if the flight
is longer than two hours, "Forecast information of upper-air temperature and
upper wind" and "SIGWX charts" from section II are the parts of the flight
documentation that is released to the members of the flight crew in printed or
written form. If the flight is shorter than two hours, then the flight
documentation contains meteorological information listed in section I.
The types of flight information differ based on the height level of the flight:
• For flights between FL250 and FL630, high-level SIGWX charts (between
FL25O and FL630) as well as upper-air temperature and upper wind charts
at least at the height level that corresponds to the pressure surface of
250 hPa are provided.
• For flights between FL100 and FL250, medium-level SIGWX charts
(between FL100 and FL450) as well as upper-air temperature and upper
wind charts at least at the height level that corresponds to the pressure
surface of 500 hPa are provided.
• For flights below FL100 information is released in graphical or textual form.
Low-level SIGWX charts (between the surface and FL100), upper-air
temperature and upper wind forecast or GAMET can also be used.
Briefing and consultation about the previously-mentioned meteorological

information are provided to members of the flight crew and operators
concerned with civil aviation. The information is communicated through a
personal meeting or through telecommunication devices.
There are aerodromes with automated pre-flight information systems that

provide and display meteorological information for the user. This form of
briefing is known as self-briefing.
10.3.2. Aviation weather messages

In the following section, aviation weather messages will be explained, which
contain information about actual and forecast weather conditions in
abbreviated forms. Please note that all examples are fictional.
Standards and recommendations are determined by meteorological and

aviation services as well as other concerned authorities. Templates of the
messages are available in the ICAO Annex 3.
In general, the following can be said regarding weather messages:
• The messages contain compulsory and optional elements as well as

elements that are contained only if certain meteorological conditions arise.
• The messages are divided into code groups. If a weather phenomenon that
is indicated in the code does not occur then the groups of code is omitted.
Therefore, weather messages do not have the same length.
• The messages start with the code group that contains information about
the type of report, location (ICAO identifiers in the case of aerodromes),
date and time of the issuance of the message, the time of observation and,
if applicable, the time period of validity of the forecast
• Air temperature and dew point are given in units of °C between the range of
-80 °C and 60 °C.
• Air pressure is expressed in units of hPa.
• Wind direction is referenced to the North Pole (true north) with the
exception of the ATIS broadcast in which it is referenced to the North
Magnetic Pole (magnetic north). Wind speed is typically given in units of kt
or m/s.
• Time is given in accordance with UTC.
• In code groups in which free text messaging is allowed, information should
be described in as short a fashion as possible.
METAR, SPECI and TREND

Introduction
The aerodrome routine meteorological report (abbreviated as METAR) and the

aerodrome special meteorological report (abbreviated as SPECI) contain actual
weather information concerning a specific aerodrome. Typically, METAR is
issued every 30 minutes and it is valid at the time of the observation.
Forecasting information for the next two-hour time intervals from the
issuance of the METAR or SPECI are available in the TREND forecast, which
can be included in the METAR and SPECI. It can be considered a landing
forecast. The state of the runway is specified in the runway state group in the
METAR, in other words in the Runway State Message.
METAR and SPECI contain the below-listed information:
1. General information: type of report, location, date and time of the

observation
2. Surface wind direction and wind speed
3. Horizontal visibility and runway visual range
4. Present weather
5. Cloud amount, height of the cloud base, cloud type and vertical visibility
6. Air temperature and dew point
7. Atmospheric pressure (QNH)
Please note that local routine reports (known as MET report) and local special
reports (known as SPECIAL reports) have similar content to METAR and
SPECI. TREND forecasts may be associated with the MET report and the
SPECIAL report. Further information can be found later.
METAR
NIL AUTO
[ KT
dddffGM,,, i or
or COR CCCC YYGGggZ d-,d„d-,Vd,d,d.
SPECI I MPS
N,N*N»h»tuh, '
or
WhM
WW VnVnVnVnD, RDrDr/VrVrVrVrI or
or NSC
CAVOK or
NCD
WSRDrDr f(WT,T,/SS) 1
TT/T'dT’d QPhPhPhPh REww' or i or r (RDRDR/EHCReReRBRBR)
WS ALL RWY I (WT5T^HH5HsHs) J
N,N,NBh,hsh,
KT vvvv w'w' or
(TTTTT TTGGgg dddffGfX, or or or Wh,h(h,
or MPS CAVOK NSW or
NOSIG) NSC
(RMK ...................)
Source WMO No. 306
Figure 10.13. Form of the code
Regarding the codes, please note that in this book, bold letters indicate terms
and abbreviations that are always contained in weather messages if the code
group in question is used. Code groups in parentheses () are included in the
weather message on the basis of regional or national agreements. Codes in
square brackets [ ] are conditional parts of the messages while codes in angle
brackets < > indicate free text parts of the message (i.e. names, locations).
We mentioned that abbreviations and code forms that are used in METAR and
SPECI help us understand other weather messages as well.
1. Identification groups and general information
METAR
or COR CCCC YYGGggZ NIL AUTO
SPECI
Source WMO-No. 306
According to the first code group, the type of the weather message is METAR
or SPECI.
The codes COR and NIL indicate a corrected and missing report, respectively.
The group CCCC contains the identification code of the aerodrome from
where the METAR and SPECI originates. It is regulated by the ICAO.
The group YYGGggZ indicates the date(day of the month) and the time (hours
and minutes) - of the observation. UTC is used, indicated by the letter Z.
The word AUTO is used when observations were made automatically. It is not
a compulsory part of the message.
2. Surface wind
KT
dddffGfmfm or dndndnVdxdxdx
MPS
Source WMO-No. 306
The wind direction (ddd) and the wind speed (ff) are averaged over a ten-
minute time period, measured at about 30 ft (ca. 10 m). The wind direction is
expressed in degrees referenced to true north. It is rounded to the nearest
10°, for example 225° is rounded to 230°. The wind speed is expressed in m/s
(abbreviated as MPS) or kt (abbreviated as KT).
Wind calm is denoted by OOOOOMPS or OOOOOKT and wind speed exceeding
50 m/s (100 kt) is denoted by P49MPS or P99KT.
The code preceded by G is only used if a wind gust is observed, which is

determined by the average of a three-second measure. As was discussed in
Section 10.2.1, it is reported in cases when the wind direction changes at least
30° or more and the wind speed changes at least 5 m/s (10 kt) or more.
Furthermore, a gust is reported in cases when the wind speed changes at least
5 m/s (10 kt) and it is measured over two minutes or more.
In the case of variable winds the following denotations are used:
• Variable wind with a velocity of less than 1.5 m/s (3 kt) is denoted by the
code VRB. If the wind speed exceeds this value then VRB is only used when
the change in wind direction is at least 180° or the wind direction is
impossible to determine (e.g. in cases of a thunderstorm).
• If the variation of the wind is between 60° and 180° and its velocity is at
least 1.5 m/s (3 kt) then the two extreme directions detected during the
ten-minute measuring period are denoted in a separate group that has the
form dndndnVdydydy.
II II II AAA
a. Horizontal visibility
VVW VnVnVnVnDv
Concerning horizontal visibility (sometimes referred as meteorological

visibility), information about the prevailing visibility is contained in the
code groups VWV. The code group CAVOK can also be used in cases
discussed later.
Prevailing visibility is expressed in metres in the group VVW. Its value is

averaged over a 10-minute period. The below-listed rules are followed.
If the horizontal visibility is:
• below 800 m then it is rounded down to the nearest 50 m;

• between 800 m and 5 000 m then it is rounded down to the nearest
100 m;
• between 5 000 m and 9 999 m then it is rounded down to the nearest
1000 m;
• above 10000 m then it is denoted by the number 9999.
The code VWV indicates the lowest visibility if the horizontal visibility
varies based on direction or in cases when the prevailing visibility cannot
be determined due to its abrupt changes.
The code VNVNVNVNDv is used to indicate the minimum visibility, for

example in cases where the direction of the horizontal visibility varies or
is below 1500 m. The direction of the minimum visibility is represented
by the code Dv. If the minimum visibility can be observed in two or more
directions than Dv indicates the direction, which is the most important
concern for an aerodrome.
b. Runway visual range
RDRDR/VRVRVRVRi
This code group is used when the horizontal visibility or the runway
visual range for at least one runway, which is used for landing,is less
than 1500 m. It can be repeated up to a maximum of four times.
The code DRDR represents the designator of the runway. In the case of
parallel runways, the position of the runways are indicated by the letters
L, R or C depending on whether they are located on the left-hand side,
on the right-hand side or in the centre.
In general, the value of a runway visual range,which is measured in the

touchdown zone,is expressed in metres averaged over a ten-minute time
period given in the code VRVRVRVR. Please note that in the case of
rapidly changing weather (for example, showery precipitation suddenly
begins or ends) the time period that serves as the basis of the
observation may be shortened.
In cases when an observation is based on a ten-minute long time period,
if the tendency of the runway visual range can be determined then it is
indicated with the letter i in this code group. If the mean of the runway
visual range increases (decreases) by at least 100 m in the first five
minutes of the measurement compared to the second five minutes, then
the letter U (D) is used. If there is no remarkable change then the letter
N is used.
The runway visual range is measured between 50 m and 1500 m. In

cases when the measured value is below 50 m (above 1500 m), the code
M0050 (P1500) is used.
4. Present weather
w’w’
If any significant present weather phenomena (listed in figure below),occur at

the time of the observation then they can be contained in this code group.
Present (and forecast) weather categories are the combinations of intensity
categories, descriptors and the name of the weather phenomena. For example,
BCFG means patches of fog. A maximum of three present weather
phenomena can be indicated in a METAR or SPECI.
Please note that types of precipitation are denoted by the same abbreviations
that were used in Section 5.1.
Qualifier Weather phenomenon
Intensity Description Precipitation Obscuration Other
Light Ml Shallow DZ Drizzle BR Mist PO Dust/sand whirls

(dust devils)
Moderate’ BC Patches RA Rain FG Fog SQ Squalls
+ Heavy/well PR Partial SN Snow FU Smoke FC Funnel doud(s)

developed7 (covering part of (tornado or
the aerodrome) water spout)
VC in the DR Low drifting SG Snow grains VA Volcanic SS Sandstorm

vicinity3 ash
BL Blowing PL Ice pellets DU Widespread DS Dust storm

dust
SH Shower(s) GR Hail SA Sand
TS Thunderstorm GS Small hail/ HZ Haze

snow pellets
FZ Freezing UP Unknown
(supercooled) precipitation*
Figure 10.16. Qualifiers and significant weather phenomena
1 Intensity category "moderate" has no qualifier.

2 The category "heavy" is used in the case of precipitation while "well-
developed" is used in the case of dust devils and funnel clouds.
3 Vicinity means that the phenomenon was not observed on the aerodrome
but within 8-16 km of it.
4 This category is only used by automated stations.
Please note that not every qualifier can be associated with every weather
phenomena. For example, among the qualifiers, intensity categories are only
used with precipitation, thunderstorms, funnel clouds, sandstorms and dust
storms. The descriptors "shower" and "thunderstorm" can only be associated
with the following types of precipitation: RA, SN, GS, GR and UP while the
descriptor "freezing" can only be associated with FG, DZ, RAand UP. Another
example is the descriptor Ml, which can be associated with BR and FG.
We emphasise that thunderstorms are reported when thunder can be heard or

lightning can be seen. This may occur with or without precipitation.
' NsNsNshshshs '

or
VVhshshs
or
NSC
or
'NCD
Source WMO-No. 306
The code NSNSNS represents the amount of clouds. Only the types of clouds
that may have adversary effects on aviation are reported. Therefore, clouds
with a low cloud base, below 1500 m (5 000 ft) or below the altitude at which
it is dangerous to fly due to topographic obstacles, or convective clouds such
as cumulus congestus (in other words, towering cumulus, abbreviated as TCU
in weather messages) and cumulonimbus (abbreviated as CB) are indicated.
The group can be repeated up to a maximum of three times if the observed

clouds that match the above-described criteria can be distinguished based on
their heights or types. Consequently, cloud layers at different altitudes can be
reported. These are indicated in order of increasing height of the cloud base.
Categories regarding the amount of clouds and types of Cb clouds are
summarised in the figure below.
Note: The amount of non-Cb clouds is expressed in oktas.

Amount of clouds except cumulonimbus Type of cumulonimbus clouds
Amount Abbreviation Okta Type Abbreviation
few FEW 1 or 2 individual Cb clouds ISOL

(called as isolated)
scattered SCT 3 or 4 well-separated Cb clouds OCNL

(called as occasional)
broken BKN 5 or 6 or 7 Cb clouds with little or no separation FRQ

(called as frequent)
overcast OVC 8 Cb clouds embedded in layers of other EMBD

clouds or concealed by haze
(called as embedded)
Figure 10.18. Amount of clouds and types of Cb clouds
ISOL, OCNL, FRQ and EMBD can also be associated with TS. It can also be
obscured (abbreviated as OBSC), indicating that the TS cannot be visually
detected, e.g. due to haze or smoke.
The code NSC is contained in the weather messages when no clouds are
observed that match the above-described criteria.
Note: In some cases clear skies can be indicated with the abbreviation SKC.
In the case of automated observations the code NCD indicates that no clouds
were detected. If the automatic observing system is not able to determine the
cloud type, the code group is replaced with the following sign: III.
The code hshshs indicates the height of the cloud base, which is given in m
between 30 m (100 ft) and 3000 m (10000 ft) and it is rounded down to the
nearest 30 m. Please note that heights between 100 m and 1000 m are
reported as 001 and 010. Heights between 1000 m and 10000 m are
contained in the weather message as 010 and 100.
As we mentioned, only TCU and CB clouds are reported. These abbreviations

are appended to the code group.
Vertical visibility is contained in the code group VVhshshs in similar units to

the cloud base. For example, VV079 means that the vertical visibility is
7 900 ft (2400 m). Vertical visibility is indicated when the height of cloud base
cannot be determined but its vertical visibility is measurable.
T'T7T’dT’d
Air temperature and dew point are given in the SI unit of °C. They are rounded
up to the nearest integer (e.g. -2.5 °C is rounded to -2 °C). The minus sign
before temperatures below 0 °C is denoted by the letter M (e. g -2 °C is
marked in the METAR and SPECI as M02).
7. Atmospheric pressure
QPhPhPhPh
The atmospheric pressure is expressed in QNH, given in the SI unit of hPa. It is

rounded down to the nearest integer.
8. Code groups with supplementary information
WS RDrDr (WTsTs/SS)
REw'w' or - or (RDRDR/ERCReReRBRBp)
WS ALL RWY . (WTsTs/HHsHsHs)
Source WMO-No. 306
a. Recent weather phenomena
If any significant weather phenomena were observed since the issuance

of the last METAR or in the last hour but the phenomena ceased before
the issuance of the next METAR, then recent weather phenomena are
reported. They are indicated similarly to present weather phenomena by
using the Figure 10.16, with the exception of intensity, which is not
included.
Please note that recent weather phenomena are not reported in SPECI.
b. Wind shear in the lower layers
If wind shear occurs in the lower layers that may have an adversary
effect on takeoff and landing, then it is reported as WS RDrDr where
DrDr is the designator of the runway. The code WS ALL RWY is used if
all of the runway is affected.
c. Sea-surface temperature and significant wave height and state of the

sea
In this group code WTsTs/HHsHsHs represents the sea-surface

temperature and significant wave height as well as the code WTsTs/SS’
indicating the sea-surface temperature and the state of the sea. The sea
surface temperature is given similarly to air temperature and dew point.
It is represented with the code TSTS while significant wave height is
given in the SI unit of decimetres in the code section HSHSHS.
Please note that categories regarding the state of the sea are based on
the height of well-developed wind-generated waves (categories are
contained in the code table 3700 which can be found in WMO-No.
306). They are given in the code section S’. For example, codes 0 and 1
indicate a calm state of the sea with wave heights below 0.1 m, while
code 8 represents very high waves from 9 m to 14 m.
d. Runway state group
RDRDR/ERCReReRBRBR
This section is included in the METAR and SPECI on the basis of regional
agreements. The code DRDR indicates the designator of the runway. Any
deposit on the runway, its extent and its depth are represented with the
codes Er, Cr and eReR, respectively. The code BRBR indicates surface
friction or related braking action.
For the codes concerning the type of deposit on the runway see the table
below.
Type of deposit Code Types of deposit Code

clear and dry 0 wet snow 5
damp 1 slush 6
wet and water patches 2 ice 7
rime and frost (< 0.1 mm) 3 compacted or rolled snow 8
dry snow 4 frozen ruts or ridges 9
For the codes concerning the extent of the deposit see the table below.
Extent of the area covered by deposit Code

<10% 1
11% to 25% 2
26 % to 50 % 5
51% to 100% 9
The depth of a deposit is expressed in mm until 90 mm. Code 00 means that

the depth is less than 1 mm, code 01 indicates 1 mm etc. Above 90 mm the
depth is given in cm. Code 92 means 10 cm, code 93 indicates 15 cm etc.
Code 98 indicates that the depth is greater than or equal to 40 cm while code
99 means that the runway is not operating.
The surface friction is characterised by the friction coefficient. Its value varies
between 0.00 and 0.9 (coefficient below 0.25, between 0.26-0.39 and above
0.4 indicates poor, medium and good braking action). For example, code 00
means that the coefficient is 0.00. The code 01 indicates that the coefficient is
0.01 etc. If the coefficient cannot be given then the estimated braking action
is reported in accordance with the table below.
Estimated braking action Code

poor 91
medium/poor 92
medium 93
medium/good 94
good 95
unreliable 99
If the shutdown of the aerodrome is ordered due to the deposit of snow, then
the runway state group is replaced with the code R/SNOCLO. After the
deposit is removed from one or all runways then the code CLRD// is used.
The code I (or //) is used when the type and the extent of the deposit (or
braking action) is not reported or the removal of the deposit from the runway
is in progress.
Please note that the usage of the runway state group is presented concerning
the SPECIAL report later.
9. CAVOK
The term CAVOK (Ceiling And Visibility OK) is used instead of the groups of
horizontal visibility, runway visual range, cloud amount, height of the cloud
base, cloud type and vertical visibility as well as present weather when:
1. the horizontal visibility is 10 km or more; and
2. no TCU and CB clouds are observed and there are no clouds below
1500 m (5 000 ft) or below the altitude at which it is dangerous to fly
due to topographic obstacles; and
3. no significant present weather is reported.
10. Forecast information can be issued in TREND forecasts as an optional

part of the METAR and SPECI. The time period of the TREND forecast is two
hours from the issuance of the METAR and SPECI and it contains expected
significant changes in weather conditions, such as wind, horizontal or vertical
visibility or clouds.
TREND forecasts consist of the following three main parts:
1. TREND forecasts begin with one of the following abbreviations: NOSIG,

BECMG or TEMPO.
NOSIG is used when no significant changes are expected in the next two
hours.
BECMG (from the word: becoming) indicates that a given variable is

reaching or exceeding a previously determined threshold value.
TEMPO (from the word: temporary) indicates that a given variable has
reached or exceeded a previously determined threshold value but only
temporarily, which means that it lasts up to one hour regarding a single
weather condition or lasts up to half of the forecasting period regarding
all weather conditions.
2. After the codes BECMG or TEMPO, a time group can be found in which
hours and minutes according to UTC are preceded by the terms FM
(from), TL (until) or AT (at), which can be used as follows.
If the significant change begins and ceases in the time period for which
the TREND forecast is valid then two time groups are included, one with
the time of the beginning preceded by FM and one with the time of the
end preceded by TL.
If the beginning (ending) of the significant change coincides with the

beginning (end) of the time period of the TREND forecast and the end
(beginning) of the significant change is expected after the TREND
forecast expires, then the time group preceded by FM (TL) is omitted
and only the time group preceded by TL (FM) is used.
In the case of the change indicator BCMG, when the time of the
occurrence of the significant change can be specified then the time
group preceded by AT is used.
In the case of the change indicator BCMG, when the significant change
is expected to occur within the time period of the TREND forecast but
the time of the beginning and ending cannot be forecast, then the time
group is omitted.
3. Finally, significant changes are described in the way previously described

regarding the METAR and the SPECI. We emphasise that in TREND
forecasts, up to a maximum of three significant changes concerning
weather conditions can be indicated.
TREND forecasts are issued if at least one of the below-listed weather

conditions changes significantly:
a. Surface wind
If the wind direction changes by at least 60° at a mean wind speed of
5 m/s (10 kt), or in cases when the wind speed changes by at least 5 m/s
(10 kt), significant changes in the surface wind are indicated. If the
changes affect the operation of the aerodrome, e.g. the usage of the
runway, it is also reported.
b. Horizontal and vertical visibility
When the horizontal visibility increases or decreases by at least 150 m,

350 m, 600 m, 800 m, 1500 m or 3 000 m then the changes are
considered significant and denoted in the TREND forecast. In the case of
vertical visibility the threshold values are 100 ft (30 m), 200 ft (60 m),
500 ft (150 m) or 1000 ft (300 m).
c. Weather phenomena
If one of the below-listed phenomenon occurs or ceases then it is

indicated in the TREND forecast:
i. Moderate or heavy precipitation
ii. Freezing precipitation
iii. Freezing fog
iv. Dust storms or sandstorms
v. Thunderstorms with precipitation
vi. Drifting dust at low levels, sand or snow
vii. Blowing dust, sand or snow
viii. Thunderstorms without precipitation
ix. Squalls
x. Funnel clouds
xi. Other weather phenomena based on the agreement of the
concerned services in the fields of meteorology and aviation
Changes in the intensity of phenomena listed from i.) to vi.) and xi.) are
also reported.
If the cessation of the phenomenon is expected then the abbreviation

NSW (from: nil significant weather) is used.
The code NSC is used when no TCU and CB clouds are expected to
develop and no clouds below 1500 m (5 000 ft) or below the altitude at
which it is dangerous to fly due to topographic obstacles are forecast.
d. Clouds
In the TREND forecast the following changes are indicated:
• When the cloud base of a cloud layer with an amount of at least 5

oktas (denoted by BKN or OVC) lifts or lowers by at least 30 m
(100 ft), 60 m (200 ft), 150 m (500 ft), 300 m (1000 ft) or 450 m
(1500 ft).
• When the cloud base ascends above or descends below 450 m
(1500 ft) then changes of the cloud amount from 1-4 oktas to 5-8
oktas (thus from FEW or SCT to BKN or OVC) or from 5-8 oktas to 1-
4 oktas (thus from BKN or OVC to FEW or SCT) are reported.
11. Remarks
(RMK........ )
In this section, METAR and SPECI contain information that is used at a

national level; therefore, these are not issued internationally.
The weather message ends with an equal sign.
EXAMPLE 10.1 L"
EXAMPLE 10.2 L"

Example of METAR
METAR QWXY 221800Z 05010KT 1400NW R01/1300D R03/P1500N

(D @ © ©
SCT039 01/M05 Q1015 REFZDZ BECMG FM1900 TL2000 0700 FG=

© ® (8) (9)
® The weather message is a METAR from an aerodrome with identification

code QWXY. The METAR was issued on the 22nd day of the month at
18:00 UTC.
(2) On average, a northeasterly (50°) wind blows with a velocity of 10 kt (ca.

5 m/s).
(3) The prevailing visibility is 1400 m in the direction of the northwest.
@ The runway visual range is 1300 m on runway 1 and a decreasing tendency

is observed while it is above 1500 m on runway 3 without remarkable
changes.
(5) There is no weather phenomenon that is reported as present weather;

therefore, this code group is omitted from the METAR.
(6) The cloud layer is scattered, which means 3 or 4 oktas of clouds. The height
of the cloud base is 3 900 ft (ca. 1200 m) AGL.
(7) The air temperature and the dew point are 1 °C and -5 °C, respectively
® The value of QNH is 1015 hPa.
(9) Since the issuance of the last METAR or within the last hour freezing
drizzle has fallen.
© According to the TREND forecast, fog is expected between 19:00 UTC and
20:00 UTC with a horizontal visibility of 700 m.
Example of SPECI
SPECI QWXY 081200Z 32007G15MPS 270V360 650 R01/M0050N R02/0100D +TSGR

© (2) (3) © ®
FEW039 BKN059CB 26/26 Q990 NOSIG=

® ® ®
® The weather message is a SPECI. The weather phenomenon that induced

the issuance of the SPECI was detected on the 8th day of the month at
12:00 UTC from an aerodrome with identification code QWXY.
(2) On average, a northwesterly (320°) wind blows with a velocity of 7 m/s (ca.
14 kt). However, a wind gust of 15 m/s (ca. 30 kt) is measured and the wind
varies between west (270°) and north (360°).
(3) The prevailing visibility is 650 m.
@ The runway visual range is below 50 m on runway 1 and no remarkable

change is observed, while on runway 2 the runway visual range is 100 m
and a decreasing tendency is observed.
(5) A heavy thunderstorm with hail is observed as present weather.
(6) Almost the entire sky is covered by clouds. 1 or 2 oktas of clouds can be
detected. Their cloud base is at the height of 3 900 ft (ca. 1200 m) AGL.
Cumulonimbus with an amount of 5 to 7 oktas is also observed. Its cloud
base is at the height of 5 900 ft (ca. 1800 m) AGL.
(7) The air temperature and the dew point are 26 °C.
(9) No significant changes in weather conditions are expected.

Please note that the information contained in the METAR can be visualised on
maps regarding each aerodrome. An example will be provided in Figure 10.39.
Local routine report (MET report) and local

special report (SPECIAL report)
Introduction
As we mentioned before, local routine reports (known as MET reports) and

local special reports (known as SPECIAL reports) are issued with content
similar to the METAR and SPECI. However, MET reports and SPECIAL reports
are used mainly by departing and arriving aircraft while the METAR and SPECI
are disseminated beyond the aerodrome.
Form of the code
In the following section, the main aspects in which a MET report and a
SPECIAL report differ from METAR and SPECI will be highlighted.
The message begins with the terms MET report or SPECIAL report, which
indicate the type of the weather message.
It is followed by the group CCCC that identifies the aerodrome from which the
MET report or SPECIAL report originates.
Then the day of the month and the time in hours and minutes of the
observation are indicated according to UTC.
The word AUTO is used when all observations concerning the MET report and
SPECIAL report were made automatically.
2. Surface wind
In MET reports and SPECIAL reports, surface wind direction and wind speed
are preceded by the term WIND. Wind speed is averaged over a two-minute
time period, but measured at about 30 ft (ca. 10 m) similar to the cases of
METAR and SPECI.
If two or more runways are operating at the same time then their designators
are reported after the abbreviation RWY. Similarly to METAR and SPECI, in
the case of runways that are parallel to each other, the position of the
runways is indicated by the letters L, C or R.
Wind can be measured along the runway at different sections such as at the
touchdown zone, at the middle point and at the end of the runway, which are
denoted by the abbreviations TDZ, MID and END, respectively.
Variable wind is reported as VRB BTN nnn/ AND nnn/ where nnn is the wind
direction or VRB.
Wind speed above 50 m/s (100 kt) is indicated as ABV49MPS or ABV99KT.
In the case of a wind gust, not only its peak value but its minimum value is
reported in the code form MAX[ABV]nn[n] MNMn[n],
Please note that the code form of wind speed differs from METAR and SPECI
because in the case of the former, velocity values with one digit are not
preceded by a zero digit.
In the case of wind calm the term WIND CALM is reported.
a. Horizontal visibility
Most of the regulations concerning METAR and SPECI can be applied in

the cases of MET reports and SPECIAL reports as well. However, instead
of prevailing visibility, visibility along each operating runway is indicated
at the touchdown zone, at the middle point and at the end of the
runway. The value of visibility is preceded by the term VIS while the unit
of measurement is also reported. It is averaged over a one-minute
period.
b. Runway visual range

Similar to the case of horizontal visibility, runway visual range is reported
concerning each runway. The unit of measurement is also reported. It is
averaged over a one-minute time period.
Similar to the METAR and SPECI, for the runway visual range, values
below and above a certain limit are not reported. Unlike in METAR and
SPECI, values below the minimum value (above the maximum value) are
preceded by using the abbreviation BLW (ABV).
Furthermore, the t vsual range is not included in MET reports and

SPECIAL reports.
4. Present weather
Similar to the METAR and SPECI, a significant present weather phenomenon

and its intensity are reported. Categories are listed in Figure 10.16. Please
note that denotations of intensity categories are different in the case of a MET
report and a SPECIAL report. Categories "light", "moderate" and "heavy" are
indicated by the abbreviations FBL, MOD and HVY, respectively. The category
"in the vicinity" is not used in MET reports and SPECIAL reports.
In MET reports and SPECIAL reports, amounts of clouds and the height of the
cloud base are indicated for each runway. The unit concerning the cloud base
is also given.
The same regulations are used as for METAR and SPECI. However, the values
of air temperature and dew point are preceded by the abbreviations T and DP,
respectively.
7. Atmospheric pressure
Similarly to the METAR and SPECI, the atmospheric pressure is expressed in

QNH. The value is preceded by the abbreviation QNH and succeeded by its
unit, which is hPa. However, additional information is reported such as the
value of QFE on the basis of an agreement between the concerning
authorities. The values of QNH and QFE are given for each runway.
8. Code groups with supplementary information
For recent weather phenomena, the following information is contained in MET

and SPECIAL reports. Please note that their codes are constructed based on
Figure 10.16 and are given in parenthesis after the name of each
phenomenon.
1. Cb cloud (CB)
2. Thunderstorm (TS)
3. Severe squall line (SEV SQL)
4. Hail(GR)
5. Freezing precipitation such as freezing drizzle or freezing rain (FZDZ,

DZRA)
6. Blowing snow (BLSN)
7. Moderate or severe ice (MOD ICE, SEV ICE)
8. Moderate or severe turbulence (MOD TURB, SEV TURB)
9. Wind shear (WS)
10. Severe mountain waves (SEV MTW)
11. Dust storm, sandstorm (DS, SS)
12. Funnel clouds (FC)
In the following section, examples of MET and SPECIAL reports are presented.
Please note that the examples contain information similar to the examples
regarding METAR and SPECI mentioned before.
EXAMPLE 10.3 L"

Example of local routine report (MET report)
MET REPORT QWXY 221800Z WIND050/10KT VIS 1400M

(D @ (3)
RVR RWY 01 1300M RVR RWY 03 ABV 1500M

©
SCT 1200M T01 DPM05 QNH 1015HPA REFZDZ TREND BECMG FM1900 TL2000 VIS 700M FG=
(6) ® ® (9) ©
® The weather message is a local routine report (MET report) concerning the
aerodrome QWXY. The message was issued on the 22nd day of the month
at 18:00 UTC.
(2) On average, a northeasterly (50°) wind blows with a velocity of 10 kt (ca.

5 m/s).
(3) The visibility along the runway is 1400 m.
@ The runway visual range is 1300 m on runway 1 and it is above 1500 m on

runway 3.
(5) There is no weather phenomenon reported as present weather; therefore,

this code group is omitted from the MET report.
(6) The cloud layer is scattered, which means 3 or 4 oktas of clouds. The cloud
base is at 3 900 ft (ca. 1200 m).
(7) The air temperature and the dew point are 1 °C and -5 °C, respectively.
(9) Since the issuance of the last MET report or within the last hour freezing
drizzle has fallen.
© According to the TREND forecast, between 19:00 UTC and 20:00 UTC fog
is expected with a horizontal visibility of 700 m.
EXAMPLE 10.4
TAF
Introduction
The Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (abbreviated as TAF) contains forecast

information concerning an aerodrome. It contains the following information:

issuance, period of validity of forecast
3. Horizontal visibility
4. Weather phenomena
6. Expected significant changes to one or more of the previously listed

elements during the period of validity
It is recommended that stations issue TAF with a validity between six hours
and 30 hours. If the TAF is valid for six hours then it is updated every three
hours. If it is valid for 12-30 hours then it is updated every six hours.
Form of the code
In the following section, code groups of TAF will be described. Please note
that denotations are similar to those used in the cases of the METAR, SPECI,
MET and SPECIAL reports.
Example of SPECIAL report
SPECIAL REPORT QWXY 081200Z WIND 320/07KT MAX30 MNM20 VIS 650M
(D @ (D
RVR RWY 01 BLW 50M RVR RWY 02 100M
HVY TSGR FEW 1200M BKN 1800M CB T26 DP26 QNH 990HPA WS R01 R02/220295 NOSIG=
® ® ® ® ® ©
® The weather message is a local special report (SPECIAL report). The

weather phenomenon that induced the issuance of the SPECIAL report was
detected on the 8th day of the month at 12:00 UTC concerned to the
aerodrome QWXY.
14 kt). However, a wind gust between 10 m/s (ca. 20 kt) and 15 m/s (ca.
30 kt) is measured.
@ The runway visual range is below 50 m on runway 1 while on runway 2 it is

100 m.
(6) Almost the entire sky is covered by clouds. 1 or 2 oktas of cloud can be
found with a cloud base of 1200 m (ca. 3 900 ft) and from 5 to 7 oktas of
cumulonimbus is observed with a base of 1800 m (ca. 5 900 ft).
(9) The runway state group contains the following information. Wind shear is
observed concerning runway 1 (WS R01). On runway 2 (R02) wet and
water patches are observed as deposits (denoted by code 2), the extent of
it is between 11 % and 25 % of the runway (denoted by code 2) and the
depth of it is less than 2 mm (denoted by code 02). However, the braking
action is good (denoted by code 95).
QL>
RVR RWY 01 BLW 50M RVR RWY 02 100M

®
HVY TSGR FEW 1200M BKN 1800M CB T26 DP26 QNH 990HPA WS R01 R02/220295 NOSIG=
(D ® ® ® ® ®
® The weather message is a local special report (SPECIAL report). The

weather phenomenon that induced the issuance of the SPECIAL report was
detected on the 8th day of the month at 12:00 UTC concerned to the
aerodrome QWXY.
14 kt). However, a wind gust between 10 m/s (ca. 20 kt) and 15 m/s (ca.
30 kt) is measured.
@ The runway visual range is below 50 m on runway 1 while on runway 2 it is

100 m.
(6) Almost the entire sky is covered by clouds. 1 or 2 oktas of cloud can be
found with a cloud base of 1200 m (ca. 3 900 ft) and from 5 to 7 oktas of
cumulonimbus is observed with a base of 1800 m (ca. 5 900 ft).
(9) The runway state group contains the following information. Wind shear is
observed concerning runway 1 (WS R01). On runway 2 (R02) wet and
water patches are observed as deposits (denoted by code 2), the extent of
it is between 11 % and 25 % of the runway (denoted by code 2) and the
depth of it is less than 2 mm (denoted by code 02). However, the braking
action is good (denoted by code 95).
© No significant changes in the weather conditions are expected.

TAF AMD or NIL KT 1
TAF COR or
TAF
cccc YYGGggZ or
Y1Y1G1G17Y2Y2G2G2
dddffOfmfm
or
CNL
( or
MPS
r
N.N.N.h.h.h.
VVVV w’w' or VVh.h.h,
or or NSC
CAVOK
(TXTfTf/YfYfGpGfZ TNTfTf/YfYfGfGfZ)
PROB C2C2 or w'w' N.N.N.h.h.h.l

PROB C2C2 Hill YYGG/Y.Y.G.G. KT VVVV or or VVh.h.h.
or TTTTT J dddffOfmfm NSW or NSC J
or
or MPS or
TTYYGGgg
CAVOK
Source WMO-Mo. 306
TAF AMD or NIL

TAF COR or CCCC YYGGggZ or
TAF .YiYiGiGi/Y2Y2G2G2 CNL
Source WMO-No. 306
According to the first code group, the type of the weather message is TAF.
The codes AMD, COR, NIL and CNL mean amended, corrected, missing and
cancelled reports, respectively. A corrected and amended TAF covers the
same time period as the original TAF.
Similarly to in METAR and SPECI reports, the group CCCC identifies the
aerodrome from which the METAR and SPECI originates.
Similarly to in METAR and SPECI, the group YYGGggZ means the date (day of
the month) and the time (hours and minutes) of the observation. UTC is used,
which is indicated by the letter Z.
The beginning and end times of the validity of the forecast are indicated in the
group Y1Y1G1G1/Y2Y2G2G2. For example, if the TAF is valid on the 5th day of
the month between 18 and 24 UTC, then the code is 051824. If the TAF is
valid from 24:00 UTC on the 8th day of the month to 6:00 UTC on the 9th day
of the month then the code is 0824/0906.
Please note that the actual weather conditions are given, followed by the
forecast. Forecasts can be valid for separate time periods as we will discuss in
section 8 Change groups.
2. Surface wind
KT
dddffGfmfm or
MPS
Source WMO-No. 306
The mean wind direction and the mean wind speed are given by the codes
ddd and ff, respectively. The code is given similarly to the previously discussed
weather messages.
In the cases of variable winds, similar to in METAR and SPECI, the code VRB is
used when the wind velocity is less than 1.5 m/s (3 kt). However, if the wind
speed exceeds this value, the code VRB can be used if the mean wind
direction is impossible to forecast.
The letter G is used in cases when the maximum wind speed is expected to
exceed the mean wind speed by 5 m/s (10 kt).
wvv
Similarly to in METAR and SPECI, the groups VVW or CAVOK can be used.
If the horizontal visibility is not the same in all directions then prevailing
visibility is given. If the prevailing visibility is impossible to forecast then the
minimum visibility is given.
w’w’
or
NSW
Weather phenomena and their intensity are indicated in similar formats to in

the TREND forecast. Their list can be found earlier in this section.
The code NSW means that a significant weather phenomenon has ceased.
NsNsNshshshs
or Whsh$h$
or NSC
Similarly to in METAR and SPECI, the code NSNSNS represents the amount of
clouds (see Figure 10.18) and the code hshshs indicates the height of the
cloud base. These are denoted in the same format as in METAR and SPECI.
Amount, height of the cloud base and type of clouds can be reported
concerning each cloud layer in accordance with the following:
• First group: The lowest layer of clouds with any amount (FEW, SCT, BKN or
OVC).
• Second group: The cloud layer above the lowest layer with at least 3 oktas
(SCT, BKN or OVC).
• Third group: The layer of clouds above the second layer with at least 5
oktas (BKN or OVC).
• A fourth group can only be added if CB or TCU clouds are expected.
Vertical visibility is indicated with code group Wh$hsh$ similar to in METAR
and SPECI.
The code NSC is contained in the weather messages when no clouds are
expected to match the above-described criteria.
6. CAVOK
The term CAVOK is used instead of the groups of horizontal visibility, cloud
amount, height of the cloud base, cloud type and vertical visibility as well as
present weather when:
1. the horizontal visibility is expected to be at least 10 km; and
2. no TCU and CB clouds are forecast and there are no clouds below
1500 m (5 000 ft) or below the altitude at which it is dangerous to fly
due to expected topographic obstacles; and
3. no significant weather phenomena are forecast.
7. Maximum and minimum air temperature
txtftf/yfyfgfgfz
tntftf/yfyfgfgfz
The expected maximum (abbreviated as TX) and minimum (abbreviated as TN)

values of near-surface air temperature are indicated as well as the time (UTC)
of the occurrence. Up to a maximum of four temperatures are given. For
example, if 2 °C is expected as the maximum temperature on the 14th day of
the month at 15 UTC and -1 °C is expected as the minimum temperature on
the 14th day of the month at 18 UTC, then these are denoted as TX02/1415Z
and TNM01/1418Z.
8. Change groups
TTTTT YYGG/YeYeGeGe
or
TTYYGGgg
If the forecast values change significantly during the validity of the TAF then
the weather message is divided into separate parts as follows.
If all forecast values are expected to change significantly then the new values
are written after the code FMYYGGgg. For example, the code FM091500
means that the forecast values that succeeded this code are valid from
15:00 UTC on the 9th day of the month. If there is no other FMYYGGgg code
in the TAF then these values are valid until the end of the validity of the TAF.
Please note that forecast values after the code FMYYGGgg completely
overwrite the forecast values before it.
If one or more, but not all,forecast values change significantly then the code
TTTT YYGG/YeYeGeGe is used in the same sense as in the TREND forecasts.
The code TTTT can be BECMG or TEMPO. For example TEMPO 1005/1007
means that the forecast values in question fluctuate temporarily between
5:00 UTC and 7:00 UTC on the 10th day of the month. The code
YYGG/YeYeGeGe denotes the beginning and the end of the significant
changes. We emphasise that in this case forecast values can be considered
constant that are denoted before the code TTTT YYGG/YeYeGeGe but not
denoted after these codes again.
9. Probability groups
PROB C2C2
PROB C2C2 TTTTT
A forecast value may show great variability. It may be associated with changes
during the forecasting period. If there is at least a 30 % chance of the
realisation of other values compared to the forecast then it is indicated in the
TAF by adding the probability group PROBC2C2. Please note that only the
values of 30 % and 40 % are allowed to be used such as PROB30 and
PROB40.
Probability groups are also used with change indicators BCMG or TEMPO. For
example PROB30 TEMPO means that there is a 30 % chance of temporary
fluctuation in the forecast values in question.
The weather message ends with an equal sign.
EXAMPLE 10.5 L"
SIGMET and AIRMET

Introduction
The Significant Meteorological Information (abbreviated as SIGMET) message

is issued for a FIR/CTA when a significant weather phenomenon contained in
the figure below occurs or is expected to occur during the flight, which
endangers its safety. It is issued by the MWO.
Please note that if more than one significant weather phenomenon occurs
then information about each phenomenon is reported in a separate SIGMET
message.
Phenomenon Description Abbreviation
Thunderstorm Obscured without hail OBSC TS
Embedded without hail EMBDTS
Frequent without hail FRQ TS
Squall line without hail SQL TS
Obscured with hail OBSC TSGR
Embedded with hail EMBD TSGR
Frequent with hail FRQ TSGR
Squall line with hail SQL TSGR
Tropical cyclone Tropical cyclone TC (♦ cyclone name)
Turbulence Severe turbulence SEVTURB
Icing Severe icing SEV ICE
Severe icing due to freezing rain SEV ICE (FZRA)
Mountain wave Severe mountain wave SEV MTW
Dust storm Heavy dust storm HVY DS
Sandstorm Heavy sandstorm HVYSS
Volcanic ash - VA (+ volcano name if it is known)
Radioactive cloud RDOACT CLD
Figure 10.23. Indicated significant weather phenomena in SIGMET

Example of TAF
TAF QWXY 101430Z 101521 18008KT 2000 -DZ BKN020

(D (2) (D © ®
101500 VRB14G25KT 1500 FEW020 BKN017TCU
TEMPO PROB40 1018/1019 27020G40KT 650 BKN017CB +TSRA=
® The weather message is a TAF concerning the aerodrome QWXY. It was

issued on the 10th day of the month at 14:30 UTC. It is valid on the 10th
day of the month from 15:00 UTC to 21:00 UTC.
Actual weather conditions:
(2) On average, a southerly (180°) wind blows with a velocity of 8 kt (ca.

4 m/s).
@ Visibility is 2 km.
@ Light drizzle can be observed.
(5) Clouds with a base of 2 000 ft (ca. 600 m) are observed with 5 to 7 oktas.
The forecast is divided into two separate parts.
® On the 10th day of the month from 15:00 UTC until 18:00 UTC the
following weather conditions are expected.
Variable wind is expected with a mean speed of 14 kt (ca. 7 m/s). A wind gust is
also forecast with a speed of 25 kt (ca. 12.5 m/s).
Visibility is expected to be 1.5 km.
The lowest layer of clouds is expected to be 1 to 2 oktas and its cloud base is
forecast to be at 2000 ft (ca. 600 m). A second layer of clouds, more precisely
day of the month from 15:00 UTC to 21:00 UTC.
Actual weather conditions:
(2) On average, a southerly (180°) wind blows with a velocity of 8 kt (ca.

4 m/s).
@ Visibility is 2 km.
@ Light drizzle can be observed.
(5) Clouds with a base of 2 000 ft (ca. 600 m) are observed with 5 to 7 oktas.
The forecast is divided into two separate parts.
® On the 10th day of the month from 15:00 UTC until 18:00 UTC the
following weather conditions are expected.
Variable wind is expected with a mean speed of 14 kt (ca. 7 m/s). A wind gust is
also forecast with a speed of 25 kt (ca. 12.5 m/s).
Visibility is expected to be 1.5 km.
The lowest layer of clouds is expected to be 1 to 2 oktas and its cloud base is
forecast to be at 2000 ft (ca. 600 m). A second layer of clouds, more precisely
towering cumulus (cumulus congestus), is forecast with an amount of 5 to 7 oktas.
The cloud base is expected to be at 1700 ft (ca. 510 m).
® On the 10th day of the month between 18:00 UTC and 19:00 UTC the
following weather conditions are expected with a probability of 40 %.
A strong and gusty westerly wind is forecast with a mean speed of 20 kt (ca.
10 m/s). Wind gusts may have a speed of 40 kt (ca. 20 m/s).
Visibility is expected to be 650 m.
The sky will be covered with cumulonimbus of 5 to 7 oktas. The cloud base is
expected at 1700 ft (ca. 510 m).
A thunderstorm with heavy rain is expected.
The SIGMET is issued within four hours prior to the occurrence of the
dangerous phenomena and it is valid for up to four hours.
The following regulations are applicable in the cases of volcanic ash clouds
and tropical cyclones. The SIGMET is issued within 12 hours prior to the
occurrence of the phenomenon and it is valid for up to six hours.
The SIGMET is cancelled if the significant phenomena disappear.
The Airmen’s Meteorological Information (abbreviated as AIRMET) message is

issued in cases when a weather phenomenon contained in the figure below
may affect the safety of the flight at low levels (lower than FL1OO or
concerning mountainous areas lower than FL15O) and are not included in the
SIGMET message. It is issued by the MWO.
Similarly to the SIGMET message, if more than one weather phenomenon

occurs then information about each phenomenon is reported in a separate
AIRMET message.
Furthermore, the AIRMET is also valid for up to four hours. It is cancelled if

the weather phenomenon in question ceases.
Phenomenon /
Description Abbreviation
Atmospheric variable
Surface wind speed Mean wind speed over larger area SFC WSPD
which is above 15 m/s (30 kt) ♦ wind speed and units
Surface visibility Reduction of visibility over larger SFC VIS ♦ visibility

area below 5 km ♦ weather phenomena (e. g DZ. FG)
Thunderstorm Isolated thunderstorms without hail ISOL TS
Occasional thunderstorms without hall OCNL TS
Isolated thunderstorms with hall ISOL TSGR
Occasional thunderstorms with hall OCNL TSGR
Mountain obscuration • MT OBSC
Cloud Broken cloud over larger area with BKN CLD ♦ height of cloud base
cloud base below 300 m (1000 hPa) and cloud top
Overcast cloud over larger area with OVC CLD + height of cloud base
cloud base below 300 m (1000 hPa) and cloud top
Isolated cumulonimbus ISOL CB
Occasional cumulonimbus OCNLCB
Frequent cumulonimbus FRQCB
Isolated towering cumulus ISOL TCU
Occasional towering cumulus OCNL TCU
Frequent towering cumulus FRQ TCU
Icing Moderate icing (with the MOD ICE

exclusion of convective clouds)
Turbulence Moderate turbulence (with the MODTURB

exclusion of convective clouds)
Mountain wave Mountain wave MOD MTW

with moderate Intensity
Figure 10.24. Indicated weather phenomena in AIRMET
Form of the code
Note: In the following codes, letter n indicates number.
CCCC SIGMET/AIRMET [n][n]n VALID YYGGgg/YYGGgg CCCC-

CCCC <name> FIR[/UIR]/CTA
The group CCCC identifies the ATS that serves the FIR00 or CTA™ for which
the SIGMET or the AIRMET is issued.
The type of weather message is a SIGMET or an AIRMET. Its sequence

number is denoted as a one or two-digit number or the combination of a letter
and a two-digit number. It is counted from 00:01 UTC on the given day.
The time period of the validity is given in UTC in the code VALID
YYGGgg/YYGGgg. The day of the month, hours and minutes are indicated.
The group CCCC- identifies the MWO that issued the SIGMET or the
AIRMET.
The group CCCC <name> FIR[/UIR]/CTA identifies the FIR or CTA for which
the SIGMET or the AIRMET is issued as well as the UIR if it is available. In the
case of AIRMET, the identification number of the sub-area for which the
AIRMET was issued can also be denoted in code form FIR/[n]. For example
sub-area 3 of the FIR is indicated as FlR[/3].
2. Weather phenomenon
For the list of the weather phenomena please see Figure 10.23 and
Figure 10.24.
3. Observation and forecast
OBS [AT GGggZ] or

FCST [AT GGggZ]
The abbreviation OBS means that the weather phenomenon is observed while
the abbreviation FCST indicates that the phenomenon is forecast. If it is
available, the time of observation or forecast can also be contained in the
code form AT GGggZ.
4. Location of the weather phenomenon
If weather phenomena are observable, then their location can be indicated in

various ways. For example, the following formats can be used:
• The geographical coordinates of the location can be given in degrees and

minutes, e.g. N5015 E03020 means that the phenomenon is located at
50°15’N and 30°20’E.
• The geographical coordinates can also be given in degrees and minutes
relative to longitudes or latitudes. In this case, the coordinates are preceded
by one of the following:
N OF N, N OF S, S OF N or S OF S as well as
E OF E, E OF W, W OF E or W of W.
o E.g. N OF N45 means that the phenomenon is located northward of
45°N.
o E.g. E OF W02330 means that the phenomenon is located eastward of
23°30’W.
o E.g. N OF S1840 AND W OF W120 indicates the location is northward of
18°40’S and westward of 120°W.
• The location is also given relative to an area, e.g. ENTIRE FIR means that
the FIR is affected by the phenomenon.
• The name of widely known geographical locations are also given, e.g. the
name of a volcano.
5. Flight level or altitude
The altitude where weather phenomena can be located is given in flight levels
in the code form FLnnn, e.g. FL200, FL300 etc.
It can be also given between two altitudes in the code form FLnnn/nnn, e.g.
FL200/300.
The altitude can be indicated relative to a flight level, below (abbreviated as

BLW) or above (abbreviated as ABV), e.g. BLW FL1OO means that the altitude
is below FL1OO.
In the case of cumulonimbus clouds, the height of the cloud top can be
indicated, e.g. TOP FL240 means that the cloud top is at FL240. TOP ABV
FL300 means that the cloud top is above FL300. Please note that surface is
indicated by the abbreviation SFC.
6. Movement or expected movement
If the weather phenomenon moves or it is expected to move then its

direction, using 16 directions of the compass, and if it is available its speed in
units of km/h or kt is denoted by the abbreviation MOV. For example, MOV
NNE 30 KT means that the phenomenon moves or is expected to move north
northeastward with a speed of 30 kt (ca. 15 m/s).
If there is no observable movement then the abbreviation STNR (from the

word stationary) is used.
7. Expected changes in intensity
If the weather phenomenon is expected to intensify or weaken then it is

denoted by the abbreviations INTSF or WKN, respectively. The abbreviation
NC indicates that no changes are expected.
8. Forecast time (only in SIGMET)
Instead of the usage of Section 6. Movement or expected movement, the

forecast time (given in hours and minutes in UTC) of the significant weather
phenomenon can also be indicated in the code form FCST AT GGggZ.
9. Forecast position (only in SIGMET)
Instead of the usage of section 6 (Movement or expected movement), the

expected location of the significant weather phenomenon can also be
indicated. The form of the code is similar to what was shown in section 4
(Location of the weather phenomenon).
10. Cancellation of the SIGMET and AIRMET
The SIGMET or the AIRMET is cancelled with the following code that begins
with the abbreviation CNL (from the word cancellation) and contains the time
period over which the message was valid:
CNL SIGMET [n][n]n YYGGgg/YYGGgg or

CNL AIRMET [n][n]n YYGGgg/YYGGgg.
Then it contains the identifier and the validity of the cancelled

SIGMET/AIRMET. (Examples of cancellation can be seen below.)
The SIGMET and the AIRMET messages end with an equal sign.
Please note that information about the forecast of significant weather

phenomena are available on maps at three height levels (low, medium and
high) known as SIGWX charts. These will be explained in detail in
Section 10.4.
Example of SIGMET
ABCD SIGMET4 VALID 291830/292100 DCBA-

ABCD ABCDEF FIR SEV ICE FCSTAT1830Z N OF N4530 AND W OF El 910
FL100/FL140 STNR NC=
The fourth SIGMET message since 00:01 UTC was issued for the ABCD
ABCDEF FIR by DCBA meteorological watch office. The SIGMET message is
valid from 18:30 UTC to 21:00 UTC on the 29th day of the month. Severe ice
is forecast at 18:30 UTC at northward of 45°30’N and westward of E19°10’. It
is expected between FL100 and FL140. No movement and no changes are
expected.
Cancellation of the previously described SIGMET:

ABCD SIGMET 5 VALID 291930/292100 DCBA-
ABCD ABCDEF FIR CNL SIGMET 4 291830/292100 =
Example of AIRMET
ABCD AIRMET 6 VALID 081445/081700 DCBA-

ABCD ABCDEF FIR MOD TURB OBS AT 1435Z AT QXYZ N4740 E1200 BLW
FLO50 MOVW10KMH WKN=
The sixth AIRMET message since 00:01 UTC was issued for the ABCD
ABCDEF FIR by the DCBA meteorological watch office with a validity from
14:45 UTC to 17:00 UTC on the 8th day of the month. Moderate turbulence
was observed at 14:35 UTC at QXYZ airport at 47°40’N and 12°E. It was
detected below FL050. The zone of turbulence relocates to the west with a
speed of 10 km/h while it weakens.
Cancellation of the previously described AIRMET:

ABCD AIRMET 7 VALID 081600/081700 DCBA-
ABCD ABCDEF FIR CNL AIRMET 6 081445/081700=
GAMET
Introduction
The General Aviation Meteorological Information (abbreviated as GAMET)
message consists of a forecast about meteorological conditions that may be
dangerous for aviation during low level flights. Therefore, GAMET is an area
forecast for low level flights. As in the case of AIRMET, low-level means flights
lower than FL1OO or FL15O at mountainous area.
The GAMET area forecast is divided into two sections, preceded by the
abbreviations SECN I and SECN II, respectively. The first section contains
hazards such as strong icing, turbulence, wind shear, thunderstorms, low
visibility etc. The second section contains information about air temperature,
surface wind direction and wind speed, the height of the freezing level or
clouds, if this information is appropriate.
As with the SIGMET and AIRMET reports, GAMET is also issued for a
FIR/CTA. However, GAMET is prepared by the meteorological office. It is
issued every six hours, at least one hour from the beginning of its validity of
six hours. We emphasise that both the GAMET area forecast and SIGWX
forecast concern low level flights. Their issuances facilitate the release of
AIRMET messages.
Code form
CCCC GAMET VALID YYGGgg/YYGGgg CCCC-

CCCC <name> FIR[/n]/CTA[/n] [BLW FLnnn]
The group CCCC indicates the location of the FIR or CTA for which the
GAMET is issued.
The type of the weather message is a GAMET.
The time period for the validity of the GAMET is given in UTC in the code
VALID YYGGgg/YYGGgg. The day of the month and hours and minutes are
indicated.
The group CCCC- identifies the meteorological office that issued the GAMET.
The group CCCC <name> FIR/CTA [BLW FLnnn] indicates the location and
name of the sub-area of the FIR or CTA for which the GAMET is issued below
a specified flight level.
2. Section I
Please note that the following subsections a.) to i.), are included in the GAMET
message when meteorological conditions make it necessary. Therefore,
examples are given for them below.
In the GAMET messages codes are preceded by the abbreviation of the

atmospheric variable or parameter in question.
Location can be expressed relative to longitudes or latitudes such as in the

case of SIGMET and AIRMET, which has been described in section 4. Location
of the weather phenomenon:
a. Surface wind (abbreviated as SFC WIND)
The time interval (given in hours) of the forecast mean surface wind
direction (given in degrees) and wind speed (given in m/s or kt) if the
latter exceeds 15 m/s (30 kt) can be indicated in the message.
For example, if an easterly wind with a velocity of 20 m/s is expected

near the surface between 14 UTC and 16 UTC then it is indicated as
SFC WIND: 14/16 090/20MPS.
b. Surface visibility (abbreviated as SFC VIS)
The time interval (given in hours) and the value of the forecast horizontal
visibility (in m) can be indicated when the latter is below 5 000 m. The
weather phenomenon that caused the reduced visibility and its location
are also included.
Abbreviations of weather phenomena in Figure 10.16 are used.
For example, if the surface visibility is expected to be 2 000 m between

14 UTC and 15 UTC due to rain westward of 14°E, then it is indicated as
SFC VIS: 14/15 W OF E014 5000M RA.
c. Significant weather (abbreviated as SIGWX)
In this section, the time interval (given in hours) of the expected

occurrence of significant weather phenomena and their abbreviations
are contained.
For example, SIGWX: 17/18 EMBD TSGR means that an embedded

thunderstorm with hail is expected between 17 UTC and 18 UTC. The
list of the phenomena is available in Figure 10.25.
We emphasise that only those phenomena are indicated that are not
contained in the previously issued SIGMET.
d. Mountain obscuration (abbreviated as MT OBSC)
Mountains covered by clouds are not detectable visually. Therefore, the

location of the mountain is given in the GAMET message in free text
form.
For example, if Mt. ABCD can be found south of 48°N then it is

indicated as MT OBSC S OF N48 ABDC.
e. Cloud (abbreviated as SIG CLD)
Time interval (given in hours) of broken (BKN) or overcast (OVC) clouds

are indicated in the GAMET message when the cloud base is expected
to be below 1000 ft (300 m) above the ground level (AGL) or above
mean sea level (AMSL).
The height of the cloud base and cloud top are given in units of m or ft.
If cumulonimbus or towering cumulus (cumulus congestus) clouds are

expected to form, then their abbreviations (CB or TCU), types, their
cloud base and cloud top are also included.
For example, SIG CLD: 03/04 BKN ISOL TCU 1400/7000 ft AMSL
means that between 3 UTC and 4 UTC 5 to 7 oktas of isolated towering
cumulus are expected to form with a cloud base of 1400 ft AMSL and a
cloud top of 7 000 ft AMSL.
f. Icing (abbreviated as ICE)
Moderate or severe icing is e reported in the GAMET message with the

exception of icing related to convective clouds or severe turbulence,
which are contained in a valid SIGMET message. It can be given between
two flight levels in the code form FLnnn/nnn or above a specific flight
level in the code form ABV FLnnn. E.g. FL100/160 or ABV FL1OO.
For example, severe icing from 16 UTC to 17 UTC between FLO5O and
FL1OO is indicated as ICE: 16/17 SEV FLO5O/1OO. If moderate icing is
expected above FLO5O then it is denoted as ICE: 16/17 MOD ABV
FLO5O.
g. Turbulence (abbreviated as TURB)
Similar to icing, moderate or severe turbulence is reported in a GAMET

message with the exception of turbulence related to convective clouds
or severe turbulence, that is contained in a valid SIGMET message. Its
code form is similar to which is used in the case of icing.
For example, severe turbulence from 16 UTC to 17 UTC between FLO5O

and FL1OO is indicated as TURB: 16/17 SEV FLO5O/1OO.
h. Mountain waves (abbreviated as MTW)
Similar to icing and turbulence, moderate or severe mountain waves are

reported in the GAMET message with the exception of turbulence
related to convective clouds or severe turbulence, which is contained in
a valid SIGMET message. Its code form is similar to that is used in the
case of icing and turbulence.
For example, severe mountain waves from 16 UTC to 17 UTC between

FLO5O and FL1OO are indicated as MTW: 16/17 SEV FLO5O/1OO.
i. SIGMET (indicated as SIGMET APPLICABLE)
If GAMET and SIGMET are issued for the same FIR/CTA then the
sequence number of the SIGMET is contained in the GAMET. For
example, SIGMET APPLICABLE: 6 indicates that SIGMET 6 is valid for
the FIR/CTA.
If there are no forecast phenomena that can be dangerous to aviation

and the MWO did not issue any SIGMET, then in Section I the code
HAZARDOUS WX NIL is used.
Phenomenon Description Abbreviation
Thunderstorm Isolated without hail ISOL TS
Occasional without hail OCNL TS
Frequent without hail FRQ TS
Obscured without hail OBSC TS
Embedded without hail EMBDTS
Squall lines without hail SQLTS
Isolated with hail ISOL TSGR
Occasional with hail OCNL TSGR
Frequent with hail FRQ TSGR
Obscured with hail OBSC TSGR
Embedded with hail EMBDTSGR
Squall lines with hail SQL TSGR
Sandstorm Heavy sand storm HVY SS
Dust storm Heavy dust storm HVY DS
Volcanic ash • VA
Figure 10.25. Indicated significant weather phenomena in GAMET
3. Section II
a. Pressure centres and fronts (abbreviated as PSYS)
The GAMET message includes the time of occurrence (given in hours)

and location of pressure centres (low or high, indicated by the letters L
and H, respectively), air pressure given in units of hPa and the direction
and speed of their movement. The location is given in degrees and
minutes while the direction and velocity of the movement is expressed
in the same way as in SIGMET and AIRMET in Section 6. Movement or
expected movement.
Similarly to SIGMET and AIRMET, if the weather phenomenon is

expected to intensify or weaken, and then it is denoted by the
abbreviations INTSF or WKN, respectively. The abbreviation NC
indicates that no changes are expected.
b. Upper winds and temperatures (abbreviated as WIND/T)
The direction and speed of upper wind as well as upper-air temperature,

are included in the GAMET message with at least three altitudes, namely
2 000 ft (600 m), 5 000 ft (1500 m) and 10 000 ft (3 000 m) AMSL.
Positive and negative temperatures are preceded by the letters "PS" and
"MS", respectively. Wind direction, wind speed and temperature are
given in degrees, m/s or kt and °C, respectively.
c. Cloud (abbreviated as CLD)
In this subsection, the amount (FEW, SCT, BKN or OVC), type (ST, SC,
CU, AS, AC or NS) and height of the cloud base and cloud top (in units of
m) are included, which are not indicated in Section I.
d. Freezing level (abbreviated as FZLVL)
The height of the 0 °C isotherm AGL or AMSL is given in units of m. This

group is omitted if this height is above the highest flight level that is
used by the aircraft during its flight.
e. Forecast QNH (abbreviated as MNM QNH)
In the GAMET message the lowest value of the QNH is given in units of
hPa during the time period of its validity.
f. Sea-surface temperature and state of the sea (abbreviated as SEA)
The sea-surface temperature and state of the sea are indicated in the
GAMET message on the basis of regional agreement. These values are
given in units of °C and m, respectively.
g. Volcanic eruptions (abbreviated as VA)
In the case of the expected formation of a volcanic ash cloud, the name
of the volcano is given, otherwise the abbreviation NIL is used.
The GAMET message ends with an equal sign.
If the weather phenomenon that was indicated by the GAMET message did
not occur, then an amended GAMET (abbreviated as GAMET AMD) is issued.
SECN I
ABCD GAMET VALID 011200/011800 DCBA-
ABCD ABCDEF FIR/3 BLW FL100
SFC WIND: 14/16 090/20 MPS
SFC VIS: 15/16 W OF N25 1000M RA
SIGWX: 15/16 ISOL TSGR
SIG CLD: 14/16 OVC 700/1500FT AMSL 15/16 ISOL CB 2000/18000FT AMSL
SECN II
PSYS: 15 N2500 W1530 L 995HPA MOV SE 20KT INTSF
WIND/T: 2000FT N2500 W1530 290/30KT PS15 5000FT N2500 W1530 280/40KT PS05
10000FT N2500 W1530 270/50KT MS01
CLD: FEW SC 800/1500FT AMSL
FZLVL: 3000FTAMSL
MNM QNH: 1000 hPa
SEA: T18 HGT 3M
VA: NIL=
Figure 10.26. Example of GAMET
First two rows: The GAMET message was issued for the ABCD ABCDEF FIR/3
sub-area below FL100 by the DCBA meteorological office. It is valid from
12:00 UTC to 18:00 UTC on the 1st day of the month.
SFC WIND: Between 14 UTC and 16 UTC easterly winds are expected with
an average speed of 20 m/s (ca. 40 kt).
SFC VIS: The surface visibility between 15 UTC and 16 UTC is expected to be
1000 m because of rain in the direction of 25° degrees west of north.
SIGWX: Regarding significant weather, between 15 UTC and 16 UTC an

isolated thunderstorm is expected with hail.
SIG CLD: Between 14 UTC and 16 UTC, an overcast cloud is expected with a
cloud base and cloud top of 700 ft and 1500 ft AMSL respectively and
between 15 UTC and 16 UTC, an isolated Cb cloud is expected to form with a
cloud base and cloud top between 2000 ft and 18000 ft AMSL, respectively.
PSYS: At 15 UTC 25° north and 15.5° west, an intensifying low-pressure

centre is expected to be observed, which moves southeastward with a speed
of 20 kt.
WIND/T: At 25°N and 15.5°W, the wind direction and the wind speed is 290°
and 30 kt at 2 000 ft, 280° and 40 kt at 5 000 ft as well as 270° and 50 kt at
10 000 ft. The air temperature at 2 000 ft, 5 000 ft and 10 000 ft is 15 °C, 5 °C
and -1 °C, respectively.
CLD: Sc clouds with an amount of 1 or 2 oktas are expected to form between

800 ft and 1500 ft AMSL.
FZLVL: The 0 °C isotherm is expected to be located at 3000 ft AMSL.
MNM QNH: The QNH is forecast to be 1000 hPa.
SEA: The sea-surface temperature and the height of the waves are 18 °C and
3 m, respectively.
VA: No volcanic ash clouds are expected to form.
GAFOR
The dissemination of a weather forecast in simple, graphical forms in regards
to previously defined segments of flight routes are in accordance with the
European Air Navigation Plan (published in ICAO Doc 7754).
General Aviation Forecasts (abbreviated as GAFOR) are issued several times a

day, providing forecast information about the horizontal visibility and the
height of the cloud base regarding clouds with 5 oktas or more. These are
issued in a graphical form that is easier to understand. Based on these two
aspects the following classification has been made concerning the state of the
flight routes:
• O: Open
• D: Difficult
• M: Marginal
• X: Closed
These categories are summarised in the figure below.
cloud base
600 m (2000 ft)
Open
Difficult
300 m (1000 ft)
Marginal
150 m (500 ft)
Closed
1.5 km 8 km
horizontal visibility
Figure 10.27. Classification of the state of the routes according to GAFOR
The weather phenomena that lead to deteriorating conditions (when the

status is difficult, marginal or closed), are also given in a graphical format. Their
symbols can be seen in Figure 10.34.
In the figure below an example of GAFOR can be seen that was issued over
Croatia. The three boxes regarding each route indicate the forecast for a time
intervals of two hours. For example, the status of route 14 is difficult due to
mist.
Special air-report
Introduction
As was discussed in Section 10.2.5, routine observations as well as non

routine and special observations are made by aircraft. In the following section,
the content of special air-reports will be explained in more detail. These
reports contain useful information for the MWOs that facilitate the issuance
of SIGMET messages.
A special air report is released when one of the phenomena occurs, that as
listed in Section 10.2.5. Special aircraft observation in Section 10.2.5. Reports
can be issued via air-ground data links or voice communication to the ATS
units.
Content of special air-report via air-ground data link
The report is divided into three data blocks that are preceded by general
information.
The report starts with the abbreviation ARS, which indicates the type of
report. After that the communication call sign of the aircraft is given.
2. Data block 1
a. Position
The coordinates are expressed in degrees and minutes. The code form is
Nnnnn or Snnnn as well as Wnnnnn or Ennnnn.
b. Height or range of the observation

The height or range (where the weather phenomenon occurs) is given in
flight level as FLnnn or (in the case of an atmospheric layer) FLnnn to
FLnnn.
c. Time of observation
In the code group OBS AT nnnnZ the time of observation is given in

hours and minutes (UTC).
3. Data block 2
a. Wind direction
Wind direction is given in degrees in the code group nnn. It is rounded

to the nearest integer.
b. Wind speed
Wind speed is expressed in m/s or kt in the code group nnnMPS or

nnnKT. It is indicated up to 125 m/s or 250 kt and it is rounded to the
nearest integer.
c. Wind quality flag
Depending on the roll angle, the value 0 or 1 is reported. The value 0

indicates that the roll angle is below five degrees while 1 means that the
roll angle is greater than or equal to five.
d. Air temperature
Air temperature is expressed in the code group T[M]nnn. It is rounded to

the nearest tenths of °C. If the temperature is below 0 °C then it is
preceded by M.
e. Turbulence
If turbulence is observable, it is indicated by the code group EDRnnn/nn.

The kinetic energy transforms to heat energy because of turbulence that
leads to energy dissipation. Its rate is expressed by the eddy dissipation
rate (abbreviated as EDR). Turbulence is given as the cubic root of the
eddy dissipation rate. Its unit is hundredths of m2/3/s. It is reported in
cases when the peak value of the cubic root of EDR is between
0.4 m2/3/s and 0.7 m2/3/s (moderate turbulence) or above 0.7 m2/3/s
(severe turbulence). We emphasise that a special air report is issued
every minute until at least moderate turbulence is observed.
The time of occurrence of the peak value of turbulence is given as

follows. If the peak value occurred less than 1 minute before the
observation then it is indicated with 0. If the peak value occurred 1-2
minutes before the observation then it is denoted by 1 etc. If there is no
information about the time of occurrence then 15 is used.
For example the code EDR058/10 indicates moderate turbulence. The

peak value of turbulence occurred 10-11 minutes before the
observation.
f. Relative humidity
Besides turbulence, another conditional part of the report is the relative

humidity, which is given as a percentage in the code group RHnnn. Its
value is rounded to the nearest integer.
4. Data block 3
This block contains the abbreviation of the weather phenomenon that induced
the release of the special air report.
In the case of turbulence, its intensity (i.e. MOD or SEV) can also be reported.
Its code form is MOD TURB [EDRnnn] or SEV TURB [EDRnnn].
In the case of volcanic eruption and volcanic ash cloud, the name of the
mountain and the atmospheric layer where the ash cloud is observable can be
indicated with the codes VA [MT <name>] and VA CLD [FL nnn/nnn],
respectively.
The report ends with an equal sign.

Example of special air reports
ARS AB123 N5530E00500 FL250 to FL300 OBS AT 1834Z 170/050MPS 0

TM205 RH068 SEVICE=
The special air report is issued by an aircraft AB123. At 55.5°N and 5°E
between FL250 and FL300 at 18:34 UTC severe icing is observed. A southerly
wind with a speed of 50 m/s (ca. 100 kt) is measured. The roll angle is less
than 5°. The air temperature is -20.5 °C and the relative humidity is 68 %.
Content of the special air-report via voice communication
In cases when an air-ground data link is not available, special air-reports are
transmitted via voice communication. They contain general information about
the flight (identifier of the aircraft, position, level and time of observation) as
well as information about the weather phenomena that induced the issuance
of the special air report.
Volcanic ash advisory information

Introduction
Ash clouds related to volcanic activity are reported in volcanic ash advisory
information, issued by the VAAC. The report is available not only in textual but
also in graphical form.
It contains general information about the date and location of the observation
as well as details about the eruption.
Form of the code
Similarly to GAMET messages, codes are preceded by the abbreviation of the

atmospheric variable or parameter in question.
1. Identification group
The report starts with the term VA ADVISORY,which indicates that it is a

volcanic ash advisory.
2. Date and time of the issuance (abbreviated as DTG)
In the code group yyyymmYY/GGggZ, the year, month and day as well as the
hours and minutes of the issuance are given according to UTC.
3. Name of the VAAC (abbreviated as VAAC)
The name of the VAAC that issued the report is given in a free text form.
4. Name of the volcano (abbreviated as VOLCANO)
If the name of the volcano is known, then its identification number according
to the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's
Interior (abbreviated as IAVCEI) is indicated. If the volcano is not known or it
does not have a name, then the terms UNKNOWN or UNNAMED are used,
respectively.
5. Position of the volcano (abbreviated as PSN)
Geographical coordinates of the volcano are given in degrees and minutes in

the code form Nnnnn or Snnnn, Wnnnnn or Ennnnn. If it is not known then
the term UNKNOWN is used.
6. State or region (abbreviated as AREA)
The state or region that is affected by the volcanic ash is reported in free text
form.
7. Summit elevation (abbreviated as SUMMIT ELEV)
The height of the summit of a mountain is indicated in the code form nnnnM
or nnnnnFT.
8. Advisory number (abbreviated as ADVISORY NR)
Number of advisory(year and sequence number) is contained in the form

nnnn/nnnn.
9. Source of information (abbreviated as INFO SOURCE)

The source of information(for example a satellite image) is given in a free text
message up to 32 characters.
10. Aviation colour code (indicated as AVIATION COLOUR CODE)
It is optional whether the aviation colour code (red, orange, yellow or green) is
included in the volcanic ash advisory or not.
11. Details of the eruption (indicated as ERUPTION DETAILS)
Details are given in a free text message up to 64 characters.
12. Time of observation or estimation of the ash cloud (abbreviated as OBS

VADTG/ESTVADTG)
It is expressed in the day of the month, hours and minutes (UTC) in the code
form YY/GGggZ.
13. Observed or estimated ash cloud (abbreviated as OBS VA CLD/EST VA

CLD)
In the code group the observed or estimated extent (both horizontal and
vertical) of the ash cloud as well as the speed and direction of its movement
are given. Speed is expressed in units of km/h or kt while direction is given
using eight directions (cardinal and intercardinal directions) of the compass.
Horizontal extent is determined by the geographical coordinates of the area

that is covered by the ash cloud (e.g. a triangular-shaped or a rectangular
shaped area).
Vertical extent is expressed in terms of flight levels. If the base of the ash
cloud is not known then the top of it is indicated.
Information about wind direction (in degrees) and wind speed (in m/s or kt)
concerning an atmospheric layer are also contained in the report.
14. Forecast height and position of the ash cloud (abbreviated as FCST VA
CLD)
The report contains information about the forecast height and position of the
clouds 6, 12 and 18 hours after the time of observation.
The form of the codes is similar to Section 13 (Observed or estimated ash

cloud). However, this code group does not contain information about the
movement of the ash cloud as well as wind.
15. Remarks (abbreviated as RMK)
In the section RMK a free text message can be provided up to 256 characters
(e.g. information about the beginning or cessation of volcanic eruption).
16. Date of the next advisory (abbreviated as NXT ADVISORY)
The report ends with the date of the issuance of the next advisory. If there are
no further advisories then it is indicated with the following: NO FURTHER
ADVISORIES.
VA ADVISORY
DTG: 20180811/1230Z
VAAC: LONDON
VOLCANO: UNNAMED
PSN: N6510 W01830
AREA: ICELAND
SUMMIT ELEV: 1920M
ADVISORY NR: 2018/04
INFO SOURCE: METSAT-ABCDEF123
ERUPTION DETAILS: ERUPTION AT 20180811/1215Z FL200 REPORTED
OBS VA DTG: 11/1215Z
OBS VA CLD: SFC/FL200 N6430 W1900 - N6430 W1800 - N6530 W1830 MOV SE 15KT
FCST VA CLD +6 HR: 11/1815Z SFC/FL250 N6230 W1800 - N6230 W1745 - N6330 W1745 -
N6330 W1800
FCST VA CLD +12 HR: NO VA EXP
FCST VA CLD +18 HR: NO VA EXP
RMK: ERUPTION HAS BEEN CEASED
NXT ADVISORY: 20180811/1830Z=
Figure 10.28. Example of volcanic ash advisory information in textual format

The report of volcanic ash advisory information was issued by the VAAC in
London, United Kingdom on 11th August 2018 at 12:30 UTC. Volcanic ash
originated from an unnamed volcano, which is located in Iceland at N 65°10’
and W 18°30’
The summit has a height of 1920 m.

The advisory number for this volcano is 2018/04.
Information about the ash cloud is received from the METSAT-ABCDEF123
satellite.
The volcanic eruption was observed on 11th August 2018 at 12:15 UTC.
The volcanic ash cloud is observed between the surface and FL200, between
the coordinates 64°30’N 19°W and 64°30’N 18°W and 65°30’N 18°30’W
forming a triangular area. It moves southeasterly with a speed of 15 kt (ca.
7.5 m/s). A northwesterly (310°) wind is observable between FL250 and
FL300 with a speed of 22 kt (ca. 11 m/s).
Six hours after the observation, the volcanic ash cloud is expected to be
between SFC and FL250 vertically, between the coordinates 62°30’N
18°00’W and 62°30’N 17°45’W and 63°30’N 17°45’W and 63°30’N 18°W.
Twelve and eighteen hours after the observation, no volcanic ash cloud will be
expected.
The report anticipates the cessation of the volcanic eruption.
The next report will be issued on 11th August 2018 at 18:30 UTC.
Example of volcanic ash advisory information in graphical format
Please note that information about volcanic ash is provided in graphical

format as well.
An example is shown in the figure below. According to this, a volcano named

Sakurajima (in Japan) erupted on 4th July 2018 at 8:03 UTC. The report was
issued by the VAAC in Tokyo, Japan on 4th July 2018 at 9:00 UTC with an
advisory number of 2018/524.
The highest peak of the mountain is 1117 m. Information about the volcanic
ash cloud is collected by the Himawari-8 satellite owned by the Japanese
Meteorological Agency (abbreviated as J MA). The ash cloud is observed
between the surface and FL080.
The next report shall be released on 4th July 2018 at 12:00 UTC. The volcanic
ash cloud is expected to be observed at 14:40 UTC northeastward of the
volcano between the surface and FL080. However, between twelve and
eighteen hours later no volcanic ash cloud will be expected.
The report does not contain aviation colour code and remarks.
VA ADVISORY ERUPTION DETAILS: ERUPTED AT 20180704/0803Z FL080 EXTD NE

DGT: 20180704/0900Z RMK: NIL
VAAC: TOKYO NXT ADVISORY: 20180807/12O0Z
VOLCANO: SAKURAJIMA (AIRA CALDERA) 282080
AREA: JAPAN
SUMMITELEV: 1117M
ADVISORY NR: 2018/524
INFO SOURCE: HIMAWARI-8 JMA
AVIATION COLOUR CODE: NIL
Figure 10.29. Example of volcanic ash advisory information in graphical

format
Tropical cyclone advisory information

Introduction
Tropical cyclonic activity is reported in tropical cyclone advisory information in
textual and graphical forms. The report is issued by the TCAC. It contains the
following elements: general information about the date and location of the
observation as well as details about the tropical cyclone.
Form of the code
1. Identification group
The report starts with the term TC ADVISORY, which indicates that it is a
tropical cyclone advisory.
2. Date and time of the issuance (abbreviated as DTG)
Similar to the volcanic ash advisory report, the year, month and day as well as
the hours and minutes of the issuance are given according to UTC in the code
form yyyymmdd/GGggZ.
3. Name of the TCAC (abbreviated as TCAC)
The name of the TCAC that issued the report is given in a free text form.
4. Name of the tropical cyclone (abbreviated as TC)
The name, or number,of the cyclone is also given.
5. Advisory number (abbreviated as NR)
The advisory number of the cyclone is indicated. This starts with the number
"01" in the case of each cyclone.
6. Position of the centre (abbreviated as PSN)
Geographical coordinates of the centre of the tropical cyclone are given in

degrees and minutes in the code form Nnn[nn] or Snn[nn], Wnnn[nn] or
Ennn[nn].
7. Direction and speed of the movement (abbreviated as MOV)
To determine the direction, 16 directions of the compass (cardinal,

intercardinal and secondary intercardinal directions) are reported. Speed is
expressed in km/h or kt. If the tropical cyclone moves slowly (moving at a
speed lower than 3 kt), or it is stationary (moving at a speed lower than 1 kt),
then the abbreviations SLW or STNR are used, respectively.
8. Atmospheric pressure of the centre (abbreviated as C)
Atmospheric pressure at the centre of the tropical cyclone is given in units of

hPa in the code form nnnHPA.
9. Maximum surface wind (abbreviated as MAX WIND)
The maximum value of the surface wind speed near the centre over a ten-
minute time period is given in m/s or kt in the code form nn[n]MPS or nn[n]KT.
10. Forecast of the position of the centre and maximum wind (abbreviated as
FCST PSN and FCST MAX WIND)
The report contains a forecast regarding a tropical cyclone, which includes the
expected position of its centre (given in degrees and minutes) and the
expected maximum value of the surface wind speed in m/s or kt. This
information is reported 6, 12, 18 and 24 hours after the time of observation.
11. Remarks (abbreviated as RMK)
Similar to the volcanic ash advisory report, in the section RMK free text
messages can be provided of up to 256 characters.
12. The code group NXT MSG EXP that indicates the date of the issuance of
the next advisory.

TC ADVISORY
DTG: 20180812/1200Z
TCAC: HONOLULU
TC: ABCDEF
NR: 12
PSN: N3230 E14015
MOV: SLW
C: 990HPA
MAX WIND: 30KT
FCST PSN +6 HR: 12/1800Z N3200 E13955
FCST MAX WIND +6 HR: 40 KT
FCST PSN +12 HR: 13/0000Z N3235 E13925
FCST PSN +18 HR: 13/0060Z N3310 E13855
FCST PSN +24 HR: 13/0012Z N3345 E13825
RMK: NIL
NXT MSG: 20180812/1800Z=
Figure 10.30. Example of tropical cyclone advisory information in textual

format
The tropical cyclone advisory information message was issued by the TCAC in
Honolulu, Hawaii on 12th August 2018 at 12:00 UTC. The name of the
tropical cyclone is ABCDEF with the advisory number 12. Its centre is located
at 32°30’N 140°15’E.
The centre of the cyclone moves slowly. The atmospheric pressure in its
centre is 990 hPa while the maximum surface wind speed near its centre is
30 kt (ca. 15 m/s).
Six hours after the observation, the centre of the tropical cyclone and the
maximum value of the surface wind speed are expected to be at 32°N
139°55’E and 40 kt (ca. 20 m/s).
Twelve hours after the observation, the centre of the tropical cyclone and the
maximum value of the surface wind speed are expected to be at 32°35’N
139°25’E and 40 kt, respectively.
Eighteen hours after the observation, the centre of the tropical cyclone and
the maximum value of the surface wind speed are expected to be at 33°10’N
138°55’E and 40 kt, respectively.
Twenty-four hours after the observation, the centre of the tropical cyclone
and the maximum value of the surface wind speed are expected to be at
33°45’N 138°25’E and 40 kt, respectively.
The report does not contain any remarks.

Example of tropical cyclone advisory information in graphical format
Please note that tropical cyclone advisory information is also provided in a

graphical format that can be seen in the figure below. On the bottom-right
side of the chart the information is given in the previously-described code
format.
According to this, the message was issued by the TCAC in Tokyo, Japan on
12th August 2018 at 18:00 UTC. The name of the tropical cyclone is LEEPI,
with the advisory number 5. Its centre is located at 24°25’N and E 140°35’E.
The centre of the cyclone moves northwesterly with a speed of 12 kt (ca.

6 m/s). The pressure in its centre is 998 hPa while the maximum surface wind
speed near its centre is 45 kt (ca. 22.5 m/s). The top of the Cb cloud is FL540.
Six and twelve hours after the observation, the maximum values of surface
wind speed are expected to remain the same.
Eighteen hours after the observation, the maximum values of surface wind
speed are expected to decrease to 40 kt (ca. 20 m/s).
Twenty-four hours after the observation, the maximum values of surface wind
speeds are expected to decrease to 35 kt (ca. 17.5 m/s).
The centre of the tropical cyclone moves northwestward. It is expected to be

located at about 28°N and 135°E on 13th August 2018 at 18:00 UTC.
The report does not contain any remarks.

Areas that are covered by frequent cumulonimbus, and areas that are affected
by gale-force winds are depicted in the figure with solid and scalloped lines,
respectively.
TROPICAL CYCLONE ADVISORY

DGT: 2018Q812/1800Z
TCAC: TOKYO
TC: LEEPI
NR: 05
PSN: N2425 E14035
MOV: NW 12KT
C: 998HPA
MAX WIND: 45 KT
RMK: NIL
NXT ADVISORY: 20180813(0000Z
— GALE-FORCE WIND
Figure 10.31. Example of tropical cyclone advisory information in graphical

format
10.3.3. Meteorological broadcasts for

aviation
Meteorological information is transmitted in three prominent ways: via textual
form, graphical form (by using charts) and voice communication (direct
communication between the ATS units and the flight crew as well as pre
recorded voice messages and broadcasts). Meteorological information issued
in textual form was discussed in the previous chapter, in Section 10.3.2. Two
examples of charts were also presented concerning volcanic ash and tropical
cyclone advisory information. However, further charts will be explained in
Section 10.4. We also discussed an example of voice communication
concerning special air reports. In the following section, meteorological
broadcasts ATIS and VOLMET will be explained.
ATIS
During flight, meteorological information in the vicinity of the landing
aerodrome is provided by an automated voice message. These messages are
known as Automatic Terminal Information Service (abbreviated as ATIS)
broadcasts. ATIS is transmitted on very high frequencies.
In general, it contains information that is provided by MET and SPECIAL

reports as well as operational information such as the name of the aerodrome
etc. The information is as follows:
1. General information such as the name of the aerodrome
2. Time of observation
3. Type of the expected approach
4. State of the runway
5. Direction and speed of surface wind
7. Present weather phenomena
8. Clouds
9. Air and dew point
10. Altimeter setting

11. Other information that is relevant for flight
We emphasise again that the direction of the wind is measured referenced to

magnetic north.
VOLMET
Meteorological information about multiple aerodromes in a certain region is
sent to aircraft during flight by a pre-recorded voice broadcast, called
VOLMET (from French, "vol" for "flight" and "met" derived from "meteo" for
weather). It is a continuous automated voice message about actual weather
conditions and forecasts. VOLMET is broadcast by radio stations on high
frequencies (abbreviated as HF or HF-VOLMET) internationally and on very
high frequencies (abbreviated as VHF or VHF-VOLMET) regionally according
to a previously determined schedule.
VOLMET broadcasts on HF consist of weather messages such as METAR,

SPECI and TREND as well as (based on regional agreements) TAF and SIGMET.
Therefore, its content is similar to these messages.
VOLMET broadcasts on VHF contain information from METAR, SPECI and

TREND reports.
Data link services

It is worth mentioning that several aviation weather messages are available in
digital form, for example contents of METAR, TAF, SIGMET and special air
reports can be displayed as D-ATIS or D-VOLMET on the board of the aircraft
in flight if an air-ground data link is accessible. For example, data link services
between the air and the ground are provided by the aircraft communications
addressing and reporting system (abbreviated as ACARS).
10.3.4. Meteorological warnings

Aerodrome warnings
Introduction
Aerodrome warnings are released by the aerodrome meteorological office

when weather conditions pose a threat to airport facilities, parked aircraft and
aircraft on the ground. These warnings should be terminated after the
hazardous weather conditions have ceased.
Aerodrome warnings are issued when at least one of the following weather
phenomena is observable or it is expected to occur. Their abbreviations are
given in parenthesis after the name of each phenomenon:
• Thunderstorm (TS) or squall (SQL)

• Hail (GR) or snow (SN) or freezing drizzle (FZDZ) or freezing rain (FZRA)
• Hoar frost (FROST) or rime (RIME)
• Rising sand (SA) or dust (DU) or dust storm (DS) or sandstorm (SS)
• Volcanic ash (VA)
• Tropical cyclone (TC)
• Tsunami (TSUNAMI)
• Toxic chemicals (TOX CHEM)
• Other phenomenon on the basis of local agreements
Form of the code
CCCC AD WRNG [n]n VALID YYGGgg/YYGGgg
The message begins with the identifier CCCC of the aerodrome.
The abbreviation AD WRNG indicates that the type of the message is an

aerodrome warning. It is followed by the sequence number of the message
[n]n.
After that, the validity of the message is reported. The day of the month,
hours and minutes are given according to UTC.
The aerodrome warnings contain the abbreviation of the weather phenomena
that initiated its issuance (see the list above). However, it is also possible to
describe the phenomena in a free text message up to 32 characters.
If the intensity of FZDZ, FZRA, SN, SS, DS, TS is (expected to be) heavy then it
is indicated before the abbreviation of the phenomenon (e.g. in the case of
heavy freezing drizzle: HVY FZDZ).
The amount of the observed or expected accumulated snow is given in cm

after the abbreviation SN (e.g. in the case of snow with an amount of 10 cm
after heavy snowfall: HVY SN 10 CM). Furthermore, in the case of a tropical
cyclone, its name is indicated after the abbreviation TC.
Wind speed can also be reported in the code form SFC WSPD nn[n]MPS MAX
nn[n] or SFC WSPD nn[n]KT MAXnn[n]. It may include the wind direction
(cardinal and intercardinal directions) in the code form SFC WIND
nnn/nn[n]MPS MAX nn[n] or SFC WIND nnn/nn[n]KT MAX nn[n].
3. Observed or forecast weather phenomenon
The code group OBS[AT GGggZ] or FCST indicates if the phenomenon is

observed (OBS) or forecast (FCST). The hours and minutes (UTC) of the
observation are also reported.
4. Changes in intensity
If the weather phenomena are expected to intensify or weaken or remain

unchanged, then the abbreviations INTSF, WKN and NC are applied,
respectively.
The cancellation of the aerodrome warnings are issued in the code form CNL
AD WRNG [n]n YYGGgg/YYGGgg.
Example of aerodrome warnings
QXYZAD WRNG 2 VALID 121600/122300

HVY SS SFC WIND 180/30MPS MAX 40 OBS AT 1545Z WKN=
The aerodrome warning Nr. 2 was issued at the QXYZ aerodrome. It is valid on
the 12th day of the month between 16:00 UTC and 23:00 UTC. A heavy
sandstorm is observed at 15:45 UTC with a surface wind speed of 30 m/s (ca.
60 kt). The maximum wind speed is 40 m/s (ca. 80 kt). The sandstorm is
expected to weaken.
Cancellation of the aerodrome warnings is as follows:

CNL AD WRNG 2 121600/122300=
Wind shear warnings and alerts

Introduction
Wind shear warnings are prepared by the meteorological office in cases when
wind shear is observed or expected that threatens departing or landing aircraft
between the level of the runway and 1600 ft (ca. 500 m). This height varies on
the basis of the topography that is characteristic for the region where the
aerodrome is located. Wind shear warnings should be updated every minute.
They should be cancelled when wind shear no longer poses a threat, which
means the following: the changes of the headwind and tailwind decrease
below 7.5 m/s (ca. 15 kt) or a certain time has elapsed that is determined by
services concerned with civil aviation.
Note: The LLWAS (Low Level Windshear Avoidance System) is a system which is
designed to detect low level wind shear conditions around the periphery of an
airport. It does not detect wind shear beyond that limitation. At airports equipped
with LLWAS, controllers are provided with gust front wind shear information.
Controllers will provide this information to pilots by reporting the airport wind and
the boundary wind.
Please note that low level wind shear is often observable in the vicinity of
thunderstorms, frontal zones, funnel clouds, mountain waves and above
inversion layers.
Form of the code

CCCC WS WRNG [n]n YYGGgg [VALID TL YYGGgg] or [VALID

YYGGgg/YYGGgg]
The message begins with the identifier CCCC of the aerodrome.
The abbreviation WS WRNG indicates that the type of the message is a wind
shear warning. It is followed by the sequence number of the message [n]n.
The issuance of the report and its validity are also reported. The day of the
month, hours and minutes are indicated according to UTC.
The wind shear warning contains the abbreviation of the observed or

expected weather phenomena such as wind shear (WS) or microbursts
(MBST). It can be preceded by the abbreviation that indicates its intensity, i.e.
moderate (MOD) or severe (SEV). Depending on whether aircraft are affected
during climbing (CLIMB-OUT) or approaching (APCH), the codes IN CLIMB-
OUT, IN APCH, CLIMB-OUT RWYnnn or APCH RWYnnn can be used where
RWYnnn indicates a specific runway with its designator. For example,
microbursts along runway 15 that affect approaching aircraft can be reported
as MBST APCH RWY26.
3. Observed, forecast or reported weather phenomenon
The code group OBS[AT GGggZ], FCST or REPAT GGgg <airplane type>
contains information about whether the phenomena (OBS), forecast (FCST) or
reported (REP) are observed. The hours and minutes (UTC) of the observation
or report can also be indicated.
4. Description of weather phenomena
Details about weather phenomena that induce the issuance of the wind shear
warnings are also reported. For example, if the cause is a northerly wind of
10 m/s at the height of 60 m, then it is reported as 60M-WIND: 350/10MPS.
Wind speed is also given in units of kt.
The cancellation of wind shear warnings is issued in the code form CNL WS
WRNG [n]n YYGGgg/YYGGgg.
QXYZ WS WRNG 3 122230

VALID TL 122330
WS CLIMB-OUT RWY2
REP AT 2225 B737
SFC WIND: 080/15MPS=
Figure 10.32. Example of wind shear warnings
The wind shear warning Nr. 3 was issued at the QXYZ aerodrome on the 12th
day of the month at 22:15 UTC. It is valid on the same day between
22:30 UTC and 23:30 UTC. Wind shear was reported by a Boeing 737 at
22:25 UTC, which concerns aircraft on runway 2 during climbing. The wind
shear is caused by an easterly surface wind with a speed of 15 m/s (ca. 30 kt).
Cancellation of the wind shear warning is the following:

CNL WS WRNG 3 122230/122330=
STUDY TEST
10.4. Weather charts
10.4.1. Introduction to weather charts

Information that can be extracted from weather messages is often presented
in graphical format for easier comprehension. As we mentioned in
Section 10.3, charts of upper air temperatures and upper-wind, SIGWX charts,
volcanic ash and tropical cyclone advisory information are all part of the flight
documentation.
These charts are often edited in such a way that atmospheric variables with
the same values are connected with lines. For example, lines that connect a
point with the same height, air pressure, temperature or wind speed are called
isohypses, isobars, isotherms or isotachs, respectively.
The above-mentioned lines are one-dimensional objects. Two-dimensional

surfaces with the same values of a given atmospheric variable can also be
generated. These are, for example, isothermic or isobaric surfaces, defined in
Section 1.3. Isobaric surfaces are especially useful concerning weather charts
because they show true altitude. In other words, air pressure values can
correspond to different altitudes. For example, air temperature on the isobaric
surfaces of 850 hPa, 500 hPa etc. can be displayed. Therefore, these types of
weather charts are called constant pressure charts.
Charts that are part of the flight documentation also contain different
information about atmospheric phenomena that drive the weather. Let us take
the following examples:
1. The isobaric surface of 500 hPa corresponds to 5 500 m (FL180)

according to the ISA. Based on geopotential height values, we can
detect atmospheric troughs and ridges in the chart as we can see in
Figure 10.42. This is a top view of the 500 hPa isobaric surface on which
height is given in units of geopotential decametres. If we could see the
figure as a side view then we would find the isobaric surface "waving".
This means that wave crests and wave troughs can be identified as
atmospheric crests and troughs. For example, see Figure 1.42,
Figure 1.43 and Figure 1.44.
2. Constant pressure charts can also be generated below and above

5 500 m. For example, charts that contain wind speed on the isobaric
surfaces of 200 hPa, 300 hPa are applicable to display the polar front jet
stream.
3. Constant pressure charts near the surface can also be generated, for
example on the pressure level of 1000 hPa. However, these charts do
not take into account topography, which can be more disadvantageous
near the surface than at upper height levels. Near the surface, instead of
constant pressure charts, surface weather charts are applicable, which
may contain information from aeronautical meteorological stations
based on the ground surface.
Isobaric surfaces are often used to display the distribution of atmospheric

variables. However, flight levels can also correspond to isobaric surfaces. The
most commonly used flight levels at which atmospheric variables such as air
temperature and wind are displayed are those that were summarised in
Figure 1.47.
In the following section, surface charts, upper-air charts and SIGWX charts
will be explained. We conclude the chapter with some remarks on weather
charts.
First, symbols of significant weather phenomena and of supplementary

information such as the position of the weather fronts or the jet axis,
maximum wind speeds etc. are summarised in Figure 10.33 and Figure 10.34.
Some of these symbols are not only used in SIGWX charts but also in other
charts, for example on surface charts.
Please note that further symbols of present weather phenomena can also be
used on surface charts. The extended list is presented in the figure below.
g tropical cyclone J drizzle
, (severe) squall line ////// rain

//////
severe icing shower
moderate Icing hall
severe turbulence freezing precipitation
moderate turbulence snow
widespread mist widespread blowing snow
widespread fog mountain waves
oo widespread haze mountain obsurartion
widespread smoke volcanic eruption
s severe sand or dust haze radioactive materials in

the atmosphere
widespread dust storm thunderstorm

or sandstorm
Figure 10.33. Symbols of significant weather phenomena

cold front at the surface 380 Tropopause level
AAW position, speed and level of

_A____ A____ A____ warm front at the surface
FL270 maximum wind
cold front aloft convergence line
warm front aloft freezing level
intertropical convergence
occluded front at the surface
zone (ITCZ)
quasi-statlonary front at
state of the sea
the surface
Tropopause high sea-surface temperature
widespread strong surface wind

Tropopause low
(which exceeds 30 kt (15 m/s))
Figure 10.34. Supplementary information on weather charts concerning

significant weather phenomena
significant weather, precipitation
thunderstorms (TS) drizzle (DZ) intermittent slight rain
tropical cyclone rain (RA) continuous slight rain
severe squall line snow (SN) moderate rain (RA)
moderate turbulence shower (SH) heavy rain
severe turbulence rime freezing drizzle (FZDZ)
light aircraft icing widespread blowing snow slight freezing rain (FZRA)
moderate aircraft icing severe sand or dust gaze moderate or heavy FZRA
severe aircraft icing sandstorm or dust storm snow grains (SG)
mountain waves widespread haze (HZ) ice pellets (PL)
visible ash cloud widespread mist (BR) rain and snow
volcanic ash/eruption widespread fog (FG) rain showers (RASH)
tornado/funnel cloud shallow fog (MIFG) hail (GR)
Figure 10.35. Symbols of present weather phenomena
10.4.2. Surface charts

Surface weather charts contain information about observed or forecast
atmospheric variables and weather phenomena. These can be displayed on
black and white or coloured maps. These charts are useful in the detection of
low- and high-pressure areas as well as weather fronts. In accordance with
Figure 10.33, cold fronts are marked with triangles, warm fronts are denoted
by half circles and occluded fronts are indicated by alternating half circles and
triangles on the same side of the line, which designates the front. The
sequence of alternating half circles on one side of the line and alternating
triangles on the other side of the line indicates quasistationary or stationary
fronts. If the chart is coloured then warm, cold and occlusion fronts are
shaded red, blue and purple, respectively. Stationary fronts are indicated with
red and blue.
Brown dashed lines indicate troughs near the surface while isobars are
denoted by solid lines with the spacing of 4 hPa. The centres of low- and high-
pressure areas are denoted with the letters L and H, respectively. Thin, blue
dashed lines indicate near-surface air temperature.
To gain a deeper understanding of how to use charts, please consider the

following example. Assume an aircraft departs Athens, Greece at 6:30 UTC on
19th August 2018 and flies on FL300 towards Helsinki, Finland. It is expected
to arrive at 10:30 UTC. A surface analysis chart can be seen in Figure 10.36
and contains information about observations on the ground surface.
According to this chart, a remarkable cyclone (low-pressure system) can be
identified with nearly concentric isobars northward of Norway. Air pressure is
988 hPa in its centre. A cold front stretches for a few hundred kilometres,
from the Barents Sea to the Baltic Sea. The cold front transitions into a
stationary front and elongates over the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.
Meanwhile, an anticyclone can be found over western Russia while a low-
pressure zone over Southeast Europe has much larger pressure values
compared to the cyclone over Northern Europe.
If we consider the information displayed on the surface forecast chart in

Figure 10.37, which is valid at 12:00 UTC on 19th August 2018, the following
can be said. The cold front moves somewhat northward while another cyclone
starts to form eastward of the British Isles. Eastward of the warm front,
continuous rain is expected from St clouds while behind the cold front
showery precipitation is forecast. Over the warm sector between the cold and
warm fronts, the formation of Cu clouds is forecast. This low-pressure system
is not expected to affect this flight.
Regarding atmospheric ridges and troughs the following can be said. A "deep"
trough may form over Northern Europe, between Iceland and Norway, which
extends over the North Sea. Northeastward of the Peloponnese Peninsula, an
atmospheric trough can be detected near the surface, which can be
considered a flat pressure pattern. Additionally, ridges can be found over
western Russia and southward of Iceland.
Based on the surface charts in Figure 10.35 and Figure 10.36, we can draw
the following conclusions regarding the flight. Because Southeast Europe is
located in a low-pressure zone, the formation of thunderstorms and
convective precipitation is expected with associated phenomena (e.g.
turbulence, icing, atmospheric electricity, reduced visibility). As the aircraft
approaches Finland, showery rain is expected in association with the cold
front, which may lead to reduced visibility.
Figure 10.36. Example of surface analysis chart over Europe
It is valid for 19th August, 2018 at 12:00 UTC. Please note that Athens and
Helsinki are denoted by orange circles.
Figure 10.37. Example of forecast analysis chart over Europe
It is valid on 20th August, 2018 at 12:00 UTC.
Regarding winds, the following can be said based on the pressure distribution
concerning Athens and Helsinki. Athens is located westward of the low-
pressure area with an anticlockwise circulation. Because of this, a northerly
wind is expected. Helsinki is located eastward of the cyclone over Northern
Europe. Consequently, a southerly wind is expected.
10.4.3. Upper-air charts

As we discussed previously, gridded data concerning upper air are issued by
WAFC for areas that are specified by the ICAO (e.g. North America and
Europe, the Pacific Ocean). Furthermore, flight documentation contains
forecasts of upper-air temperatures and upper wind if the flight lasts for two
hours or more. These data are displayed on upper-air weather charts with a
standard isobaric surface. The charts are available on various flight levels
between FLO5O and FL630.
Please note that the projection of maps varies on the basis of latitude.
Avoiding large distortions, the application of a polar stereographic projection
is advantageous in middle and higher latitudes and around the poles, while a
Mercator projection is beneficial in lower latitudes. Consequently, data are
displayed on subareas of the Earth’s surface.
In upper-air charts the following information are provided. The pressure level
is indicated in the top-left corner of the figure at which gridded air
temperature and wind data are provided. The corresponding flight level, the
WAFC that issued the chart, and the validity of the forecast according to UTC
is denoted in the bottom-right corner of the figure. Wind direction is indicated
using wind barbs in accordance with what was previously learnt in Section 2.1.
Wind direction is given in degrees referenced to true north while wind speed
is given in knots. Air temperatures are negative and is expressed in units of °C.
Positive values are preceded with the letters "PS".
Please keep in mind that according to the ISA, the air temperature at mean sea
level is 15 °C and it decreases as the altitude decreases with a lapse rate of
about 2 °C/1000 ft. Consequently, at FL340 the air temperature is -53 °C.
As an example, we consider an upper-air weather chart on FL340, see the

following figure.
Figure 10.38. Example of an upper-air forecast. Forecast of wind direction,
wind speed and air temperature over North America and Europe.
10.4.4. Significant weather charts

In the following section SIGWX charts will be discussed. In general, they are
issued at the main synoptic hours for a validity of 24 hours for the following
layers:
• Below FL240 (low level)

• Between FL100 and FL450 (medium level)
• Between FL250 and FL630 (high level)
As the name of the chart suggests, it is a visual presentation of significant

weather phenomena for a given geographical region. Significant Weather
charts are issued by World Area Forecast Centres (WAFC) every six hours
(00:00, 06:00, 12:00 and 18:00 UTC). Specifications for the Significant
Weather charts are outlined in the ICAO Annex 3. Some important sections
are listed below.
ICAO Annex 3 - Appendix 8
1.3.3 Forecasts of significant weather phenomena shall include all the items
listed in Appendix 8, 4.3.1.1. The forecasts shall be issued for the following
flight levels:
a. between FL250 to FL630; and
b. between FL1OO to FL250 for limited geographical areas, as determined

by regional air navigation agreement. If the average elevation of the
topography of the area could extend a significant topographical effect to
FL1OO, a higher level should be specified for the base of the charts [...]
4.3.1.1 Where information on significant en-route weather phenomena is

supplied in chart form to flight crew members before departure, the charts
shall be significant weather charts valid for a specified fixed time. Such charts
shall show information appropriate to the flight (see figure below).
Thunderstorms Surface position of well-defined conver
gence rones, or. for FI100 to FL250,
clouds associated with all of the above
mentioned weather phenomena, or,
above FL2S0, cumulonimbus cloud
associated with all of the above men
tioned weather phenomena
Tropical cyclone
Surface positions, speed and direction of

movement of frontal systems when
associated with significant enroute
weather phenomena
Severe squall lines
Tropopause heights (tropopause level,

tropopause high, tropopause low)
Moderate or severe turbulence
(in cloud or clear air)
Jetstreams
FL290
Information on the location of volcanic

Moderate or severe Icing eruptions which are producing ash
clouds of significance to aircraft opera
tions, including those producing only
steam, comprising volcanic eruption
symbol at the location of the volcano
Widespread sand-
storm/duststorm
Figure 10.39. SIGWX chart symbols
Note 1: For aircraft operating above FL250, the first six items are only required if
expected to be above that level, and in the case of thunderstorms, only those
thunderstorms which warrant the issuance of a SIGMET as given in Appendix 6
(guidance on the use of term "FRQ TS" is given in Appendix 6).
Note 2: The abbreviation "CB" should only be included where it refers to the
occurrence or expected occurrence of an area of widespread cumulonimbus clouds
or cumulonimbus along a line with little or no space between individual clouds, or
to cumulonimbus embedded in cloud layers or concealed by haze. It does not refer
to isolated or scattered cumulonimbus not embedded in cloud layers or concealed
by haze.
WORLD AREA FORECAST
CENTRE LONDON
FIXED TIME FORECAST CHART
EUR SIGNIFICANT WEATHER
FL 100 -450
VALID 00 UTC ON 04/04/1998
HEIGHT INDICATIONS IN FL
SPEEDS IN KNOTS
SYMBOLS KOR“CB”
IMPLY MOD OR SEVERE
TURBULENCE AND ICING
CAT AREAS
1 _a_ 280
390 OCNL 350
2 * 250
Figure 10.40. SIG WX chart header
Each SIGWX chart has an information section, typically in one of the corners,
where you can find out by which meteorological agency the chart has been
issued, what is the vertical chart coverage (e.g. FL100-450) and the date and
time for which the chart has been issued.
Notice the middle section of the chart header; all height indications are given
in terms of Flight Levels (FLs) and speeds in kt. A very important statement
follows: if you encounter the thunderstorm symbol or a mention of a Cumulo-
Nimbus cloud (CB) anywhere on the chart, it automatically means that you can
expect moderate or severe turbulence and/or icing in that area, even if other
symbols on the chart specify lower intensity of turbulence or icing.
The last section of the chart header provides information on the areas of Clear
Air Turbulence (CAT). These are identified on the chart as areas outlined by
thick dashed lines and each of these areas have a box with a number inside it
that links to detailed information in the chart header. See the sample header:
in CAT area 1 we can expect moderate turbulence from FL280 up to FL390.
In CAT area 2 we can expect moderate turbulence, with occasional (OCNL)

severe turbulence from FL25O up to FL35O.
Jetstream ■ if windspeed is not specified

for a jetstream segment, it is considered
to be a minimum of 80 kt. Individual CAT (Clear Air Turbulence) area,
segments are separated by breaks in including its identification: [2]
the lines. Speed symbols are located Tropopause level
at the beginning of the segment, thus in this area
also helping to identify the direction (FL300)
from which the wind is blowing.
Tropopause low Icing level (0 °C at FL090) Jetstream - core at FL320, wind speed 135 kt
in this area (triangle = 50 kt, long line s 10 kt, short = 5 kt).
(FL260)
Double bar = significant changes (speed of 20 kt

and/or 3000 ft (less if practicable) in FL).
or more and
300
Significant Weather Area (e.g. #1)
ISOL EMBD
CBft
CB (? 330
1 X XXX
Listing of significant WX phenomena
BKN CU
AC AS that can be encountered in the sig.
* 200 weather area #1 = area to which the
XXX
KiU 180 box is connected by the arrow:
tT XXX
Isolated (ISOL) embedded (EMBD)
CB clouds with thunderstorms up to
Significant Weather Area (e.g. #2) FL330. Note that the conditions in
with a box listing the WX phenomena: / Cold front places with the underlying sig. wx.
Broken (BKN) cumulus (CU), alto-cumulus The short line with area (#2) can also be applicable!
(AC) and alto-stratus (AS) clouds with an arrow indicates
modereate turbulence up to FL200 and direction (SE) and the
moderate icing uptoFL180. speed (20 kt) of the
frontal movement.
"XXX" means that the lower vertical limit (floor)
of the corresponding wx phenomena (turb. and
icing here) is expected to be located below the
vertical coverage of the chart (typically FL100).
Figure 10.41. SIGWX chart sections explained
10.4.5. Remarks on weather charts

Constant pressure charts
As was discussed previously, ridges and troughs can be identified in charts at
the isobaric surface of 500 hPa. In the figure below, the axes of troughs and
ridges are denoted with black lines. As we expected, a trough is detectable
over Northern Europe, while a ridge is observed over western Russia. As has
been learnt in Section 1.3, troughs are elongated, V-shaped low-pressure
areas, while ridges are U-shaped high-pressure areas. Ridges are associated
with anticyclonic weather conditions. Please note that not every trough
contains cyclones; therefore, weather conditions show significant variability
depending on the presence of cyclones.
528 536 548 556 56 4 572 580 588 596 600
Figure 10.42. Upper-level weather chart over Europe at 0 UTC on 19th

August 2018
Colours indicate (geopotential) height of the 500 hPa pressure surface, so the
border between two colours can be considered an isohypse. Isobars are white
lines with the spacing of 5 hPa. Grey dashed lines and texts indicate air
temperature of the 500 hPa pressure surface, expressed in units of °C.
Visualisation of METAR messages

At last, the visualisation of METAR messages will be explained in more detail
in connection with Figure 10.37. On the chart, each aeronautical
meteorological station is represented by a circle (henceforth, station indicator)
around which the following information is denoted. In the top-left corner, the
air temperature is denoted. In a clockwise direction, wind barb, altimeter
setting, the ICAO identifier of the aerodrome, dew point, horizontal visibility
and the symbol of present weather can be found. The station indicator also
represents the amount of clouds. It is filled when the sky is overcast and it is
empty when the sky is clear. The charts contain other information as well. We
emphasise one of them. Wind calm is denoted by another circle around the
station indicator.
For example, concerning the aerodrome in Athens, the following can be said at
6 UTC on 19th August 2018. The ICAO identifier of the aerodrome is LGAV.
Northerly winds blow with a speed of 15 kt (ca. 7.5 m/s). A wind gust, which is
indicated by the red-coloured parts of the wind barb, is measured with a
speed of 30 kt (ca. 15 m/s). The altimeter setting is 1000 hPa. The dew point
is 12 °C. The visibility is 10 km. The air temperature is 30 °C.
BEFORE EXAM L"

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) issues standards and
recommendations concerning meteorological procedures. It aims to facilitate
cooperation, data collection, storage and processing in the fields of weather,
climate and water management
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aims to facilitate the safety
and economic efficiency of civil aviation by issuing standards and
recommendations concerning the operation of aviation services.
Meteorological observations are conducted by automatic observation systems
and human observers.
The meteorological office prepares meteorological forecasts both for the flight
routes and for the aerodrome, which then provides information and briefing
documents about the actual weather and forecasts concerning the aerodrome
for operators concerned with civil aviation.
The meteorological watch office (MWO) issues Significant Meteorological
Information (SIGMET) and Airmen’s Meteorological Information (AIRMET)
messages.
The aeronautical meteorological station makes routine observations every half
an hour and every hour throughout the day. It is responsible for issuing the
Meteorological Actual Report (METAR) and the Aerodrome Special
Meteorological Report (SPECI).
Important observations and measurements related to weather processes can be
made by human observers or devices installed on the surface, on radiosondes,
on satellites, on weather-radars and on aircraft.
Regarding the surface wind, horizontal visibility and runway visual range,
present and past weather, cloud amount, cloud height and vertical visibility, air
temperature and dew point as well as atmospheric pressure are observed or
measured.
Radiosonde observations are in situ measurements made with instruments that
are attached to a balloon by a rope. As it ascends, atmospheric variables such as
air temperature, dew point, wind direction and wind speed are measured. The
corresponding atmospheric pressure can also be determined.
Geostationary and Sun-synchronous satellites are used to observe the Earth in
temperature and dew point as well as atmospheric pressure are observed or
measured.
Radiosonde observations are in situ measurements made with instruments that
are attached to a balloon by a rope. As it ascends, atmospheric variables such as
air temperature, dew point, wind direction and wind speed are measured. The
corresponding atmospheric pressure can also be determined.
Geostationary and Sun-synchronous satellites are used to observe the Earth in
visual and infrared channels aiming to identify frontal zones, areas covered by
clouds or fog, and even areas with dust.
Doppler radars are suitable for determining the direction and velocity of the
movement of precipitation zones.
Weather radars are mainly used to determine precipitation intensity and
indirectly to determine precipitation type, speed and direction of cold fronts,
gust fronts and squall lines, as well as to detect tornadoes, wind shear or
turbulence.
Airborne weather radars are mounted on aircraft to register the presence of
thunderstorms by examining precipitation intensity in front of the aircraft.
Aircraft pilots make routine aircraft observations, special aircraft observation
and other non-routine aircraft observations during their flights.
In general, flight documentation is released to the members of the flight crew
and contains METAR, SPECI (and TREND forecast), TAF, SIGMET and special air
reports, GAMET and AIRMET, volcanic and tropical ash advisory information as
well as forecast information of upper-air temperature and upper wind.
Meteorological conditions concerning an aerodrome are contained in METAR,
SPECI, MET and SPECIAL reports. These can be issued automatically or by
human observers.
Forecast information with expected significant changes of weather conditions
can be attached to METAR and SPECI reports in TREND forecasts. A Runway
State Message is contained in the runway state group.
TAF consists of forecast information about the aerodrome with a validity of 6 to
30 hours.
The SIGMET message is issued because of the (expected) occurrence of a
significant weather phenomenon that endangers the safety of the flight.
The AIRMET message is released in regards to weather phenomena that
nnrtanonr thn c-jfafv nf flioht Qt lr>\A/ Iq\/q|c fh^ln\A/ PI 1 ClCl nr Fl 1 PC) n\/nr
human observers.
Forecast information with expected significant changes of weather conditions
can be attached to METAR and SPECI reports in TREND forecasts. A Runway
State Message is contained in the runway state group.
TAF consists of forecast information about the aerodrome with a validity of 6 to
30 hours.
significant weather phenomenon that endangers the safety of the flight.
endanger the safety of the flight at low levels (below FL100 or FL150 over
mountainous areas).
The GAMET message is a forecast for low level flights that contain information
about hazardous meteorological conditions.
The GAFOR provides information about the horizontal visibility and the height
of the cloud base in graphical form concerning flight routes.
Observations are made by aircraft during flight. In cases of certain weather
phenomena (e.g. moderate or severe turbulence or icing) information is released
in special air reports via air-ground data links or voice communication.
Volcanic ash advisory information is issued concerning ash clouds related to
volcanic activity while tropical cyclone advisory information is released
regarding tropical cyclonic activity. Both reports are available in textual and
graphical form.
Meteorological information can be provided to flight crew members via
automated voice messages such as ATIS and VOLMET. The former concerns the
landing aerodrome while the latter contains information about multiple
aerodromes in a certain region.
Aerodrome warnings are issued when weather conditions pose a threat to
airport facilities, parked aircraft and aircraft on the ground.
Wind shear warnings are issued when wind shear is observed or expected that
is hazardous to departing or landing aircraft.
atmospheric variables, areas with low- and high-air pressure and weather fronts.
Upper-air charts contain gridded data concerning the forecast value of upper-air
temperatures and upper winds on various levels between FL050 and FL630.
significant weather phenomenon that endangers the safety of the flight
endanger the safety of the flight at low levels (below FL1OO or FL15O over
mountainous areas).
The GAMET message is a forecast for low level flights that contain information
about hazardous meteorological conditions.
The GAFOR provides information about the horizontal visibility and the height
of the cloud base in graphical form concerning flight routes.
Observations are made by aircraft during flight. In cases of certain weather
phenomena (e.g. moderate or severe turbulence or icing) information is released
in special air reports via air-ground data links or voice communication.
Volcanic ash advisory information is issued concerning ash clouds related to
volcanic activity while tropical cyclone advisory information is released
regarding tropical cyclonic activity. Both reports are available in textual and
graphical form.
Meteorological information can be provided to flight crew members via

automated voice messages such as ATIS and VOLMET. The former concerns the
landing aerodrome while the latter contains information about multiple
aerodromes in a certain region.
Aerodrome warnings are issued when weather conditions pose a threat to
airport facilities, parked aircraft and aircraft on the ground.
Wind shear warnings are issued when wind shear is observed or expected that
is hazardous to departing or landing aircraft.
atmospheric variables, areas with low- and high-air pressure and weather fronts.
Upper-air charts contain gridded data concerning the forecast value of upper-air
temperatures and upper winds on various levels between FLO5O and FL630.
SIGWX charts contain information about expected significant weather
phenomena below FL240, between FL1OO and FL450, and between FL25O and
FL630.
APPENDIX
Glossary
A
Absolute altitude Absolute altitude (or true height) is the real distance
between the aircraft and the ground.
Adiabatic process If we are speaking about the adiabatic processes of the air,
then we assume that there is no heat and mass transfer across the boundary
of the system and the change of the internal energy over time originates from
the pressure-volume work.
During lifting, the surrounding pressure of the rising air parcel does not remain
constant. It decreases as altitude increases, so the air parcel starts to expand.
This process is called adiabatic expansion. This means that the air parcel
exerts work on its environment, which leads to a decreasing temperature (i.e.
adiabatic cooling) of the air parcel even though its density decreases.
If the air parcel becomes colder than its surroundings then it will be denser
and heavier than its surroundings; therefore, it will start to sink. The
surrounding pressure of the sinking air increases as the height decreases, so
the air parcel is compressed, which decreases its volume. This process is called
adiabatic compression. In this case, the environment does work on the air
parcel, leading to an increasing temperature (i.e. adiabatic warming) of the air
parcel.
Advection Horizontal motion of air. More precisely, it is an exchange by the

motion of a mass by which air is displaced. Physical quantities characterising
it, such as heat, are also displaced along with the air. From the meteorological
point of view, advection is the horizontal transport of heat via large-scale
atmospheric motions, while convection describes mainly locally-induced
vertical motions. For example, advection can be observed when a cold air
mass flows into a region with a warm air mass.
Advection fog Advection fog may form when warm and moist air masses
advect above a cold and relatively smooth land or water surface.
Aerodrome warning Aerodrome warnings are released by the aerodrome

meteorological office when weather conditions pose a threat to airport
facilities, parked aircraft and aircraft on the ground.
Aeronautical meteorological station Aeronautical meteorological stations are

installed at aerodromes to make routine observations in accordance with the
recommendations of the WMO, for example the measurement of near-surface
air temperature, dew point, wind direction and wind speed as well as visibility,
runway visual range, present weather, cloud type and height and the amount
of clouds.
A
B
Aerosol The Earth’s atmosphere contains not only gases and liquid droplets
C
but also solid particles, though in much smaller fraction. Those liquid and solid D
components are called aerosol particles and have a major role in the formation E
of precipitation and clouds. F
G
Air-ground datalink Information is received by aircraft pilots through radio, H
which is called voice communication, and via air-ground data links, which I
enable the transmittance of information in digital form. J
K
Air mass The term air mass refers to a large group of air parcels characterised L
by similar properties horizontally, e.g. temperature, pressure and humidity. Air M
masses originate near the Earth's surface, so their characteristics are N

O
determined by the type and conditions of the surface. Consequently, distinct
P
air masses are characteristic for distinct regions around the globe.
Q
R
AIRMET The Airmen’s Meteorological Information (abbreviated as AIRMET)
S
message is issued in cases when a defined weather phenomenon (e.g.
T
moderate thunderstorms, low visibility, moderate turbulence...) may affect the
V
safety of a flight at low levels (lower than FL1OO or concerning mountainous W
areas lower than FL15O) and are not included in the SIGMET message. z
Altitude Altitude can be defined as the vertical distance between the point or
object and the mean sea level (abbreviated as MSL).
Altocumulus lenticularis Mountain waves are most likely accompanied by

altocumulus lenticularis clouds, which are horizontally elongated, lens-shaped
clouds above the wave crests.
Anabatic wind In a mountainous area, if an anabatic wind blows along the
slope, then the air flows into the valley because of the ascending movement of
the air. The wind that blows into the valley is called valley wind (opposite:
"katabatic wind").
Anemograph A device known as an anemograph records the measured wind

velocity and displays it in charts.
Anemometer The instrument that is used for measuring wind speed is called
an anemometer. The two main types of mechanic anemometer are the cup
anemometer and the propeller anemometer.
Aneroid barometer Aneroid barometers are empty boxes made of elastic

metals. The walls of the box are distorted through contraction and expansion
because of changes in air pressure. Therefore, it is an efficient indicator of air
pressure changes.
Anticyclone (anticyclonic circulation) In anticyclones, the wind blows

outward from the centre. The air converges aloft then starts to descend, or
subside, where it diverges. The descending movement of the air works against
cloud formation and precipitation, resulting in a clear sky. However, because
the air warms while it descends, inversion can develop.
Note: In anticyclones the air flows away from the centre of the high pressure
systems. Anticyclonic circulation has a clockwise direction in the Northern
Hemisphere and a counter-clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere. The
centres of the low and high pressure systems are marked with the letters L and H,
respectively.
Aphelion The location where the Earth is farthest away from the Sun (nearest
location: perihelion).
Airborne weather radar (AWR) Airborne weather radars are installed under
the nose cone of aircraft. Their principle of operation is similar to ground
weather radars. In this case, the nose cone serves as a radar dome that is
transparent to radio waves. An airborne weather radar aims to estimate
precipitation intensity and size during flights. On the basis of this information,
pilots may draw conclusions about whether or not thunderstorms have
formed in front of the aircraft. Therefore, the pilots can indirectly conclude
there is turbulence and atmospheric electricity for example, which may be
associated with thunderstorms.
Air column Air columns are fictional “tubes” that begin above a unit surface
and reach outer space. They are filled with air parcels.
Air density Atmospheric density (air density) is the mass of air per a unit
volume (i.e. an air column).
Air mass An air mass is a large body in the atmosphere, characterised by

nearly the same conditions of air temperature and humidity. The boundary
between two air masses is called a frontal zone.
Air parcel In atmospheric science, air parcels are the main, fictional units of
the atmosphere that are affected by physical properties in the surrounding air.
We consider the air parcel as the smallest unit of air during the examination.
Altostratus (As) Grey, connected layers of a middle level stratiform cloud with
a great horizontal extent, the sun is not completely obscured.
Altocumulus (Ac) Layered, connected group of small middle level cumulus

clouds.
ATIS During flight, meteorological information in the vicinity of the landing

aerodrome is provided by an automated voice message. These messages are
known as Automatic Terminal Information Service (abbreviated as ATIS)
broadcasts. In general, it contains information that is provided by MET and
SPECIAL reports as well as operational information such as the name of the
aerodrome etc.
Atmosphere The Earth’s atmosphere is considered to be built of layers of

various gaseous components forced to stay in orbit by the Earth’s gravitational
force.
Atmospheric density Atmospheric density (air density) is the mass of air per a
unit volume (i.e. an air column).
Atmospheric layers The Earth’s atmosphere can be divided into different
atmospheric layers based on temperature. In order of increasing altitude, they
the exosphere, which are all separated by thin boundary layers with unique
characteristics. These layers are called the tropopause, the stratopause, the
mesopause and the thermopause.
Atmospheric pressure Atmospheric pressure (also known as barometric

pressure or air pressure) is the weight of the air column in the Earth’s A
atmosphere per unit area. With increasing altitude, the air pressure decreases B
non-linearly. C
D
Automatic observation system Weather observations can be conducted by E
automatic devices, henceforth called an automatic observation system, ot F
they can be conducted by humans, known as human observers. There are G
several aerodromes where automatic observation systems operate. However, H

I
the employment of trained human observers remains a common practice.
J
They are able to prepare qualitative descriptions about present and past
K
weather conditions.
L
M
B N
O
Backing If there is a clockwise change in wind direction then the wind is P
veering (e.g. change from 90° to 180°). If there is a counter-clockwise change Q

R
in wind direction then the wind is backing (e.g. change from 180° to 90°).
S
Barograph Barometers are used to measure atmospheric pressure. The two T

V
prominent types of measuring devices are liquid and aneroid barometers.
W
Barographs can be used to record the measured atmospheric pressure and
z
display it in charts.
Billow clouds Turbulence caused by wind shear may be associated with cloud
formation. Velocity differences between two layers cause wind shear that
leads to the formation of clouds with a “ragged” appearance. The clouds are
produced by Kelvin-Helmholtz instability and are called billow clouds. The
phenomenon was named after Lord Kelvin and German physicist Hermann
von Helmholtz.
Blizzard Cold-air outbreaks may cause blizzards, defined as storms associated

with snow in which the wind speed exceeds 56 km/h and the visibility
decreases to less than 400 m for at least three hours.
Blocking anticyclone (blocking high, cut-off high) It is a high-pressure system

cut away from the main zonal flow. It causes calm, dry and warmer weather
resulting in droughts or the formation of cold air pools in the affected areas.
A
Bora A strong northeasterly fall wind that blows along the slopes of the B
Dinarides, reaching the area of the Adriatic Sea, especially in winter and early C
D
spring, is called a bora wind and it originates from the cold air accumulated
E
over Siberia.
F
G
c H
I
Cap cloud The four cardinal wind directions are north (N), east (E), south (S) J
and west (W) at 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°, respectively. K
L
Carburettor icing In the case of carburettor engines, ice can form internally, M
which is called carburettor icing. In a Venturi tube the air speeds up as the N
cross-section of the tube decreases, which leads to decreasing pressure (called O

P
the Venturi effect) and temperature. It may happen not only if the outside
Q
temperature is below 0 °C but also if it is between 0 °C and 15-20 °C, or even
R
around 30 °C. The chance of carburettor icing increases as the moisture
S
content of the air increases. In other words, the higher the relative humidity T
the higher the risk of carburettor icing. V
W
Cardinal direction Cap clouds appear on the upwind side of mountains where z
the air is forced to rise due to the increasing elevation of the topography and
the decrease in air pressure. The cap cloud extends over the top of the
mountain, from where its name originates. On the downwind side of the
mountain, the sinking air starts to warm, dissolving the cloud.
Castellanus A cumulus cloud with small, vertically-towering outgrowths

generally on the top of middle level clouds. These forms are caused by the
presence of small-scale instability at the level of appearance, and can presage
thunderstorm formation.
Celsius scale To measure temperature, various scales of temperature have

been established. Nowadays, the Kelvin scale (for scientific purposes), the
Celsius scale (mainly in Europe) and the Fahrenheit scale (mainly in the United
States of America) are widely used. The Sl-derived unit of temperature is
degree Celsius (symbol: °C). The Celsius scale has two reference points. It is
based on the freezing point of water (i.e. the melting point of ice) and the /A
boiling point of water at standard atmospheric pressure, defined as 0 °C and B
100 °C. C
D
Ceilometer Cloud base height is a crucial factor in aviation. It is measured by E
a ceilometer. A ceilometer also can be used to determine the aerosol and dust f
content of the air. G
H
Chinook See Foehn winds. I
J
Cirrocumulus (Cc) White, light, high level clouds consisting of small, regularly- K
situated cumuliform elements. L
M
Cirrostratus (Cs) Light, thin, connected layers of transparent high level clouds, N
frequently accompanied by halo phenomenon. O
P
Cirrus (Ci) Detached, white, light, fibrous structure, mostly transparent and q
thin clouds at a high level, the name cirrus comes from Latin and means r
"curling lock of hair".
T
Clear-air turbulence (CAT) Clear-air turbulence (abbreviated as CAT) is v
observable at upper levels of the atmosphere associated with jet streams and W
planetary long waves. The absence of clouds makes it hard to detect CAT.
Clear ice When freezing precipitation reaches a surface, rime ice or glaze ice
(in other words, clear ice) often develop. In general, rime ice forms a white,
opaque and rough ice layer with a relatively low density. Clear ice (in other
words, glaze ice) forms a smooth, transparent, hard and dense ice layer on the
surface, which shows similarity to glass, making it hard to detect visually.
Glaze ice is harder to remove than rime ice, so consequently the former is
more hazardous to aviation than the latter.
Climate Regions of the Earth with similar distribution of temperature and

precipitation, can be divided into climate zones. In the last 150 years several
classifications were published. In this book, climate zones according to
Koeppen’s climatic classification are explained.
Climatic classification According to Koeppen’s climatic classification five main

climate zones can be distinguished, which are denoted by uppercase A, B, C, D
and E, respectively. These are as follows:
B
A. Tropical rain climates

D
B. Dry climates (or arid climates) E
F
C. Mid-latitude climates (or temperate rain climates) G
H
D. Snow-forest climates I
J
E. Polar climates
L
Climatology Regions can be characterised by the long-term average values of
atmospheric variables such as temperature, pressure, humidity, wind and
precipitation over a long time period. This is called the climate. The discipline
among atmospheric sciences that focuses on climate is called climatology. p
Q
Cloud clusters In the tropical regions, convective clouds develop along the r
ITCZ where convergence of the air is observable near the surface. Because the
ITCZ surrounds the Earth, groups of clouds known as cloud clusters may form. T
V
Cloud levels (low, middle, high): W
Z
• Low level clouds (0 to 6 500 ft): Stratus (St), Stratocumulus (Sc), Cumulus
(Cu), Cumulonimbus (Cb)
• Middle level clouds (6 500 to 23 000 ft): Altocumulus (Ac), Altostratus (As),
Nimbostratus (Ns)
• High level clouds (16 500 to 45 000 ft): Cirrus (Ci), Cirrocumulus (Cc),
Cirrostratus (Cs)
Altitude values refer to the mid-latitudes. Specific height values that belong to
different cloud types may change with latitude because the height of the
tropopause increases with decreasing latitude.
Coalescence process Precipitation particles may form through the

coalescence process of the liquid water droplets after their collision with each
other. The possibility of coalescence is high when the colliding droplets are of
similar sizes or when a large droplet (ca. 0.5 mm) collides with a small droplet
(ca. 0.1 mm). A
B
Coastal inversion Coastal inversion (in other words, advection inversion)
C
develops at night when warmer air above the surface of sea or ocean is
D
flowing over the coast. The surface of the coast has a lower specific heat than E
water, hence the former is colder than the latter and an inversion layer F
develops. G
H
Cold-air outbreak In winter cold air accumulates around the North Pole I
(South Pole). If the prevailing westerly winds become weaker in mid-latitudes, J
then polar air may flow southward (northward); it even intrudes into regions K
L
close to the tropics, which is known as a cold-air outbreak. Cold-air outbreaks
M
may cause record low temperatures.
N
O
Cold (air) drop If a low-pressure system forms aloft then it may lead to the
P
formation of a cold drop (also called a cold-air drop or cold pool). If a high-
Q
pressure system forms aloft then it may lead to the development of a warm
R
drop (also called a warm-air drop or warm pool). S
T
Cold front A cold front occurs when a colder air mass replaces a warmer air
V
mass by forcing the warmer air mass to rise ahead of it. The slope is tilted in W
the opposite direction than the direction of travel. Furthermore, the slope of z
the cold front is steeper because the colder air mass is larger than the warmer
air mass, causing greater surface friction.
Cold pool See cold (air) drop.
Condensation The process in which water vapour turns to liquid water is

called condensation (opposite: vaporisation).
Condensation level The height where the air becomes saturated with water
vapour is called the condensation level (more precisely, the lifted or lifting
condensation level), which coincides with the level where the bases of clouds
form.
Conduction Transfer of heat can also be realised by the process of

conduction. This means that heat travels between the particles of the material
in question via collision.
A
Congestus The third stage of cumulus development is the congestus (Cu con)
B
stage, also called towering cumulus (abbreviated as TCu).
C
D
Convection Convection is a vertically directed process of heat transfer in gas
E
or liquid.
F
G
Convective turbulence Convective turbulence is associated with the transfer
H
of heat via convection among unstable atmospheric conditions. It can be
I
considered a type of thermal turbulence. The latter may also be related to
J
inversion layers. K
L
Convergence Convergence means that the air flows toward one point, which
M
occurs in low (high) pressure systems near the surface (aloft). Near-surface N
convergence is the result of the friction force. Divergence indicates that the O
airflows outward from one point, which occurs in high (low) pressure systems P
near the surface (aloft). Q

R
Coriolis force The horizontal effect of the CF on horizontal movements is S
explained by the following example: Four people (A, B, C, D) are sitting on a T

V
rotating disc where each person rolls a ball toward their neighbour in the
W
shortest way possible. In case A, in an inertial reference frame, for example
z
fixed above the centre of the disc, the paths of the ball are straight lines. In a
rotating reference frame, for example an observer fixed to the disc, the path
seems to be curved in the opposite direction as the rotation. In this case, the
CF can be considered an “invisible” force that deflects the path of the
movement.
Cumulonimbus (Cb) It is like a great cumulus with a high vertical extent and in
downdraft, sometimes the updraft is extremely strong and may break through
the tropopause into the stratosphere (called an “overshooting top”), Cb is
accompanied by lightning most of the time.
Cumulus (Cu) Individually-forming clouds with a shape similar to a cauliflower

and a flat, horizontal base.
Cut-off cyclone (cut-off low) In this case a low-pressure system is cut away
A
from the polar front with closed isobars. The movement of the low pressure
B
system is not connected to the main westerly air flow anymore. Because of
C
this the low-pressure systems slow down and they may get stuck in one place D
for several days until their dissipation. This can be considered to be cold-air E
drops. F
G
Cyclone (cyclonic circulation) In cyclones, the wind blows inward towards the H
centre near the surface of the ground where the air converges and starts to I
ascend, or rise. If the air contains water vapour, it forms clouds above the level J
of condensation, which can lead to precipitation and poor visibility. Otherwise, K
L
visibility is good due to the ascending air. Then, the air diverges aloft which
M
means that the air flows out from the centre of the cyclone. Cyclonic
N
circulation has a counter-clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and
O
a clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere. The centres of the low and P
high pressure systems are marked with the letters L and H, respectively. Q
R
Cyclone (tropical revolving storm) Tropical revolving storms in the Indian S
Ocean, off the coast of East Africa and in Australia (in Australia also referred T
to as "Willy-Willy"). V
W
z
D
Density altitude Density altitude is the altitude in the ISA to which the
observed density corresponds. To determine this, we have to know the value
of the air density in the actual conditions, then find the height at which the
same air density occurs in the ISA. Density altitude increases as air density
decreases.
Deposition Water vapour can turn into liquid directly via the process of
deposition (opposite: sublimation).
Depression Cyclones and depressions are low pressure areas with almost
circular, closed isobars. The lowest air pressure is to be measured in its centre.
Desert wind Winds that blow from the direction of a desert can be called
desert winds. Because of this, desert winds may carry a significant amount of
dust. They may carry hot air if they blow in the day. However, due to the large
diurnal variation of temperature over the desert, they may carry cold air if they
blow at night.
Dew point Dew point is the temperature of the air parcel that must be cooled
to be saturated at a constant air pressure and a constant amount of water
vapour in the air. It is given in the SI unit of °C.
Divergence Divergence indicates that the air flows outward from one point,
which occurs in high (low) pressure systems near the surface (aloft).
Convergence means that the air flows toward one point, which occurs in low
(high) pressure systems near the surface (aloft). Near-surface convergence is
the result of the friction force.
Doldrums Along the Equator, the northeasterly and southeasterly trade winds
meet in a confluence, leading to calm conditions or light wind near the
surface, which is dangerous for sailing. This zone between ca. 5°N and 5°S is
known as the doldrums.
Downburst Concerning a decaying cumulonimbus, downdraft can still be

intense within it. In this case, downbursts may develop. The downbursts
originate from the intense sinking movement of the air in the cloud and the
turbulent flows related to it. It is a process with a short life span (minutes).
After reaching the Earth's surface, the air diverges and flows out from the
cumulonimbus in every direction. Depending on its horizontal scale, two types
of downburst are distinguished: the microburst and the macroburst.
Drizzle If the developing liquid water droplet has a size smaller than 0.5 mm
then it is called a drizzle drop. If it has a size larger than 0.5 mm then it is
called a raindrop.
Dry climates (or arid climates) Regions with dry climates are located mainly
along the subtropical high zones between ca. 10°N and ca. 40°N as well as
between ca. 30°S and ca. 40°S. The proportion of these areas in the Southern
Hemisphere (e.g. Australia’s interior) is much smaller than in the Northern
Hemisphere (e.g. the western part of North America, the Sahara, the Arabian
Peninsula and Inner Asia).
Dust devil Small-scale convective activity may lead to the formation of

D
vortices with vertical axes (called dust devils) over loose surfaces.
Dust storm If the wind is strong enough, sand and particles with smaller
diameters known as dust can be introduced into the air for thermal reasons
F
(i.e. convection) or mechanical reasons (i.e. strong winds carry up the _
particles). The diameter of the particles usually does not exceed 1 mm. If dust H
and sand are suspended by the air then sandstorms (or dust storms) may form, |
which may last a few hours. J
K
L
M
N
Easterly wave Easterly waves (tropical easterly waves or tropical waves) can
be considered wave-like disturbances in the troposphere between the ITCZ p
and the subtropical high zone in the Northern Hemisphere, i.e. in the belt of o
the trade winds. A prominent area in which easterly waves form is located r
between the ITCZ and the Azores High, in the coastal region of West Africa.
T
Ecliptic plane The Earth revolves around the Sun on the plane of the ecliptic v
and rotates on its own axis. The non-zero angle between the ecliptic plane W
and the Earth’s equatorial plane leads to seasonal variation in air temperature.
This is to say, the Earth’ axis is not perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic.
Elevation Elevation is the vertical distance from mean sea level to a stated
level, for example, for an object on the Earth’s surface. Note that height,
elevation and altitude are expressed in units of distance (feet or metres).
Embedded thunderstorm Embedded thunderstorm is a thunderstorm

enclosed by frontal stratiform clouds, and is therefore hard to detect
Equinox There are four notable turning points of the year, namely the summer
and winter solstices, and the spring and autumn equinoxes. The summer
The equinoxes occur twice a year when day and night have the same length.
After the spring (autumn) equinox, the length of days (nights) increases
(decreases).
Exosphere The topmost part of the atmosphere, starting at around 500 km.
F
Fahrenheit scale To measure temperature, various scales of temperature have
been established. Nowadays, the Kelvin scale (for scientific purposes), the
States of America) are widely used. The Fahrenheit scale has two reference
points, similar to the Celsius scale. The unit of measurement is a degree
Fahrenheit (symbol: °F) which is not listed as an SI unit. The reference points
are the freezing point of water and the boiling point of water at standard
atmospheric pressure defined as 32 °F and 212 °F.
Fall wind Downslope winds are warm and dry air flows descending along a
slope. However, in some cases the sinking of the air is so intense that there is
no time for the air parcels to warm up. Consequently, downslope wind
remains cold relative to its environment, which is called a fall wind. Fall winds
have different names depending on their geographical region (e.g. Bora,
Mistral, Tramontana).
Ferrel cell The indirect circulation cell between the Hadley and the polar cell
is called the Ferrel cell. It is named after American meteorologist William
Ferrel, who described the winds near the surface over the mid-latitudes.
Flat-pressure pattern There are cases when a cyclone cannot be recognised

in an atmospheric trough. However, the atmospheric pressure can be
considered relatively low. This pressure system can be called a flat-pressure
pattern. In these systems, isobars near the surface are spaced relatively far
from each other, resulting in a weaker pressure gradient compared to
cyclones.
Flight level (FL) Flight levels are based on the standard pressure of
1013.25 hPa, the mean sea level pressure in the ISA. Flight level is expressed
in units of distance (feet or metres) and its value is the vertical distance from
1013.25 hPa, considering the ISA temperature conditions throughout the
layer. The goal of using flight levels is having a convention to determine
aircrafts' levels compared to each other with the same reference pressure and
thus the same deviation. C
D
Foehn winds Foehn winds are warm and dry downslope winds. Depending on E
the geographical region, foehn winds have different names. The term “foehn” f
originates from the German word “Foehn”. The Foehn is observed above the
Alps. In North America it is called a Chinook wind on the eastern side of the
Rocky Mountains. In South America, on the eastern side of the Andes, a foehn
wind is referred to as the Zonda.
K
Note: North foehn vs. south foehn - if the air flows from south to east over the
M
Alps, then south foehn winds can be observed on the northern side of the
N
mountains over Austria and north foehn winds blow on the southern side of the
mountain over Italy. p
Q
Fog Fog is defined as a cloud formed at or close to the ground. It reduces the
visibility to BELOW 1000 m (< 1000 m) and the constituents of a fog
(obscuring agents) are microscopic water droplets (< 0.5 mm) suspended in a t
saturated air mass (relative humidity about 100 %). When the temperature V
drops below 0 °C, the fog droplets are supercooled and some ice crystals also w
gradually form in the fog. However, fog solely consisting of ice crystals does
not form until at temperatures between -30 °C and -40 °C (ice fog).
Fractus Irregular cloud fragments change shape quickly and are typically at
low levels under or close to larger Cb or Cu clouds. Occasionally, individual
clouds can also appear in environments high in moisture close to the Earth's
surface.
Freezing Liquid water transforms into ice during the process of freezing
(opposite: melting).
Frequent thunderstorm Frequent thunderstorm means that more than 75 %

of the area is covered by thunderstorms.
Friction force I layer Under realistic atmospheric conditions, from close to

the surface up to about 2 000 to 3 000 ft (ca. 600 to 900 m), the friction force
cannot be neglected regarding horizontal flows. This layer of the atmosphere
A
is called the friction layer. This means that direction of the geostrophic and
B
gradient winds is modified in the friction layer. The friction force always acts
C
on air parcels in the opposite direction to their motion (thus the velocity
D
vector of the flow); in other words, it exerts drag force on the moving object. E
F
Frontal fog Frontal fog (mixing fog) may form ahead of a warm front or an
G
occlusion front where precipitation continuously falls through a colder and H
drier air mass. I
J
Frontal zone The boundary between two air masses is called a frontal zone. K
L
Fuel icing The freezing of liquid components in the fuel can also lead to ice
M
crystal formation in the induction system called fuel icing. N
O
Funnel cloud A funnel cloud (or tuba) is a rotating cloud vortex that does not
P
reach the ground or the water surface. When the vortex touches the ground it Q
is called a tornado, and when it touches a water surface it is called a R
waterspout. S
T
V
G W
z
GAFOR General Aviation Forecasts (abbreviated as GAFOR) are issued
several times a day, providing forecast information about the horizontal
visibility and the height of the cloud base regarding clouds with 5 oktas or
more. These are issued in a graphical form that is easier to understand.
GAMET The General Aviation Meteorological Information (abbreviated as

GAMET) message consists of a forecast about meteorological conditions that
may be dangerous for aviation during low level flights. Therefore, GAMET is
an area forecast for low level flights.
Geostrophic wind In geostrophic equilibrium, PGF (pressure gradient force)

and CF (Coriolis force) balance each other, which results in a flow parallel to
the straight line isobars called geostrophic wind. Geostrophic wind only occurs
if the isobars are parallel to each other with equal distances and there is no
friction over the surface.
A
Ghibli Southerly desert wind in Libya.
B
Gradient wind Horizontal motion of air parcels along curved path, namely the C
D
gradient wind, comes from the resultant force of the PGF (pressure gradient
E
force) and the CF (Coriolis force). Remember that the term “horizontal” means
F
the wind blows parallel to the surface.
G
H
Ground icing Classification of icing can be made in various ways, e.g. by the
I
location of the aircraft. Icing can occur while the plane is at the aerodrome,
J
and the phenomenon is called ground icing. For example, ground icing can be K
caused by freezing rain (it happens similarly on the surface of other objects on L
the ground),or icing can happen during flight, called in flight icing. M
N
O
H P
Q
Haboob Sandstorms that develop due to strong winds are known as haboob
R
all over the world.
S
T
Hadley cell The equatorial circulation cell is called the Hadley cell, which is
V
the largest circulation loop in the model. The wind pattern at lower latitudes W
was first described by English physicist George Hadley in the 18th century. z
Hail Hail (GR) is frozen precipitation and the diameter of hailstones is larger
than 5 mm.
Halo An optical phenomenon that occurs when light is reflected by ice

crystals in cirrus clouds. Optical phenomena are also called photometeors.
Harmattan (desert wind)

The Harmattan can be considered a local wind since it is characteristic for the
region of West Africa. From early winter to early spring, the zone of
northeasterly trade winds and the subtropical high zone come closer to the
geographical Equator, and consequently trade winds carry dust from the
Sahara Desert.
Haze Haze is defined as a condition when the visibility is reduced by

extremely small solid particles suspended in the air (such as smoke, dust or
sand). Haze is not reported if the visibility is more than 5 000 m.
Heat capacity Heat absorption and emission by a surface can be

characterised by the physical quantity of heat capacity. It is the amount of
heat that is required to increase the temperature of a substance by 1 °C. The
heat capacity of a unit mass of a substance is called its specific heat capacity
(henceforth: specific heat). Surfaces with faster (slower) warming and cooling
processes have lower (higher) specific heats.
Hoar frost Hoar frost is the frozen form of dew. It often develops after clear
cold nights when the air has gone below 0 °C with a relatively high moisture
content. The water content of the air directly turns from water vapour into ice
(via the process of deposition), and creates light, white ice crystals.
Hodograph It is worth mentioning that vertical wind shear can be

represented with a hodograph. It contains concentric circles indicating the
magnitude of wind speed. The circles are divided by the points of the compass
to give the wind directions. To determine the wind shear, wind vectors are
drawn from the centre of the circles corresponding to the height levels at
which wind speed and wind direction were measured. Then, every adjacent
pair of vectors is subtracted. As a result the wind shear vector can be given
between two adjacent height levels.
Homosphere Troposphere, stratosphere and mesosphere form the

homosphere.
Height Height is the vertical distance of the point or the object from a
specified level. This fixed level is in most cases the ground.
Heterosphere Thermosphere and exosphere form the heterosphere.
High pressure area A high pressure area or "a high" is an area where the air
pressure at the surface is higher compared to its environment. The air pressure
is the highest in the centre of the high and it decreases as we move away from
its centre horizontally.
Horse latitudes Above the subtropical high zones, along ca. 30°, sinking
movements of the air lead to wind calm. This zone is known as the horse
A
latitudes because sailors once had to throw horses off their ships due to
B
shortages of fresh water and food (assumption, not proven).
C
D
Human observer Weather observations can be conducted by automatic
E
devices, henceforth called an automatic observation system, or they can be
F
conducted by humans, known as human observers. There are several
G
aerodromes where automatic observation systems operate. However, the H
employment of trained human observers remains a common practice. They are I
able to prepare qualitative descriptions about present and past weather J
conditions. K
L
Humidity (absolute, specific, relative): M
N
• Absolute humidity is the density of water vapour in the air. It measures the O
mass of water vapour in 1 m3 of air, and thus it is expressed in the SI unit of P

kg Q
m3 ’ R
• Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapour to its S
maximum possible quantity for a given temperature and pressure in humid T
air. It is a dimensionless quantity that is given in a percentage. V
W
• Specific humidity is the quotient of the mass of water vapour and the total
z
mass of the humid air. It is given in g/kg. It is worth mentioning that the
mixing ratio differs from specific humidity as follows; mixing ratio is the
quotient of the mass of the water vapour and the mass of the dry air. As we
have seen, the difference between the masses of dry air and humid air is
small. Therefore, the specific humidity is almost equal to the mixing ratio.
Hurricane Tropical revolving storms in the Atlantic and Eastern Pacific.

Hygrometer The device that allows us to measure the absolute and relative
humidity of the air is called a hygrometer.
Ice crystals Over middle latitudes and higher geographic latitudes near the
poles, in temperatures below -10 °C, ice crystals (IC), or diamond dust, may be
observed. Diamond dust can be considered a special type of precipitation
because it does not fall from clouds. It forms under cloudless skies. Because A
single ice crystals are falling, the diameter of each is about 0.1 mm, smaller B
than other precipitation particles.
D
Ice inflowing Ice inflowing is a less frequent type of icing. It is caused by cold
air that contains ice crystals, snow, granular snow or supercooled water
droplets that flow through the moving parts of the aircraft, including the
|_|
engine. Compared to internal icing (induction system icing), in this case ice is
not developing inside, but is drifting in from the outside. .
Ice pellets Ice pellets (PL) consist of ice. They are relatively hard and
transparent particles and usually have an irregular or spherical shape. Their
average diameter is smaller than 5 mm, which makes them smaller than N
hailstones. O
P
Ice protector systems Ice protector systems are used to protect the aircraft q
from the effects of icing and utilise different methods to help terminate ice r
accumulation on the surface or in the engine of the aircraft. The two main
types of methods are the de-icing and the anti-icing systems that eliminate or
prevent ice deposition, respectively.
W
Incus Also called the anvil of Cb, consist of ice crystals that are spread radially
at the top of the Cb. It refers to a Cb in the mature stage of life.
In flight icing Classification of icing can be made in various ways, e.g. by the
location of the aircraft. Icing can occur while the plane is at the aerodrome,
and the phenomenon is called ground icing. For example, ground icing can be
caused by freezing rain (it happens similarly on the surface of other objects on
the ground), or icing can happen during flight, called in flight icing.
Insolation The incoming solar radiation to the surface of Earth is called
insolation and it changes with geographical latitude. Solar radiation can be
considered heat energy, as it transfers heat from the Sun to the Earth through
outer space.
Intercardinal direction The four intercardinal wind directions are

distinguished from the cardinal directions of northeast (NE), southeast (SE),
southwest (SW) and northwest (NW) at 45°, 135°, 225°, 315°, respectively.
Internal icing A possible hazard for aviation is the icing of the internal parts of
the aircraft. It can be defined as the internal icing of the aircraft engine, or
more precisely icing of the induction system that operates with a carburettor
or a fuel injection system.
International standard atmosphere (ISA) According to the International

Standard Atmosphere, defined by ICAO, the temperature at sea level is
+15 °C. The mean temperature lapse rate in the troposphere is
-1.98 °C/1000 ft (-0.65 °C/100 m). This means that under normal conditions,
air temperature decreases as height increases. This value is only true until the
tropopause (until about 36090 ft or 11 km) where it reaches its minimum
temperature of -56.5 °C. Note that those values are valid in dry air.
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) The zone where the greatest amount
of solar radiation reaches the surface of the Earth is called the Intertropical
Convergence Zone (abbreviated as ITCZ). The middle line of this zone is called
the thermal equator or less frequently, the heat equator. This does not
coincide with the Earth’s Equator (henceforth, geographical Equator).
Inversion (layer) Inversion means that air temperature increases as altitude

increases. The layer in which inversion occurs is called the inversion layer.
Inversions, especially inversions close to the ground (in other words, low level
inversions) may have other hazardous consequences for aviation. In the
following section, the main effects of an inversion on aircraft performance will
be listed:
1. Wind speed shear

2. Wind directional shear
3. Turbulence
4. Temperature difference
Ionosphere A layer where charged particles mainly from the Sun (solar wind)
interact with the constituents of the atmosphere. This process is called
ionisation. The ionosphere extends from the upper part of the mesosphere to
the exosphere. A
B
Isobar The lines on weather maps that connect the points with the same C
pressure normalised to sea level are called isobars. In meteorological practice D
isobars are drawn with an average spacing of 2 or 4 hPa on surface weather E
maps. F
G
Isochor The curves that connect the points with the same volume are called H
isochors. I
J
Isohypse An isohypse (or height contour, or contour line) is a line on an upper K
level weather map that connects points with the same height on an isobaric L
M
surface above mean sea level. These lines form wave-like shape on weather
N
charts. It is often said that the isohypse indicates the true altitude, which is
O
the actual height of a pressure level above mean sea level.
P
Q
Isolated thunderstorm Isolated Cb (abbreviated as ISOL CB): Isolated refers
R
to the presence of single-cell Cb over less than 50 % of any given area.
S
T
Isotach Lines that connect points with the same wind speed on a weather
V
map are called isotachs.
W
z
Isotherm layer In an isothermal layer the temperature is constant. The
tropopause can almost be considered an isotherm layer.
Jet stream Along the regions with a steep temperature gradient(e.g. just
below the tropopause), narrow bands of westerly winds are observable at
maximum wind speeds. These are called jet streams. The two main jet streams
are the subtropical jet stream and the polar jet stream. The former is located
above the polar front (PF), while the latter can be found above the subtropical
high zone.
K
Katabatic wind If a katabatic wind blows along the slope, then the
descending movement makes the air leave the valley. This flow is called A
mountain wind (opposite: "anabatic wind"). B
C
Kelvin scale To measure temperature, various scales of temperature have D
been established. Nowadays, the Kelvin scale (for scientific purposes), the E
States of America) are widely used. On the Kelvin scale the null point is
absolute zero. The International System of Units (abbreviated as SI) base unit
of temperature is kelvin (symbol: K). Note that we do not use the word
“degree” concerning the Kelvin scale. It is often used for scientific purposes, K
mainly in thermodynamic calculations. L
M
Khamsin Southerly desert wind in Egypt, which may lead to the formation of N
sandstorms reaching the Middle East. O
P
Q
R
c
Land breeze Due to the uneven heating of the sea and land surfaces, sea and
land breezes arise. In general, wind blows from the colder area towards the
warmer area. During the night, the wind blows from the land towards the sea
(land breeze), and during the day, the wind blows from the sea towards the
land (sea breeze).
Lapse rates Meteorological processes, for example the vertical movement of

an air parcel, can be approximated by adiabatic processes. The processes are
associated with different vertical temperature lapse rates, which makes them
easy to distinguish in thermodynamic diagrams.
Assume an unsaturated air parcel that starts to ascend. It moves in a dry
adiabatic fashion until it becomes saturated. Its temperature decreases at the
rate of about 3 °C/1000 ft (or ca. 1 °C/100 m), which is called the dry
adiabatic lapse rate (often abbreviated as DALR).
At this height the air parcel becomes saturated with water. Consequently,
water vapour starts to condensate and latent heat is released, which leads to a
decreasing temperature lapse rate, because it slows down the cooling of the
air parcel. The temperature of the air parcel decreases in line with the A
saturated adiabatic lapse rate (often abbreviated as SALR), which is lower B
than the dry adiabatic lapse rate. The temperature decreases at about C
1.8 °C/1000 ft (or ca. 0.6 °C/100 m). D
E
In the ISA (International Standard Atmosphere) the temperature decreases at F
the rate of 1.98 °C/1000 ft (or 0.65 °C/100 m). G
H
Because of the adiabatic approximation, atmospheric stability can be I
examined through the relationship between the environmental lapse rate, the J
dry adiabatic lapse rate and the saturated adiabatic lapse rate. The K
L
environmental lapse rate (often abbreviated as ELR) can be considered the
M
rate at which the air temperature actually changes with height in the
N
surroundings of the air parcel. If we assume a linear relationship between
O
temperature and height, then the environmental lapse rate is constant. P
Q
Latent heat (transfer) Latent heat transfer is a heat exchange without change
R
in the temperature of the substance. Latent heat is a "hidden" thermal energy S
which is commonly present when the material changes its state of matter, as T
when ice turns to water through melting. V
W
Lee wave See mountain wave. z
Lightning An electric discharge in the atmosphere is called lightning. Lightning

can occur between clouds and the ground, called cloud-to-ground lightning
(often abbreviated as CG), between two clouds, called cloud-to-cloud lightning
(often abbreviated as CC) or inside a cloud. Lightning is associated with a
sound effect called thunder. The air expands as it is warmed up by lightning,
causing the pressure to rapidly increase in the channel, which creates a sound
wave called thunder.
Local routine report See MET report.
Local special report See SPECIAL report.
Low pressure area We are speaking about a low pressure area or simply "a
low" if the air pressure is lower than its surrounding environment. The air
pressure is the lowest in the centre of the low and it increases as we move
away from its centre horizontally. A
B
C
M D
E
Macroburst One of the most dangerous and hazardous phenomena related to
F
G
thunderstorm resulting in a strong wind storm at ground level. Generally, it is H
related to single-cell thunderstorms in the mature stage. It often affects a I
circular area on the ground with a diameter of approximately 4 km. In this case J
it is called a microburst. However, it can occasionally cover a larger area and K
then is called a macroburst. In downbursts the vertical or horizontal wind L

M
speed may exceed 200 km/h. Generally, downbursts last only a few minutes,
N
but frequently result in major destruction. The life cycle of a downburst is
O
shown in the figure below.
P
Q
Mean sea level (MSL) The mean sea level is the average level of the surface of
R
the oceans. The standard air pressure at mean sea level is 1013.25 hPa,
S
according to the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). T
V
Mechanical turbulence In a stable atmospheric layer, in which the air
W
temperature increases as the altitude increases, mechanical turbulence occurs z
near the surface when wind collides with any obstacles (e.g. buildings, plants).
Melting Water in solid form (ice) transforms to liquid water during the process
of melting (opposite: freezing).
Mesopause The boundary between mesosphere and thermosphere is called

the mesopause, and it can be found at the altitude of approx. 80 km. The air
temperature reaches its minimum value of about -80 °C
Mesoscale convective complex (MCC) Various types of MCS can be

distinguished. If the mesoscale convective system (MCS) has a large circular
cloud top with a temperature less or equal to -32 °C (-52 °C), which covers an
area of at least 100000 km2 (50000 km2) and lasts for at least six hours, then
it is known as a mesoscale convective complex (abbreviated as MCC).
Mesoscale convective system (MCS) If cloud clusters of Cb clouds are

circularly or linearly organised and reach the horizontal extent of 100 km in at
least one direction, then these cloud clusters are called a mesoscale
convective system (abbreviated as MCS).
Mesosphere The layer starting above the stratopause, at ca. 50 km, and
extents to ca. 80 km.
METAR The aerodrome routine meteorological report (abbreviated as

METAR) and the aerodrome special meteorological report (abbreviated as
SPECI) contain actual weather information concerning a specific aerodrome.
Typically, METAR is issued every 30 minutes and it is valid at the time of the
observation. Forecasting information for the next two-hour time intervals
from the issuance of the METAR or SPECI are available in the TREND
forecast, which can be included in the METAR and SPECI.
Meteorological office If a meteorological office is established at the

aerodrome then it acquires and prepares meteorological forecasts both for the
flight routes and for the aerodrome, for example the General Aviation
Meteorological Information, abbreviated as GAMET.
Meteorological watch office The meteorological watch office (MWO) issues

Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMET) and Airmen’s Meteorological
Information (AIRMET) messages.
MET report Local routine reports (known as MET reports) and local special
reports (known as SPECIAL reports) are issued with content similar to the
METAR and SPECI. However, MET reports and SPECIAL reports are used
mainly by departing and arriving aircraft while the METAR and SPECI are
disseminated beyond the aerodrome.
Microburst One of the most dangerous and hazardous phenomena related to

thunderstorm resulting in a strong wind storm at ground level. Generally, it is
related to single-cell thunderstorms in the mature stage. It often affects a
circular area on the ground with a diameter of approximately 4 km. In this case
it is called a microburst. However, it can occasionally cover a larger area and
then is called a macroburst. In downbursts, the vertical or horizontal wind /A
speed may exceed 200 km/h. Generally, downbursts last only a few minutes, B
but frequently result in major destruction.
D
Mid-latitude climates (or temperate rain climates) Regions with mid-latitude E
climates show greater variability regarding the temperature than tropical and f
dry climates. The mean temperature of the coldest month is between -3 °C
and 18 °C. In these climate zones all four seasons are observable. Temperature
and precipitation have strong seasonality. Strong annual variations in
temperature are observable.
Mist Mist is basically the same phenomenon as fog, but it is defined as a

M
visibility of 1000 m or more (> 1000 m), but up to 5 000 m (including
5 000 m).
P
Note: Fog is defined as a cloud formed at or close to the surface of the ground
Q
which reduces the visibility to BELOW 1 000 m (< 1 000 m) and the constituents of
a fog (obscuring agents) are microscopic water droplets (<0.5 mm) suspended in a
saturated air mass (relative humidity about 100 %). When the temperature drops t
below 0 °C, the fog droplets are supercooled and gradually some ice crystals also V
form in the fog. However, fog solely consisting of ice crystals does not form until at W
temperatures down between -30 °C and -40 °C (ice fog).
Mistral Northerly fall winds in the Rhone Valley of Southern France are called
mistral winds and originate from the pressure gradient between the Azores
High and the Genoa Low.
Mixing ratio The mass of humid air is the sum of the mass of dry air and the
mass of water vapour in it. The mixing ratio of humid air is the rate of the mass
of water vapour to the mass of dry air. Its SI unit is g/kg or kg/kg. For example,
1 g/kg (or 0.001 kg/kg) means that the rate of water vapour is 1 g (or
0.001 kg) to the dry air with a mass of 1 kg.
The saturation mixing ratio is the mixing ratio of the saturated air. More
precisely, it is the rate of the maximum mass of water vapour to the mass of
dry air that can be held by the humid air without condensation. It is also
expressed in the SI units of g/kg or kg/kg.
A
Monsoon Close to the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere (Southern
B
Hemisphere) southwesterly (northwesterly) winds, called monsoons, are
C
observable in July (January). Monsoons are observable especially over West
D
Africa in the vicinity of the ITCZ, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and E
the northern part of Australia. F
G
Monsoon regions belong to the tropical monsoon climate zone, and thus have H
two seasons, a dry and a wet season, that alternate with each other. This I
means that there are not only changes in the direction of the prevailing wind J
but also changes in precipitation. K
L
Mountain wave If the air flow collides with an obstacle with large horizontal M
and vertical ranges (e.g. a mountain range), the air is forced to rise and flow N
O
above the top of it. If the wind direction is almost constant, and wind speeds
P
exceed 15 kt (ca. 7.5 m/s) and increase slightly with increasing altitude, then
Q
mountain waves known as lee waves or standing waves will form. Turbulent
R
flows often develop behind. S
T
Mountain wind See katabatic wind.
V
W
N z
Nadir The point of zenith (nadir) is the overhead point of the sky in the
Northern (Southern) Hemisphere.
Nimbostratus (Ns) It is a grey thick cloud layer covering the whole sky or part
of it and the sun is obscured. It may be at the low or middle levels.
Nocturnal radiation Radiation inversion develops during cold winter nights
with clear skies and calm or very light wind. Dry air above the surface can let
the long-wave radiation leave the atmosphere at night (called nocturnal
radiation), allowing the surface and air near the surface to cool. This situation
can lead to the formation of fog near the ground.
Norte/Norther Cold-air outbreaks have traditional names around the globe.

For example, northerly air that blows from the Arctic region is called a norther
in the United States of America and a norte in Mexico. In South America a
A
cold-air outbreak that originates in the Antarctic region is called a pampero. In B
this case a polar wind blows northward. C
D
E
o F
G
Obscured thunderstorm Obscured thunderstorm (OBSC TS) refers to a
H
thunderstorm that is hard to detect visually because of poor visibility
I
conditions.
J
K
Occasional thunderstorm Occasional Cb (OCNL CB) means that 50-75 % of
L
the are is covered with Cb.
M
N
Occlusion Occlusion is the last stage of the cyclone’s life cycle. It forms when
O
a cold front overtakes a warm front. The warm sector is forced to ascend from
P
the ground to a higher level. Therefore, the two cold air masses (formerly the Q
warm front ahead and the cold front below) stay close to the ground and only R
one, elongated front called an occluded front stays between the cold sectors. S
T
Omega blocking Consists of two low-pressure systems and one high- V
pressure, which forms an omega-shaped structure. W
z
Orographic clouds and turbulence Orography derived from Greek, which
means "hill". Clouds, such as altocumulus lenticularis, rotor (or roll) clouds and
cap clouds, and turbulence, which develop due to orography, i.e. mountains. In
other words, if air is forced to rise, due to hills, (orographic) clouds can
develop.
Orographic fog Orographic fog is formed (similarly to orographic clouds) by

the ascent of the air mass along the surface of an orographic obstacle
(mountain, hill) as a result from mechanically-forced uplifting. The air mass
adiabatically cools down, and when it reaches the temperature at which
condensation starts, fog may develop.
Orographic low Low-pressure areas may form locally by uplifting thermal

effects, called thermal lows, and by orography, called orographic lows. It is a
common phenomenon for low pressure to develop on the edge of a well-
developed or a dissipating mid-latitude cyclone, called secondary lows.
/A
B
Outside air temperature (OAT) The OAT is the air temperature where the
aircraft (or a station) is at the moment. In other words, OAT is the air
temperature that is measured. E
F
Ozone layer The region in the stratosphere with the highest amount of ozone
is called the ozone layer. The increasing air temperature in the stratosphere is H
the consequence of the chemical reactions in the ozone layer where the i
majority of ozone forms and decomposes constantly at altitudes from approx.
20 km to approx. 30 km. K
L
O
Pampero Cold-air outbreaks have traditional names around the globe. For p
example, northerly air that blows from the Arctic region is called a norther in q
the United States of America and a norte in Mexico. In South America a cold- r
air outbreak that originates in the Antarctic region is called a pampero. In this
case a polar wind blows northward. T
V
Perihelion The location where the Earth is closest to the Sun (farthest W
location: aphelion).
Polar easterlies Above the poles, cold and dense air sinks and diverges near
the surface. The sinking air starts to flow towards the Equator. It is not
perpendicular to the Equator, also because of the Coriolis force, which
deflects it to the east. In other words, the surface winds are northeasterly in
the Northern Hemisphere and southeasterly in the Southern Hemisphere.
These winds are often called polar easterlies.
Polar front The border between the two air masses, with significantly
different temperatures that originate from the polar and the tropical region, is
called the polar front (abbreviated as PF). It is located between the indirect
and the polar circulation cell.
Polar climates At latitudes higher than the Arctic Circle and the Antarctic
Circle (66.5°) the Sun remains visible at night and remains below the horizon
at least one day of the year, respectively. Over the poles these time periods
extend to six months. Because of this, the lowest monthly mean temperatures
A
can be measured over these areas. B
C
Polar vortex Polar vortex is also a low-pressure area over the poles in the
D
upper troposphere, which makes it an upper-level low with cyclonic rotation. E
It can extend into the lower stratosphere. F
G
Planetary boundary layer In the meteorological literature, the atmospheric H
layer that is influenced by the properties (i.e. heat capacity and roughness) of I
the surface is called the planetary boundary layer (or atmospheric boundary J
layer). It is the subject of the discipline of micro meteorology. The atmosphere K

L
above the planetary boundary layer is called the free atmosphere, which is not
M
affected by the Earth's surface.
N
O
Pressure altitude Pressure altitude is the altitude of the current pressure level
P
in the ISA. For a specific pressure altitude, the air pressure will always be the
Q
same. A constant isobaric surface (e.g. 300 hPa) is always equivalent to a
R
constant pressure altitude. S
T
Precipitation Droplets of clouds and fog can fall out from the atmosphere
V
when they reach a critical size. After reaching this size, we are speaking about W
falling hydrometeors, thus precipitation. Precipitation particles are z
distinguished on the basis of their diameters and states of matter.
Prevailing westerlies The equatorial and polar circulation cells indirectly form
another circulation cell (henceforth an indirect circulation cell) over the mid
latitudes, in which the direction of the flow is counter-clockwise. In that cell
the air flows near the surface towards the poles. Because of the Earth's
rotation, its direction is deflected to the southwest in the Northern
Hemisphere and northwest in the Southern Hemisphere. The winds that pass
over the mid-latitudes are called prevailing westerlies.
Psychrometer A psychrometer (or wet-and-dry-bulb thermometer) is used to

measure humidity and consists of two thermometers. The first one is kept dry,
while the other one is kept moist (e.g. the bulb is covered with a cloth that is
partially immersed in water). The intensity of the evaporation depends on the
relative humidity of the air.
Q
c
QFF QFF is the atmospheric pressure reduced to the mean sea level, D
corrected for actual weather conditions such as air temperature. E
F
QFE (Quantified field elevation or Q field elevation) is the barometric G
pressure at airfield level, which is the air pressure measured by a barometer at
the official airfield reference point. If QFE is used as an altimeter setting, then
the altimeter indicates the height between the airport reference point and the
aircraft. When the aircraft is on the runway, the altimeter should indicate 0 ft.
QFE is air pressure reduced to the datum level of the airport, applying
corrections for the outside-air temperature. N
O
QNE QNE is the standard altimeter setting when the reference pressure is p
1013 hPa. It gives the pressure altitude of the aerodrome and is used in the q
case of flight levels to determine altitude. In the case of assigning flight levels, r
a pressure level of zero is the ISA standard mean sea level pressure, which is
1013 hPa. T
V
QNH (Quantified nautical height or Q nautical height) is the barometric W
pressure at the airport (QFE) reduced to mean sea level using values of the
standard atmosphere (the ISA barometric lapse rate) and the elevation of the
airport. This setting indicates the vertical distance above mean sea level.
R
Raindrop If the developing liquid water droplet has a size smaller than 0.5 mm
then it is called a drizzle drop. If it has a size larger than 0.5 mm then it is
called a raindrop.
Resistive hydrometer Resistive hygrometers are able to measure humidity

and operate on the basis that electrical resistance from hygroscopic non-
metallic material (e.g. lithium chloride) varies with the absorption of
atmospheric water vapour. More precisely, the resistance of the material
decreases with increasing relative humidity.
A
Ridge (wedge) Large-scale, U-shaped high pressure areas are called ridges
B
(sometimes referred to wedges). If the air pressure in the centre of the high
C
increases (decreases), then it is building-up (weakening or collapsing).
D
Anticyclones are often associated with ridges. E
F
Rime ice When freezing precipitation reaches a surface, rime ice or glaze ice
G
(in other words, clear ice) often develop. In general, rime ice forms a white, H
opaque and rough ice layer with a relatively low density. Clear ice (in other I
words, glaze ice) forms a smooth, transparent, hard and dense ice layer on the J
surface, which shows similarity to glass, making it hard to detect visually. K

L
Glaze ice is harder to remove than rime ice, so consequently the former is
M
more hazardous to aviation than the latter.
N
O
Roaring forties Westerly winds and low-pressure systems (e.g. cyclones) at
P
middle latitudes (henceforth, mid-latitudes) may form between ca. 40° and ca.
Q
60°. This is the zone of the prevailing westerlies. Due to their strong and
R
steady nature, these winds are called the roaring forties, indicating the S
latitude of their occurrence. T
V
Roll clouds See rotor clouds. W
z
Rossby waves The polar front, PF, (the border of the poleward and
equatorward flows), makes wave-like movements, so it can be seen as a type
of planetary long wave. These types of waves are called Rossby waves
because they were first described by Swedish-born meteorologist Carl-Gustaf
Rossby in the first half of the 20th century.
Rotor clouds (roll clouds) Rotor clouds appear on the top of the rotor
circulation. They are small cumuliform clouds, mainly altocumulus. The zone
should be avoided by aircraft because these clouds are related to intense
turbulence.
Routine aircraft observations Routine aircraft observations are conducted

during the climb-out and en-route phases of the flight. In cases when
automated routine observations are possible and air-ground data links are
available, the ICAO recommends making routine aircraft observations every
30 seconds during the climb-out and every 15 minutes during the flight. It is
worth mentioning that according to the ICAO’s recommendation, helicopter
observations should be made at the times and locations previously C
determined by agreement between the helicopter operator and the D
meteorological authorities. E
F
Runway visual range (RVR) Visual range can be defined as the distance at
which the contrast between an object and its background is equal to the H
observer’s threshold contrast. The runway visual range (often abbreviated as
RVR) is a specific type of visual range that is the adequate distance for a pilot
along the centre line of the runway to detect marks or lights on it.
Note 1: The runway visual range can also be determined by human observations.
Because distances between the marks or lights that indicate the centre line of the
runway are fixed, the runway visual range can be determined based on counting p
them. q
R
Note 2: Automated observations are mainly based on the measurement of the
extinction of light, which depends on the absorption and scattering of light on t
atmospheric particles. Visibility and runway visual range can be derived from the V
rate of extinction. V/
Z
s
Sandstorm If the wind is strong enough, sand and particles with smaller
diameters known as dust can be introduced into the air for thermal reasons
(i.e. convection) or mechanical reasons (i.e. strong winds carry up the
particles). The diameter of the particles usually does not exceed 1 mm. If dust
and sand are suspended by the air then sandstorms (or dust storms) may form,
which may last a few hours.
Saturation mixing ratio See mixing ratio.
Scirocco A desert wind that blows from the Sahara Desert in the direction of
the Mediterranean region is called the scirocco (or sirocco).
Sea breeze Due to the uneven heating of the sea and land surfaces, sea and
land breezes arise. In general, wind blows from the colder area towards the
warmer area. During the night, the wind blows from the land towards the sea
(land breeze), and during the day, the wind blows from the sea towards the
land (sea breeze).
Secondary low Low-pressure areas may form locally by uplifting thermal

effects, called thermal lows, and by orography, called orographic lows. It is a
common phenomenon for low pressure to develop on the edge of a well-
developed or a dissipating mid-latitude cyclone, called secondary lows.
SIGMET The Significant Meteorological Information (abbreviated as SIGMET)

message is issued for a FIR/CTA when a significant, defined weather
phenomenon (e.g. severe turbulence, severe icing...) occurs or is expected to
occur during the flight, which endangers its safety.
Significant weather chart (SIGWX chart) As the name of the chart suggests, it
is a visual presentation of significant weather phenomena for a given
geographical region. Significant Weather charts are issued by World Area
Forecast Centres (WAFC) every six hours (00:00, 06:00, 12:00 and
18:00 UTC).
Small hail (GS) is composed of translucent ice particles with a diameter of

about 5 mm. GS particles rebound from a surface after impact. Similarly to ice
pellets, they do not break up.
Snow-forest climates Over regions with snow-forest climates, the mean

temperature of the coldest month is below 3 °C and the warmest month is
above 10 °C. A temporary snow cover is formed in winter. Temperatures vary
most widely in snow-forest climates. Areas between ca. 45°N and ca. 70°N
belong to this class. Due to the small amount of land surfaces, snow climates
are absent in the Southern Hemisphere.
Snow grains (SG) are white, opaque particles that usually have an elongated
or plain shape. Their average size is less than 1 mm. They typically form
between ca. -10 °C and ca. 0 °C.
Snow pellets (PL) like snow grains (GS), are also white and opaque ice
particles. In snow pellets, the hexagonal structure of the ice crystals becomes
unrecognisable because of riming. Snow pellets have a spherical or conical
shape and their diameter is about 5 mm.
Solstice There are four notable turning points of the year, namely the summer
and winter solstices, and the spring and autumn equinoxes. The summer
The equinoxes occur twice a year when day and night have the same length.
After the spring (autumn) equinox, the length of days (nights) increases
(decreases).
SPECI The aerodrome routine meteorological report (abbreviated as METAR)

and the aerodrome special meteorological report (abbreviated as SPECI)
contain actual weather information concerning a specific aerodrome. Typically,
METAR is issued every 30 minutes and it is valid at the time of the
observation. Forecasting information for the next two-hour time intervals
from the issuance of the METAR or SPECI are available in the TREND
forecast, which can be included in the METAR and SPECI.
Special aircraft observations Special aircraft observations are made

throughout the flight and as soon as possible when at least one of the
following phenomena, determined by the ICAO Annex 3, can be observed:
1. Moderate or severe turbulence
2. Moderate or severe icing
3. Severe mountain waves

4. Thunderstorms with hail or without hail
5. Heavy dust storms or heavy sandstorms
6. Pre-eruption volcanic activity, volcanic eruptions or volcanic ash cloud
SPECIAL report Local routine reports (known as MET reports) and local
special reports (known as SPECIAL reports) are issued with content similar to
the METAR and SPECI. However, MET reports and SPECIAL reports are used
mainly by departing and arriving aircraft while the METAR and SPECI are
disseminated beyond the aerodrome.
Squall line If a row (or chain) of Cb clouds is formed and their movement is
perpendicularly to the line along which the Cb clouds are organised, then the
mesoscale complex system (MCS) is called a squall line.
Note: Squall line thunderstorm refers to a chain of thunderstorms that can only be
avoided by flying above them.
Stability (atmospherit) If the environmental lapse rate is lower than the

saturated adiabatic lapse rate then it is also lower than the dry adiabatic
lapse rate; therefore, the air is called absolutely stable. For example,
inversion (in which the temperature rises with height, so the
environmental lapse rate is positive) or an isothermal atmosphere can be
considered absolutely stable.
2. If the environmental lapse rate is greater than the dry adiabatic lapse
rate then it is also greater than the saturated adiabatic lapse rate;
therefore the air is called absolutely unstable.
3. If the environmental lapse rate is between the dry adiabatic and the
saturated adiabatic lapse rate then the air is called conditionally
unstable.
4. If the ELR is higher than the DALR and the SALR, then the air is called
unstable.
Standing wave See mountain wave.

Stationary front There are cases when two air masses are separated by a
linear-shaped weather front that is more or less in the same position for a long
time. Mainly seasonal changes are observable. Therefore, these are called
stationary or quasi-stationary fronts.
St. Elmo’s fire Besides lightning, another atmospheric electrical phenomenon

is St. Elmo’s fire, which forms when the air is ionised around a conductor and
has small electrical discharges (much smaller than in lightning) around it. This
creates a fire-like phenomenon with low light, which can only be seen during
A
the night. This typically occurs on sharp and pointed objects such as ships or B
the wingtips of airplanes in strong electric fields inside or close to a C
thunderstorm, but it can also form on the windshield of airplanes D
E
Steam fog Steam fog develops when a cold air mass moves above a relatively F
warm water surface. As water evaporates, water vapour is introduced to the G
air. H
I
Stratocumulus (Sc) Layered continuous group of rounded elements of J
cumuliform clouds at low levels. K

L
Stratopause The boundary between stratosphere and mesosphere is called M
the stratopause, and it can be found at the altitude of approx. 50 km. N
O
Stratosphere The layer starting above the tropopause, at ca. 18 km, and P
extents to ca. 50 km. It contains the ozone layer as well. Q

R
Stratus (St) Grey homogenous, generally coherent layer of low level stratiform S
clouds often form in an inversion situation. The layer may cover the whole sky T
V
or part of it and from above it may be confused with fog.
W
Sublimation Ice can turn into water vapour directly via the process of z
sublimation (opposite: deposition).
Subpolar low zones In the zone of the confluence of the equatorward and
poleward flows, the former starts to ascend due to its lower density.
Therefore, low pressure areas form near the Arctic Circle (ca. 66.5°N) and the
Antarctic Circle (ca. 66.5°S), called the subpolar low zones.
Subtropical high zones Near the tropopause the air starts to flow towards the
poles. It cools down while becoming denser, which is the equivalent of an
increasing mass at a constant volume. Therefore, the air sinks along the Tropic
of Cancer (ca. 23.5°N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (ca. 23.5°S) develops a high
pressure area called the subtropical high zone.
Supercooled water If liquid water is free from contamination then it can cool
down below the freezing point without a phase change, so liquid water can
exist below 0 °C, which is called supercooled water. However, supercooled
water is in a metastable state, which means that any disturbance will make the
supercooled water droplets start freezing immediately and the particles turn
rapidly from liquid to ice. D
E
Surface icing Surface icing happens when ice forms and accumulates on the f
surface of the aircraft (e.g. on the fuselage or on its wings).
H
TAF The terminal aerodrome forecast (abbreviated as TAF) contains forecast

information concerning an aerodrome. It contains the following information:
N
issuance, period of validity of forecast p
Q
c
T
W
6. Expected significant changes to one or more of the previously listed

elements during the period of validity
Thermal equator The zone where the greatest amount of solar radiation
reaches the surface of the Earth is called the Intertropical Convergence Zone
(abbreviated as ITCZ). The middle line of this zone is called the thermal
equator or less frequently, the heat equator. This does not coincide with the
Earth’s Equator (henceforth, geographical Equator).
Thermal low Low-pressure areas may form locally by uplifting thermal effects,
called thermal lows, and by orography, called orographic lows. It is a common
phenomenon for low pressure to develop on the edge of a well-developed or a
dissipating mid-latitude cyclone, called secondary lows.
Thermopause The boundary between thermosphere and exosphere is called

the thermopause, and it can be found at the altitude of approx. 500 km.
B
Thermosphere The layer starting above the mesopause, at ca. 80 km, and
extents to ca. 500 km. The international space station is floating in this layer.
E
Three-cell model Equatorial circulation cells (Hadley cells), indirect circulation

cells (Ferrel cells) and polar circulation cells form the three-cell model. It is an
idealised model of the atmosphere. In the real atmosphere, the system is
larger with complexity and variability.
Tornado One of the most devastating weather phenomena is a tornado. It is

typically related to cumuliform clouds and to Cb clouds with intense
thunderstorms. A tornado is a vortex with high intensity and vertical axis of N
rotation. It originates from a cloud base and reaches the ground. Its duration is
between a few minutes and a few hours. P
Q
Trade winds (tropical easterlies) The equatorward flows near the surface are r
called tropical easterlies (or trade winds), which are northeasterly winds in the
Northern Hemisphere, and southeasterly winds in the Southern Hemisphere.
Rising air and tropical easterlies induce the circulation of the air.
W
Tramontana Northerly fall winds in the Rhone Valley of Southern France are
called mistral winds and originate from the pressure gradient between the
Azores High and the Genoa Low. This phenomenon is called the tramontana
over the territories of Northwest Italy and the Balearic Islands.
Transition altitude (TA) Transition Altitude is the altitude at or below which

we refer to our vertical position in terms of altitude based on QNH. Transition
Altitude is specified for each airport, usually depending on the relief around it.
Transition layer The transition layer is the layer between the TA and the TL,
where traffic is using both QNH and standard altimeter setting. This layer is
located around airports and only continuous descending or ascending is
permitted in it.
Transition level (TRL) The transition level (abbreviated as TRL) is the lowest
specified flight level above transition altitude (TA), and TRL is determined
locally by considering surrounding terrain, temperature and air pressure. In
A
certain countries, the TRL must be at least 1000 ft above the TA as its
B
thickness depends on the QNH.
C
D
Transmissometer A device for measuring visibility and runway visual range is
E
called transmissometer and it consists of two main units. The first unit is a
F
light source, for example a light-emitting diode (abbreviated as LED). Its
G
second unit mounted at a known distance could be either an active or a H
passive remote sensing device. I
J
TREND forecast Forecast information can be issued in TREND forecasts as K
an optional part of the METAR and SPECI. The time period of the TREND L
forecast is two hours from the issuance of the METAR and SPECI and it M
contains expected significant changes in weather conditions, such as wind, N

O
horizontal or vertical visibility or clouds.
P
Tropical easterlies See trade winds. Q

R
Tropical depression Second stage of development of a tropical revolving S
storm. Thunderstorms are formed in bands around a deepening low-pressure T

V
centre (with closed isobars). These are bands of alternating upward and
W
downward flows, with increasing strength and increasing wind speeds inward.
z
Tropical disturbance First stage of development of a tropical revolving storm.

Convective cells develop above the warm sea surface with a strong updraft
resulting in thunderstorms. This irregular group of heavy thunderstorms is
called a tropical disturbance.
Tropical rain climates Regions with tropical rain climates can mostly be found
along the Equator. Due to the previously-listed factors that influence the
Earth’s climate, these zones are between ca. 10°N and 30°S. For example,
areas in Central America, Central Africa, Southeast Asia and the northern part
of Australia belong to this climate zone. The mean temperature of the coldest
month is above 18 °C.
Tropical revolving storms Tropical revolving storms (tropical cyclones) rotate

thermally-formed low-pressure systems in a counter-clockwise (clockwise)
direction in the Northern (Southern) Hemisphere. Their axis of rotation is
perpendicular to the ground surface. We emphasise that tropical cyclones do A
not contain weather fronts. They are often accompanied by strong winds and B
heavy precipitation. C
D
Tropical storm Third stage of development of a tropical revolving storm. The E
low pressure becomes concentrated, a horizontal cyclonic rotation develops F
around it, and therefore a symmetric circular system forms. In the centre, the G
air rises and the tropopause spreads radially. (This stage is sometimes further H
I
divided into the tropical storm and severe tropical storm categories.)
J
Tropopause The boundary between troposphere and stratosphere is called K

L
the tropopause, and it can be found at the altitude of approx. 8-18 km (typical
M
or mean height: 11 km).
N
O
Troposphere The layer starting above the surface of the earth and extending
P
to ca. 8-18 km. The troposphere contains half of the mass of the air. Most
Q
weather processes take place here. In general, the air temperature decreases
R
from the ground to the tropopause, the upper boundary of the troposphere, S
where an abrupt decrease in air temperature is observable. T
V
Trough Large-scale low pressure areas are called troughs. These are W
elongated, V-shaped phenomena that can be thought of as atmospheric z
"pressure valleys". If the air pressure in the centre of the low decreases
(increases), then it intensifies or deepens (fills or weakens). Cyclones and
frontal zones may be associated with troughs.
True altitude The true altitude is the actual altitude and it depends on the
pressure and on the mean temperature of the layer of air between the
reference pressure surface and the static pressure surface (which is the level
of the aircraft). Thus, we need to use corrections on measured altitudes for
temperature and pressure deviations from standard values.
True height True height (or absolute altitude) is the real distance between the
aircraft and the ground.
Tuba A tuba (or funnel cloud) is a rotating cloud vortex that does not reach
the ground or the water surface. When the vortex touches the ground, it is
called a tornado. When it touches a water surface, it is called a waterspout.
Typhoon Tropical revolving storms in the Western Pacific and South China
Sea.
V
Vapour pressure/saturation vapour pressure Vapour pressure is the weight of
the water vapour per unit area. It is given in the SI unit of Pa. It can be said
that warmer air or a larger volume of air can contain more water vapour.
Saturation vapour pressure is the weight of the water vapour per unit area in a
state of equilibrium. It depends on the type of the substance, its temperature
and the curvature of its surface. Saturation vapour pressure is the exponential
function of air temperature.
Valley wind See anabatic wind.
Vaporisation The process in which liquid water turns to gas (water vapour) is
called vaporisation (opposite: condensation).
Veering If there is a clockwise change in wind direction then the wind is

veering (e.g. change from 90° to 180°). If there is a counter-clockwise change
in wind direction then the wind is backing (e.g. change from 180° to 90°).
Virga When precipitation starts to fall toward the ground but does not yet
reach the ground, it is called virga. It can be seen under the cloud base. Virga
can accompany any type of cloud that has precipitation.
Visibility We distinguish ground visibility, in-flight visibility and slant visibility.

Ground visibility is the horizontal visibility observed on the ground. In-flight
visibility is the horizontal visibility observed during flight. Slant visibility is
observed at a slanted angle (not horizontally) as the aircraft approaches the
runway.
Note: Prevailing visibility is the value observed at more the 50 % of the horizon.
VOLMET Meteorological information about multiple aerodromes in a certain

region is sent to aircraft during flight by a pre-recorded voice broadcast, called
VOLMET. It is a continuous automated voice message about actual weather
. B
conditions and forecasts.
C
D
W E
F
Wake turbulence This type of turbulence is not related to any meteorological G
phenomenon, it is caused by aerodynamical factors. Behind an aircraft, H
especially during takeoff and landing, pairs of vortices are created by the wing
tips of the aircraft. They have opposite rotational directions and exert force on
the fuselage of an aircraft during flight. The direction of the force points to the
ground surface. It may lead to yawing, but in the most severe cases it may
cause a collision with the ground. N
O
Warm (air) drop If a high-pressure system forms aloft then it may lead to the p
development of a warm drop (also called a warm-air drop or warm pool). If a q
low-pressure system forms aloft then it may lead to the formation of a cold r
drop (also called a cold-air drop or cold pool).
T
Warm front In the case of a warm front, the warm air mass replaces a cold air v
mass. We emphasise that “warm” and “cold” air masses are determined in W
relation to each other. Along the frontal surface, the warm air mass is lifted by
the denser and colder air mass ahead, which becomes wedge-shaped below
the warm air mass. The colder area ahead of the warm front is called the cold
sector and the zone behind the warm front and ahead of the cold front is
called the warm sector.
Warm pool See warm (air) drop.

Wedge (ridge) Large-scale, U-shaped high pressure areas are called ridges
(sometimes referred to wedges). If the air pressure in the centre of the high
increases (decreases), then it is building-up (weakening or collapsing).
Anticyclones are often associated with ridges.
Wind shear Wind shear is an abrupt change in the wind speed or wind
direction horizontally or vertically:
• Horizontal wind shear occurs if the aircraft horizontally crosses a boundary

on which wind can be experienced, e.g. crossing a weather front or during
entering horizontally into a jet stream. Furthermore, horizontal wind shear
occurs in the case of downbursts and heavy updrafts or downdrafts in and
around a Cb.
• Vertical wind shear can be experienced during climbing or descending, e.g.,
ascending above or descending into the friction layer as well as climbing
above a strong inversion.
Note: Low level wind shear may be similarly caused by thunderstorms, low level jet
streams, weather fronts or by local wind systems (e.g. sea and land breezes,
mountain winds, inversion layers). These phenomena cause wind shear on the
border of air masses with different characteristics.
Windsock A windsock is a cone shaped object made of fabric that can turn
around a vertical axis. It points in the opposite direction from which the wind
blows. Stripes on the windsock can be used to estimate the wind speed.
World area forecast centre (WAFC) Two WAFCs operate simultaneously: one
in Washington, in the United States of America, and the other one in London,
in the United Kingdom. They issue data and charts in standardised and digital
forms for aircraft during flight without any interruption. Gridded forecasts are
available at upper height levels,between FLO5O and FL630. These are for the
following atmospheric variables:
1. Air temperature
2. Humidity
3. Wind direction and wind speed
4. Temperature of the tropopause
5. Wind speed, wind direction and flight level of maximum wind
6. Geopotential altitude of the flight levels
7. Cumulonimbus clouds, turbulence and icing
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) The WMO aims to issue

technical regulations that provide standards and recommendations for
member states. The WMO facilitates data collection, storage and the
processing of data concerning weather, climate and water management and
makes them available in a standardised format for the services of the member
states. The WMO enhances cooperation between these services to fulfil their
tasks. Through coordination, these services are able to make better weather
forecasts, climate predictions and sustainable water management plans.
Furthermore, the WMO facilitates the avoidance or reduction of the effects of
dangerous weather phenomena.
z
Zenith The point of zenith (nadir) is the overhead point of the sky in the
Northern (Southern) Hemisphere.
Zonda See Foehn winds.

APPENDIX
Abbreviations
A
abbr. abbreviation
a.m. before midday (ante meridiem, Latin)
ABV Above
AC Altocumulus
A
AGL Above Ground Level

C
AIRMET Airmen’s Meteorological Information D
E
AMSL Above Mean Sea Level F
G
AS Altostratus H
ATC Air Traffic Control
ATIS Automatic Terminal Information Service

M
ATS Air Traffic Services

O
P
B Q
R
BC Patches S
T
BECMG Becoming
V
BKN Broken
BL Blowing
BLW Below
BR Mist
BTN Between
c
ca. circa
CAPE Convective Potential Energy
CAT Clear-Air Turbulence
CAVOK Ceiling And Visibility OK
CB Cumulonimbus A
B
CCN Cloud Condensation Nuclei C
D
CF Coriolis Force E
F
CIN Convective Inhibition G
H
CLD Cloud
K
const, constant
L
CP Centripetal force M
N
CTA Control Area O
P
CU Cumulus Q
R
S
D T
U
DALR Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
V
w
DP Dew Point
DR Drifting
DS Dust Storm
DU Widespread ash
DZ Drizzle
E
e.g. for example (exempli gratia, Latin)
etc. and the rest of the other things (et cetera, Latin)
ELR Environmental Lapse Rate
EMBD Embedded
END End zone of runway A

B
EUMETSAT European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological
Satellites D
E
F
G
FBL Light
K
FC Funnel Clouds (tornado or water spout)
FCST Forecast
N
FG Fog O
P
FIR Flight Information Region Q
R
FL Flight Level S
T
FM From
V
FRQ Frequent
FU Smoke
FZ Freezing (supercooled)
FZDZ Freezing Drizzle
FZRA Freezing Rain

G
GAFOR General Aviation Forecast
GAMET General Aviation Meteorological Information
GHG Greenhouse Gas
GR Hail
H
HF High Frequencies
HVY Heavy
HZ Haze
I
i. e. that is (id est, Latin)
IAVCEI International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's

Interior
IC Diamond dust
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
ICAO Annex 3 ICAO’s Annex 3, Meteorological Service for International Air

Navigation
ICAO Doc 4444 ICAO’s ATM Doc 4444, Procedures for Air Navigation
Services
ICAO Doc 7488/3 ICAO’s Doc 7488/3, Manual of the ICAO Standard
Atmosphere - extended to 80 kilometres (262 500feet)
ICAO Doc 8896 ICAO’s Doc 8896, Manual of Aeronautical Meteorological

Practice
ICE Icing
INTSF Intensify
ISA International Standard Atmosphere
ISOL Isolated
IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry A

B
K c
D
kt/KT knot(s)
F
G
H
LWC Liquid Water Content

L
M M
N
MAX Maximum
P
MBST Microburst Q
R
MCC Mesoscale Convective Complex S
T
MCS Mesoscale Convective System
V
MEA Minimum Enroute Altitude
METAR Aerodrome Routine Meteorological Report
Ml Shallow
MID Middle point of runway
MNM Minimum
MOCA Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude
MOD Moderate
MORA Minimum Off Route Altitude
MOV Moving
MPS Metre Per Second
MSA Minimum Sector Altitude A

B
MSL Mean Sea Level C
D
MT Mount
E
F
MTW Mountain Wave
G
MWO Meteorological Watch Office H

I
K
N L
M
NC No changes are expected N
O
NCD No clouds
P
Q
NOSIG No significant changes are expected
R
S
NS Nimbostratus
T
NSW Nil Significant Weather U

V
w
o
OAT Outside-Air Temperature
OBS Observed
OBSC Obscured
OCNL Occasional
OPMET Operational Meteorological Databank
OVC Overcast
p
p.m. past midday (post meridiem, Latin)
PF Polar Front
A
PGF Pressure Gradient Force
B
C
PL Ice pellets
D
PO Dust/sand whirls (dust devils) E

F
PR Partial (covering part of the aerodrome) G
H
PROB Probability I
K
L
Q M
N
QFE Quantified Field Elevation or Q Field Elevation
O
P
QNH Quantified Nautical Height or Q Nautical Height
Q
R
R S
T
RA Rain U
V
RDOACT CLD Radioactive Cloud
w
REP Reported
RMK Remark
RVR Runway Visual Range
RWY Runway
s
SA Sand
SALR Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate
SC Stratocumulus
SCT Scattered
SEV Severe
SFC Surface
SG Snow Grains
SH Shower
SI International System of Units
SIG Significant
SIGMET Significant Meteorological Information
SIGWX Significant Weather phenomenon
SKC Clear sky
SN Snow
SPECI Aerodrome Special Meteorological Report
SQ Squalls
SQL Squall Line
SS Sandstorm
ST Stratus
STNR Stationary
TAF Terminal Aerodrome Forecast
TC Tropical Cyclone
TDZ Touchdown Zone
TEMPO Temporary
TL Until A
B
TCAC Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre
D
TCU Towering Cumulus (Cumulus congestus) E
F
TRL Transition Level c-
H
TS Thunderstorm
|Z
TURB Turbulence
L
M
U N
O
UP Unknown Precipitation p
Q
UTC Coordinated Universal Time R
S
V T
u
VA Volcanic Ash
W
VAAC Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre
VC In the vicinity
VHF Very High Frequencies
VIS Visibility
VRB Variable
w
WAFC World Area Forecast Centre
WAFS World Area Forecast System
WKN Weaken
A
WMO World Meteorological Organization
Q
WMO-No 8 WMO’s Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of
. D
Observation
E
WMO-No. 49 WMO’s Technical Regulations, Basic Documents No. 2

G
WMO-No. 182 WMO’s International Meteorological Vocabulary
WMO-No. 306 WMO’s Manual on Codes - International Codes, Volume 1.1,

Annex II to the WMO Technical Regulations: part A - Alphanumeric Codes
M
WMO/TD No. 1390 WMO’s Aviation hazards, Educational and training N
programme, ETR-20
P
WS Wind Shear
R
WSPD Wind Speed S
T
U
V
w
APPENDIX
Literature and
Regulations
Recommended literature
To gain a deeper understanding about the topics discussed in the main

chapters of this book, we recommend the following books, articles and
documents to read.
Various disciplines that concern meteorology - including topics of main

chapters 4. Clouds and fog (Chapter 4), 5. Precipitation (Chapter 5), 6. Air
masses and fronts (Chapter 6) and 7. Pressure systems (Chapter 7) - are
discussed in Wallace & Hobbs (2006) with explanations. To get a
comprehensive view of meteorology we highly recommend to read it in
connection with multiple chapters of our book. Near the surface (in the
planetary boundary layer), processes related to friction and turbulence, are
discussed in Stull (1980).
Further information about the topics of main chapter 1. The atmosphere

(Chapter 1) such as structure of the atmosphere, atmospheric chemistry as
well as radiation can be found in Seinfeld et al. (2016) and Liou (2002). In
general, characteristic values of the troposphere concern the ISA about which
information are available in ICAO Doc 7488/3.
Atmospheric motion and thermodynamics - which are the topics of main

chapter 2. Wind (Chapter 2) and main chapter 3. Thermodynamics (Chapter 3)
- are explained in details in Holton (2004).
Regarding main chapter 8. Climatology (Chapter 8), especially Koeppen’s

climatic classification, Chen & Chen (2013) is recommended to read.
Climatology of the monsoon is discussed in Ramage (1971).
Weather phenomena which can be dangerous to aviation are explained in

WMO/TD No. 1390. This document is useful for main chapter 9. Flight
hazards (Chapter 9). However, official reports about accidents are also
important as they may serve as case studies.
To gain a deeper understanding about the cooperation between operators of

the fields in meteorology and aviation, documents issued by the ICAO and the
WMO - particularly ICAO Annex 3 - are recommended to read as it
complements main chapter 10. Meteorological information (Chapter 10). The
way of observations and measurements are described in WMO-No 8 and
WMO-No. 49 (Vol. I-II). Crucial information about weather messages are
available in Annex 3 and ICAO Doc 8896.
List of the recommended references
Chen, D., Chen, H. W., Using the Koppen classification to quantify climate
variation and change: An example for 1901-2010, Environmental
Development, 6, 69-79, 2013.
Holton, J. R., An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology, 4th Edition, Academic

Press, 2004.
International Civil Aviation Organization, Annex 3, Meteorological Service for

International Air Navigation, 19th Edition, 2016.
International Civil Aviation Organization, Doc 7488/3, Manual of the ICAO

Standard Atmosphere - extended to 80 kilometres (262 500 feet), 3rd Edition,
1993.
International Civil Aviation Organization, Doc 8896 AN/893, Manual of

Aeronautical Meteorological Practice, 9th Edition, 2011.
Liou, K. N., An introduction to atmospheric radiation, 2nd Edition, Academic

Press, 2002.
Ramage, C. S., Monsoon Meteorology, International Geophysics Series, Vol.

15, Academic Press, New York and London, 1971.
Seinfeld, J. H., Pandis, S. N., Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air
Pollution to Climate Change, 3rd Edition, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2016.
Stull, R. B., An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology, Kluwer Academic

Publishers, Dordrecht / Boston / London, 1980.
Wallace, J. M., Hobbs, P. V., Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey, 2nd

Edition, Academic Press, 2006.
World Meteorological Organization, WMO-No. 8, Guide to Meteorological
Instruments and Methods of Observation, 2014 (updated in 2017).
World Meteorological Organization, WMO-No. 49, Technical Regulations,

Basic Documents No. 2. Volume I - General Meteorological Standards and
Recommended Practices, 2015 (Updated in 2017).
World Meteorological Organization, WMO-No. 49, Technical Regulations,

Basic Documents No. 2. Volume II - Meteorological Service for International
Air Navigation, 2016.
World Meteorological Organization, WMO/TD No. 1390, Aviation hazards,

Educational and training programme, ETR-20, 2007.
APPENDIX
Formulae
This section contains the main formulae which were presented in the book. As
the physical basics are explained first, formulae are contained in the first half
of the book. The letter "B" means that the formula is contained in a particular
chapter which is required for the exam. The letter "D" indicates that the
formula is a part of the detailed explanation.
Please note that if a symbol occurs (e.g. v4, p) more than once in a particular
chapter then its meaning is given only once, below the first formula which
contains it. Units are denoted in brackets.
Chapters that do not contain any formula are omitted.
Newton's law of universal gravitation (D):
F
rga -7^ X
Where:
• Fga is the gravitational force [N]

• m^ is the mass [kg] of the first object
• m2 is the mass [kg] of the second object
• f4 is the position vector between the centers of the two object:
• if m1»m2 then points from the center of m-]_ toward the center of m2
• r is the magnitude of 1?, the distance [m] between the centers of the two
objects
_ii pp 3
• 7 = 6.67 x 10 7—- is the gravitational constant introduced by
English physicist and chemist
Magnitude of gravitational force (D):

m1m2
Fga — 7 r2
The magnitude of centripetal force (D):

V2
F cp = ^2 “
Where:
• v is the speed [m/s] of the object moving on the circular trajectory

• r is the radius [m] of this trajectory
The sum of absorption (a), reflection (p) and transmittance (t) regarding a
black body (D):
a + g + t = 1
Stefan-Boltzmann law (D):
E = <zT4
Where:
• a = 5.672 x 10‘8 W/m2K4 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant

• T is the temperature of the body [K]
Wien’s displacement law (D):
A
''max —
— —
rp
Where:
• \nax ‘s Peak emission wavelength [NM]

• b = 2 900 pm-K is Wien’s displacement constant
Relation between heat capacity, energy and temperature (D):
q = c x AT
Where:
• q is the amount of energy [J]

• c is heat capacity [l/K]
• AT is temperature difference [K] (the increment of temperature as a result
of q)
Relation between specific heat capacity, energy and temperature (D):

q = cs x m x AT
Where:
• cs is specific heat capacity [l/(kg K)]
• m is the amount of mass [kg]
Newton’s second law (equation of motion) (D):
F = ml?
Where:
• F is the vector sum of the forces acting on a body [N]
• m is the mass of the accelerated body [kg]
• a is acceleration [m/sz]
Pressure (D):
Where:
• p is pressure [Pa]
• F is the magnitude of the force which acts on a unit area A [m2]
Weight (D):
Fg = mg
Where:
• Fg eight of the body (e.g. air column) [N]
• g is the gravitational acceleration [m/sz]
Density (B):
Where:
• p is density [kg/m3]
• V is volume [m3]
Empirical formula to calculate air pressure at a given height level (B):
/ k r 1 \ 5.246
/ 0.0065 - x h m \
p hPa = 1013.25 hPa x 1--------- L
Where:
• h is the height [m]
Empirical formula to calculate height at a given pressure level (B):
288,15 K I / P [hPa] \ 5.246

n K X \ V 1013.25 hPa )
0.0065 — \ x 7
m
Hydrostatic equation (D):
Where:
• z is the coordinate which is perpendicular to the surface in a three-

dimensional Cartesian coordinate system
• g is the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration
Barometric formula (D):
p(z) = p(z0)e RaT x 1
Where:
• z and z0 are the upper and lower boundaries of the column (e.g. air column)
which is under examination [m]
• g is the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration
• Rd = 281 J/(kg-K) is the specific gas constant of dry air
• T is the temperature of the column [K]
Avogardo’s law (D):
—
n = const,
Where:
• V is the volume of the ideal gas [m3]

• n is the amount of chemical substance [mol]
Boyle’s law (D):
pV = const.
for ideal gases, at constant amount of chemical substance and constant

temperature, where:
• p is the pressure of the ideal gas [Pa]

• V is the volume of the ideal gas
— = const.

volume, where:
• T is the temperature of the ideal gas [K]
Charles’ law (D):
— = const.

pressure.
Combined gas law (D):
pV
const.
T
for ideal gases, at constant amount of chemical substance.
General gas law with the universal gas constant (D):
pV = nRT
for ideal gases, where = 8.31 J/(mol-K) is the universal gas constant.
General gas law with specific gas constant (D):
| = R‘T
for ideal gases, where:
• R* the specific gas constant, e.g. Rj or Rw, specific gas constants of dry air
and water vapour, respectively
Temperature correction (B):
Temperature
r
correction = H x ---------- ——-----------
273 + t0 - 0.5 Lo (H + Hss)
Where:
• the temperature correction is expressed in ft

• H is the minimum height above the aerodrome [m]
• t0 is temperature calculated to sea level [°C]
• Lo has the value of 0.00198 °C/feet
• HSs is the elevation of the aerodrome [m]
Conversion between kt and m/s (B):
x —
s ~ 2x kt
The magnitude of constant velocity along a linear path (D):
Where:
• v is the velocity [m/s]
• s is the displacement - in other words road - between two point [m]
• t is the period of time of the displacement [s]
Surface force (D):
A F sf = P x n x AA
Where:
• A F sf is surface force [N]

• P is the stress tensor [Pa]
• AA is an arbitrary area element on which surface force acts [m2]
• "n is a unit-length direction vector (dimensionless quantity)
Pressure gradient force (D):
----- 7” 1
F grad = “ X Vp
Where:
• F grad is the pressure gradient force acting on a unit mass [m/s2]
• Vp is the pressure gradient vector, in a three-dimensional Cartesian
coordinate system its components are [Pa/m]
\ ax ay az /
Approximation of the pressure gradient force in a three-dimensional

Cartesian coordinate system (D):
■p __ i v
r g™dx - Q x Ax
■p __ 1 v
rgrady- p X Ay
■p __ 1 v ^P
r g™dz - Q X Az
Coriolis force expressed with angular velocity (D):
F cor — — 2m Q x = 2m^ x Q
Where:
• F cor is the Coriolis force [N]

• m is the mass of the rotating object [kg]
• Q is the angular velocity of the rotating system [1/s]
• is the velocity of the object in the rotating reference frame [m/s], in a

three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system its components are (u,v,w)
Coriolis parameter expressed with Coriolis parameter (D):
/ fv — Iw
F cor — 2mQ I — fu
\ lu
where Coriolis parameters are f=2Q sincp and l=2Q coscj) [1/s].
Geostrophic equilibrium in a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system

(D):
1 / dp
-2 Q x vg
e \ dx ’
where v go is the geostrophic wind vector with components

o o
of ug)vg [m/s].
Geostrophic wind equations in a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate

system (D):
Gradient wind speed in cyclones (D):
fr f2r2 dp
vgr 2 4
X
dr
where vogr’ is the gradient wind speed [m/s].
Gradient wind speed in anticyclones (D):
__ fr f2r2 r Op
gr ~ 2 4 Q dr
Geostrophic wind speed in a two-dimensional polar coordinate system (D):
1 Op
g = X
6 pf OT
where r is the radius of the circular path.
Connection between geostrophic wind speed and gradient wind speed (D):
gr
g fr
Friction force (D):
* *
u g , vg
Where:
• F fris the friction force acting on a unit mass [m/s2]

• k is the coefficient of friction [1/s]
—> *
• v g is velocity [m/s]
Modification of geostrophic equilibrium in the friction layer in a three-

dimensional Cartesian coordinate system (D):
1 / Op Op \ 9 o —> _ *\
Q I - ,
\ Ox ’ Oy /
) I- X V O'
8
--- H I\ Upg , Vgr
’ g /
I
s|c * y *
where (ug , vg ) are the components of v g .
_ *
Deflection of v g from the geostrophic wind (D):
a = arc tg ( j)
Where:
• a is the angle of deflection
Linear momentum (D):
P = mV
Where:
• P is the linear momentum of the object [kg m/s]

• m is the mass of the object [kg]
• V is the velocity vector of the object [m/s]
Angular momentum (D):
—> —>
L = r x P = r x mv
Where:
• L is the angular momentum of the object during its rotation [kg mz/s]
• V is the position vector of the object [m]

Kinetic energy (D):
Ekin = |mv2
Where:
• is the kinetic energy of the object during its movement [J]

Work on a fluid parcel along a linear streamline (D):
W = Fs
Where:
• W is the work [J]

• F is that acts on the fluid parcel [N]
• s is the length of the displacement of the fluid parcel [m]
Work on the fluid parcel originates from its weight (D):
W = mgh1 — mgh2
• is the mass of the fluid [kg]

• hi and h2 are the height of the fluid in point 1 and 2, respectively [m]
• g is the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration [m/s2]
Expressions mgh^ and mgh2 are the potential energies of the fluid parcel at hi
and h2, respectively.
Work on the fluid parcel originates from pressure (e.g. in a Venturi tube) (D):
W = pi As — P2 As
Where:
• pi, p2 are pressure values [Pa]
• A is the area that is affected by force [m2]

• s is the length of the displacement of the fluid parcel [m]
Bernoulli’s Equation regarding an incompressible fluid:
pAs + |mv2 + mgh = const.
Where:
• v is the speed of the flow [m/s]
Bernoulli’s Equation per unit volume regarding an incompressible fluid:
P + ^pv2 + £gh — const.

where p is density [kg/m3] as well as p and 1/2 pv2 are called as static
pressure and dynamic pressure, respectively.
Speed of the flow in a Pitot-static tube regarding an incompressible fluid:
/ 2 (ps - pT
V Q
where ps is the stagnation (total) pressure which is the sum of the static
pressure and the dynamic pressure.
Buoyancy force in a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system (D):
= I x + g
dt2 Q dz
Where:
• -^4 indicates the buoyancy force on a unit mass [m/s2]

dt2
1
• -7- is the pressure gradient with respect to the z coordinate [Pa/m]

dz
Reynolds number (D):
Re == -
V
Where:
• Re is the Reynolds number (dimensionless quantity)

• u is the characteristic speed of the flow [m/s]
• I is the characteristic length of the flow [m]
• u is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid [m2/s]
Thermal wind components in a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate

system (D):
g ar / \
vt
x
=—
fT
x — (z — Zquy)
dx v
g ar / \
UT =----f—
T
X dy v
(z — Zuq')
Where:
• uT and vT are the components of the thermal wind vector vt [m/s]

• f is Coriolis parameter [1/s]
• T is the average temperature [K] between the heights z and z0 [m]
• — and are the gradient of the average temperature with respect to the
coordinates x and y [K/m]
Vectorial form of the thermal wind (D):
= fT^Z -z°) X (k x
where k = (0,0,1) is a dimensionless unit vector.
First law of thermodynamics (D):
^. = Q + W + L
dt
Where:
dU
• indicates the changes of the internal energy of the thermodynamic
system over time [J/s]
• Q is the transfer of energy per unit time by heat [J/s]
• W is the transfer of energy per unit time by work [J/s]
• L is the transfer of energy per unit time by matter across the boundary of
the system [J/s]
The system is in thermodynamic equilibrium when (D):
dU
dt
The thermodynamic system is isolated when (D):

% = 0
at
The thermodynamic system is closed when (D):
£
at
=w
In this case W is the pressure-volume work.
The pressure-volume work (D):
W = pdV
Where:
• p is the total atmospheric pressure [Pa]
• V is volume which changed because of the work on it [m3]
Empirical formula to calculate relative humidity (in %) if it is above 50 % (B):
relative humidity ~ 100 — 5(T — Ta)
where T is the actual temperature [°C] and Tj is the dew point [°C].
Magnus-Tetens formula (August-Roche-Magnus formula) (D):

aT
es(T) « 6.11 x 10^7
Where:
• es is the saturation vapour pressure [hPa]
• a and b are empirical constants:

o a = 7.5 and b = 237.3 °C for water
o a = 9.5 and b = 265.5 °C for ice
Mixing ratio (D):

__ mv __ qn _ ctv
md Qd ctd
Where:
• r is the mixing ratio (dimensionless quantity)
• mv is the mass of water vapour [kg]
• md is the mass of dry air [kg]
• pv is the density of water vapour [kg/m3]
• pd is the density of dry air [kg/m3]
• av is the specific volume of water vapour [m3/kg]
• ad is the specific volume of dry air [m3/kg]
Ideal gas law for water vapour using vapour pressure (D):
Where:
• e is vapour pressure [Pa]

• Rv is the specific gas constant of water [461 J/(kgK)]
Ideal gas law for dry air using vapour pressure (D):
where Rd is the specific gas constant of dry [287 J/(kgK)].
Mixing ratio estimated as the quotient of vapour pressure and total pressure
(D):
r 0 .62 -
p
Saturation mixing ratio estimated as the quotient of saturation vapour

pressure and total pressure (D):
rs ~ 0 .62
s p
where rs is the saturation mixing ratio (dimensionless quantity).
Relative humidity (D):

r
rs
where f is the relative humidity (dimensionless quantity).
Magnus formula to estimate dew point [°C] (D):
where b,c and d are empirical constants:
• b = 17.368 and c = 238.88 °C between 0 °C and 50 °C

• b = 17.966 and c = 247.15 °C between -40 °C and 0 °C
• d = 227.3 °C
Psychrometric formula to estimate vapour pressure [hPa] (D):
e = es - Ap(T — Tw)
Where:
• A is the psychrometric coefficient [1/°C]

• Tw is the wet-bulb temperature [°C]
Estimation of the height of cloud base (B):
h « 120(T — Td)
Where:
• h is the height of the cloud base [m]

• T is the actual temperature [°C]
• Td is the dew point [°C]
Potential temperature (D):

R
Where:
• T is the temperature of an air parcel at a given height level [K]

• p is the pressure of an air parcel at a given height level [hPa]
• 0 is potential temperature [K]
• p0 is the reference pressure (it is usually chosen to 1000 hPa)
• R is the specific gas constants of dry [287 J/(kgK)]

• cD specific heat of dry air at constant pressure [1005 J/(kg-K)]
Buoyancy force per unit mass of the air parcel expressed with density (D):
d 2z _ / *?*“*? \
dt2 “ gV e )
Where:
d2z
indicates the buoyancy force on a unit mass [m/s2]
dt2
• p density of the air parcel [kg/m3]
• q density of the environment [kg/mJ]
Buoyancy force per unit mass of the air parcel expressed with temperature
(D):
d 2z = / T — T* \
dt2 ®\ t* /
Where:
• ^4 indicates the buoyancy force on a unit mass [m/s2]

dt2

• T temperature of the air parcel [K]
• T temperature of the environment [K]
Buoyancy force per unit mass of the air parcel expressed with lapse rates (D):
= A x h(7-rd)
Where:
• h is the distance [m] between the heights which correspond to the

temperature that the air parcel has in the beginning and in the end of the
adiabatic process, To and T [K]
*
• T is the temperature of the environment in the end of the adiabatic
process [K]
• y environmental lapse rate [K/m]
• Td dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR) [K/m]
Dry adiabatic lapse rate (D):
dT _ g
dz cp
dT
where — is the vertical temperature gradient (gradient of the average
temperature with respect to the coordinate z) [K/m].
Weight of a spherical droplet (D):
Fg = Pj’rrg
Where:
• Fg is the weight of the droplet [N]
• p density of the droplet [kg/m3]

• r is the radius of the droplet [m]
• g is the gravitational acceleration [m/sz]
Stoke’s drag on a spherical droplet (D):
Fd = 6^771^
Where:
• Fj is Stoke’s drag [N]
• r] is the dynamic viscosity [kg/ms]
• is the velocity of the falling droplet [m/s]
Buoyancy force acting on a spherical droplet (D):
Fb = o g
Where:
• Fb is the buoyancy force [N]

• pf is the density of the fluid which surrounds the droplet
Terminal velocity of a spherical droplet (D):
2 r2 ( g ~ gf) g
9
Where:
v is the terminal velocity of the falling droplet [m/s]

APPENDIX
Learning Objectives
Below, you can find the Learning Objectives of this subject as designed by
EASA and contained in Amendments 4, 6 and 8 to AMC/GM to Part-FCL (ED
Decision 2018/001/R, ED Decision 2018/011/R and ED Decision
2019/017/R) that came into effect in 2020.
The operation of an aircraft is affected by the weather conditions within the

atmosphere. The pilot should prove that they fulfil the following objectives in
order to complete a flight safely in given meteorological conditions.
1. Training aims
i. Knowledge. After completion of the training, the pilot should be

able to:
• understand the physical processes in the atmosphere;

• interpret the actual and forecast weather conditions in the
atmosphere; and
• demonstrate understanding of the meteorological hazards and
their effects on aircraft.
ii. Skills. After completion of the training, the pilot should be able to:
• collect all the weather information which may affect a given

flight;
• analyse and evaluate available weather information before flight
as well as that collected in flight; and
• resolve any problems presented by the given weather
conditions.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

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1.1.1. Basic explanation of the structure of the atmosphere

1.1.2. Basic explanation of the troposphere

1.1.3. Basic explanation of the stratosphere

1.1.4. Remarks on the Earth’s structure and its atmosphere

1.2. Air temperature

1.2.1. Definition and units

1.2.2. Vertical distribution of temperature

1.2.3. Transfer of heat

1.2.4. Lapse rates

1.2.5. Development of inversions, types of inversions

1.2.6. Temperature near the Earth’s surface, surface effects, diurnal

and seasonal variation, effects of clouds, effects of wind

1.3.1. Barometric pressure, isobars

1.3.2. Pressure variation with height, contours (isohypses)

1.3.3. Reduction of pressure to mean sea level, QFF

1.3.4. Relationship between surface pressure centres and pressure

1.4. Air density

1.4.1. Relationship between pressure, temperature and density

1.4.2. Vertical variations of the air density in the atmosphere

1.4.3. Density altitude

1.4.4. Effects of pressure, temperature and density on airplanes

1.5. ICAO Standard Atmosphere (ISA)

1.5.1. ICAO Standard Atmosphere (ISA)

1.6.1. Terminology and definitions

1.6.2. Aidmeter settings

1.6.3. Corrections and calculations

2.1.1. Definition and measurement

2.2. Primary cause of wind

2.2.1. Primary cause of wind, pressure gradient, Coriolis force,

2.2.2. Variation of wind in the friction layer

2.2.3. Effects of convergence and divergence

2.3. General global circulation

2.3.1. General circulation around the globe

2.3.2. Remarks on the scales of the atmospheric motions

2.4. Local winds

2.4.1. Anabatic and katabatic winds, mountain and valley winds,

Venturi effects, land and sea breezes

2.4.2. Effect of accelerated airflow due to topography

2.5. Mountain waves (standing waves, lee waves)

2.5.1. Origin and characteristics

2.6.1. Description and types of turbulence

2.6.2. Formation and location of turbulence

2.7. Jet streams

2.7.2. Formation and properties of jet streams

2.7.3. Location of jet streams and associated CAT areas

3.1.1. Water vapour in the atmosphere

3.1.2. Mixing ratio, temperature/dew point, relative humidity

3.2. Change of state of aggregation

3.2.1. Condensation, evaporation, sublimation, freezing and

melting, latent heat

3.3. Adiabatic processes

3.3.1. Adiabatic processes, stability of the atmosphere

4. Clouds and Fog

4.1.1. Cloud formation

4.1.2. Cloud types and cloud classification

4.1.4. Electrical discharges

4.1.5. Influence of inversions on cloud development

4.2. Fog, mist, haze

4.2.1. General aspects

4.2.2. Types of fog

5.1.1. Process of development of precipitation

5.2. Types of precipitation