050 - Meteorology - Answers

Question N 1
Correct Answer – D
DEW POINT TEMPERATURE
The dew point is the temperature the air needs to be cooled to (at constant pressure) in
order to achieve saturation (= a relative humidity (RH) of 100%). In simple words, it is
the temperature at which the air can no longer "hold" all of the water vapour which is
mixed with it - and some of the water vapour must condense into liquid water.
 The dew point is always lower than (or equal to) the air temperature => If
the air temperature cools to the dew point, or if the dew point rises to equal the
air temperature, then dew, fog or clouds begin to form. At this point where the
dew point temperature equals the air temperature, the relative humidity is 100%.
Question N 2
Correct Answer – B
Note that the question states the air is saturated, meaning that, for a given temperature,
air is holding the maximum amount of water vapour.
The capacity of air to hold water vapour is determined by its temperature. If the
temperature is lowered => the air is capab le of holding less water => some water will
condense. However, Relative Humidity remains 100%.
 Water vapour depends on the amount of water the air is holding. As

temperature is lowered, some water vapour will condense =>
Therefore, water vapour decreases.
Question N 3
Warmer air can hold more water vapour than cold air, It can be imagined that a warm
parcel of air is a bigger bucket than a cold parcel of air.
mixed with it (the bucket has shrunk) - and some of the water vapour must condense
into liquid water. The dew point is always lower than (or equal to) the air temperature.
 Increasing air temperature has no effect on dew point. Decreasing air

temperature also does not have any effect on dew point, until dew point
temperature is reached (or below). At this point, the air is fully saturated, and
the water that is "forced out" will condense into water droplets, as in a cloud. As
the dew point can never be more than the temperature, then the dew point also
reduces with the air temperature.
Question N 4
Correct Answer – A
Refer to figure.
HUMIDITY is a measurement of the amount of water vapour in the air.
Humidity Measurement
Absolute Refers to the amount of water contained in a parcel of air. Usually

Humidity expressed in g/m3
Saturation Maximum amount of water vapour a unit mass of dry air can hold at a
Mixing Ratio specified temperature.
(SMR)
Humidity The ratio of the mass of water vapour present relative to the mass of
Mixing Ratio dry air in the air parcel.
(HMR) Expressed as g/kg of dry air.
Relative The ratio of the amount of water vapor actually present in the air to
Humidity (RH) the greatest amount possible at the same temperature, expressed as
percentage.
 Depends on moisture content and the temperature of the air.
RH = (HMR/SMR) x 100
RH 100% = Saturation
Now, let’s talk about Relative Humidity in more detail. As we have discussed above,
RH depends on moisture content and temperature. In simple words, it is given as a
percentage and tells you how close the air is to being saturated. Consequently, if the
relative humidity is 100%, the air is saturated. If the relative humidity is 50%, the air
contains half the water vapor required for it to be saturated.
 From the formula, we can say that, if the amount of water vapour in the air
increases, the relative humidity increases, and vice versa.
 Relative humidity is dependent on air temperature, too. As air temperature
increases, air can hold more water molecules, therefore, if the water vapor
content stays the same and the temperature increases, the relative humidity
decreases. On the other hand, since colder air doesn’t require as much
moisture to become saturated as warmer air, if temperature drops, relative
humidity increases.
Note: Dew point is a more reliable indicator of humidity than relative humidity because
dew point is not affected by a change in air temperature and doesn’t fluctuate much
throughout the day.
Question N 5
Cor Refer to figure.
ELR (Environmental Lapse Rate), DALR (Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate) and SALR
(Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate)
Atmospheric stability is determined by comparing the ELR with the DALR and the
SALR.
ABSOLUTE ELR > DALR when the environmental lapse rate is greater
INSTABILITY than DALR – air is unstable for both dry and
saturated air.
ELR is greater than 3°C per 1 000 ft
ABSOLUTE ELR < SALR stable conditions for both dry and saturated air.
STABILITY ELR is less than 0.6ºC/100 m (1.8°C/ 1 000 ft)
CONDITIONAL DALR > ELR > stability of air is dependent on whether the air
INSTABILITY SALR is saturated or unsaturated. The atmosphere is
said to be stable for unsaturated/dry air and
unstable for saturated air.
ELR is between 1.8°C and 3°C per 1 000 ft
NEUTRAL ELR = DALR Neutral stability for unsaturated/dry air
STABILITY Or
ELR = SALR Neutral stability for saturated air.
SUMMARY:
A layer can be:
 Unstable for both dry and saturated air (Absolute instability)

 Stable for both dry and saturated air (absolute stability)
 Stable for dry air and unstable for saturated air (conditional instability)
rect Answer – C
Question N 6
To calculate dew point, you need to know the current temperature and relative
humidity, and then solve the equation:
 Td = T - (100 - RH) / 5
 Where "Td" stands for the dew point temperature in degrees Celsius, "T" stands
for the observed temperature in degrees Celsius, RH is the relative humidity in
percent.
=> It is possible to calculate Relative Humidity using the above formula, provided
that Dew Point and Temperature are known.
This equation is accurate for humidity values above 50 percent.
Question N 7
The temperature lapse rate of air is the amount of temperature change the air
experiences over a difference in height. There are a different lapse rates, depending on
the situation. This question is simply asking about the SALR (Saturated Adiabatic
Lapse Rate)
DALR (Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate) - This is the amount of temperature that dry (non-
saturated) air changes by if it rises or sinks in the atmosphere. Adiabatic means that no
external temperatures affect it, and any parcel of dry air will conform to this DALR if
moved up or down. The DALR is -3ºC/1000ft, meaning that for every 1 000 ft gained, a
dry parcel of air will reduce in temperature by 3ºC. This happens because air rises into
lower pressure, therefore expanding and making the molecules further apart, so less
collisions occur and less heat is present.
SALR (Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate) - This is the same concept as for the DALR,
but has an added layer of complication. When saturated (Relative Humidity 100 %) air
rises, it will become cooler (as is standard due to expansion), but that means that the air
can no longer hold as much water, so some water is released as condensation , turning
into liquid water droplets. This process is going from a high energy sta te (water vapour)
to a lower energy state (liquid), meaning that latent heat is released (see annex above).
The release of latent heat adds temperature to the air, which gains back a little of the
3ºC lost per 1 000 ft (DALR). This means that saturated air does not lose heat as
quickly with altitude as dry air does, but by how much depends on the heat of the air
(and therefore the water content. More water to condense means that more energy is put
into the atmosphere, so the air cools less, so the wetter air cools slower with altitude
increase).
For standard temperatures we say that the SALR is about -1.8ºC/1000ft, meaning that
the water condensation releases 1.2ºC into the atmosphere every 1 000 ft.
Sometimes lapse rates are measured in degrees (ºC) per 100 m, in which case, the
DALR would be -1ºC/100m and the SALR would be -0.6ºC/100m on
average (remember, the SALR can change).
ELR (Environmental Lapse Rate) - This is the ACTUAL change in temperature
throughout the atmosphere, measured by a radiosonde. The ELR decides whether
pockets of air that moves upwards or downwards will be unstable or stable, as the ELR
dictates what the moving air will have to compare its temperature to (read up on
stability for more explanation).
Question N 8
050.03.01.03.06: Estimate the relative humidity of the air from the difference between
dew point and temperature.
There is an easy calculation to estimate the relative humidity of an air parcel if you
know its temperature and dew point. It effectively works backwards from the
knowledge that having a temperature and dew point that are the same means that the air
has 100% relative humidity, and it fully saturated. The temperature can never be less
than the dew point.
Relative Humidity (%) = 100 - [(Temperature - Dewpoint) x 5]
For each degree Celsius difference between our temperature and dewpoint, there is a
5% reduction in relative humidity, starting from 100%, where the numbers are the
same. This question has a 12ºC difference between temperature and dewp oint, which is
a 60% reduction from 100%, so the relative humidity is 40%.
Question N 9
Correct Answer – C
Refer to figure.
EXPANSION.
In the atmosphere, pressure decreases as altitude increases. Now imagine an isolated
parcel of air moving vertically through the troposphere. As altitude increases, the
pressure exerted on the parcel decreases and the parcel expands in volume as a result .
In order to expand (do work), the parcel must use its internal energy to do so. As the air
expands, the molecules spread out and ultimately collide less with one another. The
work of expansion causes the air’s temperature to decrease.
CONTRACTION.
In the atmosphere, pressure increases as altitude decreases. Again, imagine an isolated
air parcel descending through the troposphere, as altitude decreases, it experiences an
increasing atmospheric pressure. This causes the parcel volume to decrease, squeezing
the air molecules closer together. In this case, work is being done on the parcel. As the
volume shrinks, air molecules bounce off one another more often with greater speed.
The increase in molecular movement causes an increase in the temperature of the
parcel.
Question N 10
An ADIABATIC PROCESS is defined as a process in which no heat transfer takes
place. This does not mean that the temperature is constant, but rather that no heat is
transferred into or out from the system. The parcel temperature changes due to an
expansion or compression - no heat is added or taken away from the parcel.
 In the atmosphere pressure decreases as altitude increases so if an air parcel is

forced to rise it will expand as it rises and hence will cool by the adiabatic
process.
 Similarly, if a parcel of air is forced to descend it will become compressed and
hence heat up, again by the adiabatic process.
Question N 11
Refer to figure.
Adiabatic temperature changes – occur when a gas is compressed or expanded with no
external exchange of heat.
THE DRY ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE DALR – Lapse rate for rising dry (unsaturated)
air.
 Constant/fixed value of 1ºC/100 m (about 3ºC/1000 ft)
THE SATURATED LAPSE RATE SALR – Lapse rate for rising saturated air.
 Constant/fixed value of 0.6ºC/100 m (about 1.8ºC/1000 ft)
THE ENVIRONMENT LAPSE RATE ELR – Actual temperature profile of troposphere.

It varies with time and position. ISA ELR = 2°C per 1 000 ft (0.65°C per 100 m).
SALR.
saturated air.
STABILITY ELR is less than 1.8°C per 1 000 ft

STABILITY Or
Question N 12
Refer to figure.
TROPOSPHERE is the lowermost layer of the Earth's atmosphere. Nearly all
atmospheric water vapour or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer
where most of Earth's weather takes place, although some may extend into the lower
portion of the stratosphere.
Fact sheet:
 Water vapor concentration varies from trace amounts in Polar Regions to

nearly 5 percent in the tropics. (0 - 5%)
 Consists of 3⁄4 of the total atmosphere in weight.
 In the troposphere air temperature on average decreases with height at an overall
positive lapse rate of about 2ºC/1000 ft , until the tropopause, the boundary
between the troposphere and stratosphere, is reached.
 The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) assumes that the average height of
the tropopause is 36 000 feet, from that point upwards the temperature remains
at a constant value of -56.5°C..
 In this layer, as altitude increases both temperature and pressure decrease but,
although they have opposite effects on density, the effect of pressure is much
greater than the effect of temperature so density decreases as altitude increases.
Question N 13
Relative humidity (RH) = weight of water vapour contained in unit mass of dry air
(HMR) divided by the maximum amount of water vapour a unit mass of dry air can hold
at a specified temperature (SMR) x 100.
SATURATION – occurs when the air contains the maximum amount of water vapour it
can hold at that temperature (relative humidity = 100%).
 As air temperature increases, air can hold more water molecules, and its relative
humidity decreases.
 Likewise, as air temperature decreases, air can no longer hold as m any water
molecules and, therefore, relative humidity increases.
=> Temperature, therefore, relates to the amount of moisture the atmosphere can hold.
With regards to this question, the air parcel is unsaturated. Now, considering a rising
parcel of air, as the parcel rises, it will adiabatically expand and cool. It will no longer
be capable of holding as many water molecules => relative humidity increases.
Question N 14
Refer to figure.
Latent heat is
absorbed
Solid to liquid Melting
Solid to gas sublimation
Liquid to gas evaporation
Latent heat is
released
Liquid to solid freezing
GAS TO LIQUID CONDENSATION
Gas to solid deposition
The latent heat of a substance is the heat absorbed or released without change of
temperature when the substance changes state.
Question N 15
Refer to figure.
Latent heat is
absorbed
LIQUID TO GAS EVAPORATION
Latent heat is
released
Gas to liquid condensation
Question N 16
An isothermal layer is defined as a vertical column of air having a constant temperature
with height.
Isothermal layers often occur in the low levels of the troposphere during a differential
advection situation.
The air within an isothermal layer is stable.To cause air in an isothermal layer to rise it
must be forced lifted since it will not rise on its own.
Stability of the atmosphere can be defined using the relationship of ELR
(Environmental Lapse Rate), DALR (Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate) and SALR (Saturated
Adiabatic Lapse Rate):
 Absolute stability: ELR is less than SALR => ELR is less than 1.8°C per 1 000
ft (0.6°C per 100 m). Relationship is: ELR < SALR < DALR.
 Absolute instability: ELR is greater than DALR => ELR is greater than 3°C per
1 000 ft (1°C per 100 m). Relationship is: SALR < DALR < ELR.
 Conditional instability: ELR is between 1.8°C and 3°C per 1 000 ft.
Relationship is: SALR < ELR < DALR.
Because in an isothermal layer the temperature does not change with altitude, the ELR
is 0 and thus less than the SALR.That is why an isothermal layer is absolutely stable.
Question N 17
mixed with it - and some of the water vapour must condense into liquid water.
Remember that warm air can take in more water than cold air (due to the air
expanding). Cold air can take in less water than warm air (due to air being
compressed). So, as air cools, its ability to hold water decreases. Likewise, as air heats
up its ability to hold water increases.
 With regards to this question, think of it as a plastic bag filled with water. If
you squeeze it, water will come out but it will remain filled. The same will
happen in this case, when we reach the dew point, the parcel is fully saturated, if
we keep on cooling the parcel it will shrink more and excessive water va pour
will condense into liquid water (the actual water vapour content decreases).
Question N 18
Air becomes saturated:
 By adding more water to it; or

 Alternatively, as warm air can hold more water vapour than cold => saturation
can be achieved by cooling the air; or
 Combination of the above.
EXPANSION. In the atmosphere, pressure decreases as altitud e increases. Now,

imagine an isolated parcel of air moving vertically through the troposphere. As altitude
increases, the pressure exerted on the parcel decreases and the parcel expands in
volume as a result. In order to expand (do work), the parcel must use its internal
energy to do so. As the air expands, the molecules spread out and ultimately collide less
with one another. The work of expansion causes the air’s temperature to decrease.
=> If the moist unsaturated parcel of air expands and cools to the dew point
temperature - saturation will occur
Question N 19
Refer to figure.
Latent heat is Latent heat absorbed

absorbed (+)/released (-)
Solid to liquid Melting +80 cal/g
Solid to gas sublimation +680 cal/g
Liquid to gas evaporation +590 cal/g
Latent heat
is RELEASED
Liquid to solid freezing -80 cal/g
GAS TO LIQUID CONDENSATION -590 cal/g
Gas to solid deposition -680 cal/g
The third column on the above diagram, shows the amount of latent energy required for
phase changes of water per gram of water.
 Clouds form when water vapour condenses. As we have seen above, when water
vapour condenses, latent heat is released – warming up the surrounding
air. This released latent heat delivers the main part of the energy in
thunderstorms and hurricanes.
The latent heat associated with the phase change between liquid to solid is only 80
calories per gram of water. Whilst the latent heat associated with the phase change
between water vapor (gas) and liquid water is 590 calories per gram of water.
The tremendous amount of energy involved in evaporation and condensation of water is
particularly important in understanding the operation of weather and climate on Earth.
Question N 20
temperature is lowered => the air is capable of holding less water => some water will

Question N 21
Processes that increase atmosphere’s stability:
 Cold air moving in at low levels – warm air moving aloft.

 Stability increases when lower layers are cooled, or upper layers warmed.
Processes that destabilize the atmosphere:

 Warm air moving at low levels - Cooling of the air aloft.
 Instability increases when lower layers are warmed, or upper layers cooled.
The subsidence, a sinking motion of air, is present in the core of a HIGH => the air
gets compressed and adiabatically heated and stability increases.
Question N 22
Refer to figure.
Latent heat is
absorbed
SOLID TO LIQUID MELTING
Latent heat is
released
Question N 23
The temperature lapse rate of air is the amount of temperature change the air
experiences over a difference in height. There are a different lapse rates, depending on
the situation.
DALR (Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate) - This is the amount of temperature that dry (non-
saturated) air changes by if it rises or sinks in the atmosphere. Adiabatic means that no
external temperatures affect it, and any parcel of dry air will conform to this DALR if
moved up or down. The DALR is -3ºC/1000ft, meaning that for every 1 000 ft gained, a
dry parcel of air will reduce in temperature by 3ºC. This happens because air rises into
lower pressure, therefore expanding and making the molecules further apart, so less
collisions occur and less heat is present.
SALR (Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate) - This is the same concept as for the DALR,
but has an added layer of complication. When saturated (Relative Humidity 100%) air
rises, it will become cooler (as is standard due to expansion), but that means that the air
can no longer hold as much water, so some water is released as condensation , turning
into liquid water droplets. This process is going from a high energy state (water vapour)
to a lower energy state (liquid), meaning that latent heat is released (see annex above).
The release of latent heat adds temperature to the air, which gains back a little of the
3ºC lost per 1 000 ft (DALR). This means that saturated air does not lose heat as
quickly with altitude as dry air does, but by how much depends on the heat of the air
(and therefore the water content. More water to condense means that more ene rgy is put
into the atmosphere, so the air cools less, so the wetter air cools slower with altitude
increase).
For standard temperatures we say that the SALR is about -1.8ºC/1000ft, meaning that
the water condensation releases 1.2ºC into the atmosphere eve ry 1 000 ft.
ELR (Environmental Lapse Rate) - This is the ACTUAL change in temperature
throughout the atmosphere, measured by a radiosonde. The ELR decides whether
pockets of air that moves upwards or downwards will be unstable or stable, as the ELR
dictates what the moving air will have to compare its temperature to (read up on
stability for more explanation).
This question is actualy much simpler than it looks. An isothermal layer is where the
air in the atmosphere does not change in temperature with a ch ange in altitude, and
therefore, the ELR is 0ºC/1000ft, which can just be written as 0.
Note: feedback on this question is limited, so any further exam feedback can be put in
the comments or emailed to info@atplquestions.com, thank you.
Question N 24

process. (Adiabatic Cooling)
Question N 25
SUPERCOOLED WATER DROPLET is a water droplet still in liquid state at a
temperature below 0ºC. They can be encountered above the freezing level at any time
of year, in clouds, fog or precipitation.
Supercooled water droplet size is controlled by cloud type and the temperature => As
temperature decreases the water droplets evaporate thus reducing their size.
 Large supercooled water droplets: Between 0°C and -20°C, found in Cumulus,
Cumulonimbus and Nimbostratus clouds.
 Small supercooled water droplets:
- Upper levels of Cumulus, Cumulonimbus and Nimbostratus clouds: -20°C to -40°C
- Stratus, Stratocumulus, Altostratus and Altocumulus clouds: 0°C to -40°C
 Below -40°C only very tiny supercooled water droplets can exist.
Question N 26
Refer to figure.
The term “adiabatic process” refers to the process of energy conversion in a volume of
air without exchange of heat with the surroundings. We know that when a volume of a
parcel of air changes the temperature changes. If the parcel of air is compressed, its
temperature increases. If it is allowed to expand, its temperature decreases. This change
of volume is most frequently caused by lifting the parcel of air or its subsidence. As a
parcel of air is lifted to a higher level the pressure of its surrounding air decreases =>
the pressure inside this parcel of air is higher than its surrounding air => the parcel of
air is allowed to expand => expansion results in lower temperature => parcel of air
cools. This is the principle why temperature decreases with altitude. When parcel of air
subsides (sinks) the opposite is true => it "enters" an area where the pressure of its
surrounding air is higher => parcel of air is forced to compress => compression results
in an increase of temperature.
Saturation occurs when the actual water vapor content of a given parcel of air r eaches
the maximum value that the parcel of air can hold at the given temperature. We know
that the capacity of air to hold water vapor is determined by its temperature. If the
temperature is lowered to the point where the maximum water vapor holding capac ity is
reached or if water vapor is added and reached this "maximum capacity" value
saturation occurs. Saturation is equivalent of 100% Relative Humidity (ratio of the
actual water vapor content to the maximum possible water content capacity of the air).
Cooling of the air beyond saturation point results in condensation = transformation of
water vapor into liquid water - water droplets. Saturation can be achieved:
 by adding water vapor to the parcel of air and thus increasing the actual water
vapor content,
 by decreasing the temperature of the air parcel (adiabatic cooling = adiabatic
expansion) and thus reducing its capability to hold water vapor,
 by combination of the above.
Question N 27
Refer to figure.
Latent heat is
absorbed
SOLID TO GAS SUBLIMATION
Latent heat is
RELEASED
Question N 28
The dew point is the temperature the air needs to be cooled to (at constant
pressure) in order to achieve saturation (= a relative humidity (RH) of 100%). In
simple words, it is the temperature at which the air can no longer "hold" all of the water
vapour which is mixed with it - and some of the water vapour must condense into liquid
water.
 The dew point is always lower than (or equal to) the air temperature => If the air
temperature cools to the dew point, or if the dew point rises to equal the air
temperature, then dew, fog or clouds begin to form. At this point where the dew
point temperature equals the air temperature, the relative humidity is 100%.
Question N 29
Refer to figure.
The maximum amount of water vapor that can be in the air depends on the air
temperature.
 Warmer air can hold more water molecules within it. But as the temperature
goes down, the air can hold less vapor and some of it condenses and turns into
liquid water.
The temperature to which the air needs to be cooled in order to achieve saturation is
known as Dew Point. At this temperature, the air can no longer "hold" all of the water
water.
Question N 30
THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Nitrogen 78.09% Argon 0.93%
Oxygen 20.95% Carbon Dioxide 0.03%
 From a meteorological point of view, water vapour is the most important gas
in the atmosphere – it is very important in predicting weather.
Question N 31
The formation of clouds and precipitation can be simplified into a simple recipe: water
and dust.
Clouds are composed primarily of water in its liquid and solid state.
Thus, we begin our recipe by collecting sufficient water vapour - that we will soon
transform into the liquid or solid states. The water vapor content of the atmosphere
varies from near zero to about 5 percent, depending on the moisture on the surface
beneath and the air temperature.
Next, we need some dust (Micrometric solid particles). Without "dirty air" there
would likely be no clouds at all or only high altitude ice clouds. Even the "cleanest" air
found on Earth contains about 1000 dust particles per cubic meter of air. Dust is needed
for condensation nuclei, sites on which water vapor may condense or deposit as a liquid
or solid.
With proper quantities of water vapor and dust in an air parcel, the next step is for the
air parcel mass to be cooled to a temperature at which cloud droplets or ice crystals can
form (dew point).
Question N 32
A formula for the approximate value of relative humidity (RH) is:
RH = 100 - 5 x (Temperature - Dew Point)
So, RH = 100 - 5 x (15 - 10)
RH = 75
Question N 33
mixed with it - and some of the water vapour must condense into liquid water. The dew
point is always lower than (or equal to) the air temp erature.
 Increasing air temperature has no effect on dew point. Decreasing air

temperature also does not have any effect on dew point, until dew point
temperature is reached (or below).
Question N 34
Refer to figure.
air.

SALR.
saturated air.
STABILITY (and ELR < ELR is less than 1.8°C per 1 000 ft
DALR)

STABILITY Or
Question N 35
Dew, fog or clouds form when the invisible water vapour in the air condenses into
liquid water. For this to happen, the parcel of air must be saturated (Relative Humidity
= 100%) - which means that the air parcel is unable to hold all the water it contains in
vapour form, so it starts to condense.
 There are two ways by which saturation is reached:
(a) By increasing the water content in the air. I.e. through evaporation, to a point where
the air can hold no more.
(b) By cooling the air so that it reaches its dew point - this is the temperature at which
condensation occurs, and is unable to "hold" any more water. The dew point is always
lower than (or equal to) the air temperature => If the air temperature cools to the dew
point, or if the dew point rises to equal the air temperature, then water vapour
condenses and dew, fog or clouds begin to form. At this point where the dew point
temperature equals the air temperature, the relative humidity is 100%.
"temperature and dew point are nearly equal." => for condensation to occur,
temperature must equal dew point.
"relative humidity reaches 98%." => condensation occurs when the air is saturated;
RH = 100%.
"water vapour is present." => this is not enough for co ndensation to occur, the air
must be saturated.
Question N 36
To calculate Relative Humidity, you need to know the current temperature and dew
point, and then solve the equation:
 RH = 100 - 5 (T - T d )
 Where "Td" stands for the dew point temperature in degrees Celsius, "T" stands
for the observed temperature in degrees Celsius, RH is the relative humidity in
percent.
RH = 100 - 5 (30 - 21) = 55%
Question N 37
Correct Answer –
Refer to figure.
Latent heat is
ABSORBED
LIQUID TO GAS EVAPORATION
Latent heat is
released

Question N 38
Refer to figure.
Latent heat is
absorbed
Latent heat is
released
LIQUID TO SOLID FREEZING

Question N 39
Refer to figure.

(SMR)
percentage.
decreases. On the other hand, since colder air doesn’t require as much moisture
to become saturated as warmer air, if temperature drops, relative humidity
increases.
Question N 40
The dew point is the temperature the air needs to be cooled to (at constant
pressure) in order to achieve saturation (= a relative humidity (RH) of 100%). In
simple words, it is the temperature at which the air can no longer "hold" all of the water
water.
 The dew point is always lower than (or equal to) the air temperature => If the air
temperature cools to the dew point, or if the dew point rises to equal the air
temperature, then dew, fog or clouds begin to form. At t his point where the dew
point temperature equals the air temperature, the relative humidity is 100%.
Question N 41
Refer to figure.
air.

SALR.
INSTABILITY (and ELR > than DALR – air is unstable for both dry and
SALR) saturated air.
STABILITY ELR is less than 1.8°C per 1 000 ft
STABILITY Or
Question N 42
Refer to figure.
percentage.
As we have discussed above, RH depends on moisture content and temperature. In
simple words, it is given as a percentage and tells you how close the air is to being
saturated. Consequently, if the relative humidity is 100%, the air is saturated. If the
relative humidity is 50%, the air contains half the water vapor required for it to be
saturated.

increases.
Now, with regards to this question, if the parcel of air is forced to descend it will
become compressed and hence heat up, by the adiabatic process => Since its
temperature increases, provided that the amount of water vapour remains the
same - Relative humidity decreases.
Question N 43

process.
Question N 44
Refer to figure.
Latent heat is
absorbed
Solid to liquid melting
Latent heat is
RELEASED
LIQUID TO SOLID FREEZING
gas to solid deposition
Question N 45
THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Nitrogen 78.09% Argon 0.93%
Oxygen 20.95% Carbon Dioxide 0.03%
 From a meteorological point of view, water vapour is the most important gas
in the atmosphere – it is very important in predicting weather.
Question N 46
Relative humidity can be estimated from the difference between the actual temperature
and the dew point. A proper estimation for the relative humidity can be given by the
following empirical formula, if the relative humidity is above 50%:
 RH = 100 - 5 x (30 - 21)

RH = 55%
Question N 47
 RH = 100 - 5 x (18 - 12)

 RH = 70%
Question N 48
Refer to figure.
(SMR)
percentage.
decreases. On the other hand, since colder air doesn’t require as much
moisture to become saturated as warmer air, if temperature drops, relative
humidity increases (provided that moisture content remains unchanged).
Question N 49

(SMR)
percentage.
With regards to this question, we must apply the RH formula: RH = (HMR/SMR) x
100; Where HMR (actual content of water vapour) is 15 g/kg and SMR (the maximum
content of water vapour) is 20 g/kg.
 RH = (15 / 20) x 100% = 75%
Question N 50
Processes that increase atmosphere’s stability: Stability increases when lower layers
are cooled, or upper layers warmed.
=> WARM AIR MASS (air warmer than surface below) - stable
Stable weather characteristics:
 Clear skies or Clouds (layer type of clouds will form - STRATIFORM) - great
horizontal extension, little vertical development: ST, SC,AS,NS,CI,CS.
 Moderate to poor visibility (especially in an inversion)
 Light turbulence (except in an inversion or mountain waves)
 Possibly fog (especially in winter)
 Continuous or intermittent light turbulence.
Processes that destabilize the atmosphere: Instability increases when lower layers are
warmed, or upper layers cooled.
=> COLD AIR MASS (air colder than surface below) - UNSTABLE
Unstable weather characteristics:
 Clouds (heap type of clouds - CUMULIFORM) - extensive vertical

extension: CU, TCU, CB, AC, CC.
 Moderate to heavy showers
 Potential for moderate to heavy precipitation
 Good visibility except in showers.
 Gusty winds
Question N 51

(SMR)
percentage.
increases.
Question N 52
TEPHIGRAM. “T – phi – gram”, where “T” stands for temperature and “phi” for
entropy. These describe the axes of the diagram.
 Red lines – Saturated adiabatic lapse rate

 Green lines – Dry adiabatic lapse rate
 Brown dashed lines – Constant Saturation Mixing Ratio (Dew point lines)
Brown dashed lines: Depict Dew point rate of change (and the path) for an unsaturated
air parcel.
Note: Dew Point temperature is the temperature a parcel of air needs to be cooled to
become saturated.
 As we can observe in the graph, this condition happens at point 4, where the
lines intercept – condensation level is reached.
It means that below the condensation level (point 4), the air parcel remains
dry/unsaturated and, therefore, when forced to rise, it will cool down at the Dry
Adiabatic Lapse rate (which is depicted by green line).
Above the condensation level (point 4), on the other hand, the air is saturated. And as
long as this air inside the cloud remains warmer than the surroundings, it will continue
to rise. Up to the cloud top, the air parcel remains saturated and when rising, it cools
down at the Saturated Adiabatic Lapse rate.
CONCLUSION:
First, the dry air parcel will rise and cool at the DALR (green line) => point 3
Until it reaches the condensation level => point 4
After the condensation level, it will rise and cool at the SALR (red line) => point 6
Question N 53
Refer to figure.
EXPANSION.
pressure exerted on the parcel decreases and the parcel expands in volume as a
result. In order to expand (do work), the parcel must use its internal energy to do so.
As the air expands, the molecules spread out and ultimately collide less with one
another. The work of expansion causes the air’s temperature to decrease
adiabatically.
Adiabatic - a process where the parcel temperature changes due to an expansion or
compression, no heat is added or taken away from the parcel.
Question N 54
Refer to figure.
CONTRACTION.
In the atmosphere, pressure increases as altitude decreases. Now imagine an isolated air
parcel descending through the troposphere. As altitude decreases, it experiences an
increasing atmospheric pressure. This causes the parcel volume to decrease,
squeezing the air molecules closer together. In this case, work is being done on the
parcel. As the volume shrinks, air molecules bounce off one another more often with
greater speed. The increase in molecular movement causes an increase in the
temperature of the parcel.
EXPANSION.
In the atmosphere, pressure decreases as altitude increases. Again, imagine an isolated
pressure exerted on the parcel decreases and the parcel expands in volume as a result.
expands, the molecules spread out and ultimately collide less with one another. The
work of expansion causes the air’s temperature to decrease.
Question N 55
Refer to figure.
EXPANSION.
pressure exerted on the parcel decreases and the parcel expands in volume as a result .
expands, the molecules spread out and ultimately collide less with one another . The
work of expansion causes the air’s temperature to decrease adiabatically.
Adiabatic - a process where the parcel temperature changes due to an expansion or
compression, no heat is added or taken away from the parcel.
Question N 56
Air can hold a certain amount of water vapour before it becomes fully saturated, at
which point the excess vapour will condense into droplets, forming clouds. Warmer air
can hold more water vapour than cold air.
The dew point is a temperature, at which, a certain parcel of air will become saturated,
and begin to condense. When the temperature is warmer than the dew point, it means
that the air can fit more water vapour in before it reaches saturation. However, as the
air cools, its Relative Humidity (RH) will increase, and when it reaches the dew point,
the RH will be 100% and the air is fully saturated. If the air continues cooling from this
point, it will have to release water to do so, which forms a cloud.
For every degree difference between the dew point and the temperature, the Relative
Humidity decreases by 5%.
Therefore, we can calculate the Relative Humidity by saying that we have a 30 - 21 =
9⁰C difference between OAT and dew point, which is 9 x 5 = 45% difference in RH,
below the saturated 100%.
100% - 45% = 55% Relative Humidity
Question N 57
Refer to figure.
The vapour pressure - is the pressure exerted by the water vapor molecules in the air. It
is defined as the amount of vapour that can be found in the air. As the number of water
vapour molecules increases, the vapour pressure increases. The saturation vapour
pressure depends on the temperature of the surface and on the type of surface.
For a liquid surface it will be much easier for water molecules to b reak free and
evaporate than for a solid surface (ie. Ice). That is because the bonds between adjacent
molecules are stronger in an ice surface than they are in a water surface. At the same
temperature, fewer molecules will break free from an ice surface t han from a water
surface,
=> Therefore, the saturation vapor pressure over ice is lower than the
saturation vapor pressure over liquid water.
Question N 58
Refer to figure.
Latent heat is
absorbed
SOLID TO GAS SUBLIMATION

Latent heat is
released
.............................................................................................................................................................
Release date: 2022.11.20.
Question N° 59
Refer to figures.
North-west corner of Spain is located in an area where moderate turbulence is
forecasted from a level below FL100 up until FL200 and moderate icing is expected
from a level below FL100 up until FL180 => therefore, at FL120, we can expect
moderate turbulence.
Question N° 60
Refer to figure.
Learning Objective 050.09.07.01.01: Summarise the advantages of stratospheric
flights.
Learning Objective 050.09.07.01.02: List the influences of the phenomena associated
with the lower stratosphere (wind, temperature, air density, turbulence).
Note: this is the first question in this section (stratospheric conditions) that has been
ever been known to be examined by EASA. We expect that more similar questions may
be added by EASA in future.
With the question being so new, any exam feedback about it (or any similar questions)
would be greatly appreciated, and can be sent to info@atplquestions.com or put in the
comments, thank you.
In the stratosphere, which is the layer of atmosphere above the troposphere, starting at
36,000 ft in the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), the temperature stays the
same (isothermal layer) up to around 60,000ft, where it then begins to gradually
increase again. The lower levels of the stratosphere would therefore be around the
region of 36,000 to 50,000ft
This means that the lower levels of the stratosphere have decreasing pressure with
height (the same occurs all through the atmosphere) but the temperature remains the
same (warmer than it would otherwise be). In the troposphere, the reduction in
temperature with altitude allows some density to be regained (as cold air is denser), but
this does not happen in the stratosphere, meaning that the air density drops off
quicker than it would in the corresponding troposphere. This also means that the
stratosphere is also completely stable due to the isothermal nature of it.
Let's go through each option individually:
 Stratospheric flight levels have lower density (therefore higher density altitude)
than if it were the troposphere, which means that the jet engines can run at
their peak efficiency, as they are effectively at a higher altitude. This
compounds with the fact that the stratospheric flight levels are high up anyway,
giving them very efficient flight characteristics even without the effect of the
isothermal layer.
 The reduced density also gives a higher TAS when flying at a constant IAS, and
the warmer temperature means that TAS will be higher when flying at a
constant Mach number (which is much more likely).
 Emissions within the stratosphere have been studied to have a different
impact on the environment, but not necessarily less of an impact.
 Mountain waves can extend well into the stratosphere in some cases, and EASA
formally recognise that as part of the mountain waves syllabus.
 There will be less clouds in the low stratosphere, as cloud form due to uplift
(mostly) which does not occur, and the isothermal layer is completely
stable. There are some rare clouds that do occur (noctilucent, polar stratospheric,
etc.), as well as the peaks of some violent CBs that penetrate the tropopause with
their high upwards momentum.
 Less wear on the engines is not true, as the engines will have to spin at a higher
RPM to maintain thrust output in the low density air (which is actually more
efficient), but will cause more wear due to the high rotational speeds.
 Less turbulence is probably the easiest one to wor k out of this whole selection,
as this is what the stratosphere is best at, producing low turbulence, stable
conditions.
Question N° 61
Refer to figure.
A cold-air drop is a mass of cold polar air which becomes separated from the other
polar air by transiting towards the warmer air in the subtropical region. This can
take a few different forms, but the most usual form is that the air between 10 -30,000ft
is much colder in one patch (sometimes called a cold -air pool), than the sub-tropical air
around it. This cold air means that the column of air in that region is much shorter than
around it, as pressure drops off more quickly with increasing height in a cold air
mass. The cold air becomes trapped, and usually forms a circle on a chart.
This does form a low pressure zone high in the troposphere, which can be seen on
medium and high level pressure charts. It also forms a region where there is a huge
amount of cold air sat on top of warm (and moist also if over water) lower section of
troposphere. This means that there is a very high environmental lapse rate, the warm air
wants to rise and the cold air wants to sink, and this causes layers of massive
instability.
It can often only be seen by comparing the 10,000ft and 20/30,000ft charts to see
the change in pressure due to the thermal effect, but not by looking only at the surface
pressure, where it may not be visible. The later stages of a cold -air drop usually ends
up as a low pressure zone at the ground also, but this is not expected to be examined by
EASA.
The large instability can cause heavy convective activity, including cumulonimbus
clouds if the low level air is moist enough, meaning that they can be quite dangerous
for aviation.
Question N° 62
We know the following about pressure and temperature:
 When an aircraft is in a lower pressure area, the altimeter will overread. The
aircrafts true altitude will be lower than indicated.
 When an aircraft is in a higher-pressure area, the altimeter will under
read. The aircrafts true altitude will be higher than indicated.
 When an aircraft is in a colder airmass than ISA, the altimeter will overread.
The aircrafts true altitude will be lower than indicated.
 When an aircraft is in a warmer airmass than ISA, the altimeter will under
Important aspects in this question:
 It is a warm summers day

 There is a high-pressure system in the area
 The aircraft is flying at an altitude
In the case of this specific question: Because it is warm summers day the density is
decreased.
The altimeter will under read, and the true altitude will be higher than indicated.
On the ground, if you would go up 27 feet the amount of pressure would decrease
slower than in ISA conditions, it would be less than 1 hPa (millibar).
So that is why at the altitude of the summit the pressure would be higher than in normal
standard atmosphere conditions (ISA) (this decreased pressure value would in the ISA
atmosphere be found at a lower altitude).
Compared to the elevation of the summit the aneroid altimeter will give a lower
indication.
Question N° 63
Refer to figure.
True Altitude is the real distance beneath the aircraft to the ground. Indicated altitude is
only the same as true altitude if the temperature and pressure conditions are equal to the
ISA conditions.
 If a given flight level descends or ascends, it means that the pressure is

decreasing or increasing respectively at the given height.
 If the temperature is warmer than ISA, then the true altitude is higher than the
indicated altitude. If temperature is colder than the ISA, then true altitude is
lower than the indicated altitude.
On warm days the air expands and is less dense than on a cold day, and consequently
raises the pressure levels. For example, the pressure level for 5 000 feet will be higher
than on a day with standard conditions; the altimeter may indicate 5 000 feet when the
airplane is actually at 6 000. One way to remember the effects of temperatur e in
relation to true altitude is the pneumonic: “From hot to cold, high to low (pressure),
look out below.”
Question N° 64
(1) FIRST STEP: Adjust for QNH deviation
In this case, the aircraft is flying an altitude with the correct QNH set, therefore,
pressure correction shall be disregarded.
(2) SECOND STEP: Adjust for Temperature deviation from ISA

Rule of Thumb: correction of 4% for each 10º deviation from ISA (1% for each 2.5ºC)
Note: If temperature is warmer than ISA => Indicated Altitude is lower than True.
If temperature is colder than ISA => Indicated Altitude is higher than True.
=> Temperature Error Correction is only applied above QFE Datum (Aerodrome Level)
– Column of air between the aircraft and the meteo station.
 The aircraft is 2 600 ft – 600 ft = 2 000 ft Above Aerodrome Level (AAL)

For ISA -8ºC, correction equals 3.2%:
2 000 ft x 3.2% = 64 ft
 As ISA deviation is negative (-8ºC), Indicated altitude is higher than True
altitude.
Therefore, True Altitude = Indicated altitude - Temperature error correction
=> 2 600 ft - 64 ft = 2 536 ft
Question N° 65
When climbing through the transition altitude, the pilot will change the altimeter
subscale from QNH to standard pressure setting (1013.2 hPa) so they can then fly
pressure altitudes (Flight Levels) above that altitude. In this case, the QNH pressure is
higher than standard, so the indicated altitude is higher than pressure altitude. We are
therefore expecting the altimeter reading to decrease during this subscale setting
procedure. We can calculate this decrease using a barometric correction.
Pressure Difference = 1035 - 1013 = 22 hPa
Altitude difference = 22 hPa x 27ft/hPa = 594 ft
Pressure Altitude = 18,000 - 594 = 17,406 ft, closest answer 17,410 ft
Question N° 66
ICAO Annex 3
World area forecast centre (WAFC). A meteorological centre designated to prepare
and issue significant weather forecasts and upper-air forecasts in digital form on a
global basis direct to States by appropriate means as part of the aeronautical fixed
service.
CHAPTER 3. WORLD AREA FORECAST SYSTEM AND METEOROLOGICAL
OFFICES
3.2 World area forecast centres
3.2.1 A Contracting State, having accepted the responsibility for providing a WAFC
within the framework of the world area forecast system, shall arrange for that centre:
a) to prepare gridded global forecasts of:
1) upper wind;
2) upper-air temperature and humidity;
3) geopotential altitude of flight levels;
4) flight level and temperature of tropopause;
5) direction, speed and flight level of maximum wind;
6) cumulonimbus clouds;
7) icing; and
8) turbulence;
Question N° 67
Fog may fully cover a large area, or it may exist partially or in patches. When the
height of fog does not exceed 2 m, shallow fog will be reported in weather briefings.
In the case of shallow fog, in-flight visibility may be good, but ground visibility can
be poor at the same time. When approaching overhead, it might appear that there is no
fog or that it is more patchy than forecast. Any shallow fog will be encountered in the
flare.
Question N° 68
Refer to figure.
HIGH PRESSURE SYSTEM/ANTICYCLONE. Is an area which has a higher air
pressure than the surroundings (the value of the isobars decrease with distance from the
centre). Isobars are more widely spaced than with depressions.
Within an anticyclone, at high altitude we have air converging, then descent of air
within the anticyclone (subsidence) and divergence at the surface. Typical weather
in an area under the influence of a High-Pressure is clear skies due to the sinking
motion of air (subsidence), lighter winds than around a Depression and reduced chance
of precipitation.
Subsidence is, therefore, a sinking motion of air, present in the core of a High Pressure
System.
Question N° 69
THUNDERSTORMS
Each storm separates positive and negative charge. Positive charge is typically
transferred towards the storm top and negative charge accumulates towards the bottom.
Positive charge in the storm top flows upwards into the ionosphere, causing it to gain a
net positive charge. At the same time, negative charge from the base of the storm is
transferred down to Earth’s surface in lightning and negatively charged ra in.
 Thus thunderstorms actively transport charge, generating a large potential

difference (voltage) between the ionosphere and Earth’s surface. If the global
thunderstorm generator was suddenly switched off, and all thunderstorms
stopped, the ionosphere would slowly discharge.
Question N° 70
The aircraft has standard pressure (1013 hPa) set in the altimeter subscale, with 1035
hPa as the actual QNH at the airfield, which would read 1450 ft if set correctly. The
altimeter is not set correctly, and is instead reading out the aircraft's pressure altitude .
That is what the question is asking, what is the pressure altitude upon landing ?
1450 ft is technically called our "indicated altitude" as that is what would show on our
altimeter if QNH was set, and the difference between indicated and pressure altitude is
the barometric (pressure) correction. The QNH is 1035, which is 22 hPa more than
standard (1013 hPa)
Pressure correction = 22 x 27 = 594 ft
As the pressure is higher than standard, the indicated altitude is going to be higher
than the pressure altitude. This means that the pressure altitude is the lower value.
Pressure altitude = 1450 - 594 = 856 ft
Question N° 71
FOG. There is fog if the visibility is less than 1000 m and the obscuring agent is water
droplets.
ICAO Annex 3
Appendix 3
4.4.2.3
b) Obscurations (hydrometeors)
Fog (FG)
- Reported when visibility is less than 1 000 m, except when qualified by "MI", "BC",
"PR" or "VC"
Mist (BR)
- Reported when visibility is at least 1 000 m but not more than 5 000 m.
Question N° 72
Air becomes saturated:
 By adding more water to it; or

 Alternatively, as warm air can hold more water vapour than cold => saturation
can be achieved by cooling the air; or
 Combination of the above.
EXPANSION. In the atmosphere, pressure decreases as altitude increases. Now,

imagine an isolated parcel of air moving vertically through the troposphere. As altitude
increases, the pressure exerted on the parcel decreases and the parcel expands in
volume as a result. In order to expand (do work), the parcel must use its internal
energy to do so. As the air expands, the molecules spread out and ultimately collide less
with one another. The work of expansion causes the air’s temperature to decrease.
=> If the moist unsaturated parcel of air expands and cools to the dew point
temperature - saturation will occur
Question N° 73
Refer to figure.
To start with, this diagram should be analysed considering that it is in Southern
Hemisphere.
"J" is a frontal depression. Some of the clues to figure this out are:
 The Wind; it will follow the isobars, so you can track its direction all the way
around from the indication in the top left. This gives a clockwise flow around
"J", which would make it a low pressure zone in the Southern Hemisphere (due
to Buys Ballot's Law).
 The frontal activity centred close to "J". This looks like an occluded front with
standard cold and warm fronts in a "zipper" pattern, and is indicative of a low
pressure zone.
 "G" is a textbook looking blocking anticyclone with a high pressure ridge
marked by "E". The surface wind is also pointing slightly away from "G" rather
than following the isobars, proving again that "G" is high pressure. The layout
of the isobars then show that "J" is therefore low pressure.
Question N° 74
Refer to figure.
WARM FRONT. Can be defined as warm air replacing cold air.
The warm, less dense air is overtaking/displacing the cold air => warm air will ride up
and over the denser cold air while advancing.
 The slope of the warm air is approximately 1:100 to 1:150.

 Warm front is slower than a cold front. The front moves at right angles to itself
at a speed equal to 2/3 of the geostrophic interval measured along the front.
The average speed of a warm front is about 10 knots, or about half that of an
average cold front.
Question N° 75
Refer to figure.
Latent heat is
absorbed
Latent heat is
released
Question N° 76
efer to figure.
VALLEY INVERSIONS form as a result of both cooling of the ground due to long-
wave radiation and nocturnal down-slope winds. They usually extend from the
bottom of the valley up to the boundary-layer top. In winter, inversions can last for a
few days to several weeks, being triggered and maintained by anticyclonic conditions at
synoptic scale.
How does a Valley Inversion form?
 The temperature of the upper parts of the valleys in mountainous areas becomes
exceedingly low during winter nights because of radid loss of heat from the
surface through terrestrial radiation.
 Consequently, the colder and heavier air of the upper part of the valley descends
along the mountain slopes. The temperature of the valley floor does not fall
considerably because of comparatively low rate of loss of heat aloft and hence
this warmer and lighter air of the valley floor is pushed upwards by the cold
downslope winds.
 Thus, there is warm air aloft and cold air in the valley floor and a temperature
inversion is caused.
Question N° 77
Refer to figure.
Learning Objective 050.08.03.04.03: Identify cold-air drops on weather charts.
A cold-air drop is a mass of cold polar air which becomes separated from the other
polar air by transiting towards the warmer air in the subtropical region. This can take a
few different forms, but the most usual form is that the air between 10-30,000ft is much
colder in one patch (sometimes called a cold -air pool), than the sub-tropical air around
it. This cold air means that the column of air in that region is much shorter than
around it, as pressure drops off more quickly with increasing height in a cold air mass .
The cold air becomes trapped, and usually forms a circle.
This does form a low pressure zone higher up in the troposphere, which can be seen
on medium and high level pressure charts. It also forms a region where there is a huge
amount of cold air sat on top of warm (and moist also if over water) lower section of
troposphere. This means that there is a very high environmental lapse rate, the warm air
wants to rise and the cold air wants to sink, and this causes layers of massive
instability.
It can often only be seen by comparing pressure charts for different levels to see the
change in pressure due to the thermal effect, but not by looking only at the surface
pressure, where it may not be visible. The later stages of a cold-air drop usually ends
up as a low pressure zone at the ground also, but this is not examined by EASA.
The higher pressure chart should show an area of lower pressure that does not
exist on the surface (or lower altitude) chart. This means that the thermal effect has
taken place, and that the area has cold air in it.
In this case, there are two possible diagrams which show a resemblance to
this. Figure 1 and Figure 4 both show more low pressure on the 700 hPa charts that
the surface charts.
The difference between them is the size of the cold-air drop. Figure 1 shows lower
pressure over the whole region of the image (which is in comparison to the area outside
the image), meaning that the potential cold-air drop which has caused it would be very
large.
Figure 4, however, shows a smaller, isolated cold-air drop (low pressure zone) in the
middle of the 700 hPa chart, which did not appear on the surface chart which showed a
neutral "col" pressure distribution.
700 hPa is approximately equivalent to 10,000ft, so the thermal effect has not had too
much time to take effect, but at higher levels, the cold-air drop would be even more
visible on the charts.
Note: We have had conflicting feedback about this question. We have had enough
feedback and a reply to an appeal from the Hungarian CAA that Figure 1 is correct,
however we think figure 4 is also a possible cold air drop, and our initial feedback also
supported that. See the comments for the most recent feedback, and keep putting exam
feedback in the comments when possible, thank you!
Question N° 78
The lowest (minimum) temperature over land is reached around half an hour after
sunrise.At his time the atmosphere has been without the heat of the sun for the longest
time.The ground gathers no solar energy but continues to radiate away its stored
heat.The lowest temperature of the day usually occurs then.But why is this
temperature after sunrise, you might think?
At dawn, when the first light beams across the landscape, the incoming solar radiation
is very weak.It does not yet have enough strength to counter all the heat escaping from
the surface.
As a result, the surface continues to lose heat for some time following sunrise, and the
air temperature continues to fall.At some point, the solar rays shine strongly enough to
counter the heat loss.The gain-loss balance is shifted, and the air finally begins to warm
up.
Question N° 79
With regards to this question: We will need to adjust for the temperature deviation from
ISA. To determine the true altitude/height, the following rule of thumb, called the ‘4
per cent-rule’, shall be used: the altitude/height changes by 4 per cent for each 10 deg C
temperature deviation from ISA.
For an ISA deviation +15ºC, we must apply a correction of: 6%
The temperature is warmer than ISA, meaning that the true altitude will be higher than
indicated. The question asks for the actual thickness (vertical difference) between
FL230 and FL 120:
 23 000 ft – 12 000 ft = 11 000 ft

6% of 11 000 ft = 660 ft
Because it is warmer than ISA the true separation will be 660 feet more than 11
000 feet = 11 660 feet.
Note: It has been reported that the question does not mention "determine the actual
layer thickness between FL230 and FL120" however, we strongly believe that that is
what the examiner is looking for. If you come across this question, please report it back
to us.
Question N° 80
Refer to figure.
STEAMING FOG (ARCTIC SMOKE). occurs over sea, mainly in polar regions.
 It is caused when cold air from a land mass moves over a (comparatively)
warmer sea (water surface) = advection of very cold air over a warm sea.
The small amount of evaporation from the sea is enough to cause saturation and
condensation.
 Steam fog is typically up to 500 feet thick and may drift inland. The fog can be
persistent and up to 500 feet thick - may drift inland.
 Forms in conditions of no wind or very light winds. Will be dispersed by an
increase in wind speed or change of direction.
Question N° 81
temperature is lowered => the air is capable of holding less water => some water will

Question N° 82
Low drifting sand is when sand has been raised by the wind, but does not obscure
visibility at eye level, and therefore is less than 2m (6 feet).
It is detailed in Learning Objective 050.09.09.02.02, and low drifting dust and snow are
also given as possible phenomena.
Question N° 83
Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon in which dust, smoke, and other dry
particulates obscure the clarity of the sky. Haze is primarily caused by particles in the
atmosphere which scatter the sunlight.
The increase in airborne particulates combined with specific (low) sun angles causes
the slant range visibility to be reduced even further.
 An aircraft landing "into the sun" will experience significant haze related
visibility degradation => in this case, greatest visibility deterioration will
occur when landing on runways close to a bearing of 270º - into the sunset.
Runway 26 is very close to this, so would experience the same effect.
Worst cases occur around sunrise and sunset during the summer months at times of day
where haze-reduced visibility may be exacerbated by the low sun angle.
Note: This is a very common type of question to encount er, usually referring to sunrise
or sunset in haze, and 3000m seems to be an EASA favourite for the prevailing visibilty
measurement. We do sometimes see feedback stating a different value for the minimum
visibility occasionally, 1000m for instance, instead of 1500m. It should be clear in an
exam which is correct. Any further exam feedback on this question would be
appreciated, thanks.
Question N° 84
ICAO Annex 3
VOLMET. Meteorological information for aircraft in flight.
Data link-VOLMET (D-VOLMET). Provision of current aerodrome routine
meteorological reports (METAR) and aerodrome special meteorological reports
(SPECI), aerodrome forecasts (TAF), SIGMET, special air-reports not covered by
a SIGMET and, where available, AIRMET via data link.
VOLMET broadcast. Provision, as appropriate, of current METAR, SPECI, TAF and
SIGMET by means of continuous and repetitive voice broadcasts.
Question N° 85
Refer to figure.
ALTOCUMULUS CASTELLANUS the cloud name castellanus comes from the
similarity to the crenellated towers or turrets. This castellanus character is especially
evident when the cloud is seen from the side. They are the most dangerous altocumulus
clouds that can in themselves develop to bring thunderstorms or heavy rainstorms.
they are a feature of summer weather in temperate latitudes.
Height of base: 7,000 - 18,000 ft.
Precipitation: Usually a few large droplets of rain, often evaporating before they reach
the ground.
 Castellanus clouds are caused by unstable air heated from below rising rapidly.
Altocumulus Castellanus clouds occur when the instability only starts higher up,
instead of near the surface.
Question N° 86
Refer to figure.
Lifting of air near the surface, formation of clouds and precipitations are conditions
associated with a Low-Pressure System/Depression/Cyclone.
A Depression is a region of comparatively lower pressure than the surroundings.
As you can observe in the attached figure, in a LOW, air is converging at the
surface (being sucked in at low level) and rising from the surface to higher altitude
and, thereafter, diverging.
This lifting action cools the air adiabatically => if moisture is available, it may lead
to condensation and formation of clouds.
Converging near the ground and general lifting within a LOW lead to formation of
extensive stratiform cloud layers and may strengthen convective movements, which
leads to the formation of CB clouds (if the air mass in unstable).
DEPRESSION WEATHER:
 Clouds. extensive and may extend from low altitude to the tropopause.
 Precipitation. May be continuous/intermittent precipitation or showers and
intensity can range from light to heavy, depending on the type of depression.
 Visibility. Poor in precipitation, otherwise good due to ascending air.
Winds: typically strong - the deeper the LOW and the closer the isobars, the stronger
the wind
Question N° 87
Refer to figure.
VALLEY INVERSIONS form as a result of both cooling of the ground due to long-
wave radiation and nocturnal down-slope winds. They usually extend from the
bottom of the valley up to the boundary-layer top. In winter, inversions can last for a
few days to several weeks, being triggered and maintained by anticyclonic condition s at
synoptic scale.
How does a Valley Inversion form?
 The temperature of the upper parts of the valleys in mountainous areas becomes
exceedingly low during winter nights because of radid loss of heat from the
surface through terrestrial radiation.
 Consequently, the colder and heavier air of the upper part of the valley descends
along the mountain slopes. The temperature of the valley floor does not fall
considerably because of comparatively low rate of loss of heat aloft and hence
this warmer and lighter air of the valley floor is pushed upwards by the cold
downslope winds.
 Thus, there is warm air aloft and cold air in the valley floor and a temperature
inversion is caused.
Question N° 88
Refer to figure.
Learning Objective 050.09.08.03.0: Describe the formation of a valley inversion due to
katabatic winds.
A katabatic wind is what happens when the face of a mountain cools down, and then
cools the air in contact with it. The colder air wants to sink, and creates a wind that
flows down the mountainside into the valley below (if one exists). Very simply, this
cold katabatic wind gathers in the bottom of a valley, creating what is called a valley
inversion, where the air is cold at the ground level, but warms up as you gain
altitude initially, into the air mass which has been displaced by the katabatic wind. It
is extremely common for this to happen overnight in mountainous areas, and should be
carefully considered, as it can reduce an aircraft's climb performance after take -off,
which would be a bad effect in the region of mountains.
Therefore, at the ground just after sunrise (the coldest time of day), we would expect
the air in the valley to be colder than the air at 1000 ft, which means -1°C is the correct
answer
Question N° 89
FOG. There is fog if the visibility is less than 1000 m and the obscuring agent is water
droplets.
ICAO Annex 3
Appendix 3
4.4.2.3
b) Obscurations (hydrometeors)
Fog (FG)
- Reported when visibility is less than 1 000 m, except when qualified by "MI", "BC",
"PR" or "VC"
Mist (BR)
- Reported when visibility is at least 1 000 m but not more than 5 000 m.
"Haze" visibility is reduced by extremely small solid particles (such as sand, dust or
smoke). Reported if the visibility is reduced below 1000 m.
.............................................................................................................................................................
Release date: 2023.02.19.
Question N° 90
Refer to figure.
FOEHN EFFECT
Foehn winds are warm and dry, gusty winds that periodically descends the leeward
slopes of nearly all mountains and mountain ranges (warm katabatic wind). This is a
change from wet and cold conditions one side of a mountain, to warmer and drier
conditions on the other (leeward) side.
- How does it form?
When air is forced upwards over elevated terrain, it expands and cools adiabatically (at
the DALR) until it saturates. After saturation, it will continue to cool at the SALR.
Since colder air can hold less water vapour, moisture condenses to form clouds and
precipitates as rain/snow above the mountain’s upwind slopes. By the time it reaches
the peak and stops climbing, the air is quite dry.
As the air makes its leeward descent, it is compressed and warms rapidly all the way
downslope – because there is little water left to evaporate. Thus, the air is warmer and
drier when it reaches the leeward slope than when it begins its windward ascent.
 On the windward side we can expect low cloud and precipitation whilst on the
leeward side we will see clear turbulent conditions.
With regards to this question, with a south wind - the south side is the upwind side =>
where the air is forced up the mountains, cooling down and condensing - forming
clouds. The north side is the leeward/downwind side, where air descends and becomes
drier and warmer => little or no precipitation, good visibility and clear air turbulence is
expected.
Question N° 91
Refer to figure.
STEAMING FOG (ARCTIC SMOKE). occurs over sea, mainly in polar regions.
 It is caused when cold air from a land mass moves over a (comparatively)
warmer sea (water surface) = advection of very cold air over a warm sea.
The small amount of evaporation from the sea is enough to cause saturation and
condensation.
 Steam fog is typically up to 500 feet thick and may drift inland. The fog can be
persistent and up to 500 feet thick - may drift inland.
 Will be dispersed by an increase in wind speed or change of direction.
Question N° 92
Refer to figure.
Freezing rain is a common weather condition found beneath warm fronts. Freezing Rain
can cause significant accumulations of clear ice. Clear ice is the most hazardous form
of airframe icing.
 The belt of frontal cloud and rain should if possible be crossed at right
angles so as to give the shortest traverse through the icing region.
 A particularly dangerous procedure is to fly along/parallel to the front in the
freezing rain, since a heavy accumulation of clear ice could form rapidly.
Question N° 93
Refer to figure.
The figure depicts a COLD OCCLUSION – the cold air behind the cold front undercuts
the less cold air ahead of the warm front, warm front becomes a front aloft. In simple
words, the cold front transits into the occlusion (and not the warm front).
As we can see in the attached figure:
A – Cold front
B – Warm sector
C – Warm front
D – Cold occlusion
F – zone ahead of warm front (cool air)
E – Zone behind cold front (cold air)
In the warm sector surface wind is steady and usually from the South-West.
 The wind tends to flow parallel to the isobars (in this case approx. 260º/265 º).
However, friction backs the wind 30º over land and 10º over sea; say that over
land the surface wind would be around 230º => roughly south westerly direction.
Question N° 94
This TAF (Terminal Aerodrome Forecast) is issued at 10:00 UTC on the 6th of the
month, and covers the forecasted weather for periods of time through from the 6th at
12:00 UTC (0612) to the 7th at 18:00 UTC (0718).
Of the time periods, we must look for any that include 0705 (the 7th at 05:00), but
failing that, the ones immediately prior to that time.
There is no time period that includes 0705, so the weather expected at 05:00 UTC
should be whatever was happening at the end of the last time period, "BECMG
0700/0703 16015KT 8000 FEW026". This is because betwee n 00:00 and 03:00 UTC on
the 7th, the weather is expected to change to (BECMG) "16015KT 8000 FEW026", and
we must therefore assume that after 03:00, the weather will become that.
Therefore, the wind is expected to be 15kt, the visibility should be 8 000 m and
the clouds should be few with a base of 2 600 ft.
Question N° 95
ICAO Annex 3
World area forecast centre (WAFC). A meteorological centre designated to prepare
and issue significant weather forecasts and upper-air forecasts in digital form on a
global basis direct to States by appropriate means as part of the aeronautical fixed
service.
CHAPTER 3. WORLD AREA FORECAST SYSTEM AND METEOROLOGICAL
OFFICES
3.2 World area forecast centres
3.2.1 A Contracting State, having accepted the responsibility for providing a WAFC
within the framework of the world area forecast system, shall arrange for that centre:
a) to prepare gridded global forecasts of:
1) upper wind;
2) upper-air temperature and humidity;
3) geopotential altitude of flight levels;
4) flight level and temperature of tropopause;
5) direction, speed and flight level of maximum wind;
6) cumulonimbus clouds;
7) icing; and
8) turbulence;
Question N° 96
OZONE HEALTH EFFECTS
Most atmospheric ozone is concentrated in a layer in the Stratosphere. Aircraft flying
above the Tropopause may, therefore, be flying through air with high concentrations of
Ozone. Ozone is poisonous and, in high enough concentrations, when breathed in, can
cause headaches, irritation to the respiratory system, and can harm lung function.
This can cause chest pain, coughing, shortness of breath, and throat irritation
 Catalytic converters are fitted to the aircraft air conditioning systems on most
modern aircraft to break down the Ozone into harmless Oxygen.
Question N° 97
In the Northern Hemisphere, the winds of a High Pressure system rotate clockwise and
counterclockwise around a low pressure system. In other words, around a HIGH, winds
veer. Therefore, from A (Low Pressure System) to B (High Pressure System) => Wind
veers.
The isobar spacing looks similar around both pressure systems, and for the same isobar
spacing, the Gradient Wind around a High Pressure System is faster than around a Low
Pressure area => From A to B, wind increases.
For more info about Gradient Wind, continue reading:
GRADIENT WIND IN A LOW
 The Centrifugal force opposes the PGF => Reducing the wind speed.
Therefore, for the same isobar spacing, gradient wind speed in a LOW is less
than the equivalent geostrophic wind.
PGF = CF + Centrifugal Force
GRADIENT WIND IN A HIGH
 The Centrifugal Force acts in the same direction as the PGF => Increasing wind
speed.
Therefore, for the same isobar spacing, gradient wind speed in a HIGH is greater
than the equivalent geostrophic wind.
CF = PGF + Centrifugal Force
Question N° 98
ICAO Annex 3
SIGMET information. Information issued by a meteorological watch office concerning
the occurrence or expected occurrence of specified en-route weather phenomena which
may affect the safety of aircraft operations.
According to ICAO Annex 3, a SIGMET will be issued for:
 thunderstorm;
 heavy hail;
 tropical cyclone;
 freezing rain;
 severe turbulence (not associated with convective cloud);
 severe icing (not associated with convective cloud);
 severe mountain waves;
 heavy sand/dust storm;
 volcanic ash cloud.
In this case, the SIGMET is issued in reference to severe Clear Air Turbulence, which
is not within a cloud, and can therefore not be detected by any RADAR or weather
satellite as they only pick up clouds and precipitation, nor can it be accurately modelled
in most cases. This SIGMET is most likely to have come from pilot reports in the area.
Question N° 99

process. (Adiabatic Cooling)
Question N° 100
So, RH = 100 - 5 x (15 - 10)
RH = 75
Question N° 101
FREEZING FOG.
In its simplest sense, fog is a cloud near the ground that consists of tiny liquid water
droplets. Fog can form when moisture is added into the air or the air cools to a point
that it becomes saturated.
 Freezing fog occurs when fog forms in temperatures that are below freezing,
and the tiny water droplets in the air remain as liquid. They become
supercooled water droplets remaining liquid even though they are below
freezing temperature.
This occurs because liquid needs a surface to freeze upon. When droplets from freezing
fog freeze onto surfaces, a white deposit of feathery ice crystals is formed. This is
referred to as rime; rime is a characteristic of freezing fog and is often seen on vertical
surfaces exposed to the wind.
Question N° 102
Refer to figure
Ahead of a warm front, freezing rain can be encountered . Freezing Rain occurs when
precipitation, in the form of rain, passes from a warm air mass into a relative cold air
mass of an air temperature less than 0°C. The rain maintaining its liquid state in sub -
zero temperatures renders it super-cooled. It can cause significant accumulations of
Clear Ice. Clear ice is the most hazardous form of airframe icing, because it has the
fastest rate of accumulation and is more difficult to remove than rime ice. When the
supercooled drop hits the airframe, it freezes relatively slowly due to the latent heat
released in the freezing process. This allows part of the drop to spread backwards
before it too freezes.
Now, let's analyse each option individually:
 "Fly along searching for an opening." and "Orbit and wait for
improvement.". Incorrect. The question states that the pilot is in the planning
phase, it does not make sense to plan an orbit. In such circumstances, it is safer
and cost-effective to delay the departure. Furthermore, flying along the front
trying to find an opening is rarely an option due to fuel available and airspace
restrictions.
 "Descend low as possible, staying at 500 ft AGL, even if it means flying below
MSA and entering IMC." Incorrect. MSA stands for minimum sector altitude, an
aircraft must not descend below the local MSA.
 "Plan his/her route through the warm front on the shortest way
possible." Correct. This is the most correct option available. Avoid any signs of
precipitation.
Question N° 103
Refer to figure.
BERGERON PROCESS
Describes the process of precipitation formation in the middle and high latitudes.
Clouds form at altitudes where the temperatures are below the freezing point of water.
In these clouds, water exists in its liquid form even though the temperatures are cold
enough to freeze water. Water that has a temperature below freezing but is still in a
liquid state is called supercooled water.
Ice crystals are found co-existing with the super-cooled water in cold clouds. When
this occurs, the ice crystals will grow at the expense of the water droplets. At
temperatures below freezing the saturation vapor pressure of ice is less than that over a
droplet of water. This means that a water vapor gradient exists between the droplet and
the ice. Water can evaporate off the droplet and deposit on the ice in response to the
water vapor gradient. The droplet will dissipate in size while the ice crystal grows into
a snow flake. Once the snow flake is large enough, it will fall to the surface. Thus,
precipitation that falls in the middle and high latitudes starts out as snow. Whether
it hits the surface as snow or rain depends on the temperature conditions through which
the snowflake falls.
Question N° 104
Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon in which dust, smoke, and other dry
particulates obscure the clarity of the sky. Haze is primarily caused by particles in the
atmosphere which scatter the sunlight.
The increase in airborne particulates combined with specific (low) sun angles causes
the slant range visibility to be reduced even further.
 An aircraft taking off "into the sun" will experience significant haze related
visibility degradation => in this case, greatest visibility deterioration will
occur when taking off from runway 27 (direction 270º) - into the sunset.
Worst cases occur around sunrise during the summer months – time of day where haze-
reduced visibility may be exacerbated by the low sun angle
Question N° 105
See the comments - conflicting feedback.
Refer to figure.
(1) Polar lows are formed over water only. CORRECT.
Polar lows are defined as small but intense maritime meso-scale cyclones that form in
cold polar or arctic air advected over relatively warmer water. Polar lows are much
smaller and more transient than a regular mid -latitude depression. Their scale varies
between 100 to 500 km and typically they last for anything between 12 to 36 hours.
Like their tropical cousins, polar lows tend to decay rapidly with landfall, mostly due
to the lack of warm moisture supply from the relatively warm sea. This is the reason
that they do not occur naturally over land (see note below).
(2) Thermal lows are formed over land only. INCORRECT.
Thermal lows or Heat lows are prominent climatological features of many arid land
areas of the world during the warmer months, especially at low latitudes where
insolation (solar heating) is strong.
Over land, intense, rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the
lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum. The
resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air. This, combined with the
rising of the hot air, results in the formation of a low pressure area.
Thermal lows are most common over land masses but they can form over water when
the sea temperature can become high enough to create a thermal low. This is
particularly noticeable when the land temperatures in the region are much cooler, such
as during the autumn season.
Note: this question is very highly contested, and it seems that some authorities disagree
on the correct answer. For instance the Polish and Hungarian authority believe that
"1 only" is the wrong answer and we believe that they choose "both correct" as the
correct answer, even though we have good feedback from other authorities that "1
only" correct.
We say that the second most correct answer is "none", as there can be debate as to the
formation of polar lows; where they usually form over water, could they occur
completely over land? We have to go off the exam feedback, and so would appreciate
any further feedback on this question in the comments, or sent to
info@atplquestions.com.
See Question 507748 for the other version of this question , which we believe the UK
CAA are using (and maybe other authorities), and has a more objective answer.
Question N° 106
Refer to figure.
Mechanical Turbulence (Frictional turbulence) - is caused by physical obstructions to
the normal ﬂow of air such as hills, mountains, coasts, trees and buildings. This kind of
turbulence will increase as the wind speed increases and with increasing roughness of
terrain.
Question N° 107
Refer to figures.
 -SN = light snow

 SHGR = moderate hail showers
 SHSN = moderate snow showers
 +SG = heavy snow pellets/small hail
SHOWER (SH) - Used to report showers of rain “SHRA”, snow “SHSN”, ice pellets
“SHPL”, hail “SHGR”, small hail and/or snow pellets “SHGS”, unknown precipitation
“SHUP” (automatic observing systems only) or combinations thereof, for example,
“SHRASN”. In METAR, showers observed in the vicinity of the aerodrome should be
reported as “VCSH” without qualification regarding type or intensity of precipitation.
Question N° 108
Significant Weather Charts are visual presentations of significant weather phenomena
for a given geographical region. SIGWX charts are issued by World Area Forecast
Centers (WAFC) every six hours (at 00:00, 06:00, 12:00 and 18:00 UTC) as forecast
charts to a fixed time specified on the chart.
In accordance with ICAO Annex 3, the following weather phenomena have to be shown
on a Significant Weather (SIGWX) Chart if present in the chart coverage area:
A) thunderstorms (indicate moderate/severe turbulence/icing),
B) tropical cyclone,
C) severe squall lines,
D) moderate or severe turbulence (in cloud or clear air) ,
E) moderate or severe icing,
F) widespread sandstorm / dust storm,
G) for FL100 to FL250, clouds associated with a) to f),
H) above FL250, cumulonimbus cloud associated with a) to f),
I) surface position of well-defined convergence zones,
J) surface positions, speed and direction of movement of frontal systems when
associated with significant en-route weather phenomena,
K) tropopause heights (tropopause level, tropopause high, tropopause low),
L) jet streams,
M) volcanic eruptions producing ash clouds of significance to air craft operations,
including those producing only steam.
Question N° 109
This question gives us a planned Flight Level of 290 (pressure altitude 29,000ft) and
some meteorological conditions, which we must use to calculate our true altit ude, and
then compare to the local highest terrain to find our terrain clearance at this altitude.
To start with, we must make a barometric correction to turn pressure
altitude into indicated altitude.
The QNH is quoted as 982 hPa, which is 1013 - 982 = 31 hPa less than standard
pressure. Because we are in low pressure, our indicated altitude is lower than our
pressure altitude. Each hPa is 30ft of height (unless otherwise specified), so the
indicated altitude is 31 x 30 = 930 ft lower than the pressure altitude.
Indicated Altitude = 29,000 - 930 = 28,070 ft
To make this into a true altitude, we must do a temperature correction for any ISA
deviation, which we must first calculate.
ISA at 29,000ft should be 15 - 2(29) = -43⁰C, but our OAT is 17⁰C colder than this at -
60⁰C, therefore our OAT is ISA -17⁰C.
As our temperature is lower than ISA, our true altitude will be even lower than our
indicated altitude.
Temperature correction = 4 x ISA Deviation x Height above QNH station (in thousands
of feet).
In this case, the QNH station is near sea level, so our temperature correction is 4 x -17
x 28.070 = (-)1909 ft
Therefore, true altitude = 28,070 - 1,909 = 26,161 ft
This makes our terrain clearance 26,161 - 25,460 = 701 ft, closest answer 590 ft
Note: The correct answer may also be 690 ft. We are not sure why the authorities are
using 590 ft, as it is further away from the correct answer than the original feedback of
690 ft, but they do sometimes work in mysterious ways.
Question N° 110
The low level jet stream is a term used for a wind at around 5000 ft above the surface,
which forms due to either intense, uneven surface cooling at night, or the movement
of a cold mass of air over the ground. The movement of this cold mass of air pushes
under the warmer air and creates an inversion that looks exactly like a small cold front.
The marked temperature difference between the warm and cold air causes a pressure
differential, which causes a wind up to around 70 kts in the warm air section, which
sits over the cold air that is moving in.
These are common in the central United States and the plains of Southern Germany,
amongst other places, and are not technically a jet stream according to the World
Meteorological Organisation's definition. They occur in a similar fashion to a jet
stream, though, hence the name.
Note: Technically, the low-level nocturnal jetstream exists above the inversion,
however, the answer (from feedback) may still be somewhat correct, as the question
does not make it clear what is meant by the "top of the inversion". As we would usually
see this from a side-on view, we know that the low-level jetstream exists in the warm
air (in front of the cold front), with its "core" high up away from the surface, and near
the top of where the cold front extends up to. This would usually mean being above the
inversion when referenced to a single location, but is a little unclear in this question
This may be what the examiner is referring to, so if anyone has exam feedback about
the wording of the correct answer, it would be very useful to verify this question. Thank
you.
Question N° 111
Refer to figure.
Learning Objective 050.02.02.01.07: Explain the gradient wind effect and indicate how
the gradient wind differs from the geostrophic wind in cyclonic and anticyclonic
circulation.
This question is made up of two parts, first we need to know which latitude the wind
will be weakest at, and secondly we need to know whether high or low pressure zones
(anti-cyclones or cyclones) have the lowest gradient wind speed.
To start, we have to understand how the (geostrophic) wind works.

1. Initially, wind begins as a flow of air perpendicular to the isobars, initially
under the influence of the Pressure Gradient Force (PGF), from high to low
pressure.
2. As the movement begins, the Coriolis Force (CF) begins to influence the
moving air causing it to be deflected to the right of its path in the Northern
Hemisphere, and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. If the Coriolis Force
was not present, the air would flow directly from the high to the low pressure, at
90º angle to the isobars, under the influence of the PGF.
3. This deflection continues until PGF and CF are opposite and balance each other
and the airflow becomes parallel to the isobars – PGF and CF act perpendicular to
the airflow direction and opposite to each other (balanced forces).
The Coriolis Force is directly proportional to the speed of the wind , so when we
have a high PGF, we need a high CF to oppose it, and the wind flows faster.
The Coriolis Force also gets stronger away from the equator , due to the changing
distance from the Earth's rotational axis (barely any change around the equator, lots of
change up at the poles). This means that, near the equator, air has to g et a lot faster to
work up enough Coriolis Force to oppose the PGF, meaning higher wind
speeds. Therefore, the further away from the equator (the higher the latitude), the
slower the wind speeds (for the same PGF, which is the isobar spacing)
Next, we must understand what the gradient wind is, and when it is strongest/weakest.
Previously, we have spoken about the geostrophic wind, which is the wind that flows
along straight isobars. That is a rarity though, and more often, isobars are curved,
meaning that the wind is turning. This introduces imbalanced forces, which cause this
turning of the wind. Note: There are a couple of different ways to reason and
understand gradient winds, centrifugal force and centripetal force. Centrifugal force is
not actually a force at all, it is the effect of inertia in a turn. Nonetheless, you may have
learnt either of these two ways. We believe centripetal force is slightly easier to explain
in text format, so we will do that.
If you wish to take the easy road here, remember that, for the same isobar spacing
(same PGF), gradient wind speed is LOW around a LOW, and HIGH around a
HIGH. This means the wind is slower around a low pressure zone (cyclone) and faster
around a high pressure zone (anticyclone). This should be sufficient for the vast
majority of questions.
If you would like to gain a slightly higher level of understanding, continue reading.
The change of direction of the wind happens because of imbalanced forces, and the two
main forces on the wind are Pressure Gradient Force (PGF) and Coriolis Force. If either
becomes larger than the other, then the wind will bend in that direction. This means that
in a high pressure zone, for instance, the PGF outwards is not as strong as the Coriolis
Force inwards, as the wind is bending in the direction of the Coriolis Force. To do
this, the wind has to go faster than usual (usual being the geostrophic, straight line
wind), to build up a higher Coriolis Force.
The opposite is happening around the low pressure zone. The PGF is stronger than the
Coriolis Force, meaning that the resultant, or "residual", force is going inwards towards
the low. This means that the Coriolis Force is weaker than usual, and therefore the
wind speed is less than the geostrophic wind.
This "residual force" is what we call centripetal force, and is the force which causes
rotation to occur. It is a force towards the centre of rotation, and without it, objects will
just continue in the same direction. We need centripetal force to allow wind to bend
around low and high pressure zones, and it comes from imbalanced PGF and Coriolis
Force, which causes the low around a low and high around a high behaviour we have
discussed. Remember, the PGF stays the same, but the Coriolis Force changes due to
the wind speed.
In conclusion then, to get the weakest wind speeds with the same isobar spacing, we
need a high latitude and a low pressure zone, so 50ºN and a cyclonic system.
Question N° 112
In the standard troposphere air temperature on average decreases with height at an
overall positive lapse rate of about 2ºC/1000 ft, until the tropopause, the boundary
between the troposphere and stratosphere, is reached. ISA surface temperature is
+15ºC.
- To find ISA standard temperature for a given altitude, here's a rule of thumb:
double the altitude, subtract 15 and place a - sign in front of it.
ISA temperature = 15 – [(height/1000) x 2]
 ISA temperature at 18 000 ft = 15 - [(18 000/1000) x 2] = -21ºC
Which means that the actual temperature is colder than ISA (ISA -14ºC) => we know
that density is indirectly proportional to temperature. Which means that if temperature
is colder than ISA at this level - density will be greater than the density at the same
level but under ISA conditions.
Question N° 113
We know the following about pressure and temperature:
 When an aircraft is in a lower pressure area, the altimeter will overread. The
aircrafts true altitude will be lower than indicated.
 When an aircraft is in a higher-pressure area, the altimeter will under
 When an aircraft is in a colder airmass than ISA, the altimeter
will overread. The aircrafts true altitude will be lower than indicated.
 When an aircraft is in a warmer airmass than ISA, the altimeter will under
During the departure we climbed through the transition altitude (18 000 feet) and we
switched from a local QNH setting of 1023 to a standard setting of 1013,25.
We return back to the aerodrome but at the transition level (FL190) we forget to switch
back to the 1023 pressure setting on the altimeter.
So, we will be landing with the altimeter still set to 1013 instead of 1023.
Because we have a lower pressure set than actual, we already know that the altimeter
will under read.
True altitude will be higher than indicated (going from low to higher pressure).
We know 1 hPa represents 27 feet near the ground so:
1023 – 1013 = 10 hPa
X 27 = 270 feet
So, when we land the altimeter will read 270 feet less than the elevation (323 ft) of the
aerodrome.
323 – 270 = 53 feet indicated altitude after landing with 1013 still set on the
altimeter.
Note: According to the new syllabus (EASA 2020) a barometric lap se rate of 30 ft /hPa
should be used (instead of 27 ft/hPa). However, if the question text indicates a different
lapse rate, that is the one you are expected to use.
Question N° 114
Mid-latitude cyclones/depressions are large traveling atmospheric cyclonic storms up
to 2000 kilometers in diameter with centers of low atmospheric pressure. An intense
mid-latitude cyclone may have a surface pressure as low as 970 millibars, compared to
an average sea-level pressure of 1013 millibars. Normally, individual frontal cyclones
exist for about 4 to 7 days moving in a generally west to east direction. Frontal
cyclones are the dominant weather event of the Earth's mid-latitudes forming along the
Polar front.
Question N° 115
Refer to figures.
MONSOONS
A monsoon is a seasonal change in the direction of the prevailing, or strongest, winds
of a region. Monsoons lead to distinct wet and dry seasons throughout much of the
tropics and are most often associated with the Indian Ocean. Weather depends very
much on the track followed. There are three monsoon flows; the NE, NW & SW.
NE MONSOON:
 In winter – December, January and February, the ITCZ moves further south.
Winds blow from the winter Siberian high – bringing cool and dry continental
air. The NE Monsoon gives clear weather over central India, Burma and
Thailand.
It also affects SE India, Sri Lanka & east coast of West Malaysia. However, in these
locations, the over sea tracks pick up moisture which produces convective clouds and
thunderstorms (when crossing mountain ranges).
NW MONSOON:
 When crossing the Equator, NE Monsoon backs, giving rise to the NW Monsoon
which brings Convective clouds (Cu, Cb) and thunderstorms to North Australia
and New Guinea.
SW MONSOON:
 In Summer – June, July and August, the ITCZ moves further north, away from
the Equator. As the SE trade wind crosses the equator, it veers to SW – giving
rise to the SW Monsoon. This Monsoon has a long sea track where it picks up
moisture, producing heavy Cumulus and Cumulonimbus clouds with heavy
thunderstorms, low cloud bases and severe turbulence (having more serious
effects on flying than the NE Monsoon). The SW Monsoon affects all of India,
Sri Lanka, Burma, exposed coasts of West Malaysia and West African coast
(Guinea, Ghana and North Nigeria).
=> As a sum up, NE monsoons will be dry with little cloud. SW monsoon with its long
sea track over the tropical oceans will produce very wet condition and convective
clouds and will be warm.
Question N° 116
Visible (VIS) Images and Infrared (IR) have different ways of detecting clouds.
For instance;
VISIBLE (VIS) – Produced by sun rays reflecting off clouds.
 Advantages: easy to interpret

 Disadvantage: not available continuously, due to the lack of sunlight at night
 Clouds are represented in white, the land grey and the sea black.
INFRARED (IR) – temperature of cloud will determine the wavelength of radiation

emitted from the cloud.
 Advantages: available for 24 hours a day and the shading of the picture will
about the same by day and by night.
 Disadvantage: If the clouds near the surface are approx. same temperature
as the land surface it can be difficult to distinguish the clouds from land.
 Cold (high) cloud will give a white image, lower cloud a somewhat darker one,
whilst warm land will give a dark image.
If a cloud is seen on Visible (VIS) but very hard to see on Infrared (IR), then it could
be a layer of fog or shallow stratus near the surface.
Question N° 117
Refer to figure.
POLAR FRONT DEPRESSIONS. Move eastwards along the semi stationary front
“Polar front” which is located between 35ºN and 65ºN.
 These will track further south in winter than summer – this seasonal movement
is with the sun.
 They are less intense in summer because of the smaller temperature difference
between polar/tropical air masses that form them.
 Develop at an average of every 1-2 days.
Question N° 118
Wing Stalls
An ice-contaminated wing will stall at a lower angle of attack or higher airspeed than a
clean wing. Minute amounts of ice (equivalent to medium grit sandpaper) covering the
leading edges or upper surfaces of wings can increase the stall speed up to 15 kno ts.
Ice on the wing also can disrupt the airflow over the ailerons and cause the aircraft to
behave in unusual ways. The aileron may deflect without pilot input and cause an
uncommanded roll.
Question N° 119
Refer to figure.
Note: This question has two correct answers, both "Diurnal solar heating" and "A cold
front crossing the area" would dissipate the radiation fog in the METAR. Early
feedback and knowledge leaned on the side of "Diurnal solar heating" , but most recent
feedback shows the cold front to be the correct answer. See the comments for the most
recent feedback.
UPDATE: The Hungarian CAA have approved an appeal based on this question (which
said that two correct answers were present), stating, "The cold front is the right optio n,
because clearance occurs with a change of air mass, or less commonly with an increase
in surface wind. The term "on its own” means the weather phenomena associated with
cold front. Of course not the definition of cold front will improve the visibility, but the
phenomena. Hovewer diurnal solar heating can also be a correct answer."
We think that the cold front and diurnal solar heating are both perfectly correct, so we
hope that they have removed this question from the database now. If this comes up in
an exam, you may appeal it, quoting the Hungarian CAA above if necessary.
RADIATION FOG. Caused by radiation of the earth’s heat at night, and the conductive
cooling below dew point of the air in contact with the ground, in conditions of calm or
very light wind and clear skies. Radiation fog occurs at night and early morning and
usually does not last too long after sunrise, but can stay into the afternoon in certain
conditions. Predominantly autumn and winter.
CONDITIONS LEADING TO DISSIPATION OF RADIATION FOG
 INSOLATION - causing convection which will lift the fog. It will also help to
evaporate the lower layers.
 STRONG WIND – (stronger than 8kt) lifting the fog to form stratus cloud.
 CHANGE OF AIR MASS - This is less common, but of course, if a different air
mass moves into an area with radiation fog, the new air mass will have different
qualities to the old air mass. For example, in this question, the movement of a
cold front would mean that the new air is not the same air than cooled overnight
close to the ground, and so the radiation fog will dissipate. This is particularly
rare though, as a new air mass means that some wind is blowing, which would
usually stop radiation fog from forming in the first place. Nonetheless, this
stronger wind is another reason that the cold front would dissipate the fog.

050 - Meteorology - Answers

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050 - Meteorology - Answers

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Question N 1

 Water vapour depends on the amount of water the air is holding. As

 Increasing air temperature has no effect on dew point. Decreasing air

Absolute Refers to the amount of water contained in a parcel of air. Usually

 Unstable for both dry and saturated air (Absolute instability)

 In the atmosphere pressure decreases as altitude increases so if an air parcel is

 Constant/fixed value of 0.6ºC/100 m (about 1.8ºC/1000 ft)

THE ENVIRONMENT LAPSE RATE ELR – Actual temperature profile of troposphere.

NEUTRAL ELR = DALR Neutral stability for unsaturated/dry air

 Water vapor concentration varies from trace amounts in Polar Regions to

Solid to liquid Melting

Solid to gas sublimation

Liquid to gas evaporation

Liquid to solid freezing

GAS TO LIQUID CONDENSATION

Gas to solid deposition

Solid to liquid Melting

Solid to gas sublimation

LIQUID TO GAS EVAPORATION

Liquid to solid freezing

Gas to liquid condensation

Gas to solid deposition

 By adding more water to it; or

EXPANSION. In the atmosphere, pressure decreases as altitud e increases. Now,

Latent heat is Latent heat absorbed

Solid to liquid Melting +80 cal/g

Solid to gas sublimation +680 cal/g

Liquid to gas evaporation +590 cal/g

Liquid to solid freezing -80 cal/g

GAS TO LIQUID CONDENSATION -590 cal/g

Gas to solid deposition -680 cal/g

 Water vapour depends on the amount of water the air is holding. As

 Cold air moving in at low levels – warm air moving aloft.

Processes that destabilize the atmosphere:

SOLID TO LIQUID MELTING

Solid to gas sublimation

Liquid to gas evaporation

Liquid to solid freezing

Gas to liquid condensation

Gas to solid deposition

 In the atmosphere pressure decreases as altitude increases so if an air parcel is

Solid to liquid Melting

SOLID TO GAS SUBLIMATION

Liquid to gas evaporation

Liquid to solid freezing

GAS TO LIQUID CONDENSATION

Gas to solid deposition

Nitrogen 78.09% Argon 0.93%

Oxygen 20.95% Carbon Dioxide 0.03%

 Increasing air temperature has no effect on dew point. Decreasing air

 Constant/fixed value of 1ºC/100 m (about 3ºC/1000 ft)

 Constant/fixed value of 0.6ºC/100 m (about 1.8ºC/1000 ft)

THE ENVIRONMENT LAPSE RATE ELR – Actual temperature profile of troposphere.

NEUTRAL ELR = DALR Neutral stability for unsaturated/dry air

 There are two ways by which saturation is reached:

RH = 100 - 5 (30 - 21) = 55%

Solid to liquid Melting

Solid to gas sublimation

LIQUID TO GAS EVAPORATION

Liquid to solid freezing

Gas to liquid condensation

Gas to solid deposition

Solid to liquid Melting

Solid to gas sublimation

Liquid to gas evaporation

LIQUID TO SOLID FREEZING

Gas to liquid condensation