022 - Instrumentation - Answers

Question N 1
Correct Answer – A
Refer to figures.
DUTCH ROLL
Dutch roll is caused by the interplay between lateral stability around the
longitudinal axis (roll) and longitudinal stability around the vertical axis (yaw) of
an aircraft in flight.
An aircraft with an excess of lateral stability will by default have poor directional
stability and therefore will be susceptible to Dutch roll.
YAW DAMPER
To produce an aircraft that is dynamically stable at lower and middle altitudes, a
system to automatically counter Dutch roll must be installed.
This system detects the yaw then applies rapid, small and effective rudder deflections
stopping the Dutch roll before it starts. This system is called Yaw Damper.
The yaw damper will either be the third axis of an autopilot system or will be an
addition to the third axis of autopilot control.
The yaw damper will be on for the duration of the flight and will provide turn
coordination, runway alignment and assist during asymmetric thrust.
A single axis rate gyro, or in modern aeroplanes an input from the IRS, is used to sense
the aeroplane’s motion about the normal or vertical axis.
DUTCH ROLL FILTER

The system as described, however, would also interpret a normally commanded turn as
a yaw and act in opposition to produce an uncoordinated turn. So the yaw damper
system needs to be able to distinguish commanded turn inputs from yaw due to a
disturbance or apparent Dutch roll.
The Dutch roll frequency is based on the natural yawing frequency of the aircraft. The
frequency is relatively LOW and will differ slightly with aircraft type.
Yaw dampers must be designed to allow the Dutch roll frequency to control the rudder
but block other frequencies.
While the rate of turn is building up to the constant rate, the Dutch roll filter output
also builds, then falls off to nothing when the rate of turn becomes constant. The
reverse, with opposite polarity as the filter capacitor discharges, occurs as the aircraft
levels out on completion of the turn. Therefore, whilst the turn is constant the filter
output is zero. This results in no rudder demand.
In an aircraft yawing at the Dutch roll frequency, since the rate of turn is constantly
changing, the output from the rate gyro is constantly changing.
The Dutch roll filter is a NARROW BAND PASS FILTER designed to pass only
signals which change the frequency of the Dutch roll. The rate gyro produces outputs
for all turns, but only those related to Dutch roll will appear at the input to the servo
amplifier driving the rudder servomotor.
Question N 2
Correct Answer – C
The automatic pitch trim is used to:
 ensure the airplane is properly trimmed when the autopilot is disengaged.

 permits the elevator to always be in neutral position with respect to the
horizontal stabilizer. In other words, it off-loads any steady state elevator
deflection.
When the autopilot is engaged, the role of the automatic pitch trim is to relieve the
autopilot servo motor and return the aircraft in-trim when disconnecting the
autopilot. It basically provides a smooth ‘HAND-OVER’ when disengaging the
autopilot.
Caution! Do not confuse the auto trim with the automatic synchronization
function which is providing a smooth `TAKE-OVER` when engaging the autopilot. The
auto synchronization function will prevent the autopilot engagement it is inoperative, as
this might result in an abrupt snatch and jerks of the autopilot during engagement.
For an airplane fitted with a mechanical flight control system, the automatic pitch trim
system is active whenever the autopilot is engaged. On the other hand, when flying a
fly-by-wire aircraft, the automatic pitch trim is always active either you are flying it
manually or with the autopilot engaged. When flying an FBW aircraft manually, the
system eliminates the need for the pilot to make control column inputs (or manual trim)
to compensate for flight path parameter alterations such as thrust changes, landing gear
configuration changes, or slats/flaps configuration changes.
Summary:
`HAND-OVER` - automatic pitch trim function.
`TAKE-OVER` - automatic synchronization function.
Question N 3
Correct Answer – B
The yaw damper system is able to filter the unwanted Dutch roll oscillations and
correct them specifically. This filtering feature will avoid the yaw damper to
unnecessarily correct the needed inputs from the pilot/autopilot by adding/subtracting
from their rudder input, the signals that need to be corrected.
The yaw damper system uses the angular rate signal about the yaw axis to control the
rudder. A yaw damper indicator in the cockpit supplies the flight crew with the yaw
damper action on the rudder. A computer sends a motion order to the rudder if the yaw
rate of the aircraft is not equal to zero. In other words, it is moving the rudder without
moving the rudder pedals. It is designed to reduce the roll ratio in the Dutch roll
oscillations. The yaw damper system is operative during both manual, and automatic
flight.
Question N 4
Mach trim is used to trim the aircraft at high Mach numbers (e.g. B737 from Mach
.615). It prevents instability and tuck under (which appears above M C RI T ) due to
an increased pitch down moment, which is caused the following reasons:
 CP moves aft
 shock waves at the wing root
 reduced effectiveness of the tailplane
Mach trim counteracts (increases pitch up) by one of the following:
 adjusting stabilizer
 adjusting elevator
 trim tank (fuel pumped to the tail)
Outcome:
 stick force gradient will be maintained

 longitudinal stability will be increased
 tuck under will be avoided
Mach Trim System relates to the pitch channel of the Auto Flight Control System
(AFCS). It is designed as an AFCS sub-system and is therefore, like the yaw damper,
operational irrespective of whether or not the AFCS is active (autopilot engaged or
disengaged). The heart of the Mach trim system is the coupler unit. This receives
signals, corresponding to Mach number, from the Air Data Computer (ADC). Whenever
these signals exceed the pre-set value (for the aeroplane type) the trim coupler unit
releases the brake and the speed signal from the ADC is fed to the motor. This causes
the stabiliser to move in such a way that the elevators are driven upward, counteracting
any tendency to a "Mach Tuck-under". Internal monitoring of the system provides a
failure warning in the form of the illumination of a fail indicator light. Although
connected to the pitch channel the system is totally independent of the pitch control
channel of the AFCS.
In other words, the Mach trim system provides speed stability at higher M ach numbers.
It operates (adjusts the elevators with respect to the stabilizer as speed increases) only
above certain minimum Mach number - for example on a B737-300 it is above Mach
0.615. With the Mach trim system INOP the maximum speed of the aircraft is typically
limited to a lower Mach number than normally.
"Tuck-under" is the phenomena encountered by aeroplanes flying at high subsonic,
transonic or supersonic speeds. In these speed regimes there is typically a significant
rearward movement of the Centre of Pressure (CP). In order to prevent this becoming
an uncontrollable "nose-down" pitching motion, it is necessary to provide some form of
compensation. This is done by the use of a Mach Trim System. Or otherwise said the
Mach trim system allows to increase the longitudinal static stability of the aircraft by
changing the horizontal stabilizer according to the Mach number.
Question N 5
damper action on the rudder. The yaw rate is sensed by a rate gyro or a set of
accelerometers (so usually provided by the INS/IRS) and then sent to a computer. The
yaw damper computer sends a motion order to the rudder if the yaw rate of the aircraft
is not equal to zero. In other words, it is moving the rudder without moving the rudder
pedals. It is designed to reduce the roll ratio in the Dutch roll oscillations. The yaw
damper system is operative during both manual, and automatic flight.
Question N 6
A flight envelope protection system generates a control signal when the aircraft
exceeds some flight envelope limits. The main functions of the flight envelope
protection (FEP) system are:
 the stall protection (with the stick shaker),

 the bank angle protection,
 the pitch angle protection,
 the speed protection (overspeed or low energy state).
When speaking about the auto-throttle system, the FEP functions can provide a
maximum and minimum speed reversion which will eventually increase/decrease
automatically the thrust.
Question N 7
As the aircraft accelerates, the shock waves are moving rearwards of the aircraft and
generate what is called Mach tuck. The Mach trim system helps the aircraft
to counteract the pitch down tendency caused by Mach tuck at a high Mach
number. The system increases the airplane’s static longitudinal stability by adjusting
the horizontal stabilizer as a function of the Mach number. The Mach trim will only
operate above a pre-determined Mach number (typically above M 0.615 for the 737
classic).
Question N 8
Refer to figure.
The purpose of the trim system is to relieve the pilot of forces on the aircraft
controls while maintaining aircraft attitude.
In manual control, trim on light aircraft is provided in all three axes through
mechanical linkages to trim tabs on the control surfaces.
On larger aircraft this is usually achieved by electrical actuators that bias the Powered
Flying Control Unit (PFCU), particularly for pitch trim.
Manual operation of the pitch trim will, in most systems, automatically disconnect the
autopilot as it cannot co-ordinate manual trim movement with movement of the C o f G
or aerodynamic movements.
Question N 9
flight.
Question N 10
A Runaway Stabiliser is a condition when an uncommanded stabiliser trim movement
occurs continuously or in a manner not appropriate for flight conditions.
In a situation like this, the first actions are to hold firmly the control column while
disengaging the autopilot and autothrottle. From here, any change in speed and
configuration subject to trimming shall be done manually and there shall be no re-
engaging of the automation.
Note: reducing airspeed reduces airloads on the stabilizer which can reduce the effort
needed to manually trim.
For final approach and landing, an early landing configuration and in trim condition
should be established. As this is an abnormal condition, a specific checklist should
be followed as to have the aircraft on the best configuration for the given situation.
Question N 11
A flight envelope protection system generates a control signal when the
aircraft exceeds some flight envelope limits. The main functions of the flight envelope
protection (FEP) system are:

The overspeed protection will inhibit the nose down pitch trim orders to prevent the
aircraft from pitching further down in case it is over speeding because of a trim
runaway. Some aircraft such as the Airbus, will even automatically pitch up to lose
some speed, once the aircraft reaches a certain Mach number.
Question N 12
Correct Answer – D
generate what is called Mach tuck. In fact, with the aircraft’s increasing speed the
shockwave over the wing will strengthen and travel backward, which increases the lift
component further back along the wing. This rearward movement of lift implies that the
aerodynamic center of pressure moves backward which will the aircraft’s nose down.
The Mach trim system helps the aircraft to counteract the pitch down tendency caused
by Mach tuck at a high Mach number. The system increases the airplane’s static
longitudinal stability by adjusting the horizontal stabilizer as a function of the Mach
number. The Mach trim will only operate above a pre-determined Mach number
(typically above M 0.615 for the 737 classic).
Question N 13
Refer to figure.
The purpose of the trim system is to relieve the pilot of forces on the aircraft controls
while maintaining aircraft attitude. In manual control, trim on light aircraft is provided
in all three axes through mechanical linkages to trim tabs on the control surfaces. On
larger aircraft this is usually achieved by electric al actuators that bypass the Powered
Flying Control Unit (PFCU), particularly for pitch trim.
The main purpose of the pitch trim setting for take -off is to provide consistent rotation
characteristics. Take-off pitch trim is set manually via the pitch trim wheel.
The limits of the THS normal setting range for take-off are indicated by a green band
on the pitch trim wheel, therefore, the aircraft performs a safe take-off, provided the
pitch trim setting is within the green band on the pitch trim wheel.
Question N 14
Dynamically unstable aircraft must feature a yaw damper system in order to counteract
their Dutch roll tendency. Aircraft that are not dynamically unstable are often also
equipped with yaw dampers. The reason for this is to suppress even the first undesired
yawing tendency.
In yaw damper systems, rate gyroscopes or other devices suitable for such measurement
are used to determine the rate of aircraft yaw, some also use IRS system. The IRS
system works by using accelerometers to detect changes in the aircraft velocity.
Question N 15
Refer to figures.
DUTCH ROLL
longitudinal axis (roll) and longitudinal stability around the vertical a xis (yaw) of
YAW DAMPER
system to automatically counter Dutch roll must be installed.
The yaw damper will be on for the duration of the flight and will provide turn co-
ordination, runway alignment and assist during asymmetric thrust.
DUTCH ROLL FILTER

The system as described, however, would also interpret a normally commanded tu rn as
a yaw and act in opposition to produce an unco -ordinated turn. So the yaw damper
changing, the output from the rate gyro is constantly chang ing.
The Dutch roll filter is a NARROW BAND PASS FILTER designed to pass only
Question N 16
When the yaw rate of the aircraft is not constant, it means that the Dutch roll
oscillations are continuously increasing, and they need to be dampened. However, if
there are any oscillations but they are constant, the aircraft is fairly stable so the yaw
damper does not need to send any motion order.
flight.
Question N 17
rate of the aircraft is not equal to zero. In other words, it is moving the rudder wit hout
flight.
Question N 18
Refer to figure.
AUTO-TRIM
As the aircraft uses fuel, or changes speed, thrust or configuration, the pitch attitude
will change. If we are flying the aircraft manually we would trim these forces out
manually to eliminate stick forces.
On modern jet transports, trim is achieved through the Auto-Trim system which
is active only when the autopilot is engaged.
Automatic Trim is typically achieved by a separate trim servo actuator, operating
the variable incidence horizontal stabiliser which allows the elevator to always be in
the neutral position.
In the event of a failure of the trim system the pilots would be alerted by warning
lights and/or suitable indications on the electronic display unit. At the same time the
autopilot would disengage, giving both visual and aural alerts.
Question N 19

horizontal stabilizer. In other words, it off-loads any steady state elevator
deflection.
autopilot servo motor and return the aircraft in-trim when disconnecting the autopilot.
It basically provides a smooth ‘HAND-OVER’ when disengaging the autopilot.
auto-synchronization function will prevent the autopilot engagement it is inoperative,
as this might result in an abrupt snatch and jerks of the autopilot during engagement.
For an airplane fitted with mechanical flight control system, the automatic pitch trim
Summary:
Question N 20
Stall Protection system (SPS)
Some transport category aircraft are challenging to recover from stalled conditions. For
these types, an additional Stall Protection System (SPS) is legally required that
automatically prevents entry into a stall should the pilot not react appropriately to the
stall warning.
Caution! The stall warning (stick shaker) is only alerting the pilot that the aircraft has
entered a stall while the stick pusher is a protection – it acts on the control column to
prevent the aircraft from entering the stall conditions.
The input data of the stall warning system are:
 Angle of attack
 Configuration (slats/flaps deflection)
Note: A stick shaker is a stall warning device, therefore it is a (soft) flight envelope
protection system.
Question N 21
flight.
Question N 22
flight.
Question N 23
Question N 24
Refer to figure.
Dutch roll can only occur in aircraft with swept wings, and within the compressible
altitude and speed range. Such aircraft are known as having dynamic instability. It
actually starts with a yawing motion at a rate that is characteristic for every affected
aircraft type and is referred to as the Dutch roll frequency.
The advancing wing creates more lift than the retreating one and this causes the aircraft
to roll to the side of the yawing motion. As a result, this roll induces further yaw to the
opposite side, larger than the initial yaw angle, causing a larger roll, which results in an
increased adverse yaw effect, and so on.
These aircraft must feature a yaw damper system in order to counteract this Dutch roll
tendency. Yaw damper systems feature rate gyroscopes in the horizontal axis, and
sometimes accelerometers, to determine the rate of any aircraft yaw. It uses this data
along with the CAS to cause a deflection of the rudder that stops the yawing motion
before the aircraft starts to roll.
 Yawing motions act around the aircraft’s normal axis, therefore only a rate
gyro in the horizontal plane would be able to detect this left/right movement of
the airframe when viewed from above.
An Inertial Reference System (IRS) installed on larger transport aircraft typically

feature 3 rate gyros, each in one of the 3 axis centred around the aircraft centre of
gravity; normal, longitudinal and lateral axis. As a result, the IRS could be a source of
yawing data for the yaw damper system, depending on the aircraft type.
Question N 25
system eliminates the need for the pilot to make control column inputs (or manual
trim) to compensate for flight path parameter alterations such as thrust changes, landing
gear configuration changes, or slats/flaps configuration changes.
Question N 26
Normally on the big commercial jets, the auto-trim electrically controls and
hydraulically actuates the horizontal stabilizer via a screw jack. However, on some
other less sophisticated aircraft, the auto-trim can control the elevator trim tab to
relieve the load from the control surface.
Question N 27
A flight envelope protection system generates a control signal when the aircraft exceeds
some flight envelope limits. The main functions of the flight envelope protection (FEP)
system are:

When speaking about the auto-throttle system, the FEP functions can provide a
maximum and minimum speed reversion which will eventually increase/decrease
automatically the thrust.
Question N 28
The auto-throttle system provides flight envelope protection through reversion modes.
The minimum speed reversion of the auto-throttle system will increase the thrust and
the airplane will pitch the nose down when the aircraft speed is t oo low. When it is
flying too fast, the auto-throttle will reduce the thrust and keep the speed below the
limit. These protections are called the maximum and minimum speed reversion of the
auto-throttle.
Question N 29
Refer to figure.
In modern jet transport aeroplanes, the normally hydraulically powered elevators and
variable incidence tailplane, use an operating system that is very complex. The control
of the tailplane is affected by an automatic trim signal, which controls a hydrauli c
motor. The trim motor connects via a clutch assembly and screw jack to the tailplane.
In this system, automatic trimming is achieved by moving the variable incidence
tailplane only, whilst the elevators are left with full movement authority, to control
any pitch changes commanded by the AFCS.
Auto-trim is active when the autopilot is engaged.
Another important consideration is that in the event of autopilot disconnect the aircraft
will be in a trimmed condition and thus will not suddenly pitch up or down.
Question N 30
system are:

Normally the basic FEP functions only generate control signals without automatically
performing an evasion maneuver. Only certain aircraft types perform an evasive
maneuver.
Question N 31
When the elevator is moved the auto-trim will move the trimmable horizontal stabilizer
so that it relieves any load from the elevator. In this way, the elevator is always
maintained in a neutral position with respect to the THS so it can be moved by full
deflection at any time.
Question N 32
generate what is called Mach tuck. The Mach trim system helps the aircraft to
counteract the pitch down tendency caused by Mach tuck at a high Mach number. The
system increases the airplane’s static longitudinal stability by adjusting the horizontal
stabilizer as a function of the Mach number. The Mach trim will only operate above a
pre-determined Mach number (typically above M 0.615 for the 737 classic).
Question N 33
Basically speaking, Dutch roll is a series of out -of-phase turns, when the aircraft rolls
in one direction and yaws in the other. When the yaw is introduced, the strong
“dihedral effect” will roll the aircraft due to the lift increase on the wing into wind. The
increased induced drag on the rising wing will yaw the aircraft in the opposite
direction, reversing the coupled oscillations.
The yaw damper's main purpose is to prevent Dutch roll . Since the possibility of a
Dutch roll inscreases with increasing altitude, when the yaw damper is unserviceable,
the flight will be restricted in altitude.
Question N 34
system are:

The Overspeed protection will inhibit the nose down pitch trim orders to prevent the
aircraft from pitching further down in case it is over speeding because of a trim
runaway. Some aircraft such as the Airbus, will even automatically pitch up to lose
some speed, once the aircraft reaches a certain threshold.
Note: The stick shaker is a soft FEP as it only warns the pilot of an impend ing stall. It
is different from the stick pusher that actively pushes the control column down to
reduce the pitch angle and help prevent the aircraft from exceeding further the angle of
attack. The stick pusher is known as a hard FEP.
Question N 35
Refer to figures.
DUTCH ROLL
longitudinal axis (roll) and longitudinal stability around the vertical axis (yaw) of
YAW DAMPER
system to automatically counter Dutch ro ll must be installed.
The yaw damper will be on for the duration of the flight and will provide turn co-
ordination, runway alignment and assist during asymmetric thrust.
DUTCH ROLL FILTER
The system as described, however, would also interpret a normally commanded turn as
a yaw and act in opposition to produce an unco -ordinated turn. So the yaw damper
changing, the output from the rate gyro is constantly changing.
The Dutch roll filter is a NARROW BAND PASS FILTER desi gned to pass only
.............................................................................................................................................................
Release date: 2022.10.16.
Question N° 36
The Inertial Navigation System (INS) receives data from three rate gyros, and two
internal accelerometers measuring accelerations in the East/West and North/South
directions. Accelerations in the East/West and North/South directions are measured by
the accelerometers and are integrated. Other data is also required, such as the:
 TAS - to calculate the wind speed/direction.

 Initial position – because actual aircraft position at any point during the flight,
is calculated from the distance and direction flown from the initial reference
position entered in the system.
 Barometric altitude – to stabilize the vertical navigation, thus stabilizing
vertical velocity and inertial altitude information. The platform can output the
inertial height by itself, but its accuracy is insufficient for precise height
control, hence the barometric altitude input.
Question N° 37
022.13.04.01.09: Describe an appropriate procedure for following an on-screen
checklist associated with a failure scenario including the following:
 confirm the failure with the other flight crew member prior to performing any of
the actions;
 seek confirmation prior to manipulating any guarded switches or thrust levers;
 follow the checklist slowly and methodically;
 assess the possible implications of making certain selections, such as opening
the fuel cross-feed if there is a fuel leak even though the electronic checklist may
ask for the action.
For many malfunctions, an on-screen checklist will be displayed providing the pilots
with recommended actions to cope with the associated loss of function. This option
reduces workload and consequently stress in abnormal situations by displaying the
applicable checklists to the pilots, while at the same time monitoring the correct
execution of the procedures. However, such actions should be executed with thought.
Pilots are required to always maintain awareness of the consequences of the actions
commanded by an automated checklist.
The avoid drawbacks while following on-screen checklists, the pilots should confirm
the failure with the other flight crew member prior to performing any of the actions.
After the malfunction is confirmed, the on-screen checklist should be followed slowly
and methodically, always considering the implications of making certain selections ,
such as opening the fuel cross-feed if there is a fuel leak even though the electronic
checklist may ask for the action.
Special caution should be taken and explicit confir mation from the other crew member
should always be sought when performing highly critical steps such as operating the
thrust levers or any guarded switches.
Question N° 38
The Inertial Navigation System (INS) receives data from three rate gyros, and two
internal accelerometers measuring accelerations in the East/West and North/South
directions. Accelerations in the East/West and North/South directions are measured
by the accelerometers and are integrated.
Acceleration integrated over time:
 Once = change in velocity.

 Twice = change in position. It is also true if we state that integrating velocity
once over time gives the change in position.
Internally, this is calculated by integrators that are time multiplication devices.

Initially, acceleration is supplied to the integrator as a value in ft/sec². Multiplying a
value in ft/sec² by another value in sec will give you a result in ft/sec =>
velocity. Velocity is basically how fast has the aircraft moved in feet per second. Then,
this value is sent to another integrator to derive the change in position and determine
the current position of the aircraft. In other words, a value in ft/sec is multiplied again
by a value in seconds, which will result in a value in feet or NM => distance. The
second integration will provide the IRS with the distance traveled, but if the initial
position AND speed are known as well, the IRS will output the instantaneous position.
Summary table of the integration process of the INS and the required inputs:
Integrate with time How many Additional

Output
... times? Input(s)
Instantaneous
ACCELERATION Once Initial SPEED
SPEED
Change in SPEED
ACCELERATION Once -----
(velocity)
Initial
POSITION Instantaneous
ACCELERATION TWICE
+ POSITION
Initial SPEED
ACCELERATION TWICE ----- POSITION
DISTANCE
SPEED ONCE -----
traveled
Question N° 39
The FANS concept (Future Air Navigation System) makes use of satellite
communication and satellite navigation to allow more aircraft to safely and efficiently
use the airspace. FANS routes or airspace are associated with a given RNP (Required
Navigation Performance) value. After using the LOG ON application to contact a given
ATC center, the FANS concept allows datalink communication between the air craft and
the ATC to replace the voice communication. The CPDLC and the ADS are other
FANS applications commonly used.
Question N° 40
Stall Warning System (SWS)
To prevent the aircraft from entering a stalled condition, a stall warning system (SWS)
is installed in every aircraft. The stall warning will typically consist of an aural
warning with a voice warning such as ‘STALL, STALL’, and a stick shaker connected
to the control column.
Stall Protection system (SPS)

Some transport category aircraft are challenging to recover from stalled conditions. For
these types, an additional Stall Protection System (SPS) is legally required that
automatically prevents entry into a stall should the pilot not react appropriately to the
stall warning - The SPS will activate before exceeding the critical angle of attack
(irrespective of whether the crew is taking corrective actions).
Caution! The stall warning (stick shaker) is only alerting the pilot that the aircraft has
entered a stall while the stick pusher is a protection – it acts on the control column to
prevent the aircraft from entering the stall conditions.
Question N° 41
The Notification phase (LOG ON) is a FANS application that consists of transmitting
aircraft information and associated datalink capability, prior to operating any
datalink communications with a given ATC center. After the ATC confirms the datalink
communications can be performed, the flight crew will receive a message confirming
that the active ATC is the one the flight just sent the notifications to.
Question N° 42
An Electronic Flight Bag (EFB) is a device that hosts applications that allow flight
crews to perform a variety of functions that were traditionally accomplished by using
paper products and tools.
An EFB can perform basic flight planning and performance calculations and
display a variety of digital documentation, including navigational charts,
operations manuals, and aircraft checklists.
The most advanced EFBs are fully certified as part of the aircraft avionics system and
are integrated with aircraft systems such as the FMS.
Note: If the EFB is lost or malfuncitons, all of its related functions like performance
calculation and access to navigational charts are unreliable. E CAM Alerts and
ACARS access are independent from EFB.
Question N° 43
ADIRU = Air Data/Inertial Reference Unit
It consists of the Air Data Reference (ADR) system combined with an Inertial
Reference (IR) system. The ADR part of the ADIRU outputs the following data:
altitude, airspeed, Mach number, angle of attack, temperature, and overspeed warnings.
The IR part of the ADIRU supplies the attitude, flight path vector, track, heading,
accelerations, angular rates, ground speed, and air craft position.
Question N° 44
On a large commercial aircraft, the auto-throttle system usually has the following
modes of operation: SPEED/MACH mode (holding of IAS/Mach number)
and THRUST mode (N1 or EPR hold). In fact, the autopilot pitch channel and the auto-
throttle system work together. The operating mode of one will determine the operating
mode of the other.
For instance, when the auto-throttle is in the THRUST mode it will either command
full or idle thrust. The IAS/Mach hold mode is provided by the autopilot pitch channel
in the climb/descent mode at a constant IAS or Mach number. The aircraft will
basically use its kinetic energy to increase/decrease the rate of climb/descent. When
take-off mode is engaged, the auto-throttle sets thrust to a pre-set, fixed thrust setting
(N1 or EPR hold). Most of the time it is a computed flex thrust setting, but it can also
be TOGA thrust if needed due to performance limitations.
Question N° 45
Refer to figures.
On most modern transport aeroplanes the stall-warning device activates via an angle of
attack or Alpha sensor. One of these sensors is located on either side of the fuselage
near the nose, and detects the change/rate of change of angle of attack of the aeroplane
as the airspeed varies.
Two independent digital computers are normally installed which compute the proper
stall warning based on the angle of attack, flap configuration, and thrust. The
computers receive inputs from the:
- angle of attack sensor (Alpha probe)
- flap position transmitter
- N1 and N2 indicators
- air/ground relay
- air data computers
- leading edge module.
At a pre-set angle of attack, the circuit completes and an eccentric weight motor
attached to the base of either or both control columns operates. The motor in turn
vibrates the control column, thus imitating the effect of aerodynamic buffet, and alerts
the flight crew before a stall develops. This also displays visually on the Primary Flight
Display (PFD).
In the event the angle of attack becomes frozen at a specific Angle of Attack, an
increase in AoA will not be detected by the computer and a stall warning will
then not be triggered.
Question N° 46
Learning Objectives reference 022.05.02.01.10: State that the majority of the IRS data
can be accessed through the FMS control and display unit (CDU) /flight management
and guidance system (FMGS) multifunction control and display unit (MCDU).
For the pilot to see all necessary INS/IRS data, a device called a Con trol and Display
Unit (CDU) is installed.
Question N° 47
Approaching a certain angle of attack, called the αMAX on the Airbus aircraft, the high
angle of attack protection will inhibit pilot’s pitch up inputs even if they keep pulling
the stick fully back. In this condition, the pilot can still make gentle turns if required.
When the stick is released, the angle of attack returns to the αPROT and stays there. In
the same way, the nose-up trim will also be inhibited.
Question N° 48
Refer to figure.
A flux valve consists of two identical bars or spokes of highly permeable (easily
magnetised and de-magnetised) material, mounted on a common hub.
The detector unit (flux valve) senses the earth’s magnetic field and repr oduces it
within the compass unit, where it is compared with the position of the gyro drive shaft
(which also positions the compass card indicator – the indication of heading to the
pilot).
Autopilot Heading Mode

The simplest nav mode is to have the aircraft keep flying in the direction you select,
this is called Heading Mode. In this mode the pilot selects a desired heading, either
using a knob on the HSI, using the central FDS/autopilot panel or on the MCP.
The Flight Director roll bar commands the aeroplane to fly to the Pre- Selected
Heading, and subsequently to hold that heading. To achieve this, the computer
receives inputs from the attitude reference source, the VG, and the course from the
compass system.
If the heading source is purely magnetic, the Autopilot will follow the heading
regarding this source. If is is incorrect, the autopilot will follow an incorrect
heading.
Having two flux-valves with combined outputs, is used to reduce errors which otherwise
may be present in systems using single pendulously mounted magnetic field responsive
devices.
Question N° 49
With the Navigation Mode ARMED, it will automatically engage if the aircraft
heading/track line intercepts the active flight plan before the TO waypoint and the
aircraft reaches the active flight plan leg.
In this case, the pilot would have to ask for a heading to the right to intercept the active
flight plane or insert a DIRECT TO the next waypoint, otherwise the aircraft would
maintain present heading.
Question N° 50

horizontal stabilizer. In other words, it off-loads any steady-state elevator
deflection.
Summary:
Question N° 51
Refer to figure.
COMPUTER
A device or set of devices that can store data and a program that operates on the
data. A general purpose computer can be programmed to solve any reasonable problem
expressed in logical and arithmetical terms.
INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES
The CPU accepts digital signals from the input devices: keyboard, mouse or modem, in
the case of a PC, via its input port. In an aircraft these could be various sensors: Rad
Alt, Baro Alt, TAS, fuel flow, etc.
After processing these are fed out via its output port to a Visual Display Unit
(Monitor) or printer. In an aircraft the output may be fed to an EFIS Symbol
Generator or the FMS Control and Display Unit (CDU).
EXTERNAL BUS
An external bus is a type of data bus that enables external devices and components
to connect with a computer.
An external bus primarily enables connecting peripherals and all external devices to a
computer. These devices can include storage, monitors, keyboard, mouse,
printer, etc..
Question N° 52
The Ground Proximity Warning System must provide a distinctive aural warning and
visible signal to the flight crew in case of:
Mode Meaning Initial Aural Alert Second Aural Warning

Excessive descent “SINK RATE, SINK “WHOOP WHOOP PULL
Mode 1
rate RATE” UP” (twice)
“WHOOP WHOOP PULL
Excessive terrain
UP” (continuously until the
closure rate “TERRAIN
Mode 2 radio altitude stopped
(=dangerous ground TERRAIN”
reducing and an increase of
proximity)
300’ baro is measured)
Altitude loss after "DON`T SINK"
Mode 3 NONE
take-off or go-around (twice)
Unsafe terrain
“TOO LOW GEAR,”
clearance with flaps
“TOO LOW FLAPS,”
Mode 4 and landing gear NONE
“TOO LOW
NOT in landing
TERRAIN”
configuration
“GLIDESLOPE, “GLIDESLOPE,
Downward glideslope
Mode 5 GLIDESLOPE” at half GLIDESLOPE” at full
deviation
volume volume
Mode
6a (not When passing the “MINIMUMS,
NONE
required by decision height MINIMUMS”
OPS-1)
Mode
6b (not “BANK ANGLE,
Excessive bank angle NONE
required by BANK ANGLE”
OPS-1)
Mode
When expecting or
7 (not “CAUTION “WINDSHEAR,
already encountering
required by WINDSHEAR” WIDSHEAR”
wind shear
OPS-1)
Question N° 53
The Newton (N) is the SI unit for force, and the meter (m) is the SI unit to measure
a length. The product between a force and a length is called the Newton -meter (N m)
and is used to measure the torque.
The torque, also called the moment, is basically the force that will cause an object to
rotate about an axis. Therefore, 1 Nm of torque represents a force of 1 N applied to an
object which is 1 m long.
Question N° 54
The auto-throttle system is not used on the ground, so all answers involving ‘taxi’ can
be eliminated. The option including ‘take-off’ doesn’t make sense at all. When you set
your thrust levers in the take-off position upon initiating the take-off run, your goal is
to accelerate the aircraft to VR and lift-off the ground as soon as possible, so
maintaining a constant during that phase of the flight makes no sense.
Question N° 55
 Fail passive - In the event of a failure, there is no significant out-of-trim

condition or deviation of flight path or attitude, but the landing is not completed
automatically.
 Fail operational - In the event of a failure, the approach, flare and landing can
be completed by the remaining part of the automatic system.
Note:
A fail-operational system experiencing a failure will become a fail passive. A fail

passive can still complete the landing automatically but it has no redundancy anymore.
So, if it fails once again, it will not be able to complete the land ing automatically.
.............................................................................................................................................................
Release date: 2023.01.15.
Question N° 56
 Basic modes – Stabilizing the aircraft around its center of gravity. The basic
stability functions of the autopilot are provided by the inner loops.
 Guidance functions – Controlling the movements of the center of gravity in
three-dimensional space. These are the different functions of the autopilot that
control the path of the aircraft. The guidance functions are provided by the outer
loops.
Guidance functions:
ROLL modes PITCH modes Combined ROLL and

PITCH
Heading Select and Hold Altitude Select and Hold Approach
Track Hold IAS/Mach Hold Go-around
VOR/LOC Capture and Level Change
Track
Lateral Navigation LNAV Altitude Capture
Vertical Speed
Glideslope Capture and
Track
Basic (stabilization) functions:
 Pitch and bank angle hold (= attitude hold)

 Vertical Speed hold
 Wings level hold
Question N° 57
The navigation data base of the FMC contains all the information that would normally
be obtained from the navigation charts. For instance, you would find navaids, airports,
runways, approaches (with constraints, specific features), STARs, SIDs, and company
routes. In each aircraft, the FMC has two sets of navigation data, each valid for 2 8
days. Each of them conforms to a revision cycle that the crew will check and select
during the cockpit preparation, usually done by the pilot flying who sets up the FMC.
The nav data base is updated by maintenance every 28 days.
Question N° 58
and THRUST mode (N1 or EPR hold). In fact, the autopilot pitch channel and the auto -
mode of the other.
full or idle thrust. The IAS/Mach hold mode is provided by the autopilot pit ch channel
Question N° 59
The total fuel consumption is calculated by a computer that integrates the rate of fuel
consumption over time, usually an hour. Throughout a flight, many variables influence
the engines’ fuel consumption (flight level changes, shortcuts, weather avoidance, ATC
restrictions, variation in atmospheric conditions, etc. ). Therefore, it is essential to
have a reliable method to provide the pilots with an accurate fuel consumption
accounting for all these changes. Measurement fuel consumption rate over time and its
mathematic integration is the best solution found to date.
Question N° 60
 Fully powered flight controls – no physical connection between the control

column and the control surface (ailerons, elevators…). There’s no feedback of
control surfaces’ deflection so an artificial feel system (such as a restraining
spring) needs to be fitted to the control column to simulate the air loads
feedback. The fully powered flight control systems are irreversible.
 Power-assisted – control movement is assisted by hydraulic power. The pilot
still gets feedback of the aerodynamic loads on the control surface. The flight
controls can still be operated in the event of a hydraulic failure – they are
reversible and should include a gust lock.
Question N° 61
throttle system work together. The operating mode of one wil l determine the operating
mode of the other. When the auto-thrust is active in one of these modes, the auto-
throttle system will automatically control the airplane’s thrust setting, and the pilot
won’t need to move the thrust levers to achieve a certain power output. It will work in
conjunction with the AP/FD systems and will the required thrust as a function of the
active autopilot’s mode.
Question N° 62
The purpose of the stall warning system is to warn the pilot of an impending stall. It
does so when the aircraft approaches the stalling angle of attack for the current speed
and configuration of the aircraft.
The warning provided can be in the form of tactile, aural or visual or a combination of
these signals. Most aircraft have warning provided by stick-shakers which vibrate the
control column as well as produce a rattling noise. In fly-by-wire systems the warning
consists of a cricket (insect) sound, a synthetic voice STALL message and the red
master WARNING light illumination.
The stall warning must continue until the angle of attack is reduced to approximately
that at which the stall warning is initiated.
The regulations concerning a Stall Warning System for aircraft other than Transport
Category Aircraft include:
- There must be a clear and distinctive stall warning, in both straight and turning
flight, with the flaps and landing gear in any normal position.
Question N° 63
Find in this table, the summary of the auto-throttle modes of operation and the
respective flight phase:
Flight phase Meaning

Auto-throttle mode
auto-throttle commands full thrust for
Ground / TO roll N1 hold
take-off.
auto-throttle commands full thrust for
Climb IAS hold climb and the desired speed is maintained
by the AP pitch channel.
auto-throttle continuously regulates the
Climb with V/S IAS hold thrust output to maintain the required
speed.
Cruise / ALT hold IAS/MACH hold thrust output to maintain the required
speed.
Approach IAS hold thrust output to maintain the required
speed.
mode of the other.
full or idle thrust. The IAS/Mach hold mode is provided by the autopilot pitch channel
If the auto-throttle system is operating in the SPEED/MACH mode, the pitch channel
of the autopilot will work independently. The speed will not be maintained by changing
the pitch angle of the airplane anymore - the engines will simply regulate the required
amount of thrust for the engines to deliver in order to maintain the required speed. The
IAS/Mach hold mode is provided by the auto-throttle in the altitude hold mode (ALT
HOLD) or glide path mode.
Another scenario where the auto-throttle can be operated in the SPEED mode (holding
of IAS) is when the aircraft is in a climb with the autopilot engaged in the V/S mode
(holding of vertical speed). Since the V/S mode is commanding the autopilot pitch
channel to achieve a given rate of climb/descent, the pitch channel cannot be used
anymore to maintain the speed. Therefore, the desired speed will be maintained by the
auto-throttle system.
In order to know in which mode the auto-throttle is engaged, the crew will check
the FMA – Flight Mode Annunciator (=mode annunciator panel).
Question N° 64
The angle of attack (AoA), or alpha (α) angle, is the angle between the chord line of
the wing of an aircraft and the direction of the relative airflow.
ANGLE OF ATTACK PROBES
The two types in current use are the conical slotted probe and the vane detector:
- The conical probe extends through the aircraft skin perpendicular to the flow of air.
- The vane detector is a counter-balanced aerodynamic vane which positions the rotor
of a synchro.
The angle of attack probes are generally electrically heated to prevent icing from
blocking the probe.
Angle of attack probes send information to the stall warning system, the ADC, and, if
fitted, Flight Envelope Protection Systems and Angle of Attack Indicators.
In the event the angle of attack becomes frozen at a specific Angle of Attack, an
increase/decrease in AoA will not be detected.
Question N° 65
Refer to figures.
GPWS
The aim of the system is to give visual and audible warning signals to a pilot when
the aircraft’s proximity to the terrain poses a potential threat to its safety.
GPWS enhances flight safety and can prevent those accidents which could result from
crew errors or distraction, malfunction or misinterpretation of navigational equipment,
or inappropriate ATC instructions.
Terrain Awareness System (TAWS) (figure 1)
GPWS does not “look ahead” and any Mode 2 warning when flight is towards high
ground will be dependent upon the steepness of the terrain. Hence, a sheer cliff ahead
will not generate a mode 2 warning and any subsequent warning due to rising ground
beyond the cliff will be delayed until the aircraft is over that ground.
This limitation has been overcome by Enhanced GPWS with the Terrain Threat
Display. This uses essentially an electronic map of the world (giving ground
elevation) and information from the aircraft’s navigational system (be that
INS/GPS or any combination).
Seven main conditions give rise to audible and visual alerts. These conditions are
described as MODES:
- MODE 1 - Excessive Barometric Descent Rate
- MODE 2 - Excessive Terrain Closure Rate
- MODE 3 - Altitude Loss after Take-off or Go-around
- MODE 4A - Unsafe Terrain Clearance with Landing Gear Not down
- MODE 4B - Unsafe Terrain Clearance with Flaps Not in Land ing Configuration
- MODE 5 - Below Glide Slope Deviation Alert
This mode alerts the flight crew of a descent of more than 1.3 dots below an ILS glide
slope.
AURAL ALERT - “GLIDE SLOPE”
The mode may be cancelled or inhibited by pressing 'G/S MODE' pb on the
overhead panel. (figure 2)
- MODE 6A - Below Selected Minimum Radio Altitude
- MODE 6B Altitude Call-outs and Bank Angle Alert
- MODE 7 Windshear Alerting
Question N° 66
The ADI (Attitude Display Indicator) is part of the essential set of instruments in any
aircraft. A typical mechanical ADI is based on an electric or vacuum-driven gyroscope
(refer to figure). It provides numerous useful data relative to the flight path of the
aircraft (pitch and roll) and integrates the Flight Directors of the AP/FD system.
Besides, it can also integrate additional guidance features such as
the localizer and glideslope of an ILS.
Altitude and airspeed are usually not part of the ADI, although on modern EFIS
displays they’re collocated and are very close to the ADI. This allows the pilots to
establish an efficient scanning technique, essential when flying IFR.
Question N° 67

horizontal stabilizer. In other words, it off-loads any steady-state elevator
deflection.
to compensate for flight path parameter alterations such as thrust changes, landing g ear
Summary:
Question N° 68
The angle of attack probes are generally electrically heated to prevent icing from
blocking the probe. Inside the probe, a viscous damper is fitted in order to reduce the
vane’s fluctuations due to turbulence and airflow disturbance from maneuvering.
Therefore, electrically heating the probe also helps to minimize the changes in damper
fluid’s viscosity and to prevent condensation.
Chemicals are more often used on larger flat surfaces such as the stabilizer or the wings
on certain aircraft types. The same stands for pneumatic heating, which is bas ically hot
bleed air coming from the engines’ compressor to heat large surfaces such as the engine
cowlings and the wings’ leading edges.
Question N° 69
HEAD-UP DISPLAYS (HUD)
Head-up displays are transparent screens that show a simplified monochromatic
primary flight display information possibly with some essential navigation information
in the direct view of the pilot, who can look out of the window and see flight data at the
same time.
The HUD replicates the information on the primary flight display (PFD) by showing the
following data: altitude; speed, including speed trend; heading; flight path vector (track
and vertical flight path); flight mode annunciator (FMA); CAS, TAWS and wind shear
command annunciations.
A HUD is a class of collimated display. The components of a typical HUD installation
include:
 HUD projector and stowable combiner;
 HUD controls such as declutter and dimmer;
 HUD computer.
Question N° 70
Refer to figures.
On an aircraft equipped with a sidestick, the autopilot (A/P) disengages when:
- The flight crew presses the takeover pushbutton on the sidestick; (figure 1)
- The flight crew presses the corresponding A/P pushbutton on the Flight Control
Unit (FCU)/glareshield; (figure 2)
- The flight crew pushes on the sidestick harder than a defined threshold, or moves
on the rudder pedals beyond a defined threshold;
- The flight crew moves the pitch trim wheel beyond a defined threshold;
- The other A/P is engaged, except when localizer/glides lope modes are armed or
engaged;
- One of the engagement conditions is lost.
Question N° 71
The Ground Proximity Warning System is now a required equipment that improves
safety and provides numerous protections that prevent Controlled Flight Into Terrain
(CFIT). It uses a lot of data coming from the Air Data Computer (ADC) such as the
airspeed (CAS), the vertical speed, and baro altitude (which is sometimes not included
as a valid answer in the official examination), radio altitude (height), glideslope
deviation, and flaps and landing gear position. The GPWS operating range is from the
ground up to 2500 ft RA, and is required on jet or turboprop aircraft of more than 5 700
kg or with more than 9 seats. It must provide a distinctive aural warning and visible
signal to the flight crew in case of:
Mode Meaning Initial Aural Alert Second Aural Warning
Excessive descent “SINK RATE, SINK “WHOOP WHOOP PULL

Mode 1
rate RATE” UP” (twice)
“WHOOP WHOOP PULL

Excessive terrain
UP” (continuously until the
closure rate “TERRAIN
Mode 2 radio altitude stopped
(=dangerous ground TERRAIN”
reducing and an increase of
proximity)
300’ baro is measured)
Altitude loss after

"DON`T SINK"
Mode 3 take-off or go- NONE
(twice)
around
Unsafe terrain
“TOO LOW GEAR,”
clearance with flaps
“TOO LOW FLAPS,”
Mode 4 and landing gear NONE
“TOO LOW
NOT in landing
TERRAIN”
configuration
“GLIDESLOPE, “GLIDESLOPE,
Downward
Mode 5 GLIDESLOPE” at GLIDESLOPE” at full
glideslope deviation
half volume volume
Mode
6a (not When passing the “MINIMUMS,
NONE
required decision height MINIMUMS”
by OPS-1)
Mode
6b (not “BANK ANGLE,
Excessive bank angle NONE
required BANK ANGLE”
by OPS-1)
Mode
When expecting or
7 (not “CAUTION “WINDSHEAR,
already encountering
required WINDSHEAR” WIDSHEAR”
wind shear
by OPS-1)
Question N° 72
An Inertial Navigation System (INS) provides the aeroplane’s velocity and position by
continuously measuring and integrating its acceleration. This system relies on no
external references, is unaffected by weather, and can operate during the day or night.
The products of an INS are position (latitude/longitude), speed (kt), distance (nautical
miles), and other navigational information.
For navigation in a horizontal plane, two accelerometers are needed, which are
normally aligned with True North and True East.
The accelerometers are mounted on a gyro -stabilised platform, which maintains
the correct orientation during all aeroplane manoeuvres.
Gyro-stabilised platforms are generally costly, heavy, and require a lengthy alignment
procedure. With the introduction of relatively low cost, high-performance digital
computers, these systems have been steadily replaced by mathematical computer
software models, which modify the output signals from accelerometers that are
strapped directly to the airframe. Referred to as an inertial reference system (IRS), it
works on the same fundamental principles as the INS.
The strap-down system dispenses with the gimbal mounted stable element and
instead uses solid-state ring laser gyros (RLG). These gyros are not required to
stabilise the accelerometers, as in the case of an INS, but provide aeroplane orientation,
by determining the rate of rotation around each of the aeroplane axes.
Input data is also required, such as the:
TAS - to calculate the wind speed/direction.
Initial position – because actual aircraft position during the flight is calculated based on
the distance and direction flown from the initial reference position entered in the
system.
Barometric altitude – the platform can output the inertial height by itself, but its
accuracy is insufficient for precise height control, hence the barometric altitude input.
GNSS (GPS) Position - in order to bound the INS position error.
Other inptus are: Mach Number, Radio height, Number of satellites and Angle of
attack.
Note: The correct option was selected according to EASA LO 022.05.01.01.02 which
states 'State that inertial systems require no external input, except TAS, to determine
aircraft attitude and navigational data.'
If you find this question in you exam please let us know. Your feedback is very
appreciated!
Question N° 73
The horizontal command bar of the FD supplies information about the direction and
magnitude of the corrections to be applied to the pitch angle of the aircraft. The
horizontal bar is always associated with the pitch channel.
When tracking the ILS glideslope, the horizontal command bar will indicate at which
angle you should pitch the aircraft in order to get back on the glideslope. In other
words, it will indicate the correction to be applied to the pitch angle in order to capture
and then readapt this pitch angle so that you follow the ILS glideslope.
Question N° 74
Refer to figure.
The oil torquemeter is part of the engine gearbox, and it measures the axial thrust
produced by the engine. The axial movement generated by helically cut gears is going
to be counteracted by engine oil pressure. This resistance can be measured and
displayed on an instrument calibrated as torque.
Question N° 75
Air Data Computers (ADC) converts raw pressure and temperature
measurements into electrical signals. Two types of ADC exist – analog and digital.
Initially, only the temperature and the pitot/static pressures were provided to the ADC.
From these inputs it was able to compute and provide airspeed (Pt-Ps =
CAS/IAS), Mach number, altitude, TAS and GS indications. However, now the AOA
probe also provides inputs to the ADC. All this data is joined together and is
transmitted from the ADC to other systems such as the FMS, AFCS, TAWS, TCAS,
transponder, EFIS (via the symbol generator) etc.
The only temperature MEASURED (not calculated) in an aircraft usually fitted with
an ADC (commercial aircraft) is the TAT; there’s no OAT probe. The OAT is
internally calculated by the ADC by taking into account the ram rise and the recovery
factor.
Question N° 76
The purpose of an automatic landing system is to make the landing possible in poor
weather conditions where visibility is highly degraded and is below CAT I minimas.
The automatic landing will be achieved by using several onboard instruments: the radio
altimeter, the autopilot, and the auto-throttle. The successful completion of an
automatic landing depends on various items such as the crosswind, headwind, tailwind,
runway contamination, etc. that need to be within a certain range. Beyond the certified
range of these variables, the automatic landing cannot be comp leted safely.
As surprising as it might be, the Autoland capability can be useful on other occasions.
For example, when both flight crew experience extreme fatigue and don’t take the risk
of landing manually the aircraft, they can agree on an automatic landing. Obviously,
this is not because the pilot flying will misjudge the flare or anything that is linked
with the manual skills (although it could also be the cause), but mostly because if a go -
around were to be executed, the autopilot would greatly red uce the workload and help
the pilots to seat back and carefully manage the flight path of the airplane, flaps
retraction, and missed approach procedure monitoring.
Question N° 77
When manual trim is used while the autopilot is controlling the aircraft, automatic
disengagement of the autopilot will usually occur. Autopilot engagement requires a
near-trimmed condition, and the aircraft will always be returned in -trim to the pilots
upon disengagement. The use of manual trim when the autopilot is engaged will
normally lead to autopilot disconnection and a risk of an out -of-trim situation,
resulting in undesired aircraft behaviour when control is handed over to the pilots.
Question N° 78
Refer to figure.
Control Wheel Steering (CWS)
A Control Wheel Steering mode (CWS) is provided in some automatic flight control
systems. Its purpose being to enable the pilot to manoeuvre their aircraft in pitch
and/or roll, through the automatic control system without disconnecting the
autopilot.
The signals for the A/P are produced by transducers in the control column. Pressing a
CWS engage switch, engages the A/P pitch and roll axes in the CWS mode and displays
CWS P and CWS R on the FMAs.
With CWS engaged, the A/P manoeuvres the aeroplane in response to control
pressures applied by either pilot. The control pressure is similar to that required for
manual flight. When control pressure is released, the A/P holds existing attitude.
Touch Control Steering (TCS)
Touch Control Steering (TCS) also permits a pilot to manoeuvre their aircraft in
pitch or roll, but unlike CWS the appropriate automatic control channels and
servomotors are disengaged while the TCS button is held depressed allowing the
pilot to fly the aircraft in the desired attitude using manual control.
The autopilot control channels and servomotors are re-engaged by release of the TCS
button and the autopilot continues to again hold the aircraft in the attitude in which it
was left.
Question N° 79
Refer to figure.
AIR DATA SYSTEM
In many large aircraft currently in service, the conventional pressure instruments which
show altitude, airspeed and Mach Number are replaced by indicators displaying
information generated by a central computer, the Air Data Computer (ADC).
The computer unit and displays, together with the sensors of the basic data of pitot
pressure, static pressure and air temperature, and a power -pack, form the
aircraft’s Air Data System (ADS).
PITOT - STATIC SYSTEM
In a typical aircraft, identical sets of air data instruments are provided on the
Captain’s and First Officer’s instrument panels.
Each set of instruments is connected to one of two (allowing redundancy) ADCs fed
from independent pitot and static sources, which can be cross - connected.
In addition to the indicators powered by the two ADCs there is a standby barometric
altimeter and a standby airspeed indicator , fed direct from pitot and static sources
separate from those used for the ADCs.
Each of the three independent pitot-static systems makes use of cross-coupled static
vents located on each side of the fuselage. This arrangement is designed to reduce error
due to side-slip or yaw.
SYSTEM REDUNDANCY
Provision for blockages and/or failure of an ADC is made through change-over
cocks that permit an alternative static source to be connected to the computer or by the
use of electrical switching that enables the Captain’s instrument to be fed from the
First Officer’s ADC and vice versa.
The Manoeuvre Induced Error is caused by changes in the aeroplanes attitude and/or
configuration and is normally only short term. The main sources of error are normally
in the static supply.
The pressure error changes if any of the following vary:
- Airspeed
- Angle of attack
- Configuration (flap setting, undercarriage etc)
- Position of the pitot/static sources and sideslip.
Question N° 80
The float-type fuel gauging system consists of a simple mechanical float sitting on the
fuel level, linked via a mechanical arm to a gauge indicating the volume. One of the
main limitations of the volume indicating systems is that temperature variations will
impact the reading of the tanks’ actual fuel quantity. In fact, at warm temperatures, fuel
is heated up and expands. Since the volume of fuel is increasing, the float -type gauge
indicates an increase of fuel quantity within the tanks. The reading will a lso
be imprecise during maneuvers, accelerations, and turbulence; the reading will only
be reliable in straight and level flight.
To overcome this problem, modern capacitor-type fuel gauging systems are fitted with
a density compensating unit, which accounts for the temperature changes by converting
the output from volume to mass of fuel.
Question N° 81
The CPDLC is a FANS application that consists of transmitting datalink formatted
messages between the pilot (the aircraft) and the ATC controller or the Company (the
ground). A message sent by the aircraft to the ground is called a downlink message, the
opposite is called an uplink message. Datalink messages may concern various requests
such as route modifications, speed changes, voice contact requests (ex: transfer of ATC
center), emergency messages (MAYDAY), crossing constraints, pre-departure
clearances, ATIS, oceanic clearances, etc.
Datalink messages can be sent using different media such as HF datalink, VHF
datalink, or SATCOM. The SATCOM has the fastest rate of transmission, while the HF
datalink has the slowest. The SATCOM is particularly good as there is no line -of-sight
limitation and no variable quality of signals disturbed by ionospheric conditions,
however, this media is not installed on all airplanes.
Here you can find some of the messages and their respective meaning that you might be
asked at your official exam:
AT [time] CLIMB TO AND at the specified time a climb to the specified altitude is to
MAINTAIN [altitude] be started and the specified altitude is to be maintained.
at the specified position a climb to the specified altitude
AT [position] CLIMB TO
is to be started and the specified altitude is to be
[altitude] AND MAINTAIN
maintained.
CLIMB TO REACH [altitude] a climb is to commence at a rate such that the specified
BY [time] level is reached at or before the specified time.
CHECK STUCK the ATC to the pilot to check microphone buttons due to
MICROPHONE [frequency] a continuous transmission detected on the frequency.
Question N° 82
ARMED AND ENGAGED MODES
It is possible to arm a mode, which means that it will automatically be engaged once
certain criteria are met. Not all modes have an armed state available. An armed mode
will become engaged (replacing the previously engaged mode, if any) when certain
criteria are met.
For instance, during a climb with LVL CHG active, another vertical mode such as ALT
can be armed. Once the aircraft approaches the newly selected level, LVL CHG mode
will be disengaged and replaced by the previously armed ALT mode.
Question N° 83
Turning errors are greater on North/South headings and at high latitudes as they are
directly related to the vertical component of the magnetic field of the Earth.
An easy way to remember the turning errors is by using the acronym ‘UNOS’:
• UN – Undershoot = Under-turn North
• OS – Overshoot = Over-turn South
In this case, we will have to under-turn, since we are on the northern half of the
compass.
 If the desired magnetic heading is 315º, we should under-turn by roughly 20º

(335º). This will make the compass read a value of 315º once wings are level.
 A standard turn equals 3º/sec. Since we are turning through 90º, it would take
us 30 seconds.
Question N° 84
Angle Of Attack Measurement
The majority of measurement systems use one of two designs to measure the angle of
airflow:
 Null seeking (slotted) probe

 Vane detector
A potentiometer was used to measure the angular position of the probe . Both
systems can have small inaccuracies depending on their position on the fuselage. The
aircraft passing through the air affects them and alters the direction of flow compared
to the free stream direction. If this was allowed to happen the resulting error w ould be
called position error. Constant errors in airflow direction can be overcome by
calibration.
Question N° 85
CS 25.703 Take-off warning system (See AMC 25.703)
A take-off warning system must be installed and must meet the following requirements:
(a) The system must provide to the pilots an aural warning that is
automatically activated during the initial portion of the take-off roll if the aeroplane is
in a configuration, including any of the following that would not allow a safe take-off:
(1) The wing-flaps or leading edge devices are not within the approved range of
take-off positions.
(2) Wing spoilers (except lateral control spoilers meeting the requirements of CS
25.671), speed brakes, or longitudinal trim devices are in a position that would
not allow a safe take-off.
(3) The parking brake is unreleased.
Question N° 86
Below a radio height of 50 ft, thrust is gradually reduced until touchdown, while the
autopilot pitch channel executes the flare (flare mode).
 If this last sub mode, “FLARE” mode does not engage, the pilot is responsible to
perform the flare.
All remaining options suggest that the pilot intervenes after landing, which is already
too late.

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Question N 1

DUTCH ROLL FILTER

 ensure the airplane is properly trimmed when the autopilot is disengaged.

Mach trim counteracts (increases pitch up) by one of the following:

 stick force gradient will be maintained

 the stall protection (with the stick shaker),

 the stall protection (with the stick shaker),

DUTCH ROLL FILTER

 ensure the airplane is properly trimmed when the autopilot is disengaged.

An Inertial Reference System (IRS) installed on larger transport aircraft typically

 the stall protection (with the stick shaker),

 the stall protection (with the stick shaker),

 the stall protection (with the stick shaker),

Release date: 2022.10.16.

 TAS - to calculate the wind speed/direction.

Acceleration integrated over time:

 Once = change in velocity.

Internally, this is calculated by integrators that are time multiplication devices.

Integrate with time How many Additional

Stall Protection system (SPS)

Autopilot Heading Mode

 ensure the airplane is properly trimmed when the autopilot is disengaged.

Mode Meaning Initial Aural Alert Second Aural Warning

 Fail passive - In the event of a failure, there is no significant out-of-trim

A fail-operational system experiencing a failure will become a fail passive. A fail

Release date: 2023.01.15.

ROLL modes PITCH modes Combined ROLL and

Basic (stabilization) functions:

 Pitch and bank angle hold (= attitude hold)

 Fully powered flight controls – no physical connection between the control

Flight phase Meaning

 ensure the airplane is properly trimmed when the autopilot is disengaged.

Mode Meaning Initial Aural Alert Second Aural Warning

Excessive descent “SINK RATE, SINK “WHOOP WHOOP PULL

“WHOOP WHOOP PULL

Altitude loss after

 If the desired magnetic heading is 315º, we should under-turn by roughly 20º

 Null seeking (slotted) probe

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