040 - Human Performance Limitations - Answers

Question N 1
Correct Answer – B
EASA PART FCL
The Principles of Threat and Error Management (TEM)
1. TEM MODEL
1.2 Threats
The first component of the TEM model is the threat. Threats are events that
occur beyond the influence of the flight crew, increase operational complexity,
and which must be managed to maintain the margins of safet
The TEM model considers 3 categories of threats, anticipated, unanticipated
and latent which all have the potential to negatively affect flight operations by
reducing margins of safety.
(...)
Latent
Lastly, some threats may not be directly obvious to, or observable by, flight
crews immersed in flight operations, and may need to be uncovered by safety
analysis. These are considered latent threats and may include organisational
weaknesses and the psychological state of the pilot such as:
 Organisational culture/changes;
 Incorrect/incomplete documentation;
 Equipment design issues;
 Operational pressures/delays;
 Optical illusions;
 Fatigue/rostering;
 Stress;
 Complacency;
 Over or under confidence;
 Lack of recent experience and proficiency
Regardless of whether threats are anticipated, unanticipated, or latent, one

measure of the effectiveness of a flight crew’s ability to manage threats is
whether threats are detected promptly enough to enable the flight crew to
respond to them before a UAS develops by taking the appropriate actions.
Question N 2
Correct Answer – A
Safety culture is the term used to describe those aspects of an organisation’s
reliability that depend on "shared values and norms of behaviour articulated
by senior management and translated with high uniformity into effective
work practices at the front line". This definition emphasises the direct and
powerful influence of an organisation’s leadership group on the safety a ttitudes
and behaviour of employees. Every individual involved in operations has to
support the safety culture, the duty of the "higher levels" of management is to
ensure that all required resources are available.
Dr James Reason has suggested that safety culture consists of five elements:
 An informed culture
 A reporting culture
 A learning culture
 A just culture
 A flexible culture
Informed culture. The organization collects and analyses relevant data, and
actively disseminates safety information.
Reporting culture. An organizational climate in which people are prepared to
report their errors and near-misses.
Learning culture. An organization must possess the willingness and the
competence to draw the right conclusions from its safety information sy stem and
the will to implement major reforms.
Just culture. An atmosphere where errors and unsafe acts will not be punished if
the error was unintentional. However, those who act recklessly or take
deliberate and unjustifiable risks will still be subject to disciplinary action.
Flexible culture. A culture in which an organisation is able to reconfigure
themselves in the face of high tempo operations or certain kinds of danger –
often shifting from conventional hierarchical mode to a flatter mode.
Question N 3
The Threat and Error Management (TEM) model is a conceptual framework that
assists in understanding, from an operational perspective, the inter -relationship
between safety and human performance in dynamic and challenging operational
contexts.
The TEM model classifies errors based upon the primary interaction of the pilot
or flight crew at the moment the error is committed. Thus, in order to be
classified as aircraft handling error, the pilot or flight crew must be interacting
with the aircraft (e.g. through its controls, automation or systems). In order to be
classified as procedural error, the pilot or flight crew must be interacting with a
procedure (e.g. checklists; SOPs; etc). In order to be classified
as communication error, the pilot or flight crew must be interacting with people
(ATC; groundcrew; other crewmembers, etc).
 Manual handling/flight controls: vertical/lateral and/or speed
deviations, incorrect flaps/speedbrakes, thrust reverser or power
settings.
 Automation: incorrect altitude, speed, heading, autothrottle
Aircraft settings, incorrect mode executed, or incorrect entries.
Handling errors  Systems/radio/instruments: incorrect packs, incorrect anti-icing,
incorrect altimeter, incorrect fuel switches settings, incorrect
speed bug, incorrect radio frequency dialled.
 Ground navigation: attempting to turn down wrong
taxiway/runway, taxi too fast, failure to hold short, missed
taxiway/runway.
 SOPs: failure to cross-verify automation inputs.

 Checklists: wrong challenge and response; items missed,
checklist performed late or at the wrong time.
 Callouts: omitted/incorrect callouts
Procedural  Briefings: omitted briefings; items missed.
errors  Documentation: wrong weight and balance, fuel information,
ATIS, or clearance information recorded, misinterpreted items
on paperwork; incorrect logbook entries, incorrect application
of MEL procedures.
 Crew to external: missed calls, misinterpretations of

instructions, incorrect read-back, wrong clearance, taxiway,
Communication gate or runway communicated.
errors  Pilot to pilot: within crew miscommunication or
misinterpretation
Question N 4
Threat and Error Management (TEM)
TEM model proposes that everyday flight operation is affected by two
components: threats and errors. These have to be managed to ensure flight
safety. In case they are mishandled, both threats and errors can lead to
undesired aircraft states.
 Threats: Events that occur during flight which cannot be influenced by the
crew. These can be subdivided into Environmental or Organizational
threats, according to their origin.
 Errors: Actions or inactions during the course of the flight, which lead to a
deviation from the organizational or the operational person’ intentions or
expectations. Errors are always influenced by the crew.
 Undesired Aircraft State (UAS): Aircraft position, condition or attitude that
clearly reduces the margin of safety and is the result of flight crew
behaviour.
“A lateral offset from the cleared track as a result of a drifting IRS.” => This is
an example of an undesired aircraft state (caused by the threat of a drifting
IRS).
“A descent below the glide path in wind shear.” => Again, this is an example of
undesired aircraft state (caused by an environmental threat).
“Take-off with less than the legally required amount of fuel on board due to an
erroneous calculation by the dispatch crew.” => This is describing a latent
threat.
The only example of an error is “Inadequate control inputs resulting in a hard
landing and the collapse of the landing gear.”
Question N 5
Refer to figure.
THE SWISS CHEESE MODEL
The Swiss Cheese Model proposes that there is not just a single cause of any
given accident and threats materialize as a result of cumulative effects and
many layers of defenses failing to deal with it.
Professor James Reason points out that the sequence of human events in an
accident can be likened to several slices of Swiss cheese, with the holes as
opportunities for accidents. The slices actually represent layers between
management decision making and the incident concerned. On the day that the
holes line up, something will happen. So, if you can recognize the sequence,
you should, in theory, be able to pull some of the holes out of line, thus
preventing an accident.
Question N 6
reliability that depend on "shared values and norms of behaviour articulated by
senior management and translated with high uniformity into effective work
practices at the front line". This definition emphasises the direct and powerful
influence of an organisation’s leadership group on the safety attitudes and
behaviour of employees. Once a safety culture is established and maintained
it is is relatively enduring, stable and resistant to change.
 An informed culture
 A reporting culture
 A learning culture
 A just culture
 A flexible culture
Informed culture. Those who manage and operate the system have current
knowledge about the human, technical, organizational and environmental factors
that determine the safety of the system as a whole.
competence to draw the right conclusions from its safety information system and
Just culture. An atmosphere of trust in which people are encouraged (even
rewarded) for providing essential safety-related information, but in which they
are also clear about where the line must be drawn between acceptable and
unacceptable behaviour.
Question N 7
Correct Answer – D
Undesired Aircraft States (UAS)
The TEM model defines Undesired Aircraft States (UAS) to be an aircraft
position, speed deviation, condition or attitude that clearly reduces the margin
of safety and is the result of flight crew behaviour (actions or inactions). In
order to prevent the sequence of events from leading to an accident, undesired
aircraft states must be managed by the flight crew.
All flight crew MUST employ counter measures in order to keep threats, errors
and undesired aircraft states from reducing safety margin s in flight operations.
Question N 8
ICAO Annex 1
Chapter 1. Definitions and General Rules Concerning Licences
Competency. A dimension of human performance that is used to reliably predict
successful performance on the job. A competency is manifested and observed
through behaviours that mobilize the relevant knowledge, skills and attitudes to
carry out activities or taks under specified conditions.
Question N 9
work practices at the front line" . This definition emphasises the direct and
powerful influence of an organisation’s leadership group on the safety attitudes
and behaviour of employees. Once a safety culture is established and
maintained it is is relatively enduring, stable and resistant to change.
 Flight safety is everyone's responsibility. Management must provide the

individuals with the resources required to establish safety of
operation (duty roster, training, fuel policy, etc). Nevertheless, it is still
every individual crew member's responsibility to fill these conditions with
life and behave in a safety-oriented way.
As a summary:
Accountability = Management
Responsibility = Individuals
Question N 10
"3. possesses all the knowledge associated with the aircraft" Incorrect. Knowing
every detail of the aircraft does not make one "skilled" - i.e. if the pilot is not
able to maintain straight and level flight, he is not skilled, even if he/she knows
all about the materials used, type of construction, masses, dimensions, e tc of
the aircraft.
Question N 11
Refer to figure.
Safety Management System (SMS) is composed of four functional components:
 Safety Policy
 Safety Risk Management
 Safety Assurance
 Safety Promotion
Question N 12
ACTIVE AND LATENT ERRORS
An error, officially, arises when a planned sequence of activities fails to achieve
the intended outcome, where random external intervention is not involved.
The terms active and latent as applied to errors were coined by Reason.
 Latent errors have consequences that lie dormant and are difficult to
recognize or foresee because of the time lag between their generation
and occurrence, while active errors, which are committed at the
human/system interface, have consequences that are fe lt almost
immediately, which is how they can be detected.
Operational pressure resulting from delays, late arrivals, equipment

changes falls into this category.
 Active errors are committed by the “sharp end”, those people who are
directly involved in flight operations (pilots, ATC, etc). Latent errors are
usually committed by the blunt-end, people who are not directly engaged
in flight operations. However, latent errors can also be made by front -line
personnel. An example of a latent error committed by a pi lot would be the
selection of a wrong waypoint in a GPS database.
Question N 13
Regulation (EU) No 1178/2011
PRINCIPLES OF THREAT AND ERROR MANAGEMENT
(2) Threats:
(i) Threats are defined as events or errors that occur beyond the influence of the
flight crew, increase operational complexity, and which must be managed to
maintain the margins of safety. During typical flight operations, flight crews have
to manage various contextual complexities. Such complexities would include, for
example, dealing with adverse meteorological conditions, airports surrounded by
high mountains, congested airspace, aircraft malfunctions, errors committed by
other people outside of the cockpit, such as air traffic controllers, flight
attendants or maintenance workers, and so forth. The TEM model considers
these complexities as threats because they all have the potential to negatively
affect flight operations by reducing margins of safety;
(...)
(vii) Table 1 presents examples of threats, grouped under two basic categories
derived from the TEM Model. Environmental threats occur due to the
environment in which flight operations take place . Some environmental threats
can be planned for and some will arise spontaneously, but they all have to be
managed by flight crews in real time. Organisational threats, on the other hand,
can be controlled (for example removed or, at least, minimised) at source by
aviation organisations. Organisational threats are usually latent in nature. Flight
crews still remain the last line of defence, but there are earlier opportunities for
these threats to be mitigated by aviation organisations themselves.
Environmental threats Organisational threats
(A)operational pressure:
delays, late arrivals or
(A) weather: thunderstorms, turbulence, icing, equipment changes;
wind shear, cross or tailwind, very low or high (B) aircraft: aircraft
temperatures; malfunction, automation
(B) ATC: traffic congestion, ACAS RA/TA, event or anomaly,
ATC command, ATC error, ATC language MEL/CDL;
difficulty, ATC non-standard phraseology, (C) cabin: flight attendant
ATC runway change, ATIS communication or error, cabin event
units of measurement (QFE/meters); distraction, interruption,
(C) airport: contaminated or short runway; cabin door security;
contaminated taxiway, lack of, confusing, (D) maintenance:
faded signage, markings, birds, aids maintenance event or
unserviceable, complex surface navigation error;
procedures or airport constructions; (E) ground: ground-
(D) terrain: high ground, slope, lack of handling event, de-icing or
references or ‘black hole’; ground crew error;
(E) other: similar call-signs. (F) dispatch: dispatch
paperwork event or error;
(G) documentation:
manual error or chart error;
(H) other: crew scheduling
event.
Table 1. Examples of threats (list is not exhaustive)
Question N 14
assists in understanding, from an operational perspective, the inter -relationship
contexts.
 Manual handling/flight controls: vertical/lateral and/or
speed deviations, incorrect flaps/speedbrakes, thrust
reverser or power settings.
 Automation: incorrect altitude, speed, heading,
autothrottle settings, incorrect mode executed, or
Aircraft incorrect entries.
Handling errors  Systems/radio/instruments: incorrect packs, incorrect
anti-icing, incorrect altimeter, incorrect fuel switches
settings, incorrect speed bug, incorrect radio
frequency dialled.
taxiway/runway, taxi too fast, failure to hold short,
missed taxiway/runway.

 Checklists: wrong challenge and response; items
missed, checklist performed late or at the wrong time.
errors  Documentation: wrong weight and balance, fuel
information, ATIS, or clearance information recorded,
misinterpreted items on paperwork; incorrect logbook
entries, incorrect application of MEL procedures.

instructions, incorrect read-back, wrong clearance,
taxiway, gate or runway communicated.
Communication  Pilot to pilot: within crew miscommunication or
errors misinterpretation
 In this case, the commander committed a handling error by allowing the

speed to increase above the required, possibly by insertting an incorrect
speed into the MCP. The co-pilot, on the other hand, whose job was to
monitor the height and speed, committed a procedural error (SOPs:
failure to cross-verify automation inputs or even by omitting ot making
incorrect callouts).
Question N 15
Open Culture
In a nutshell, an open culture connects employees to each other, facilitates
teams working together and ensures the visions and values of the organisation
are shared. Open business cultures encourage employees to share ideas, show
up to work as their whole self, and have empathy with each other. Where all
levels of an organization play an active part in the improvement of the safety
culture.
 The safety outcomes in civil aviation are astoundingly good. Evaluation of

data is undertaken constantly, so the flow of information is critical. The root
cause of this is an "open" and "just" culture , in which individuals constantly
share all relevant information, however embarrassing might be, in the
knowledge that they do so in a "safe space" environment
Question N 16
assists in understanding, from an operational perspective, the inter-relationship
contexts. It is based on three components, threats, errors and undersired
aircraft states.
Threats are the first line of defense, and are times or places whe re a potential
error could be made qute easily. They can be classed as latent threats,
environmental threats, or organisational threats, depending on how the threat
has occured in the first place.
Errors are classified based upon the primary interaction of the pilot or flight crew
at the moment the error is committed. Therefore they can be classed as aircraft
handling errors, procedural errors or communication errors, depending on what
has occured to let the error happen. These are three of the main error t ypes.
Undesired aircraft states occur due to errors being allowed to happen and
potentially putting the aircraft in a state that it should not be in, undesired
attitude, location, low on fuel, etc. These are a consequence, but if the threat
and following error have not been picked up by the flight crew already, then the
undesired aircraft state is where the flight crew should realise that there is a
problem, and take action to return to safe operations.
There are some counter-measures that can be put in pla ce to aid Threat and
Error Management, probably the largest of which is the set of systemic
counter-measures that are put in place by all operators. These are parts of the
system that have been created or develoed specificaly to aid TEM and safety
procedure. They can be things like:
 Airborne Collision Avoidance Systems (ACAS/TCAS)

 Ground Proximity Warning Systems (GPWS)
 Standard Operation Procedures (SOPs)
 TEM training (CRM training also)
 Briefings
 Checklists
These all promote and help TEM as they provide the flight crew with more
opportunities to notice threats, errors and undesired aircraft states , as well as
good tools to mitigate any such errors, and get out of the undesired states .
Question N 17
Correct Answer – C
Refer to figure.
SHELL MODEL
The SHELL Model is a conceptual tool used to analyze the interaction of
multiple system components. The SHELL Model contains the following four
components:
 Liveware (L). At the centre of the model is the pilot. Man - the most
valuable and flexible component of the system. The second ‘L’ represents
other humans whether inside or outside the aircraft.
 Software (S). Includes procedures, training, support, manuals, checklist
layouts, maps and charts, computer programmes.
 Hardware (H). Relates to machines and equipment. Including cockpit
layout, physical aircraft structure, instruments presentation and position of
controls.
 Environment (E). The working environment in which the rest of the L -H-S
system must function - conditions both inside and outside the cockpit.
Interaction of different component of the SHELL Model:
Liveware-Hardware (L-H). The L-H interface, known as "man <=> machine"
interface", refers to the relationship between the human and the physical
attributes of equipment, machines and facilities.
Liveware-Software (L-S). The L-S interface is the relationship between the
human and the supporting systems found in the workplace, e.g. regulations,
manuals, checklists, publications, standard operating procedures (SOPs) and
computer software. It includes such issues as recency of experience, accuracy,
format and presentation, vocabulary, clarity and symbology.
Liveware-Liveware (L-L). The L-L interface is the relationship among persons in
the work environment. Since flight crews, air traffic controllers, aircra ft
maintenance engineers and other operational personnel function in groups, it is
important to recognize that communication and inter -personal skills, as well as
group dynamics play a role in determining human performance.
Liveware-Environment (L-E). This interface involves the relationship between
the human and both the internal and external environments. The internal
workplace environment includes such physical considerations as temperature,
ambient light, noise, vibration and air quality. The external e nvironment includes
operational aspects such as weather factors, aviation infrastructure and terrain.
This interface also involves the relationship between the human internal
environment and its external environment.
Question N 18
ICAO Annex 1
Chapter 1. Definitions and General Rules Concerning Licences
Question N 19
ICAO Annex 1
Error. An action or inaction by an operational person that leads to deviations
from organizational or the operational person's intentions or expectations.
procedure (e.g. checklists; SOPs; etc). In order to be classified as
communication error, the pilot or flight crew must be interacting with people
 Manual handling/flight controls: vertical/lateral and/or speed

deviations, incorrect flaps/speedbrakes, thrust reverser or power
settings.
 Automation: incorrect altitude, speed, heading, autothrottle
settings, incorrect mode executed, or incorrect entries.
Aircraft  Systems/radio/instruments: incorrect packs, incorrect anti-icing,
Handling errors incorrect altimeter, incorrect fuel switches settings, incorrect
speed bug, incorrect radio frequency dialled.
taxiway/runway, taxi too fast, failure to hold short, missed
taxiway/runway.

 Checklists: wrong challenge and response; items missed,
checklist performed late or at the wrong time.
errors  Documentation: wrong weight and balance, fuel information,
ATIS, or clearance information recorded, misinterpreted items
on paperwork; incorrect logbook entries, incorrect application
of MEL procedures.

instructions, incorrect read-back, wrong clearance, taxiway,
Communication gate or runway communicated.
misinterpretation
Question N 20
behaviour of employees. Every individual involved in operations has to support
the safety culture, the duty of the "higher levels" of management is to ensure
that all required resources are available.
 A just culture (non-punitive culture)
actively disseminates safety information. This is the most effective culture
towards risk management, as more data can be provided to manage/reduce
future risks.
Just culture. An atmosphere where errors and unsafe acts will not be punished
if the error was unintentional. However, those who act recklessly or take
deliberate and unjustifiable risks will still be subject to disciplinary action. This
is also known as a non-punitive culture.
From these safety cultures, we can see that the specific one which is not upheld
by the captain yelling at the First Officer for a minor, unintentional slip, is
the "just culture (non-punitive culture)". The Captain is being
unnecessarily punitive of the FO, which could lead to them failing to come
forward about any future problems, and likely will dramatically reduce their
confidence, and therefore their safety.
Question N 21
position, condition or attitude that clearly reduces the margin of safety and is
the result of flight crew behaviour (actions or inactions). In order to prevent the
sequence of events from leading to an accident, undesired aircraft states must
be managed by the flight crew.
and undesired aircraft states from reducing safety margins in flight operations.
Question N 22
behaviour of employees. Once a safety culture is established and maintained it
is is relatively enduring, stable and resistant to change.
 A just culture
Question N 23
MURPHY'S LAW
In its simplest form, Murphy's Law states: If anything can go wrong, it will. Its
original meaning is that you should find everything that can go wrong and fix it
so that nothing will go wrong.
Question N 24
 A just culture
Question N 25
The components of the TEM model
There are three basic components in the TEM model, from the perspective of
flight crews: threats, errors and undesired aircraft states.
 Threats are defined as “events or errors that occur beyond the influence
of the flight crew, increase operational complexity, and which must be
managed to maintain the margins of safety”.
 Errors are defined “actions or inactions by the flight crew that lead to
deviations from organizational or flight crew intentions or expectations”.
The occurence of a thunderstorm cannot be influenced by the flight crew,

therefore according to the TEM model, it is a threat. Some thre ats can be
anticipated/predicted, since they are expected or known to the flight crew. Flight
crews can anticipate the consequences of a thunderstorm by briefing their
response in advance, or prepare for a congested airport by making sure they
keep a watchful eye for other aircraft as they execute the approach.
Question N 26
SAFETY CULTURE
1. An informed culture. The organization collects and analyses relevant

data, and actively disseminates safety information.
2. A reporting culture. Means cultivating an atmosphere where people have
confidence to report safety concerns without fear of blame.
3. A learning culture. Means that an organization is able to learn from its
mistakes and make changes
4. A just culture. Has been defined as a culture in which front line operators
and others are not punished for actions, omissions or decisions taken by
them that are commensurate with their experience and training, but where
gross negligence, wilful violations and destructive acts are not tolerated.
5. A flexible culture. Is one where the organization and the people in it are
capable of adapting effectively to changing demands.
Question N 27
powerful influence of an organisation’s leadership gro up on the safety attitudes
 A just culture
often shifting from conventional hierarchical mode to a flat ter mode.
Question N 28
ICAO Annex 19
Appendix 2. Framework For A Safety Management System (Sms)
This appendix specifies the framework for the implementation and maintenance
of an SMS. The framework comprises four components and twelve elements as
the minimum requirements for SMS implementation:
1. Safety policy and objectives
1.1 Management commitment and responsibility
1.2 Safety accountabilities
1.3 Appointment of key safety personnel
1.4 Coordination of emergency response planning
1.5 SMS documentation
2. Safety risk management
2.1 Hazard identification
2.2 Safety risk assessment and mitigation
3. Safety assurance
3.1 Safety performance monitoring and measurement
3.2 The management of change
3.3 Continuous improvement of the SMS
4. Safety promotion
4.1 Training and education
4.2 Safety communication
Question N 29
powerful influence of an organisation’s leadership group on the safety attitudes
Dr James Reason has suggested that safety culture consists of f ive elements:
 A just culture
future risks.
the error was unintentional. Howev er, those who act recklessly or take
themselves in the face of high tempo operations or certain kin ds of danger –
Question N 30
Safety Culture is the way safety is perceived, valued and prioritised in an
organisation. It reflects the real commitment to safety at all levels in the
organisation. It has also been described as "how an organisation behaves when
no one is watching". National cultural values can impact safety culture and
worker safety behaviours.
Over the past several years, many studies have been conduc ted on the
influence of national culture in the workplace. These studies focused on a
number of dimensions, but primarily sought to answer whether people will first
act in the interest of what their national culture expects of them, or first act in
the interest of maintaining a safe work environment.
In this case, it is pretty clear that national culture is taking precedence over
safety culture.
Question N 31
High and low power distance cultures differ greatly in the manner in which
conflict is approached and handled. Higher Power Distance cultures usually
adopt an autocratic leadership style, which means subordinates may be unlikely
to approach and contradict their bosses directly.
Some Consequences:
 In High Power Distance cultures: obedience to authority (parent, boss,
officials) is expected; language filled with power or hierarchy indicators;
managers / teachers tend to be autocratic while subordinates expect
direct supervision.
 In Low Power Distance cultures, emphasis is on challenging decisions,
expecting autonomy and independence.
High power distance Low power distance

Power / Authority are facts of Minimize social / class
life structures
Everyone has a specific place No set hierarchy
Those in power emphasize Those in power minimize

position position
Respect for authority Respect for individuality
Centralized authority Decentralized authority
Question N 32
EASA AIRCREW REGULATION
Countermeasures directly related to the human contribution to the safety of flight
operations:
These are personal strategies and tactics, individual and team countermeasures
that typically include canvassed skills, knowledge and attitudes developed by
human performance training, most notably, by CRM training. There are basically
three categories of individual and team countermeasures:
 Planning countermeasures: essential for managing anticipated and

unexpected threats;
 Execution countermeasures: essential for error detection and error
response;
 Review countermeasures: essential for managing the changing conditions
of a flight.
Planning countermeasures
SOP briefing The required briefing (A) Concise, not rushed,
was interactive and and met SOP
operationally thorough requirements;
(B) Bottom lines were
established
Plans stated Operational plans and Shared understanding

decisions were about plans: ‘Everybody
communicated and on the same page’
acknowledged
Workload assignment Roles and Workload assignments

responsibilities were were communicated and
acknowledged
defined for normal and
non-normal situations
Contingency Crew members (A) Threats and their

management developed effective consequences were
strategies to manage anticipated;
threats to safety (B) Used all available
resources to manage
threats
Execution countermeasures
Monitor and cross-check Crew members actively Aircraft position,
monitored and cross- settings, and crew
checked systems and actions were verified
other crew members
Workload management Operational tasks were (A) Avoided task fixation;

prioritised and properly (B) Did not allow work
managed to handle overload
primary flight duties
Automation management Automation was properly (A) Automation setup

managed to balance was briefed to other
situational and workload members
requirements (B) Effective recovery
techniques from
automation anomalies
Review countermeasures
Evaluation and Existing plans were Crew decisions and
modification of plans reviewed and modified actions were openly
when necessary analysed to make sure
the existing plan was the
best plan
Inquiry Crew members asked Crew members not afraid

questions to investigate to express a lack of
and/or clarify current knowledge: ‘Nothing
plans of action taken for granted’
attitude
Assertiveness Crew members stated Crew members spoke up

critical information or without hesitation
solutions with
appropriate persistence
Table 4. Examples of individual and team countermeasures

Question N 33
Crewmember fatigue can be defined as:
 A physiological state of reduced mental or physical performance
capability resulting from sleep loss or extended wakefulness, circadian
phase, or workload (mental and/or physical activity) that can impair a
crew member’s alertness and ability to safely operate an aircraft or
perform safety related duties.
Fatigue is a major human factors hazard because it affects most aspects of a
crewmember’s ability to do their job. It therefore has implications for safety.
ICAO defines a Fatigue Risk Management System (FRMS) as:
 A data-driven means of continuously monitoring and managing fatigue-
related safety risks, based upon scientific principles and knowledge as
well as operational experience that aims to ensure relevant personnel are
performing at adequate levels of alertness.
An FRMS aims to ensure that flight and cabin crew members are sufficiently
alert so they can operate to a satisfactory level of performance. It is a set of
guidelines aimed at reducing fatigue-induced safety risks and considers
additional factors such as the circadian rhythm, the importance of a dequate
sleep within the rest period, and the unique properties of the individual
operation. FRMS is based on computer models which anticipate the expected
performance capability of a person from his/her sleep/awake history. Such
models must be continuously updated by analyses of data and reports. The
quality of the FRMS depends on its ability to learn. The term used for this kind
of safety culture is “learning culture”.
It is also dependent on the willingness of aircrew to report fatigue -related issues
and in a culture where crew members are encouraged to report safety risks.
However, such safety cultured is named “just culture” and not “non -punitive
culture”.
Question N 34
Just Culture describes an atmosphere where errors and unsafe acts will not be
punished if the error was unintentional. However, those who act recklessly or
take deliberate and unjustifiable risks will still be subject to disciplinary action. A
Just Culture environment creates an atmosphere of trust in which people a re
encouraged, even rewarded, for providing essential safety-related information -
but in which they are also clear about where the line must be drawn between
acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. Unitended errors should not be
punished in order to promote employee's willingness to report errors, so that the
future possibility of such an error occurring again is reduced.
 In this case, the operator does not apply the principle of just culture. By
punishing the pilot for committing an unintended error, trust is broken
among other employees who will now avoid reporting errors for fear of
punishment.
Question N 35
contexts.
classified as procedural error, the pilot or flight crew must be in teracting with a

frequency dialled.

Communication taxiway, gate or runway communicated.
misinterpretation
Question N 36
Threats are defined as “events or errors that occur beyond the influence of the
maintain the margins of safety”. During typical fl ight operations, flight crews
have to manage various contextual complexities. Threats can be grouped under
two basic categories derived from the TEM model.
 Environmental threats occur due to the environment in which flight

operations take place. Some environmental threats can be planned for
and some will arise spontaneously, but they all have to be managed by
flight crews in real time.
 Organizational threats, on the other hand, can be controlled (i.e.,
removed or, at least, minimised) at source by avia tion organizations.
Organizational threats are usually latent in nature.
Table 1. Examples of threats (List not inclusive)

Environmental Threats Organizational Threats
 Weather: thunderstorms,  Operational pressure: delays,

turbulence, icing, wind shear, late arrivals, equipment
cross/tailwind, very low/high changes.
temperatures.  Aircraft: aircraft malfunction,
 ATC: traffic congestion, TCAS automation event/anomaly,
RA/TA, ATC command, ATC MEL/CDL.
error, ATC language difficulty,  Cabin: flight attendant error,
ATC non-standard phraseology, cabin event distraction,
ATC runway change, ATIS interruption, cabin door
communication, units of security.
measurement (QFE/meters).  Maintenance: maintenance
 Airport: contaminated/short event/error.
runway; contaminated taxiway,  Ground: ground handling event,
lack of/confusing/faded de-icing, ground crew error.
signage/markings, birds, aids  Dispatch: dispatch paperwork
U/S, complex surface event/error.
navigation procedures, airport  Documentation: manual error,
constructions. chart error.
 Terrain: High ground, slope,  Other: crew scheduling event
lack of references, “black hole”.
 Other: similar call-signs.
Question N 37
powerful influence of an organ isation’s leadership group on the safety attitudes
 A just culture
future risks.
Question N 38
maintain the margins of safety”. During typical flight operations, flight crews
have to manage various contextual complexities. Threats can be gro uped under

and some will arise spontaneously, but they all have to be m anaged by
removed or, at least, minimised) at source by aviation organizations.


Question N 39
In a National Culture both government and ethnic factors influence attitudes
towards safety culture. A safety culture is definied as shared values and norms
of behaviour articulated by senior management and translated with high
uniformity into effective work practices at the front line. Therefore, even if
subconsciously, safety culture is affected by National culture even if we aim
to eliminate this dependence.
Question N 40
Refer to figure.
SHELL MODEL
multiple system components and identify vulnerable spots. The SHELL Model
contains the following four components:
controls.

format and presentation, vocabulary, clarity and symbology.
the work environment. Since flight crews, air traffic controllers, aircraft
important to recognize that communication and inter -personal skills, as well as
the human and both the internal and external environments. The internal
ambient light, noise, vibration and air quality. The external environment includes
operational aspects such as weather factors, aviation infrastructure and terrain.
Question N 41
The Tem model proposes that threats and errors are an everyday part of
aviation. These need to be managed by flight crews in order to prevent
undesired aircraft states. These can be managed by briefings and
situaltional awareness.
The main objective of crew briefings is that all crew members understand the
desired sequence of events and actions, the condition of the aircraft, any
special circumstances affecting the planned flight. At the end of a briefing, all
crew members should share a common mental model of the situation. Briefings
can be a powerful means of transferring information; if properly given they can
be extremely effective.
Question N 42
The complete elimination of risk in aviation operations would involve stopping all
aviation activities and grounding all aircraft. This is obviously an unachievable
and impractical goal. Not all risks can be removed and not all possible risk
mitigation measures are economically practical, therefore all participants in
aviation should aim to reduce as much as possible. If the risk is considered
to be unacceptable, then control measures are taken to fortify and increase the
level of defences against that risk or to avoid or remove the risk, if this
is economically feasible.
Question N 43
Refer to figure.
SHELL MODEL
multiple system components and identify vulnerable spots. The SHELL Model
contains the following four components:
controls.

format and presentation, vocabulary, clarity and symbolo gy.
the work environment. Since flight crews, air traffic controllers, aircraft
important to recognize that communication and inter-personal skills, as well as
the human and both the internal and external environme nts. The internal
ambient light, noise, vibration and air quality. The external environment includes
operational aspects such as weather factors, aviation infrastructure and terrai n.
Question N 44
behaviour of employees. Every individual involved in operations has to support
the safety culture, the duty of the "higher levels" of management is to ensure
that all required resources are available.
 A just culture
Just culture. An atmosphere where errors and unsafe acts will not be
punished if the error was unintentional. However, those who act recklessly
or take deliberate and unjustifiable risks will still be subject to disciplinary
action.
often shifting from conventional hierarchical mode to a f latter mode.
Question N 45


Question N 46
Refer to figure.
Safety Management System (SMS) is composed of four functional components:
 Safety Policy
 Safety Risk Management
 Safety Assurance
 Safety Promotion
Question N 47
position, condition or attitude that clearly reduces the margin of safety and is
the result of flight crew behaviour (actions or inactions). In order to prevent the
sequence of events from leading to an accident, undesired aircraft states must
be managed by the flight crew.
and undesired aircraft states from reducing safety margins in flight operations.
Question N 48


temperatures.
 Aircraft: aircraft malfunction,
error, ATC language difficulty,
 Cabin: flight attendant error,
ATC non-standard phraseology,
ATC runway change, ATIS cabin event distraction,
communication, units of interruption, cabin door
measurement (QFE/meters). security.
 Maintenance: maintenance
 Airport: contaminated/short
runway; contaminated taxiway, event/error.
lack of/confusing/faded  Ground: ground handling event,
signage/markings, birds, aids de-icing, ground crew error.
U/S, complex surface
navigation procedures, airport  Dispatch: dispatch paperwork
constructions. event/error.
 Terrain: High ground, slope,  Documentation: manual error,

lack of references, “black hole”. chart error.
 Other: similar call-signs.  Other: crew scheduling event
Question N 49
Learning Objective 040.01.01.01.01: State that competence is based on
knowledge, skills and attitudes of the individual pilot, and list the ICAO eight
core competencies:
 application of procedures;
 communication;
 aircraft flight path management, automation;
 aircraft flight path management, manual control;
 leadership and teamwork;
 problem-solving and decision-making;
 situation awareness;
 workload management.
.............................................................................................................................................................
Release date: 2022.11.13.
Question N° 50
Refer to figure.
Learning Objective 040.03.01.03.01: Explain the link between the types of
memory (to include sensory, working/short-term and long-term memory).
There are three main levels of memory in the multi-store model; the sensory
store (very short), the working memory (short-term memory) and the long-term
memory.
The sensory store (sensory memory) is very interesting, it is almost like your
vision has its own "fade-out" effect, where you see something and then stop
looking at it, but your brain is able to see it for up to a second longer. It works
the same with hearing, but actually a bit better still. When you hear something, a
sentence perhaps, the brain can effectively play it back for the next few
seconds.
You may know this from when you have been focussed on a task, but someone
speaks to you, and you only begin to focus on their words after they have
finished speaking, but somehow, you are able to remember exactly what they
have said. This is the sensory store. It is mainly useful for giving our brains
enough exposure time to process images and sounds.
The visual sensory store lasts less than a second , and the auditory sensory
store can last up to 5 seconds.
What has happened in this scenario is that the pilot has performed their usual
fast instrument scan (not focussed on detail at all), and has seen all the
instruments, expecting them to be indicating the same things they usually
indicate. The pilot's brain has taken in the sight of the different oil pressure
gauge, which is different from normal. The vision of it will stay in the sensory
store for 1 second, which is enough time for the brain to note
down something different from usual. At this point, no information has been
consciously processed yet.
The pilot then looks back at the gauge (if they had already looked away),
and focuses on its reading, processing the information , and detecting that the oil
pressure is abnormal in one engine. That information is now held in the working
memory, where it can be committed to the long term memory via repetition and
thought.
The pilot does not usually process the information from a fast scan like this , for
example, they would be unable to tell you the exact oil temper ature reading after
a normal scan. These fast scans are good at spotting abnormalities, which are
then processed as such.
Question N° 51
STRESS
Stress disturbs the body’s homeostasis and enables you to adapt to
encountered situations. It is the body’s response to a stressor, which is an
internal or external stimulus that is interpreted as a threat to the body’s
equilibrium, and prepares it for action. Stress is a natural human reaction and it
is not always negative! A certain moderate amount of stress is beneficial to
human performance - it stops you slowing down and keeps you on your toes –
this is the sort associated with success.
Stress is a very subjective matter – every individual is different and stress
reactions as well as their magnitudes differ from person to person. The
individual level of stress depends on the individual’s subjective perception of
available abilities and comparing them to the situational demands. In humans,
the physiological reaction to stress is the non-specific “fight or flight” response.
This natural reaction prepares you to either flee or protect yourself in dangerous
situations.
Question N° 52
Any medication can cause side effects, some of which may impair the safe
performance of performing aviation safety related duties. Equally, symptoms
of colds, sore throats, diarrhoea and other abdominal upsets may cause little or
no problem whilst on the ground but may distract the pilot or cabin crew member
and degrade their performance whilst on duty. The in-flight environment may
also increase the severity of symptoms which may only be minor whilst on the
ground. Therefore, one issue with medication and performing aviation safety
related duties is the underlying condition and , in addition, the symptoms may be
compounded by the side effects of the medication prescribed or bought over the
counter for treatment.
=> Therefore, people on regular medication should seek medical advice.
Question N° 53
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL RESPIRATION
Internal and external respiration are two processes where the exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide occur.
 Internal Respiration: Internal respiration refers to the gas exchange

between the blood capillaries and the tissue fluid around the cell. Oxygen
diffuses out from the blood into tissue/cells during internal
respiration. Carbon dioxide diffuses into the blood from the tissue
during internal respiration.
 External Respiration: External respiration refers to the gas exchange
between the alveoli and blood capillaries of the lungs. Oxygen diffuses
from alveolar air into the blood during external respiration. Carbon dioxide
(by product - cells waste) diffuses out from the blood into the alveolar air
during external respiration.
The most important function of breathing is the supplying of oxygen to the body
and balancing of the carbon dioxide levels. Under most conditions, the partial
pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO 2 ), or concentration of carbon dioxide, controls
the respiratory rate. If the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is too high, you will
breth faster and deeper to eliminate CO 2 .
Question N° 54
HYPERVENTILATION
Breathing too rapidly or too deeply without physiological need can cause
hyperventilation, a physiological disorder that develops when too much carbon
dioxide (CO 2 ) is eliminated from the body. Without a sufficient quantity of CO 2 ,
normal respiration is disturbed, producing symptoms that resemble
hypoxia. Hyperventilation can be triggered by tension, fear or anxiety.
When the pilot realizes that he has just escaped a mid -air collision, he
experiences symptoms of initial stress reaction: "fight or flight" response. The
perception of threat activates the sympathetic nervous system and triggers an
acute stress response that prepares the body to fight or flee but may be
experienced as uncomfortable when you do not know why they are happening.
During the "Fight or Flight" response, your heart beats faster. A faster heart beat
feeds more blood to the muscles and enhances your ability to run away or fight.
Breathing becomes quicker and shallower. Quicker breathing takes in more
oxygen to power the muscles. This makes the body more able to fight or run
away.
Question N° 55
HEARING LOSS
Hearing loss can be broadly separated into two categories: conductive and
sensorineural (damage to tiny hair cells in the inner ear).
 Conductive hearing loss results when there is any problem in delivering

sound energy to your cochlea, the hearing part in the inner ear - The
natural movement of sound through the external ear or middle ear is
blocked, and the full sound does not reach the cochlea. Common
reasons for conductive hearing loss include blockage of the external
auditory canal with ear wax, fluid in the middle ear which dampens
the oscillations of the ear drum. The most common causes of
conductive deafness are temporary, as the blocking element can be
removed.
 Sensorineural hearing loss is a hearing loss where sound waves are
perfectly transmitted to the cochlea, but due to some pathological
condition in the cochlea or succeding parts of the auditory pathway (e.g.
damaged hair cells), they are not converted to an adequate signal that
can reach the cortex.
CORRECT OPTION: "A blockage of the outer or middle ear, e.g. ear wax, or
fluid in the middle ear."
All remaining factors mentioned induce sensorineural hearing loss.
Question N° 56
Refer to figure.
The auditory system is comprised of three components; the outer, middle, and
inner ear, all of which work together to transfer sounds from the environment to
the brain.
THE OUTER EAR
The outer ear includes the portion of ear that we see: the pinna/auricle and the
auditory canal.
The pinna or auricle is a concave cartilaginous structure which collects and
directs sound waves travelling in air into the auditory canal. The sound waves
will cause the ear drum to vibrate.
THE MIDDLE EAR

The middle ear is composed of the ear drum which serves as a divider between
the outer ear and the middle ear structures. Connected to the ear drum is a
linkage of three small bones, the ossicles (the malleus, incus and
stapes) which transmit the vibrations across the middle ear, (filled with air) to
the inner ear which is filled with liquid. Attached to the oval window of the
inner ear, where a diaphragm sets in motion the fluid of the cochlea of the inner
ear, the last of the bones – stapes – are found.
The eustachian tube acts as an air pressure equalizer and ventilates the middle
ear. Normally the tube is closed but opens while chewing or swallowing. When
the eustachian tube opens, the air pressure between the outer and middle ear is
equalized. The transmission of sound through the eardrum is optimal when the
air pressure is equalized between the outer and middle ear
THE INNER EAR

The inner ear is composed of the sensory organ for hearing —the cochlea, as
well as for balance—the vestibular system. The systems are separate, yet both
are encased in the same bony capsule and share the same fluid systems.
The diaphragm attached to the stapes causes the fluid in the cochlea to
vibrate. Inside the cochlea there is a fine membrane covered with tiny hair -like
cells. The movement of these small cells will be dependent on the volume and
pitch of the original sound. The amount and frequency of displacement is
detected by the auditory nerve which leads directly to the cortex of the
brain where the tiny electrical currents are decoded into sound patterns.
Question N° 57
Refer to figure.
The auditory system is comprised of three components; the outer, middle, and
inner ear, all of which work together to transfer sounds from the environment to
the brain.
THE OUTER EAR
The outer ear includes the portion of ear that we see: the pinna/auricle and
the auditory canal.
The pinna or auricle is a concave cartilaginous structure which collects and
directs sound waves travelling in air into the auditory canal. The sound waves
will cause the ear drum to vibrate.
THE MIDDLE EAR
The middle ear is composed of the ear drum which serves as a divider between
the outer ear and the middle ear structures. Connected to the ear drum is a
linkage of three small bones, the ossicles (the malleus, incus and stapes) which
transmit the vibrations across the middle ear, (filled with air) to the inner ear
which is filled with liquid. Attached to the oval window of the inner ear, where a
diaphragm sets in motion the fluid of the cochlea of the inner ear, the last of the
bones – stapes – are found.
The eustachian tube acts as an air pressure equalizer and ventilates the middle
ear. Normally the tube is closed but opens while chewing or swallowing. When
the eustachian tube opens, the air pressure between the outer and middle ear is
equalized. The transmission o f sound through the eardrum is optimal when the
air pressure is equalized between the outer and middle ear
THE INNER EAR

The inner ear is composed of the sensory organ for hearing —the cochlea, as
well as for balance—the vestibular system. The systems are separate, yet both
are encased in the same bony capsule and share the same fluid systems.
The diaphragm attached to the stapes causes the fluid in the cochlea to vibrate.
Inside the cochlea there is a fine membrane covered with tiny hair -like cells. The
movement of these small cells will be dependent on the volume and pitch of the
original sound. The amount and frequency of displacement is detected by
the auditory nerve which leads directly to the cortex of the brain where the tiny
electrical currents are decoded into sound patterns.
Question N° 58
TIME OF USEFUL CONSCIOUSNESS (TUC)
The time of useful consciousness refers to the time available to individuals to
perform their tasks, after they have been deprived of oxygen, but are still aware
of their environment and capable of controlling their actions.
It is important for the cabin crew to realize that the time of useful consciousness
is different for each individual, and depends on the:
 Altitude;
 Individual’s state of health;
 Amount of activity.
Relationship between Altitude and TUC:

Altitude TUC
40 000 ft 15 – 20 s
35 000 ft 30 – 90 s
30 000 ft 1 – 2 min
25 000 ft 2 – 3 min
20 000 ft 30 min
EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE TIME (EPT). Effective Performance Time is

always within and shorter than TUC. Its quantification, however, is not
possible since it will depend upon the individual, the task in hand, physiological
and mental stress, altitude and the circumstances involved. It is highly variable
and individualistic. Above 40 000 ft the EPT is approximately 5-6 seconds.
Question N° 59
Human actions will never be entirely flawless and knowledge of mechanisms
that result in errors can help detect and prevent them. The bias related to
human decision making include:
 Compliance. Compliant behaviour is shown in groups when requested by

another group memeber or the leader.
 Conformity. Concerns the likelihood of an individual to go along with a
group decision, even if it is an inappropriate decision.
 Confirmation. Once a person has made a picture of the situation, it is quite
human to search for information that confirms the picture and ignore or
distort information that contradicts it.
 Personal Eperience. It tends to alter the perception of the risk of an event
occurring - if one is used to pushing the limits in a particular situation, such
attitude becomes common and one tends to push the limits further.
Question N° 60
The term working memory, or short-term memory, refers to a brain system that
provides temporary storage of information for about 10 to 20 seconds. If this
information is rehearsed, it will be transferred into the Long term memory. Long-
term memory refers to unlimited storage information to be maintained for long
periods, even for life. Despite of the belief that information is stored for an
unlimited period, there are retrieval problems. One major disadvantage is the
time it takes to access, pre-activation of necessary knowledge will allow for a
reduction in access time.
Question N° 61
Pulse rate is determined by the autonomic nervous system, and is modified to
account for the necessary blood flow through the body at any moment. If the
autonomic nervous system (ANS) decides that the body needs more blood, due
to any reason, then it will make the heart beat more frequently to increase the
flow.
There are a few main factors that increase the required blood flow, and
therefore the heart rate:
 Adrenalin - the "fight or flight" response to stressors is extremely

powerful in humans, and the corresponding response is an increase in
heart rate - amongst other things - to be able to deal with the expected
fighting, or running, etc.
 Physical exercise - the extra blood required to deliver nutrients and
oxygen to the cells when the body is exercising means that the heart will
have to work harder, with a higher heart rate.
 Obesity - The physical change in body size means that, the larger one's
body becomes, the more pressure the blood will need to get around all
the various blood vessels, requiring more pumping from the heart. There
also can be some artery clogging which makes it harder for blood to flow,
which can lead to heart attacks.
 High heat conditions - When in high heat conditions, the body needs to
remove heat faster, by radiating it outwards from the skin. One of the best
ways to do this is by sending more blood to the capillaries in the skin ,
which involved dilating (widening) the main arteries of the body. this
decreases the blood pressure and therefore requires more beating from
the heart to maintain an acceptable blood pressure.
 Dehydration - If you are dehydrated, the amount of blood circulating
through your body decreases. Your heart will try to compensate by
beating faster, increasing your heart rate.
There are many more factors which affect the heart rate, and can even
overpower the effects listed above sometimes.
Question N° 62
powerful influence of an organisation’s leadership group o n the safety attitudes
 A just culture
often shifting from conventional hierarchical mode to a flatter mod e.
Question N° 63
Refer to figure.
LONG TERM MEMORY
This is where all our basic knowledge (e.g., memories of childhood, training,
etc.) is kept – you might liken it to the unconscious, with more capacity and
ability to retain information than short term memory – its storage capacity is
regarded as unlimited, and possibly consists of several interlaced systems, such
as semantic memory, episodic memory, plus procedural memory.
 Procedural Memory (also known as Motor Programmes): stores

information about motor skills e.g. interaction of muscles and balance
involved in riding a bicycle.
 Episodic Memory: stores information about past events which can be
affected by suggestion e.g. last year’s holidays (can be unreliable).
Amnesia usually affects only episodic memory.
 Semantic Memory: stores general knowledge e.g. the meaning of words,
grammar rules etc. It tends to be accurate and long lasting.
Repetition (or rehearsing) is used to get information into it, combined with
organising it, placing it into some sort of context or associating it with an
emotion. The main limitation of the long-term memory is that information
retrieval can be difficult. Therefore, knowledge stored in long -term memory
should be pre-activated (with planning and anticipation) so it can be available
when required and have the access time reduced.
Long-term memory is influenced by experience, repetition, suggestion,
desires, and expectations.
Note: SHORT TERM MEMORY - Otherwise known as working memory, this is

for data that is used and forgotten almost instantly. The capacity of the working
memory is limited to 5 plus/minus 2 items (7 plus/minus 2 according to the old
syllabus), which can be stored for an average period of 15 to 20 seconds
Question N° 64
Refer to figure.
THE EYE
The eye is nearly round, and its rotation in its socket (and focussing) is
controlled by external muscles. The retina is the light sensitive bit that detects
electromagnetic waves of the frequency of light, and c onverts them to electrical
signal that are interpreted by the brain, and is also sensitive to hypoxia. The
transparent part of the sclerotic is the cornea (the clear outer layer), behind
which are the iris and pupil, which control the amount of light to let into the
eye. After that is the lens, whose purpose is to bend light rays inwards, to focus
on the retina. Generally, vision is better with more light, but too much will
produce glare. 70% of light is refracted by the cornea, and 30% by the lens.
Question N° 65
Learning Objective 040.02.03.03.01: State the role of the Eustachian tube in
equalising pressure between the middle ear and the environment.
Ear pain during descent is most often caused by the difference in air pressure
between the cabin and a person's middle ear. The middle ear is a closed off
environment, which is sealed off by the eustachian tube. As the aircraft climbs
and descends (but the worst direction is descent, due to the way the eustachian
tube opens outwards), the ear has more or less pressure inside than the
ambient air, which feels like a dull pain within the ear, and sound becomes a
little muffled. The eustachian tube can be opened by making large
movements with the jaw, or by the action of swallowing . This will
then equalise the middle ear pressure with that of the ambient air , removing the
pain. This often occurs naturally when talking or eating, but is easy to induce
manually.
Another way of equalising pressure is the Valsalva manoeuvre (pinching the
nose and blowing out through it), but this can be a bit harsher.
People suffering from a cold or ear infection may struggle to equalise their ears
at all due to a blocked eustachian tube , so may feel some discomfort for a while.
Usually, this should clear over a few minutes/hours, but in extreme cases, could
cause damage the eardrum due to the difference in pressure. This is very rare
indeed, and unlikely to occur, especially when pain only begins on the approach.
The problem is also that the aircraft has to land anyway, so cannot stop the
descent, and it is not bad enough in this scenario to require a mayday call and
emergency ambulance, so this is all the cabin crew can do to help.
Note: This question was created from incomplete feedback. Any exam feedback
can be put in the comments or emailed to info@atplquestions.com, thank you.
Question N° 66
HYPOVIGILANCE
Hypo vigilance is a state of reduced vigilance and attention, which reduces,
among other, the abilities to direct attention to perform multiple tasks at the
same time.
Hypovigilance is characterized by a decrease in sensory perception, therefore a
higher level of sensory stimulation will be required to get a person’s attention
and a sensation of muscular heaviness.
Visible signs of reduced vigilance include reduced movements and low muscular
tension, which can se seen, for instance, in the fact that the person’s mouth is
slightly open. One can usually observe an increase in time between tow
blinks of the eyes (staring). The upper eyelid may be lowered slowly and the
person may experience microsleep.
Question N° 67
Endemic intestinal disorders are caused by bacteria, viruses or toxic products of
germs and promoted by low hygienic standards. Many problems can be avoided
by observing a strict personal hygiene routine and taking a few basic
precautions. These measures should be observed in all parts of the world. They
are:
 Do not drink tap water, you should drink water from sealed bottles only.
Remember that even cleaning teeth in contaminated water can be enough
to cause illness.
 Avoid ice in drinks, unless you are certain that the ice is made from
treated water.
 Peel or cook all fruit and vegetables. The skin may have been
contaminated by someone with a communicable disease or also washed
with tap water.
 Avoid salad stuffs and other raw foods which may have been washed
in contaminated water.
Ice-creams should be avoid as these are generally made from raw fruits and
water. You should also avoid swimming in local rivers or lakes as the water
may be contaminated. It is recommended to wear appropriate clothing - Long-
sleeved shirts and long trousers are a must in malaria zones. Exposed skin
should be protected with insect repellents; the head and neck must be protected
from direct exposure to the sun.
Question N° 68
COMPOSITION OF THE BLOOD
The plasma is the liquid part of the blood. As well as carrying the various blood
cells it delivers digested food products such as glucose and amino acids,
dissolved proteins, various hormones and enzymes. The blood cells are of three
types:
 Red blood cells contain haemoglobin and carry oxygen to the cells and
tissues of the body. The red cells do not have nuclei and thereby make
more room for haemoglobin.
 White blood cells are of various types; they resemble amoebae and have
large nuclei to engulf and destroy invading bacteria. Their main function is
the defence against disease. They produce antibodies to fight bacteria
and antitoxins to neutralise the toxins produced by bacteria.
 Platelets are the smallest of the blood cells and assist in the blood
clotting process.
Question N° 69
REVERSION
When overwhelmed by workload, confusion, and stress; pilots —like all
individuals—may revert to a reactive mode of operation because they cannot
keep up with the cognitive demands => humans tend to revert to the basics
first learned for a specific task (there is a tendency to revert to old habits)
Question N° 70
Refer to figure.
CORIOLIS ILLUSION
Coriolis illusion happens when you're in a constant turn long enough for the fluid
in your ears to stop moving. When the fluid in your ears stops moving, your
brain thinks it is 'straight-and-level'. At this point, if you move your head too
quickly, such as tilting your head down to change a fuel tank or pick up a
pen, you can start the fluid in your ears moving in an entirely different axis. This
makes you feel like the airplane is maneuvering in a way that it isn't, an
overwhelming sensation of rotating, turning, or accelerating along an entirely
different plane. An attempt to stop the sensation by maneuvering the plane may
put it into a dangerous attitude.
 To avoid this illusion, do not move your head too fast in limited visibility or
darkness.
Question N° 71
Learning Objective 040.02.01.03.04: List the factors that affect the relative
humidity of both the atmosphere and cabin air.
Relative humidity is a measure of how much water vapour is in the air as a

percentage of how much water vapour the air can hold in total. Warm air can
hold more water vapour than colder air, therefore, for the same amount of water,
the relative humidity in warm air is lower. This means that the lowest relative
humidity in the cabin will occur when the cabin is warm.
In the same way, to have the lowest relative humidity in the cabin, there has to
be a small amount of water in the air. The way to do this is to have a cold
outside air temperature, because that causes the outside air to hold less water
in the first place. Especially if the arcraft was flying through a cloud, which has
100% relative humidity, there would be less water in the air if the air was colder.
This means that we require a cold temperature outside to get the lowest
relative humidity.
This is a practical subject for human performance and limitations as humidity is
often very low on aircraft, which causes dryness effects, that need to be
counteracted sometimes.
Question N° 72
The pilot should always try to ensure he/she maintains an accurate mental
model of his/her environment (perception matches reality) and this process is
sometimes referred to as maintaining situational awareness. The degree of
situational awareness depends upon the v igilance, alertness, communications,
overall comprehension and briefing of the crew.
It is important to point out that situational awareness is not only the state
whereby the crew are aware of the real situation both inside and outside the
aircraft but also alert as to their own personal performance state.
Factors which might interfere with Situational Awareness
Among the most important factors which can interfere with situation awareness
are:
 Stress.
 Interruptions to the thought process.
 Fatigue.
 Hopes, wishes and desires.
 Poor communications.
 Boredom.
=> The fact that the commander does not double check whether the
communication has been made or not, shows a lack of vigilance, alertness
and poor communication => resulting in poor situational awareness/mental
model.
Question N° 73
The copilot is acting as a good follower. While sharing his/her experience and
giving the commander advice, he/she does not question the commander’s
authority. At the same time, when the commander autocratically ignores the
copilot’s advice, the first officer does not disengage and shows him/herself
available when an error is made.
The commander, on the other hand, applies an autocratic leadership style which
consists of a management style wherein the captain controls all the decisions
and takes very little inputs from the copilot.
Question N° 74
Learning Objective 040.02.01.03.04: List the factors that affect the relative
humidity of both the atmosphere and cabin air.
Note: This question does mention humidity, but from the learning objectives,
general understanding and other similar questions, we strongly believe that the
examiner is referring to relative humidity in this question, a much more
commonly used metric. Also, if they were referring to absolute humidity, only the
outside air temperature would make a difference (within normal temperature
ranges), which would make two answers equally correct.
Relative humidity is a measure of how much water vapour is in the air as a

percentage of how much water vapour the air can hold in total. Warm air can
hold more water vapour than colder air, therefore, for the same amount of water,
the relative humidity in warm air is lower. This means that the lowest relative
humidity in the cabin will occur when the cabin is warm.
In the same way, to have the lowest relative humidity in the cabin, there has to
be a small amount of water in the air. The way to do this is to have a cold
outside air temperature, because that causes the outside air to hold less water
in the first place. Especially if the aircraft was flying through a cloud, which has
100% relative humidity, there would be less water in the air if the air was colder.
This means that we require a very cold temperature outside and high
temperature inside the cabin to get the lowest relative humidity.
This is a practical subject for human performance and limitations as humidity is
often very low on aircraft, which causes dryness effects, that need to be
counteracted sometimes. In the past, humidifiers were removed from many
aircraft for weight saving, making the relative humidity as low as 3 -5% in some
cases.
Question N° 75
Refer to figure.
Blind Spot
Visual information from the retina is transported to the brain through the optic
nerve. This is the point at the back of the eye where all the nerve fibres meet
and form the nerve does not contain photosensitive cells. Light that falls on the
retina in this spot cannot be processed into visual impressions, so objects that
are projected onto this area cannot be seen.
This blind spot is most problematic when vision from the other eye is partially or
fully obscured, as that extra eye is usually what would fill in the blank section of
vision, hence the reason we do not notice our blind spot in everyday life. If a
pilot is looking in one direction with one eye obscured, there is a good chance
that they would not see an aircraft on a constant relative bearing
(stationary in the windshield) if it happens to lie within the blind spot of the
working eye, meaning that the pilot may not be aware of the problem until it has
come so close that its depiction is larger than the blind spot – which will most
likely be too late to avoid a collision. This could be avoided by using a constant
scan, to make sure the blind spot area is not always in the same place.
Question N° 76
CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
In normal conditions our circadian rhythms are locked to 24 hours by external
time cues (zeitgebers). These cues are provided by clock times and other
external events, such as, the sun rising, light and darkness, etc, all of which
assist in the regulation of our internal biological clock.
If an individual is isolated from these zeitgebers, without clocks or any way of
detecting light changes, the circadian rhythms will “free run” to a periodicity
of about 25 hours. This means that an average individual, if isolated from these
cues, instead of working to an average 16 hours awake and 8 hours sleep, will
extend his/her day to 17 hours awake, 8 hours sleep.
Question N° 77
ICAO Annex 1
Error. An action or inaction by an operational person that leads to deviations
from organizational or the operational person's intentions or expectations.
with the aircraft (e.g. through its contro ls, automation or systems). In order to be
procedure (e.g. checklists; SOPs; etc). In order to be classified as
communication error, the pilot or flight crew must be intera cting with people

frequency dialled.


misinterpretation
Question N° 78
Body temperature
The human core body temperature is largely constant (approx. 36.5 °C – 37.5
°C) thanks to the interaction of heat generation, heat absorption and heat
release. This temperature range is the same for all healthy individuals ,
provided that they are adapted to the climatic zone where they are.
There is a direct relationship between our body temperature and sleep
cycle. At the time of lowest body temperature, we find it hardest to stay awake.
We will start to feel sleepy at a time when the temperature is falling and be at
our most wide awake when the temperature is rising. Sleep is most restful when
going to sleep while the temperature is falling. The best physical and mental
performance, on the other hand, is achieved during times of rising or high body
temperature, whereat mental or intellectual performance is better in the
morning.
Body temperature variations throughout the day follow a regular cycle. The
highest temperature occurs around 1700 hours and the lowest at about 0500
hours, at which time we are least efficient and the desire for sleep is at its peak.
Question N° 79
Reliability is the ability to perform a given task without errors in a definite
time and under certain requirements. Errors are an inevitable part of flying.
"Humans make errors; it is not enough to simply ban them from doing so". It is
important to realise that humans will make mistakes and tha t this is inevitable.
The term IMSAFE is an acronym made of the individual factors which affect
human performance and reliability and should be used to assess one’s own
fitness to fly.
Illness – Illness can make a pilot unable to perform his/her flying dut ies.
Medication – A pilot under the influence of any medication, prescribed or over -
the-counter, may experience performance deterioration.
Stress – Chronic stress, professional as well as domestic, can affect a pilot’s
ability to focus.
Alcohol – The physical effects of alcohol include incorrect judgement of
distances and tunnel vision.
Fatigue – Insufficient rest will lead to fatigue, either acute or chronic. Both will
reduce a pilot’s vigilance and ability of judgement.
Eating – This includes physical aspects like proper hydration and correct
nutrition, which help keep up performance.
Note: Medium workload levels are associated with optimum arousal and,
therefore, increased performance and vigilance.
Question N° 80
Refer to figure.
The diaphragm, located below the lungs, is the major muscle of respiration. It is
a large, dome-shaped muscle that contracts rhythmically and continually, and
most of the time, involuntarily. Upon inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and
flattens and the chest cavity enlarges. This contraction creates a vacuum, which
pulls air into the lungs. Upon exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes and returns to
its domelike shape, and air is forced out of the lungs.
Question N° 81
Often, an initial symptom of a heart attack is sudden left arm pain that gets
increasingly intense over the course of a few minutes. Other symptoms of heart
attack are:
 Chest pain or discomfort. Most heart attacks involve discomfort in the

center or left side of the chest that lasts for more than a few minutes or
that goes away and comes back. The discomfort can feel like
uncomfortable pressure, squeezing, fullness, or pain.
 Feeling weak, light-headed, or faint. You may also break out into a cold
sweat.
 Pain or discomfort in the jaw, neck, or back.
 Shortness of breath. This often comes along with chest discomfort, but
shortness of breath also can happen before chest discomfort.
A heart attack is a life-threatening condition. If you experience left arm pain in

conjunction with these other symptoms, you should get assistance as soon as
possible.
Therefore, we can confidently say that the captain must inform the co -pilot so
that he/she can be readily prepared if the captain becomes incapacitated and
seek assistance from the cabin crew.
Question N° 82
CONES AND RODS
The light sensitive cell-receptors of the retina are of two types: Rods and Cones.
The centre of the retina is called the fovea and the receptors in this area are all
cones. Moving outwards, the cones become less dense and are gradually
replaced by rods - in the periphery there are no cones.
 CONES. used for direct vision and are colour-sensitive;

 RODS. the maximum density of rods is found about 10º from the fovea -
rods are responsible for our peripheral vision. The rods can only detect
black and white but are much more sensitive at lower light levels. As
light decreases, the sensing task is passed over from the cones to
the rods.
=> In dim light it is easier to focus on an object if you look slightly away from
it. As the fovea contains no rods, which would be required for vision is very low
brightness levels, the centre part of the eye becomes blind to dim light. It is then
necessary to look away from the visual target so that the peripherally located
rods can perform their sensing task.
To check the other options given:
 Peripheral Vision is vision far away from the centre, "in the corner of your
eye", but is not changed significantly by the darkness adjustment process.
 Grey-out is a term used when a person is losing blood to their brain and
eyes, during a sustained high positive G manouvre, their vision becomes
grey, and forms a tunnel.
 Sensitivity is correct as that is what is changing to allow us to see in
darker conditions, the sensitivity of our rods increase during this
adjustment period to pick up low light levels, versus the cones which
cannot see in the dark, so become less sensitive.
 Binocular cues are things within our visual range that allow us to judge
depth perception, and have nothing to do with night vision adaptation.
Question N° 83
Visual Flight Rules (VFR) flights that inadvertently or intentionally enter into
instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) continue to be a significant safety
hazard to general aviation.
VFR Pilots may attempt to continue a VFR flight in IMC conditions for many
reasons, such as:
 Placing priority on the wrong things (e.g. loss of time or additional

expense of a diversion or delay to the flight) when making decisions.
 Poor situational awareness perhaps as a result of pilots’ lack of
experience in interpreting changing weather conditions once airborne.
 Over-confidence leading to poor risk awareness because pilots
overestimate their own abilities and are compacent about flying into
adverse weather.
In good weather and daylight, you obtain your orientation primarily through your
vision. In IFR conditions or at night, there are fewer visual cues, and your body
relies upon the vestibular and proprioceptors to supplement your
vision. Because these senses can provide false cues about your
orientation, the probability of disorientation occurring in IFR weather is
quite high. You are more subject to disorientation if you use body signals to
interpret flight attitude. To alleviate symptoms of disorientation, you must
properly interpret and rely on the indications of the flight instruments.
Question N° 84
contexts.
frequency dialled.


misinterpretation
.............................................................................................................................................................
Release date: 2023.02.12.

Question N° 85
HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES
Studies have identified five hazardous attitudes among pilots that can interfere
with a pilot’s ability to make effective decisions.
 ANTI-AUTHORITY (“don’t tell me”) – You display this attitude if you
resent having someone tell you what to do, or you regard rules and
procedures as unnecessary.
Antidote – Follow the rules. They are usually right.
 IMPULSIVITY (“do it quickly”) – If you feel the need to act immediately
and do the first thing that comes to mind without considering the best
solution to a problem, then you are exhibiting impulsivity.
Antidote – Not so fast. Think first.
 INVULNERABILITY (“It won’t happen to me”) – You are more likely to
take chances and increase risk if you thin k accidents will not happen to
you.
Antidote – It could happen to me.
 MACHO (“I can do it”) – If you have this attitude, you might take risks
trying to prove that you are better than anyone else. Women are just as
likely to have this characteristic as men.
Antidote – Taking chances is foolish.
 RESIGNATION (“What’s the use?”) – You are experiencing resignation if
you feel that no matter what you do, it will have little effect on what
happens to you. You may feel that when things go well, it is just good luck
and when things go poorly, it is bad luck or someone else is responsible.
This feeling can cause you to leave the action to others – for better or
worse.
Antidote – I am not helpless. I can make a difference.
Question N° 86
When in straight and level flight there is no movement of fluid in the semi -
circular canals, resulting in the correct perception of being straight and level.
However, any movement of the head as a result of aircraft roll, pitch or yaw will
cause the hairs in the fluid of the appropriate semi-circular canal(s) to move.
Continued motion at a steady rate of turn will, after 10 - 15 seconds, allow the
fluid to ‘catch up’ with the canal causing the hairs to revert to their upright
position. This lack of vestibular input leads to a false perception that the aircraft
is straight and level, when in fact it is not.
Although the semicircular canals provide accurate information about angular
movements of the head in the natural environment, difficulties arise when the
speed of rotation is held steady for several seconds, or when the rate of turn
increases or decreases at a steady rate (constant angular acceleration).
Question N° 87
Human actions will never be entirely flawless and knowledge of mechanisms
that result in errors can help detect and prevent them. The bias related to
human decision making include:
 Compliance. Compliant behaviour is shown in groups when requested by

another group memeber or the leader.
 Conformity. Concerns the likelihood of an individual to go along with
a group decision, even if it is an inappropriate decision.
 Confirmation. Once a person has made a picture of the situation, it is
quite human to search for information that confirms the picture and
ignore or distort information that contradicts it.
 Personal Eperience. It tends to alter the perception of the risk of an event
occurring - if one is used to pushing the limits in a particular situation,
such attitude becomes common and one tends to push the limits further.
Question N° 88
Refer to figure.
THE SWISS CHEESE MODEL
The Swiss Cheese Model proposes that there is not just a single cause of any
given accident and threats materialize as a result of cumulative effects and
many layers of defenses failing to deal with it.
Professor James Reason points out that the sequence of human events in an
accident can be likened to several slices of Swiss cheese, with the holes as
opportunities for accidents. The slices actually represent layers between
management decision making and the incident concerned. On the day that the
holes line up, something will happen. So, if you can recognize the sequence,
you should, in theory, be able to pull some of the holes out of line, thus
preventing an accident.
Question N° 89
One of the most important aspects of a safe flight operation is the requirement
for crew members to carefully monitor the aircraft's flight path and systems, as
well as actively cross-check each other's actions. Humans are not good at
monitoring constant situations and, therefore, it is easy to fall behind the
aircraft. This is especially true when no deviations are expected to occur, as in
the case when monitoring automated systems. This can induce a feeling of
automation complacency (too much reliance on the machine) and lead you not
to check things as often as you should (hypovigilance).
Hypovigilance is a lack of attention to detail, it is akin to a microsleep which can
occur at any time during the flight, especially during periods of monotony,
reduction of workload, during simple and repetitive tasks, low lightning, high
temperature and constant and monotonous noise.
 During long-haul flights, hypovigilance is often unavoidable. To help

prevent hypovigilance during flight, in a multi-crew operation, it is
possible for crew-members to take planned naps (controlled rest) -
these should be short, approx.. 20min. It is also helpful to engage in
social conversation and physical activity such as arm and leg
stretching may also assist in mainta ining wakefulness. During the
night, turning up the cockpit lights will also help . However, this
deteriorates night vision.
Question N° 90
Refer to figure.
Motivation refers to degree of readiness of an organism to pursue some
designated goal and implies the determination of the nature and locus of the
forces, including the degree of readiness. In other words, it is a drive to behave
in a particular fashion which usually leads to a change of behaviour. It is an
internal force which can affect the quality of performance. The learning process
is vastly improved with motivation and high performance rarely comes without it,
as it increases attention and vigilance. Over-motivation can be just as much
of a hindrance – excessive motivation together with high levels of stress
will limit your attention-management capabilities. In short, you can get
fixated.
 With regards to this question, this situation will place extra cognitive
stress on the individual which can negatively affect performance.
Question N° 91
Being obedient refers to following the orders of someone with a higher social
status just because the orders were given. Whereas this may be a nice trait
for shepherd dogs, flight crew members should remain prepared to challenge
orders if they are believed to be suboptimal.
Persuasion refers to the process of changing attitudes, opinions and behaviours
of other group members. In contrast to negotiation, which implies retreating and
meeting somewhere in the middle, persuasion means to make people completely
abandon their point of view to accept the persuader's one. Pilots should not
suppress opinions which could lead to a better outcome.
The term self-discipline means the ability to counteract any distra ctions from a
self-imposed or given objective. This requires the capacity of delayed
gratification, which refers to the power to reject immediate pleasant
consequences in order to achieve greater future reward.
Question N° 92
In addition to their aircraft control tasks, the Pilot Flying (PF) takes responsibility
for navigation and the Pilot Monitoring (PM) takes responsibility for
communication and systems operation. During normal operations, the
procedures and tasks for the PF and PM in the various flight phases are well
described and evenly distributed. With good use of the available automation, the
level of workload is such that spare capacity to maintain situational awareness
is available. However if an unexpected situation occurs which requires extra
attention, the workload can increase considerably.
When there is intense workload, instead of immediate reprogramming, pilots are
advised to reduce the level of automation to a more basic mode. This way, the
negative effects of automation on pilots may be alleviated by degrading to
a lower level of automation to recover comprehension of the flight status
from VNAV/LNAV to ALT/HDG or even to manual flying.
Note: downgrading automation is a good idea, however reverting to manual
flight would use up too many resources during an approach to a busy airport.
However, EASA seems to include "manual flight" in their correct answer. In our
opinion, flying manually would only be an option in case of a suspected
malfunction of automated systems.
Question N° 93
Hypoxic hypoxia is a situation where the partial pressure of oxygen within the
lungs is not sufficient to oxygenate the arterial blood and fulfil the metabolic
demand. It can be caused by a reduced rate of breathing, a lower percetage of
oxygen in the air, or, more commonly in aviation, by a decreasing total air
pressure with corresponding reduction is oxygen partial pressure.
During significant hypoxic stress, alcohol is accompanied by greater levels of
oxygen desaturation. Even a small amount of oxygen will result in increased
physiological altitude.
When you exercise and your muscles work harder, your body uses more oxygen
and produces more carbon dioxide. To cope with this extra demand, your
breathing has to increase. Thus reducing physical activity reduces the
oxygen needs and, consequently, reduces the susceptibility to hypoxia.
Note that scuba diving, age over 35, humidity and poor nutrition do not increase
hypoxia severity.
Question N° 94
ICAO Annex 19
Appendix 2. Framework For A Safety Management System (Sms)
This appendix specifies the framework for the implementation and maintenance
of an SMS. The framework comprises four components and twelve elements as
the minimum requirements for SMS implementation:
1. Safety policy and objectives
1.1 Management commitment and responsibility
1.2 Safety accountabilities
1.3 Appointment of key safety personnel
1.4 Coordination of emergency response planning
1.5 SMS documentation
2. Safety risk management
2.1 Hazard identification
2.2 Safety risk assessment and mitigation
3. Safety assurance
3.1 Safety performance monitoring and measurement
3.2 The management of change
3.3 Continuous improvement of the SMS
4. Safety promotion
4.1 Training and education
4.2 Safety communication
Question N° 95
Pulse rate is determined by the autonomic nervous system, and is modified to
account for the necessary blood flow through the body at any moment. If the
autonomic nervous system (ANS) decides that the body needs more blood, due
to any reason, then it will make the heart beat more frequently to increase the
flow.
There are a few main factors that increase the required blood flow, and
therefore the heart rate:
 Adrenalin - the "fight or flight" response to stressors is extremely

powerful in humans, and the corresponding response is an increase in
heart rate - amongst other things - to be able to deal with the expected
fighting, or running, etc.
 Physical exercise - the extra blood required to deliver nutrients and
oxygen to the cells when the body is exercising means that the heart will
have to work harder, with a higher heart rate.
 Obesity - The physical change in body size means that, the larger one's
body becomes, the more pressure the blood will need to get around all
the various blood vessels, requiring more pumping from the heart. There
also can be some artery clogging which makes it harder for blood to flow,
which can lead to heart attacks.
 High heat conditions - When in high heat conditions, the body needs to
remove heat faster, by radiating it outwards from the skin. One of the best
ways to do this is by sending more blood to the capillaries in the skin ,
which involved dilating (widening) the main arteries of the body. this
decreases the blood pressure and therefore requires more beating from
the heart to maintain an acceptable blood pressure.
 Dehydration - If you are dehydrated, the amount of blood circulating
through your body decreases. Your heart will try to compensate by
beating faster, increasing your heart rate.
 Stress - A stressful situation sets off a chain of events. Your body
releases adrenaline which causes your breathing and heart rate to speed
up.
There are many more factors which affect the heart rate, and can even
overpower the effects listed above sometimes.
Question N° 96
Note that this questions asks for the most common causes of gastrointestinal
upset (and not symptoms). Diarrhoea and vomiting are symptoms of
gastrointestinal upset.
Bacterial gastroenteritis happens when bacteria cause an infection in your gut.
The infection leads to inflammation in your stomach and intestines. While
viruses cause many gastrointestinal infections, bacterial infections are also
common. Some people call these infections food poisoning.
Moreover, flying to a number of different countries may cause the pilot to eat
food that he/she is not used to. For example, in some countries, it is common to
consume very spicy food. For those who are not used to, the consumption of
spicy foods can trigger upper gastrointestinal symptoms, such as indigestion.
Drinking alcohol is associated with acid rising up from your stomach into your
throat (known as acid reflux), or causing heartburn. Some evidence suggests
alcoholic drinks can make your stomach produce more acid than usual, which
can gradually wear away your stomach lining and make it inflamed and painful
(gastritis).
Note: This question was created based on incomplete feedback. Please, let us
know if you come across this question in your exam and there is anything you’d
like to add.
Question N° 97
Refer to figure.
EYE STRUCTURE
Light enters through the cornea and is controlled by the iris (coloured part of the
eye). It does this by controlling the size of t he pupil - In low light, your pupils
open up, or dilate, to let in more light. When it's bright, they get smaller, or
constrict, to let in less light.
After passing through the pupil, the light passes through a clear lens. Its shape
is changed by the muscles (ciliary muscles) surrounding it which allow the final
focusing onto the fovea - In order to focus clearly on a near object, the lens is
thickened. To focus on a distant point, the lens is flattened.
This focused light is directed onto the retina, a thin layer of light-sensitive nerve
tissue that lines the back of the eye. Images are focused at its center (known as
the macula) and converted into electrical impulses that are carried to the brain
by the optic nerve, where they are translated into sigh t.
Question N° 98
Have you ever noticed that you feel more alert at certain times of day, and feel
more tired at other times? Those patterns are a result of two body systems:
sleep/wake homeostasis and your circadian rhythm, or internal body clock.
These systems determine your sleep drive, or your body’s need for sleep, at any
given time.
 Sleep/wake homeostasis balances our need for sleep, called a “sleep drive”
or “sleep pressure,” with our need for wakefulness. When we’ve been
awake for a long period of time, our sleep drive tells us that it’s time to
sleep. As we sleep, we regain homeostasis and our sleep drive diminishes.
Finally, our need for alertness grows, telling us that it’s time to wake up.
 Our circadian rhythm approximates a homeostasis in coordination with
environmental cues like sunlight. Because of our circadian rhythm, our
alertness level dips and rises throughout each 24-hour period, impacting
the amount of sleepiness and wakefulness we experience during t he day.
Question N° 99
Most divers know air travel immediately following a scuba dive increases the
amount of nitrogen in your body tissues and can lead to decompression
sickness. The following guidelines apply to air dives followed by flights at cabin
altitudes of 2 000 to 8 000 ft:
 For snorkeling, no time interval required;

 When swiming with compressed air, a minimum preflight surface interval
of 12 hours is suggested;
 For a single no-decompression dive (up to 10 m/30 ft), a minimum
preflight surface interval of 12 hours is suggested;
 For multiple dives per day or multiple days of diving, a minimum preflight
surface interval of 18 hours is suggested;
 For dives requiring decompression stops (depth over 10 m/30 ft), a
minimum preflight surface interval of 24 hours is suggested.
EASA AIR OPS

Regulation (EU) No 965/2012
GM1 CAT.GEN.MPA.100(c)(2) Crew responsibilities
ELAPSED TIME BEFORE RETURNING TO FLYING DUTY
24 hours is a suitable minimum length of time to allow after normal blood
donation or normal recreational (sport) diving before returning to flying duties .
This should be considered by operators when determining a reasonable time
period for the guidance of crew members.
Question N° 100
Implicit communication refers to the things we do, individually or collectively,
usually without regard to the messages others receive. It could be corporate
culture or perhaps body language.
Explicit communication rules are about what a manager says or writes and are
usually very direct, clear, and straightforward. "Do this" and "Don't do that"
count as examples of explicit communication.
 With explicit communication, the receiver can immediately detect the

meaning of the message without much interpretation. Even though, the
crew was wrong by initiating the take off roll after only hearing "OK" - the
technical limitation of VHF communication and multiple transmissions is
what lead to the entire message not being heard.
This is an example of explicit communication between the crew and ATC =>
prone to technical limitation.
Note: The correct option has been updated recently after a number of feedback.
Nevertheless, we encourage everyone who comes across this question in their
official exams to report it back to us.
Question N° 101
CARBON MONOXIDE
Carbon monoxide is an odourless, colourless gas which is present in the smoke
from almost all aircraft fires and in aircraft exhaust gases, particularly from
piston engines. Inhaled carbon monoxide passes easily into the bloodstream
where it enters the red blood cells and binds to the haemoglobin, thus
preventing the carriage of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues, so that the
tissues become hypoxic.
Whenever it is suspected that carbon monoxide may be present in the air,
immediate action is required to avoid poisoning and incapacitation. First of
all, an exhaust-driven heating system has to be switched off and the cabin
must be ventilated with fresh air. If installed, pilots should don oxygen
masks. A diversion to the closest suitable airfield is required in any case.
After landing, an aeromedical examiner (AME) should be consulted to assess
health effects.
Question N° 102
In the case of decompression the immediate use of oxygen is critical. Therefore,
the first actions to be performed by the crew is: Immediately don the nearest
oxygen mask.
The aircraft must rapidly descend to 10 000 ft or MSA whichever is the
higher.
Initiation of an emergency descent is done as a memory item drill in most
aircraft types. Once the descent has been initiated, it is standard procedure to
confirm that all required actions have been completed by referring to the
appropriate checklist in the Quick Reference Handbook (QRH) and an
emergency shall be declared.
It is most important to emphasize that crew protection must be the highest of
priorities. Should decompression take place it is critical for the crew to
individually don oxygen masks and check flow as quickly as possible. Any delay
caused by helping other members of the crew or passengers could have
catastrophic results for all the occupants of the aircraft.
Question N° 103
HYPOXIA
Hypoxia occurs when the tissues in the body do not receive enough oxygen.
Hypoxia can be caused by several factors including an insufficient supply of
oxygen, inadequate transportation of oxygen, or the inability of the body tissues
to use oxygen. A healthy person is normally able to compensate for
altitudes up to approximately 10000 - 12000 ft.
An insidious characteristic of hypoxia is that its early (and probably the most
dangerous) symptom include euphoria (false sense of well being). This can
prevent the pilot from recognizing a potentially hazardous situation because it
puts him/her in such a state of mind that individual well being, as well as that of
the passengers, is a low priority. You should remain alert for the other
symptoms of hypoxia such as headache, increased response time, impaired
judgement, drowsiness, dizziness, tingling fingers and toes, n umbness, blue
fingernails and lips (cyanosis), visual disturbances, lack of concentration,
fatigue and limp muscles. The speed and order of appearance of signs, and the
severity of symptoms, produced by breathing air at altitude depend on the
individual.
Even if you learn the early symptoms of hypoxia, do not assume that you will be
able to take corrective action whenever they occur. Because when the brain
starts to feel the effects of hypoxia, the higher reasoning portion of the brain is
the first affected. This means that judgment and cognitive skills diminish from
the very start.
Question N° 104
TERRAIN SLOPE ILLUSION
A final approach over a downsloping terrain with a flat runway may
produce the visual illusion that the aircraft is lower than it actually is. If the
pilot believes this illusion, he may respond by pitching the aircraft’s nose up to
gain altitude. If this happens, you will land further down the runway than you
intended.
A final approach over an upsloping terrain with a flat runway may produce the
visual illusion that the aircraft is higher than it actually is. If the pilot believes
this illusion, he may respond by pitching the aircraft nose -down to decrease the
altitude, resulting in a lower approach.
Question N° 105
ANNEX IV (EU OPS Part-CAT)
SUBPART A: GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
SECTION 1 – Motor-powered aircraft
ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION
The operator should issue instructions concerning the consumption of alcohol by
crew members. The instructions should be not less restrictive than the following:
(a) no alcohol should be consumed less than 8 hours prior to the specified
reporting time for a flight duty period or the commencement of standby;
(b) the blood alcohol level should not exceed the lower of the natio nal
requirements or 0.2 per thousand at the start of a flight duty period ;
(c) no alcohol should be consumed during the flight duty period or whilst on
standby.
0.2 per thousand (grams per litre) is a concentration of 0.02%, and this (or the
national statutory limit) is the legal limit of blood alcohol level for crew at the
beginning of the duty period (not just during flight) within the EU.
Question N° 106
G TOLERANCE
If you pull back on the controls, your body (after Newton) wants to carry on in a
straight line, but is forced upward by the seat, which feels the same as if you
were being pushed into it. This extra pressure is called G, and it affects the
whole body, including the blood, so the heart must change its action to ke ep the
system running. The body can only cope with certain amount of G -force and
tolerance to G forces is dependent on human physiology and the individual
pilot. The physiological effects of G-force vary with the magnitude of
acceleration, its duration and onset rate, the axis of the body upon which
the G acts against and where on the body they are applied.
Onset rate: when an acceleration sets on gradually, the body is capable of
partially compensate for its effect, by vasoconstriction and increase in bloo d
pressure. However, when acceleration sets on rapidly, the body mechanisms for
compensation will not be as effective. Thus acceleration will have a greater
effect.
Question N° 107
HYPERVENTILATION
The term hyperventilation is used to describe a condition of increased rate and
depth of breathing which is not warranted by physiological needs.
Hyperventilation can result from physiological as well as psychological
conditions.
In order to mitigate the symptoms of hyperventilation or preven t their onset, it is
required to restore the physiological partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the
blood, which is achieved by reducing the rate and depth of breathing. Especially
when the reason is a psychological one, pilots need to calm themselves
down. One effective way to do so is speaking aloud, this will automatically
slow their breathing rate.
Question N° 108
Since decision making is usually a time consuming process, time is an important
resource for making optimal decisions. The allocation of less time than what is
needed for making decision can cause a feeling of time stress and can harm the
optimality of the decision making process. In contrast to travelling by car, it is
not possible to simply stop at the side of an airway while flying and analyse the
situation.
Every good decision-making process must take this into consideration. To
improve the quality of decision, if the time is not the immediate limiting factor, a
pilot should take all the available time that he needs to make up his mind and
should try not to feel pressured to speed up the decision -making process
unnecessarily by his crewmembers. Rushed decision should be avoided, as
these will increase the risk of overlooking important facts and losing situational
awareness.
It is important to emphasise that, during flight, the overall situation is constantly
evolving and changing. Therefore, decisions only remain valid for a limited
period of time - until the next change in the overall situation occurs. Thereafter,
a new decision is needed.
Question N° 109
SLEEP STAGES
The stages of sleep are classified into 4 stages:
 Stage 1. The sleeper is in a very light sleep. It is a transitional phase

between waking and sleeping; if woken at this stage, the sleeper may
claim that he/she has not even been asleep. In early sleep we pass
through about 10 minutes of Stage 1 before moving to the deeper Stage
2.
 Stage 2. In early sleep we spend about 20 minutes in stage 2 before
moving on to the deeper Stage 3 and 4. About 50% of a normal spent is
spent in Stage 2.
 Stage 3 and 4. During Stage 3 and 4 sleep the brain is semi-active
emitting long slow waves, it is commonly referred to as “Slow Wave” or
Orthodox sleep. The eyes are still behind the eyelids and the musc les are
relaxed. Slow wave sleep refreshes the body and is necessary for tissue
restoration. After strenuous physical activity, the body will require more
slow wave sleep.
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep

Superimposed on the above 4 stages is REM (or Paradox ical sleep). In this
phase the brain is active. Rapid eye movement behind the eyelids are detected
and muscles twitch. It is complex, bizarre and emotionally colored dreams take
place. REM sleep refreshes the brain. It strengthens and organizes the memory.
After a period of learning new tasks or procedures REM sleep will increase.
=> During any normal night’s sleep, the pattern operates on an approximately 90
minutes cycle. Towards the end of the first 90 minutes od falling asleep, the first
REM stage occurs, but this first REM experience lasts only 10 to 20 minutes
before the person passes back into slow wave sleep. At the end of the second
cycle of 90 min, the duration of REM sleep periods increases. During a 8 hour
sleep period, an individual is likely to experience 4 to 5 REM sleep
episodes.
Question N° 110
COMMUNICATION
The first cockpit tool that tends to suffer from stress is communication. When
several tasks have to be performed simultaneously, especially when these tasks
require a lot of conscious attention, people tend to reduce communication,
because communication also uses up mental resources. Communication is the
exchange of thoughts, messages, or information by various means, including
speech.
Officially, around 80% of all communication is achieved by factors other than
words, otherwise known as metacommunication, which consists of those
tools, other than the words, which complement them in order to
communicate. The fact that somebody is not talking does not mean they are not
communicating. It is said that 7% of communication is accomplished verbally,
38% by unconscious signals, such as tone of voice, and the remainder 55% by
non-verbal means, such as body language. Non-verbal communication can
accompany verbal communication, such as a smile during a face-to-face chat.
Body language can be very subtle, but powerful – for example, the word “no”
with a smile will be interpreted quite differently from one accompanied by a
smack in the mouth. Non-verbal communication may also include written
information or notes.
Unfortunately, the side-by-side seating arrangements in the cockpit tend to
lessen the effects of body language, so the choice of words (and their
packaging) assumes a greater importance.
Question N° 111
Refer to figure.
BLACK-HOLE ILLUSION
The black hole illusion occurs when flying over featureless terrain, approaching
an airfield at night over water, jungle or desert. This illusion might fool the pilots
into thinking they are higher than they actually are, causing them to fly
dangerously low approaches - the aircraft may touch down short of the runway.
Question N° 112
Cognitive Learning, also known as learning by sight, is what makes humans
superior to computers in flight because these can only solve problems when a
solution has been programmed before. The term refer to the acquisition or
restructuring of knowledge based on application of cognitive abilities.
In this case, it is not sufficient to be able to physically perform a checklist. The
captain should know what the individual items do and how they will be beneficial
to a given emergency situation. This deeper understanding of the procedure is
known as cognitive learning - the data is intellectually and cognitively
understood and is retained.
 Conditioning. This is the behaviouristic approach of Pavlov where the

recipient is taught through, principally, physiological responses.
 Imitation/modeling. The data from an outside source is replicated.
 Trial and error learning. This is the random application of behaviour that
has been successful in similar situations in the past, until one of the
actions eventually gives the desired result.
Question N° 113
CONFIRMATION BIAS
Confirmation Bias is the term used to describe the tendency to search for
information to confirm a theory, while overlooking contradicting information.
Thus, even if presented with facts which would allow correcting the mental
model, a pilot will probably find it difficult to get out of his original interpretation.
It can be likened to making the ground fit the map, rather than accepting the fact
that we are lost. You could also look upon it as a tendency to ignore information
that confirms a decision is a poor one.
 A good strategy to avoid confirmation bias is to actively search for

information that could falsify the mental model of the current situation or
for different interpretations of the given information.
Question N° 114
HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES
Studies have identified five hazardous attitudes among pilots that can interfere
with a pilot’s ability to make effective decisions.
 ANTI-AUTHORITY (“don’t tell me”) – You display this attitude if you

resent having someone tell you what to do, or you regard rules and
procedures as unnecessary.
Antidote – Follow the rules. They are usually right.
 IMPULSIVITY (“do it quickly”) – If you feel the need to act immediately
and do the first thing that comes to mind without considering the best
solution to a problem, then you are exhibiting impulsivity.
Antidote – Not so fast. Think first.
 INVULNERABILITY (“It won’t happen to me”) – You are more likely to
take chances and increase risk if you think accidents will not happen to
you.
Antidote – It could happen to me.
 MACHO (“I can do it”) – If you have this attitude, you might take risks
trying to prove that you are better than anyone else. Women are just as
likely to have this characteristic as men. Pilots with a macho attitude are
always trying to impress others and prove themselves by taking
unnecessary risks. Both men and women are susceptible to a macho
attitude, which leads to foolish and often dangerous behaviour. While
pilots must have a high level of confidence in their abilities, it’s
important to avoid becoming overconfident and adopting a macho
attitude.
Antidote – Taking chances is foolish.
 RESIGNATION (“What’s the use?”) – You are experiencing resignation if
you feel that no matter what you do, it will have little effect on what
happens to you. You may feel that when things go well, it is just good luck
and when things go poorly, it is bad luck or someone else is responsible.
This feeling can cause you to leave the action to others – for better or
worse.
Antidote – I am not helpless. I can make a difference.

040 - Human Performance Limitations - Answers

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

040 - Human Performance Limitations - Answers

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Question N 1

Regardless of whether threats are anticipated, unanticipated, or latent, one

 SOPs: failure to cross-verify automation inputs.

 Crew to external: missed calls, misinterpretations of

 Flight safety is everyone's responsibility. Management must provide the

Operational pressure resulting from delays, late arrivals, equipment

Environmental threats Organisational threats

Table 1. Examples of threats (list is not exhaustive)

 SOPs: failure to cross-verify automation inputs.

 Crew to external: missed calls, misinterpretations of

 In this case, the commander committed a handling error by allowing the

 The safety outcomes in civil aviation are astoundingly good. Evaluation of

 Airborne Collision Avoidance Systems (ACAS/TCAS)

 Manual handling/flight controls: vertical/lateral and/or speed

 SOPs: failure to cross-verify automation inputs.

 Crew to external: missed calls, misinterpretations of

The occurence of a thunderstorm cannot be influenced by the flight crew,

1. An informed culture. The organization collects and analyses relevant

High power distance Low power distance

Everyone has a specific place No set hierarchy

Those in power emphasize Those in power minimize

Respect for authority Respect for individuality

Centralized authority Decentralized authority

 Planning countermeasures: essential for managing anticipated and

Plans stated Operational plans and Shared understanding

Workload assignment Roles and Workload assignments

Contingency Crew members (A) Threats and their

Workload management Operational tasks were (A) Avoided task fixation;

Automation management Automation was properly (A) Automation setup

Inquiry Crew members asked Crew members not afraid

Assertiveness Crew members stated Crew members spoke up

Table 4. Examples of individual and team countermeasures

 Manual handling/flight controls: vertical/lateral and/or

 SOPs: failure to cross-verify automation inputs.

 Environmental threats occur due to the environment in which flight

Table 1. Examples of threats (List not inclusive)

 Weather: thunderstorms,  Operational pressure: delays,

 Environmental threats occur due to the environment in which flight

Table 1. Examples of threats (List not inclusive)

 Weather: thunderstorms,  Operational pressure: delays,

Interaction of different component of the SHELL Model:

Interaction of different component of the SHELL Model:

 Environmental threats occur due to the environment in which flight

Table 1. Examples of threats (List not inclusive)

Environmental Threats Organizational Threats

 Environmental threats occur due to the environment in which flight

Table 1. Examples of threats (List not inclusive)

Environmental Threats Organizational Threats

 Weather: thunderstorms,  Operational pressure: delays,

 Terrain: High ground, slope,  Documentation: manual error,

 Other: similar call-signs.  Other: crew scheduling event

Release date: 2022.11.13.

 Internal Respiration: Internal respiration refers to the gas exchange

 Conductive hearing loss results when there is any problem in delivering

THE MIDDLE EAR

THE INNER EAR

THE INNER EAR

Relationship between Altitude and TUC:

EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE TIME (EPT). Effective Performance Time is

 Compliance. Compliant behaviour is shown in groups when requested by

 Adrenalin - the "fight or flight" response to stressors is extremely

 Procedural Memory (also known as Motor Programmes): stores

Note: SHORT TERM MEMORY - Otherwise known as working memory, this is

Relative humidity is a measure of how much water vapour is in the air as a

Relative humidity is a measure of how much water vapour is in the air as a

 Manual handling/flight controls: vertical/lateral and/or

 SOPs: failure to cross-verify automation inputs.