Hydopower Engineering

BE (Civil), 7th Semester

Roshan Paudel
Deputy Head of Civil Engineering Department
Acme Engineering College

Email: roshan@acme.edu.np

Syllabus
 Hydroelectric plant and how does it work?

Hydropower uses the power of water to produce electricity.

First the energy head in water (potential head, kinetic head

or pressure head) is converted into mechanical energy.
Generator then converts mechanical into electrical energy

Chapter-1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction to power, their types and comparison
Power is the rate of energy produced or used expressed in kilowatt (KW)
Note:
1 KW = 1000 W Types of Power Plant
1 MW = 10 ^6 W
1 GW = 10 ^9 W
 Hydroelectric Power Plant

Advantages of Hydroelectric Plants

High Efficiency
Fast Start up time (Grid Balance and Stability)
Clean Renewable Energy (Environment Friendly)
 Penstock

Penstock

Turbine

Power House
Tailrace

powerplant.
Non Conventional Power Plants

Wind Powerplant

Non Conventional Power Plants

a)

Solar Power
 Hydropower Potential in Nepal
Huge potential for Water Resources Development compared to country size.
Mean annual runoff formed inside Nepalese territory 3

There are more than 6000 rivers and rivulets in Nepal. These rivers mostly flow from north to the south
direction passing through different physiographic regions.
The major river basins are Koshi, Gandaki, Karnali and Mahakali.
These rivers have their sources in the snows and glaciers and they provide reliable flows for
hydropower, irrigation, etc.
The medium rivers like Bagmati, Babai and West Rapti originating from Mahabharat Ranges are fed by
groundwater which don't dry up in dry season.
The high specific runoff and steep gradient of the rivers of Nepal provide a huge potential of
hydropower generation.
Hydropower Potential in Nepal:
83000 MW

83000 MW

It is the part of gross potential which is technically feasible to be

produced.

iii)
It is the pat of technical potential which is economically feasible along with the consideration of multi-purpose
utilization of water resources and preserving ecological balance.
The economic potential of Nepal is 42000 MW
1.2 Power Situation in Nepal

T
abandoned within last years.

Hydropower installed capacity Note:

1,127 MW (2019)
Generation by hydropower
4.15 TWh (2019)

-of-river schemes,
Power generation is impacted by seasonal rainfall patterns.
With further large run-of-river projects in the future plans, there is a need to manage
surplus power produced during the monsoon months (typically from around May to
October), while facing deficits in the dry seasons.

Storage type hydropower plant

Runoff- River Hydropower plant

Hydropower Situation in Nepal (contd.)

To address this, the NEA is planning to construct storage schemes like 140 MW Tanahu
project and other, larger reservoir projects. [NEA: Nepal Electricity Authority]

Biggest hydropower generation (Currently in Operation)

o
There are several ongoing hydropower developments
Construction of the 456 MW Upper Tamakoshi project is close to completion.

The Nepali government is also looking to greater regional interconnection to help balance
supply and demand.
Interconnections exist along the border with India at various locations and the
transmission lines are being upgraded to expand flow capacity and support large-scale
hydropower developments in Nepal with new export routes.
History First Hydropower generation
Pharping Hydropower, financed by British Governement in 1960 BS
2 units of 250 KW each with total capacity of 500 KW
Second Hydropower generation, Sundarijal Hydropower in 1991 BS
o 640 KW to supply electricity to Kathmandu valley
Biggest hydropower generation (Currently in Operation)
o MW

For more details about the hydropower plants in Nepal: (website link)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_power_stations_in_Nepal

Challenges for Hydropower Development in Nepal

s.
Need
So we need to import such items.

- Hydrological Variability including hydro-meteorological

 TW-hr

Sources of electricity were

Coal- 38%
Gas 23%
Oil 3%
Hydropower- 19%
Nuclear 10%
Solar and Wind 7%
[Source: IEA (2019)]

Hydropower Status Report 2020

Global hydropower
installed capacity
Total global hydropower installed
capacity reached 1,308 gigawatts
(GW) in 2019.
This represents an annual rise of 1.2
per cent.

hydropower.org/statusreport

Types of Hydroelectric Plant

Pumped Storage
hydropower plants
 Different countries classify the hydropower projects
differently based on head of water. Generally they are
classified into three categories based on per height of water
or water head:
1) Low Head:
Head of water under which it operates is upto 15 m
(Head <=15m)
2) Medium Head:
Head of water under which it operates is in between 15 to
50 m i.e. (15 m <Head <= 50 m)
3) High Head
Head of water under which it operates is more than 50 m.
(Head >50 m)

Head for Hydroelectric plant

But in Nepal, most of the projects have huge elevation

differences between the headworks site and powerhouse
site so the following classification for hydroelectric plants
may be used:
a. Very Low Head
Head of water under which it operates is upto 15 m
(Head <=15m)
Generally axial flow turbine like Kaplan Turbine is used.
b. Low Head
Head of water under which it operates is between 15 m
to 60 m (15 < Head<= 60)
Kaplan or Francis Turbine can be used.
 c. Medium Head
Head of water under which it operates is in
between 60 to 150 m (60 < Head<= 150 m)
Usually, Francis Turbine is adopted.
d. High Head
Head of water under which it operates is between
150 m to 350 m (150 < Head<= 350 m)
Pelton or Francis Turbine is adopted.
e. Very High Head:
Head of water under which it operates is more
than 350 m. (Head >= 350 m)
Pelton Turbine is used.

Classification based on Capacity:

Based on Capacity Hydropower plants can be classified as:

1.4 Runoff River, Storage and Pump

Storage Plants
Runoff River hydropower
In the run-of-river plants, electricity is generated as and
when the water is available in the river.
It has no appreciable pondage or storage facility.
If the river dries up or the flow decreases below the
minimum flow required for the turbine, the electricity
generation will stop.
Suitable for perennial river having adequate discharge
throughout the year.
Minimum dry flow in the river should be sufficient to
run the turbine efficiently and economically.
For example: Bhotekoshi Hydroelectric Plant (36 MW),
Khimti (60 MW), etc.
 Storage type hydropower plant
Runoff- River Hydropower plant

Flushing canal

Guide
Wall

Pondage Runoff-River (PROR) Plant

These plants have pondage facility which can store daily or weekly river flows to
address the increased load during peak hours

upstream.

as
 PONDAGE RUNOFF-RIVER (PROR) PLANT
Peaking Pond

Surge
tank

Divide
Wall

Plan of typical PROR plant

Storage type hydropower

Storage type hydropower

Storage Plants have enough storage capacity

to offset seasonal fluctuations in water flow and
provide a constant supply of electricity
throughout the year.
Most of the rivers of Nepal have huge amount
of flow variation in rainy (monsoon season) and
dry season. Due to such variation, the power
generation during dry season is quite low while
designing run-off-river schemes.
 The excess water in the river during rainy season is
stored by constructing a dam and reservoir in order
to generate electricity during dry season (winter).
Large dams can store several years' worth of water.
Can also be constructed in non perennial rivers.
Power house may be located at the toe of the dam
or away from the dam.
For example: Kulekhani I (60 MW), etc.
 Pumped Hydropower

Pump Storage Plants

In contrast to conventional hydropower plants,pumped storage plants reuse water.

After water initially produces electricity, it flows fromthe turbines into a lower reservoir
located below the dam.

During off peak hours (periods of low energy demand), some of the water is pumped into
an upper reservoir and reused during periods of peak demand.

It provides additional capacity/ power to meetpeak demand.

Comparatively expensive
 Chapter-2
Power Regulation

Chapter-2
Power Regulation

H*Q

Estimation of Power Potential

 P=
Assuming Efficiency of plant =

Flow Duration Curve

Discharge (Q)

Percentage of exceedance of time

Fig: Flow Duration Curve

Uses of Flow Duration curve

1. qualitative

and vice versa.

2.

3. drainage
 Steps for flow duration curve

Compute probability of exceedance as

P = n/N * 100% , where N = Total no of data, n = Rank
Draw this probability of exceedance versus discharge to
obtain the flow duration curve.

FirmPowerand SecondaryPower

Firm Power orPrimaryPower

Firm power or Primary power is the power which is
available 100 % of the time.
It is the power which is insured to the consumer at any
time of the day.
Firm power c an be inc reased by the use of pondage.

Sec ondary Power

The secondary power isthe
amount of power which is excess
of the firmpower. It is also called
surplus power or non-firmpower.
The plant can deliver the
secondary power only for a part
of a year.

Fig: Primary Energy and Secondary Energy

 H

f = frictional factor,
Darcy weisbach equation L = length of pipe

hL / (2gd) V = Velocity of water in pipe

d = diameter of pipe

NUMERICALS
Discharge in Probability of
descending Rank (n) Exceedance
order n/N*100
Flow Duration Curve
3

2.59 1 1/12*100 = 8.33 2.5

2.49 2 2/12*100 = 16.67

Q (m^3/sec)
2
1.67 3 3/12*100 = 25 1.5
1.45 4 4/12*100 = 33.33 1
0.94 5 41.67 0.5
0.76 6 50 0
0.56 7 58.3 0 20 40 60 80 100
Probability of Exceedance (%)
0.5 8 66.67
0.43 9 75
0.4 10 83.33
0.38 11 91.67
0.36 12 100

Q-3
From the following data of the average annual flow of a
given river, determine primary and secondary energy
available during a year if the plant capacity is fixed at power
corresponding to flow available for 25% of time. Assume an
average available net head of 10 m and combined
efficiency of 89%.

Flow
900 600 500 450 400 350 340 300 280 200 140 100
(m^3/s)

% time 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 93 100

% time Power
Power Duration Curve
45

40 1 41.47
35 10 41.47
Power (MW)

30 20 41.47
25 25 41.47
20 30 39.289
15 40 34.924
10 50 30.558
60 29.685
5
70 26.193
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 80 24.447
% time 90 17.462
93 12.223
100 8.731
 % time Power

1 41.47
10 41.47
20 41.47
25 41.47
30 39.289
40 34.924
50 30.558
60 29.685
70 26.193
80 24.447
90 17.462
93 12.223
100 8.731

45
40
35

Power (MW)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% time

E10 = (80-70)/100 * (26.193+24.447)/(2*1000) * 365 *24 = 22.180 GW-hr

-hr

271.43 - 76.48 = 194.44 GW-hr

Load C urve
Load curve is a graph of load consumption with respect to any time. So, this curve gives
the indication of power used at any time.
Generally, the time duration taken for load curve is daily, weekly, monthly and yearly.
Importanc e of Load C urve:
From the load curve we can have insight of load at different time for the given period.
Load curve helps in the preparing the operation schedule of the generating units.
Peak Load

Average Highest point of the c urve is Peak load

Load
Base Load Lowest point of c urve is bas e load
Load (MW)

The average consumption over a

defined time period is average load
Area under the load curve divided
4
by time gives the average load
Figure: Daily Load Curve

Peak Load , Average Load and Base Load

Peak Load:
The highest demand during a particular duration (can be daily, monthly, seasonal or
yearly ) is c alled the peak load.
Base Load
The load which is continuously exceeded during the given time period is base
load.
In case of daily load curve, minimum load within the day is called the base load for
that particular day

Average Load:
It is defined as the average consumption over a defined time period.
Area under the load curve divided by time gives the average load
4) (Plant use factor)

Where,
Installed capacity = Maximum Load + Reserve Capacity

Also, Installed capacity

(P) H*Q

utilization
1.

2.

Formulas:

3.

or Plant use factor

4.
Also, Installed capacity
(P) H*Q

5.

NUMERICALS
 Time (hr) Duration (hr) Load (MW) Energy (MW-hr)
0-4 am 4 10 10*4 = 40
4-7 am 3 14 3*14 = 42
7-9 am 2 18 2*18 = 36
9-11 am 2 16 32
11am -4 pm 5 13 65
4-6 pm 2 15 30
6-8 pm 2 18 36
8-10 pm 2 20 40
10 pm -12 am 2 12 24
Total Duration = 24 Total Energy 345 MW-hr

0- 6 6- 8 10- 12 12- 16 16- 20

12 45

20-22
 Time Duration Load Energy
(hr) (hr) (MW) (MW-hr)
0-6 6 5 6*5= 30
6-8 2 12 2*12 = 24
8-10 2 15 30
10-12 2 22 44
12-16 4 30 120
16-20 4 45 180 Time duration
20-22 2 50 100 22.667 MW

22-24 2 8 16
Sum = 24 Total Energy = 544 MW-hr

H*Q
P = Constant * Q
P20 = K * Q20, P40 = K * Q40, P60 = K * Q60

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
2250 KW
 Chapter-3
Planning and Layout of
Hydropower Projects

Preliminary

: Higher flow generates more power

: affects head available and alignment of
hydropower components

adversely

Stages for Hydropower Development

Financial Analysis

Extra:
Topographical Surveys and mapping at Prefeasibility Level

Full Form:
IEE = Initial Environmental Examination ,
EIA = Environmental Impact Assessment )
 Feasibility Study
Steps and major activities
1) Data Collection
Supplementary general data and information
Hydrological data: From a established gauging station
Topography: Supplementary Survey if necessary
Environment: Detailed socio-economic data from social survey
2) Review of desk study and prefeasibility study
Desk study report and reconnaissance level study report shall be reviewed.
3) Field work and design
Field trip for layouts for proposed alignments during prefeasibility study
Field visit for geological data collection, pit sampling, ERT survey, etc. (ERT = Electrical resistivity
tomography)
Hydrological:
Establishment of gauging station at headworks and powerhouse site

4) Estimates and Schedules

Detailed cost estimate
Detailed implementation schedules and planning
5) Environmental and social studies
Detailed IEE or EIA report shall be prepared.
( IEE = Initial Environmental Examination , EIA = Environmental Impact Assessment )
Consulation with stakeholders
Environmental mitigation plan

6) Economic Assessment
Financial Evaluation
Sensitivity Analysis, Benifit cost ratio calculations

7) Feasibility Report
This report is essential in order to get the generation license
It is necessary for PPA of the project. (PPA = Power Purchase Agreement)

Hydrological study in Different stages of

Hydropower Development

a) Hydrological study in reconnaissance level study

Discharge measurement at the headworks site during the driest period
Peak flood discharge shall be assessed based on flood mark and cross section
Glacier lakes are determined if there is any glacier lake in the catchment
through map
b) Hydrological and sedimentological study in Prefeasibility Level

Long term historical rainfall data and climatological data

Long term historical flow data and sediment data
Mean monthly flows shall be computed
Flow Duration Curves shall be developed
Gauging station at the intake site shall be established and discharge measurement
shall be carried out regularly
Flood frequency analysis
Design floods of 50, 100 and 200 years shall be estimated
Rating curves for the intake site and tailrace site shall be developed
Potentiality of GLOF in the catchment, if any, shall be estimated.
GLOF: Glacial Lake Outburst Flood
Carry out Sediment Study and estimate sediment load

Reservoir Regulation
Efficient operation and management of reservoir with high degree of
intelligence and experience to ensure that they are neither left partially
empty by the end of rainy season nor they are found full at the time of
arrival of floods leading to heavy release causing flooding in the
downstream area.
Need of flow regulation
Efficient operation and management of reservoir
Controls inflows and outflows from the reservoir
 Storage zone of reservoir
Dead Storage: Dead or inactive storage refers to water in a reservoir that cannot be drained by
gravity through a dam's outlet works, spillway or power plant intake and can only be pumped out
Live Storage: Active or live storage is the portion of the reservoir that can be used for power
production, navigation, flood control, and downstream releases.
Surcharge Storage: The "surcharge storage" is the capacity of the reservoir above the
spillway crest that cannot be regulated.
Bank storage : A part of storage enters the soil as seepage when the reservoir is full. This comes out and
contributes to the storage when the reservoir level is low.
Valley Storage:
The amount of water stored in river before the dam is constructed.

Link for video on Storage zones of reservoir

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Np6Y6jxQGU

Reservoir Sedimentation:
The deposition of sediment in the reservoir is
termed as

Factors affecting sedimentation:

Slope of Catchment
Intensity of Rainfall in the catchment area
Nature of soil of catchment
Vegetation Cover Effect of Sedimentation
Reduction of storage capacity
May block intake, outlet, etc.
Deteriorate the reservoir water supply
Sediment Control Measures
1. Reducing the inflow of sediment
2. Adequate design in the reservoir to prevent Sediment deposition
3. Removal of deposited sediment
1) Reducing the inflow of sediment
I. Plantation works in the degraded area
II. Improvement in agricultural practices. (Terrace Farming)
III. Check dams and retaining walls at specific locations.
IV.Stream channel improvement and stabilization (Gabion wall, Retaining wall etc.)

2) Adequate design in the Reservoir to prevent Sediment deposition

I. Sediment By-pass
II. Sediment Sluicing

3) Removal of Deposited Sediment

I.Mechanical Sediment Removal (by using excavator)
II.Sediment Removal with Hydro-Suction system

3
Sediment Bypass

Life of Reservoir
It denotes the period during which whole or specified fraction
of its total active capacity is lost
The deposition of sediments gradually reduces the available
storage capacity of the reservoir. The sedimentation of
reservoir is measured in terms of trap efficiency.
Trap efficiency:
The reservoir trap efficiency is defined as the ratio of
deposited sediment to the total sediment inflow for a
given period within the reservoirs economic life time
Trap efficiency = Sediment deposited / Total sediment inflow
 Mass Curve
It is a plot of cumulative volume of water that can be stored from a
stream flow versus time in days, months or years.
Uses of Mass Curve:
For many water resources investigations, it is important to know the total
volumes of water that have to be dealt with over long periods of time. For
such purposes, the most convenient means of presenting the runoff data is
mass curve.
When it is desired to use water at uniform rate greater than the minimum
discharge in the stream, it is necessary to provide storage where water is
stored during periods of high flow inorder to use it during the periods of low
flows. Mass Curve serve as a very useful tool to determine the required
storage capacity for any uniform rate of demand.

1) Mass Curve of Inflow:

Characteristics of Mass Curve:
It is continously rising curve as it shows accumulated
inflow volume with time
If the slope of the curve indicates the rate of inflow
If the curve rises sharply, it indicates high rate of inflow
within that period
.
2) Mass Curve of Demand:
A mass curve of demand (or demand curve) is a plot
between accumulated demand and time

Guide Curves (area-elevation

Curve, Volume elevation curves)
are used to regulate the
reservoir
These curves need to be revised
time to time considering
sedimentation, evaporation, Demand
Curve
etc.

Inflow Curve
Requirements of Hydropower
Flow Duration Curve
Mass Curve
Energy Flow Diagram
Estimation of Power Potential
Demand and Prediction

Fig: Flow Duration Curve

Estimation of Power Potential

Power Formula
Q
Design Discharge is fixed from Flow
duration curve analysis
Annual Energy calculations,
Energy = Power x Time
Primary Energy, Secondary Energy
and Total Annual Energy Calculations
Population
 Settling
Basin

Components of Typical Hydroelectric Plant

 Penstock

Penstock

Turbine

Surge Tank

Power House
Tailrace
 Chapter-4
Water Retaining Structures
Purpose:
Dams are primary intended to
provide additional storage capacity,
produce additional head and divert the river flow into the conveyance
system.

Uses of Dams:
Over 5000 years, dams have enabled people to collect water when it was
plentiful and save it for dry periods.
Dams enable
Improved Irrigation
Energy Production (Hydropower)
Flood Control
 The difference between the zoned and
diaphragm type dam is the thickness of core.
(diaphragm type have thin core)
If the thickness of core is less than 10 m, the
dam is known as diaphragm type.

i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

v.

vi.
 Narrow gorge with an

costly structure and historic

reduce seepage

Cup shaped river basin in the U/s with

Forces acting on a gravity dam

i. Primary Loads
Major Important loads for all dam types. For example,
Weight of Dam, Water Pressure and Seepage Loads
ii. Secondary Loads
Lesser magnitude and major importance to certain types of
dam only. For e.g: Silt loads, ice loads, wind loads, wave
loads, etc.
iii. Exceptional Loads
These loads are designed with low probability of
occurrence principle. For e.g: Seismic or Earthquake Loads

c = Unit Weight of Concrete

= 24 KN/m^3

c
For analysis, Unit width of dam is taken

c
1m
c

C D

B W2

W1 W3

F
A M N
 PH = ½ * *H*H PH
PH
=½* *H2
Act at H/3 from
base w*H
PH = ½ * *H 2
act at H /3 from base
Specific Weight of Water ( w or ) = 9.81 KN/m3

Pv
H
Pv

Uplift Pressure due to seepage of water under dam

Intensity of uplift pressure is maximum at the u/s end of
the dam and it goes on deceasing towards d/s end.
In order to release uplift pressure drainage galleries are
provided in the body of the dam
The magnitude of the uplift pressure at the face of the
H
gallery is equal to hydrostatic pressure at the toe plus Pv
one third the difference of hydrostatic pressure at the
heel & toe. H Pv

H Heel Drainage Gallery Toe

H
Seepage Pressure Diagram without drainage gallery
H U2 H
H
U1

Uplift pressure at heel = H Seepage Pressure Diagram with Drainage gallery

Uplift pressure at Toe = H
Heel Drainage Gallery Toe
Uplift pressure at drainage gallery = [ ] U4 H
U2
U1, U2, U3, U4 are the areas of triangles and rectangles (in fig) H U3
calculated by geometry.
U1
[ ]

Uplift pressure due to seepage

If there is no tailwater and no drainage gallery

If there is drainage gallery but no tailwater

Drainage
gallery
0
U2 U3
K* w *H
U1
K* w *H/3

Uplift Pressure at Heel = K * w *H

Uplift Pressure at Drainage gallery = K * w *H/3
K* w *H

Uplift Pressure at Heel = K * w *H Note:

If uplift pressure coefficient (K) is
also given in question, multiply all
uplift pressure by K
 Modes of Failure and Criteria for Structural Stability of
GravityDams
A gravity dam may fail in the following ways:
(i) By overturning (or rotation) about the toe.
(ii) By Crushing
(iii) By development of tension
(iv) By Sliding.

Stability Check:
1) Stability against overturning: 4) Check against Crushing or Compression failure:
F.O.S. against Overturning = For safety of dam, it is necessary that maximum compressive stress
anywhere in the dam must not exceed the safe compressive stress (fc)
If Factor of Safety against Overturning > 1.5
It is safe. Pn
2) Lifting factor or floatation factor Pn =
=
If floatation factor> 1, it is safe. e is eccentricity, Pn = Normal Stress,
3) Factor of safety against sliding fc = Allowable compressive stress for foundation material
F.O.S. against sliding = 5) For no tension condition (Middle Third Rule)
For safety F.O.S. against sliding >=1 For no tension condition, the resultant must lie in the
Considering shear resistance, middle third
Maximum eccentricity that can be allowed on either side
(must be > 4) from center is equal to B/6
Where eccentricity (e) , Resultant must
lie in the middle
= coefficient of friction (0.6 to 0.75) e = B/2 - x , e < = B/6 third
B = Width of dam section
S = Allowable shear stress of point which varies x =
from 1400 KN/m2 for poor rock and 4000 kN/m2 for B/3 B/3 B/3
good rock. B

Steps for Stability check of Gravity Dam (Numerical)

1. Consider unit length of dam

2. Calculate all vertical forces and their sum i.e.
3. Calculate all horizontal forces and their sum i.e.
4. Determine Lever arm of all forces about the toe
5. Find sum of anticlockwise moment (resisting moment ) and sum of
clockwise moment (overturning moment )
6.
7. Find Location of resultant force ( )
=
8. Find Eccentricity (e )
e = B/2 -
9. Check for stability of dam for Overturning, sliding, crushing and no
tension condition
Principal and Shear Stress in gravity dam
The vertical stress intensity determined from

is not always maximum direct stress produced in the dam. The maximum normal
stress will be the major principal stresses generated on major principal plane.

H
H =

Where, P = * H

Normal Stress at dam

Reservoir FULL,
Toe +, Heel -
Reservoir Empty,
Heel +, Toe -
 Notes
C D

W2
B

W1 W3

F
A M N

Water Pressure
V1

H
i) With Tailwater Pv V2
V3
Pv
H

H
Heel Drainage Gallery Toe
H

V1

H
ii) Without Tailwater Pv V2

H
Heel Drainage Gallery Toe

Notes
6m
R.L. 1120

R.L. 1115 9m
Note-1: A1
Find Weight of Dam 0.7
70 1
W1 and W2 61
A1 = 6* 70 = 420
W1 = 420*24 = 10080 KN W1 A2
W2
A2 = ½ * 42.74*61 = 1302.35 R.L. 1050
42.74
W2 = A2 *24 = 31256.4 KN
H/V = 0.7/1
H = 0.7*61 = 42.74
Foundation Treatment in Gravity Dam
The foundation of dam must be strong enough to withstand the
foundation pressure exerted on it, as entire load acting on dam are
ultimately transmitted to the foundation.
But in actual practice such an ideal foundation is not available. So, it is
necessary to carry out geological investigation to determine the
suitability of the foundation of dam. If defects are observed, suitable
measures should be adopted.
Foundation treatment is generally carried out in three steps
Preparing the surface
Grouting the foundation
Foundation drainage

Foundation Treatment in Gravity Dam(contd)

a) Preparing the surface
Removal of entire loose rock till a sound
bed is exposed
Excavation should be carried out in such
a way that the underlying rock is not
damaged
The final surface obtained is stepped
(as shown in figure) or made rough to
increase the frictional resistance of the
dam against sliding. Fig: Preparing the surface

Foundation Treatment in Gravity Dam(contd)

b) Grouting the foundation
It is required to seal the cracks in the foundation for improving the
bearing capacity of the rock and reduce the uplift pressure.
Primary purpose of grouting is to form a continuous water tight
curtain and minimize leakage of water under the dam.
It consists of drilling deep holes into the foundation and injecting a
mixture of cement and water (called grout) into the holes.
It is usually of two types:
I. Consolidation grouting
II. Curtain grouting
 Foundation Treatment in Gravity Dam(contd) Consolidation
Grouting
I. Consolidation grouting
The entire foundation of dam is consolidated by
grouting.
For this, shallow holes are drilled through the
foundation rocks.
The depth of hole is between 3 to 15 m, spacing
about 12 to 30 m and diameter 5 to 10 cm. After the
holes have been drilled a mixture of cement slurry
(1:3 to 1:8) is forced into the holes. Drainage
gallery
II. Screen / Curtain grouting
Basically to provide a cutoff wall or screen to
prevent seepages and leakages in foundation just
downstream of heel of dam.
It reduces the uplift pressure
The depth of hole depends on nature of the
foundation rock and height of dam Fig: Curtain grouting

Curtain Grouting

Consolidation Grouting

Foundation Treatment in GravityDam

c) Foundation Drainage:

Grouting system usually reduces the uplift on the dam and

seepage through the foundation. However, it is impossible to
provide absolutely perfect impervious barriers. So, drainage
system is provided downstream of curtain wall to remove the
seepage water though the foundation.
It consists of a series of holes of holes drilled in one row to a
depth varying from 20- 40% of the depth of water in the
reservoir and spacing between 1.5 to 2 m. The drainage
holes are connected to drainage gallery to drain out seepage
water.
 Preparation of surface
Removal of entire loose and weak mass till sound rock is
encountered.
Bed rock is stepped to increase stability
Shear keys may also be provided to increase stability.

Loose mass

Causes of failures of Earthen Dams***

The failure of earthen dams can be classified into three main categories:
1) Hydraulic failures
2) Seepage Failure
3) Structural Failure
 1) HydraulicFailures
a) By Overtopping
A dam may be overtopped due to:
Underestimation of design flood
Insufficient spillway capacity
Settlements of embankments
Faulty operation of spillway gates
Insufficient Freeboards
Safety provision:
Sufficient freeboard and proper design with
flood considerations and spillway

1) Hydraulic Failures(Contd.)

b) Wave Erosion on upstream face

The wave action due to winds and tides will cause the erosion of
the dam material at the upstream face, if the material can't
sustain the wave velocity.
It will lead to washing out of the dam material or slip of the
upstream face.
Safety Provisions:
Upstream stone pitching
Provision of riprap Proper
design

Extra

Stone Pitching

Riprap
 1) Hydraulic Failures(Contd.)
c) Toe Erosion
The toe of the dam at the downstream side may be eroded due to
Heavy cross-current from spillway buckets,
Tailwater
Safety Provision
Providing a downstream stone pitching or a riprap up to a height above tail
water.

Tailwater
Toe

1) Hydraulic Failures(Contd.)
d) Gullying
Due to heavy rains, the flowing rain water over the
downstream face can erode the surface, creating
gullies, which could lead to failure.
Safety Provision:
To prevent such failures, the dam surface should be
properly maintained, all cuts filled on time and
surface well grassed.
Berms on d/s slope
Good drainage and berms may help in providing
safety against this failure Berms
Earthen
Dam

2) SeepageFailures
Seepage always occurs in the dams. If the magnitude is within the
design limits, it may not harm the stability of dam. However, if the
seepage is concentrated or uncontrolled beyond limits, it will lead to
failure of the dam.
Following are some of the various types of seepage failure.
a) Piping through the dam body
b) Piping through the foundation
c) Sloughing of the downstream side of dam
 2) Seepage Failures(Contd)
a) Piping through the dam body
When seepage starts through poor soils present in the body of
the dam, first small channels are formed which transport
material downstream. With time, more materials are
transported downstream which ultimately leads to wash out of
dam.

Seepage Failures(Contd)
b) Piping through foundation
When highly permeable cavities are present in dam foundation, it may
lead to heavy seepage. The concentrated seepage at high rate will
erode soil which will cause increased flow of water and soil. As a result,
the dam will settle or sink leading to failure.
Careful investigation of foundation soil will help in avoiding such
failures

Fig: Piping through foundation

c) Sloughing Seepage Failures(Contd)

If the seepage line exists at the downstream face of the dam, the
portion of the toe of the dam below the exit point will always remain
in wet condition. This will cause the reduction of stability of the slope
and small sizes sliding may occur.
The repetitive process of saturation of toe and then its sliding is
known as sloughing.
Core

Unsaturated zone

Phreatic line
Saturated
zone

Fig: Sloughing
3) StructuralFailure
Generally structural failures are caused by shear failures leading to sliding.
a) Sudden drawdown at the upstream face
If reservoir is emptied suddenly, the saturated soil (upto which water was filled before
emptying) doesnot get time to release water so as to maintain equilibrium. This
phenomenon is called sudden drawdown.
The unbalanced outward pressure developed due to the drawdown causes the
upstream face to slide.
Safety Measure
Can be avoided by flatten slopes and better operating rules.

Sudden drawdown at the upstream face

b) Foundation slide:
If the foundation of the dam is formed on soft soil with slow consolidation, it may
not be able to resist the shear stress induced which will cause the dam body as a
whole to slide.
c) Due to earthquake:
The core may develop cracks and may lead to leakage and ultimate failure.
High waves developed may cause the failure due to overtopping
The soil below foundation may liquify resulting in the failure of dam

d) Faulty construction and poor maintenance:

When during construction, the compaction of the embankment is not
properly done, it may lead to failure.
Wrong placement of materials in different zones
Untimely repairs of drains
Safety Measures:
Proper design, construction and regular inspection.

Failure modes of earthen dam (In Shortcut)

Phreatic Line in Embankment Dams

Phreatic Line
Unsaturated
zone

Saturated zone

Filter

Fig: Phreatic Line in Embankment Dams

Phreatic line is a divide line between dry and saturated (submerged) soil.
It s a line within the dam section below which hydrostatic pressure is positive.
It is important for following reasons:
a) To make up top line so that the flow net can be drawn to determine
quantity of seepage.
b) To ensure that the phreatic line does not intersect the d/s face of the
dam.
c) To mark dividing line between dry or moist and saturated soil.
 Vertical/Incline face

Cutoff Wall

Relief Well

Design Criteria for Earthen Dams

For safe design of an earthen dam, following criteria must be satisfied:
No possibility of dam being overtopped by flood waters.
The seepage line (or Phreatic line) should be well within d/s face.
The u/s and d/s face should be stable under worst conditions.
The foundation shear stress should be within safe limits.
The dam and foundation should be safe against piping.
The u/s face should be properly protected against wave action and d/s
face against the action of rain.
 Numericals
Stability of gravity Dams

Forces acting on a gravity dam

i. Primary Loads
Major Important loads for all dam types. For example,
Weight of Dam, Water Pressure and Seepage Loads
ii. Secondary Loads
Lesser magnitude and major importance to certain types of
dam only. For e.g: Silt loads, ice loads, wind loads, wave
loads, etc.
iii. Exceptional Loads
These loads are designed with low probability of
occurrence principle. For e.g: Seismic or Earthquake Loads
 c = Unit Weight of Concrete
= 24 KN/m^3

c
For analysis, Unit width of dam is taken

c
1m
c

C D

W2
B

W1 W3

F
A M N

PH = ½ * *H*H PH
PH
=½* *H2
Act at H/3 from
base w*H
PH ½* * 2
act 3 from base
Specific Weight of Water ( w or ) = 9.81 KN/m3

Pv
H
Pv
Uplift Pressure due to seepage of water under dam
Intensity of uplift pressure is maximum at the u/s end of
the dam and it goes on deceasing towards d/s end.
In order to release uplift pressure drainage galleries are
provided in the body of the dam
The magnitude of the uplift pressure at the face of the
H
gallery is equal to hydrostatic pressure at the toe plus Pv
one third the difference of hydrostatic pressure at the
heel & toe. v

H Heel Drainage Gallery Toe

Seepage Pressure Diagram without drainage gallery

H U2
H
U1

Uplift pressure at heel = H Seepage Pressure Diagram with Drainage gallery

Uplift pressure at Toe =
Heel Drainage Gallery Toe
Uplift pressure at drainage gallery = [ ] U4
U2
U1, U2, U3, U4 are the areas of triangles and rectangles (in fig) H U3
calculated by geometry.
U1
[ ]

Uplift pressure due to seepage

If there is no tailwater and no drainage gallery

If there is drainage gallery but no tailwater

Drainage
gallery
0
U2 U3
K* w *H
U1
K* w *H/3

Uplift Pressure at Heel = K * w *H

Uplift Pressure at Drainage gallery = K * w *H/3
K* w *H

Uplift Pressure at Heel = K * w *H Note:

If uplift pressure coefficient (K) is
also given in question, multiply all
uplift pressure by K
 Modes of Failure and Criteria for Structural Stability of
GravityDams
A gravity dam may fail in the following ways:
(i) By overturning (or rotation) about the toe.
(ii) By Crushing
(iii) By development of tension
(iv) By Sliding.

Stability Check:
1) Stability against overturning: 4) Check against Crushing or Compression failure:
F.O.S. against Overturning = For safety of dam, it is necessary that maximum compressive stress
anywhere in the dam must not exceed the safe compressive stress (fc)
If Factor of Safety against Overturning > 1.5
It is safe. Pn
2) Lifting factor or floatation factor Pn =
=
If floatation factor> 1, it is safe. e is eccentricity, Pn = Normal Stress,
3) Factor of safety against sliding fc = Allowable compressive stress for foundation material
F.O.S. against sliding = 5) For no tension condition (Middle Third Rule)
For safety F.O.S. against sliding >=1 For no tension condition, the resultant must lie in the
Considering shear resistance, middle third
Maximum eccentricity that can be allowed on either side
(must be > 4) from center is equal to B/6
Where eccentricity (e) , Resultant must
lie in the middle
= coefficient of friction (0.6 to 0.75) e = B/2 - x , e < = B/6 third
B = Width of dam section
S = Allowable shear stress of point which varies x =
from 1400 KN/m2 for poor rock and 4000 kN/m2 for B/3 B/3 B/3
good rock. B
 Steps for Stability check of Gravity Dam (Numerical)
1. Consider unit length of dam
2. Calculate all vertical forces and their sum i.e.
3. Calculate all horizontal forces and their sum i.e.
4. Determine Lever arm of all forces about the toe
5. Find sum of anticlockwise moment (resisting moment ) and sum of
clockwise moment (overturning moment )
6.
7. Find Location of resultant force ( )
=

8. Find Eccentricity (e )
e = B/2 -
9. Check for stability of dam for Overturning, sliding, crushing and no
tension condition

2400 Kg/m^3
= 2400 *g/1000
KN/m^3
24 KN/m^3
 Drainage Gallery
Heel Toe

U1 U3
wH
U2
w[ ]

Lever Arm (Remarks)

61.67= 55+5+5/3
57.5 = 55+5/2
36.67 = 55/3

62.5 = 55+5+5/2
 +ve
+ve

+ve

55+5+1/3*5 =61.67

Heel Drainage Gallery Toe

U3
U1
wH

U2
w[ ]

Table Continued from previous page

63.33 = 60+2/3 *5
25 = 75/3

Lever arm
U1 = 55+10/2 = 60
U2 = 55+2/3*10 = 61.67
U3 = 2/3*55 = 36.67
 Lever arm
10 U1 = 55+10/2 = 60
55 m
U2 = 55+2/3*10 = 61.67
U3 = 2/3*55 = 36.67

245.25
9.81*75
U1= 10 * 245.25 = 2452.5 KN/m
=735.75 735.75
U2 = 0.5* 490.5*10
KN/m^2
= 2452.5 KN/m
= 9.81*75/3 0) U3 = ½ *55*245.25 = 6744.375 KN/m
735.75- 245.25 = 245.25 KN/m^2
=490.5
 Case- II,

Principal and Shear Stress in gravity dam

The vertical stress intensity determined from

is not always maximum direct stress produced in the dam. The maximum normal
stress will be the major principal stresses generated on major principal plane.

H
 Where, P = * H

Normal Stress at dam

Reservoir FULL,
Toe +, Heel -
Reservoir Empty,
Heel +, Toe -
Q.3)

Principal Stress and Shear Stress at toe

EXTRA Note:
Take allowabale shear
strength
OR
Unit Shear resistance
between foundation and
dam = 2000 KN/m^2

Check for sliding

= 12.75 > 4
Safe

27
 +ve
+ ve

Remarks: (Lever Arm)

18 = 15+6/2
10 = 2/3*15
14 = 21*2/3
9= 27*1/3

38935.96

Ph

21 m

264.87 =
 = 398.52 * ¾= 298.89 KN/m^2

Principal Stress at Toe

= 398.52*1.56 = 622.52 KN/m^2

 Chapter-5
Regulatory Structures

Intake:
Structure at the entrance of pipe, canal or tunnel through which
water is conveyed

Types of intake: Energy

1) Based on Layout Dissipating
Structure
i. Side Intake
Intake at side or bank of the river Settling Basin
Usually adopted when power house is away from Fig: Side Intake
dam.
ii. Frontal Intake:
Suitable when majority of sediment carried by the
river is bed load.
Suitable for relatively clean water.
Suitable for storage or peaking type plants.
Intake

To Settling
Basin
Fig: Frontal Intake

iii) Bottom Intake/ Drop Intake / Tyrolean Intake

Grill like opening that captures water from Bottom

the bed of the river and drops it directly to Intake
the head race.
Trash
Suitable for following conditions: rack
When there is no appreciable
movement of sediment along the river.
Minimum Bed load
For steep rivers with rocks in river beds

Selection of Type of Intake: Trash

1. Nature of River rack
Side intake may be used in all types of river ranging from mild sloping to steep rivers
Drop intakes are limited to small mountainous / hilly river with rocky river beds.
Frontal intakes: River is wide and carries relatively clear water
2. Sediment, trash and debris Content:
Side Intake: suitable for Nepali river which carry large amount of sediment, trash and debris during monsoon
Frontal Intake: Suitable if the majority of sediment is bed load
Drop Intakes: should be avoided in rivers with high sediment content
3. Nature of Hydropower Plant
Frontal -> Low head plants, Drop -> small hydropower plants on small streams, Side -> Any type of ROR
 2. Based on Hydraulic regime:
i) Non Pressure intake (surface intake)
Located at surface
Area of intake is comparatively large.
Suitable for perennial rivers
May have problem of floating materials

ii)

(Non -perennial rivers)

Location of intake
Major Requirements of an intake:
Adequate inflow
Less sediment intake
Less Head loss
Least environmental impact

Control of bed load, suspended load and floating debris in ROR plants

To control bed load, the intake should be raised from the bed of the river.
Create small pondage in the u/s of diversion structure.
Sediment analysis and Proper design of trashrack.
Lesser approach velocity at the entry point of flow.
Selection of appropriate location of intake.
Provision of divide wall.
Provision of undersluice and regular flushing
Provision of gravel trap and settling basin
Control of sediment in catchment scale with check dams and afforestation.
For accumulated sediments, Dredging and pumping can be carried out.
 Settling Basin:
A basin to settle the suspended particles in the diverted flow.
It settles particles between (0.1 mm to 2 mm) in size
Components in Settling Basin:
Inlet Zone
Transition from headrace to settling basin. L
1 = 11o ) and vertical slope about 1:2 ( 1 = 27o )
B
Settling Zone
Main part of basin where settling of suspended sediment takes place
L/B ratio must be between 4 to 10
Outlet Zone:
Transition zone with gradual narrowing of the width
Horizontal slope about 1:2 ( 2 = 26.5o ), Ver. Slope 1:1

(or h)
Types (based on Flushing operation):
i. Continuous Flushing Type
Flushing is done continuously and does not interfere power production
It uses surplus water for flushing, about 10-15% of plant design discharge
E.g: Sun Koshi, Adhi Khola, Jhimruk, Modi Khola, Chilime hydropower plants
ii. Discontinuous (Periodic or Intermittent) Flushing type
The flushing operation is carried out periodically when the desanding basin is full of silt.
The power production needs to shut down for single basin design.
E.g: Marshyandi, Trishuli, etc.

Design of settling basin

1) Particle approach 2) Concentration Approach

1) Particle approach
The basin is designed in such a way that the time required for
settling and travelling horizontal length for a reference particle
is just equal.

v = Horizontal Velocity d mm
= Fall Velocity v
= h/t , v= L/t h

t = h/ , t = L/v
h/ = L/v
L = v.h/ L

For numerical,
Assume h, is known (or calculated)
L can be obtained.

For v,
v= ,
where d is particle size to be settled (in mm)
For Value of a
v is in m/sec Diameter of Particle (mm) Value of a (by T.R. Camp )
> 1 mm 0.36
1mm to 0.1 mm 0.44
< 0.1 mm 0.51
Fall Velocity ( )
Particle size (m/s)
(mm) 0 oC 15oC 40 oC
0.05 0.13 0.2 0.3
0.1 0.5 0.7 1.2
0.15 1.0 1.5 2
0.2 --- -----
Q = A * v = B* h * v

A = Area in cross-section
B = Q/ (h * v)
This is the case for no turbulence
L
Considering Turbulence
New settling velocity (fall velocity)
=
where, *v B
v = horizontal velocity
=
h (or D) = depth in m
Then, F.B.

L= h or D

B= L

Empirical formula for determination of length

L =
 0.1 mm

0.1 mm to 1 mm

(Note: For T= 25oC, = 0.9* 10-6 m2/sec = 0.9 *10-6* 106 = 0.9 mm2/sec )

0.9

0.03264 m/s
X 1000
= 32.64 m/s

Extra:
 0.9

As is net surface area (m2) As = L * B

Q is discharge (m3/sec)
W is fall velocity (m/sec)
Settling Basin is a requirement of Hydropower. Illustrate it.
Most rivers in Nepal especially those originated from Himalayans carry heavy
sediment load in suspension and in bed. During the collection of water through
intake, certain percentage of suspended as well as bed loads will enter along with
the water.
Suspended load transported by rivers causes rapid wear and tear of the penstock
and runner vanes of the turbines due to abrasion. Within short operation period,
the abrasion of the runner adversely affects the efficiency of the turbine and may
lead to eventual failure.
In order to avoid this, a settling basin is provided to exclude sediment particles
and supply clear water into the turbine.
 Hydraulic Tunnels

Hydraulic Tunnels
Hydraulic tunnel is an underground water conduit formed by excavation without
disturbing the surface.
Water can be conveyed from tunnel through high ground or mountains in rugged
terrain where the construction of the surface line is difficult.
Advantages:
Less environmental effect --> Reduction of land acquisition, forest clearance, etc.
Adopts shortest possible route so head loss is minimum.
Optimum space consumption and the natural landscape is not disturbed.
Less Seismic effect
Disadvantages:
Normally high construction cost
High constructions risks
The construction period is normally long

Based on purpose or function, hydraulic tunnels may exist in following forms:

Interconnection tunnel of reservoirs
Diversion tunnel during construction
Spillway tunnel
Power tunnel
Tailrace tunnel
Navigational Tunnel
Silt Flushing tunnel

Pressure and Non- Pressure Tunnel

Non- Pressure Tunnel: The tunnel in which the flow takes place as free surface exposed to
atmosphere. The flow in the tunnel is open channel flow. For e.g: Spillway Tunnel, Diversion
Tunnel, Tailrace Tunnel, etc.
Pressure tunnel: The tunnel in which the flow takes place with pressure is called pressure
tunnel. For e.g: Headrace tunnel
Hydraulic Design of Tunnel:
i) Free Flow Tunnel (Non-pressure tunnel)
Hydraulic design of the free flow tunnel is executed as the hydraulic design of canal.

ii) Pressure flow Tunnel:

Hydraulic design of the pressure flow tunnel is computed as the pipe flow
The head loss is computed using Darcy/ Weisbach frictional factor.

Discharge through a pressurized hydraulic tunnel is calculated using the continuity equation
Q=A*v
where Q is discharge in m3/sec, v is velocity in m/s, A is area in m2

Velocity in Tunnel:
Unlined tunnel: 2 to 2.5 m/sec (max)
Lined tunnels 4 to 5 m/s (max)
Permissible velocity also depends upon sediment load carried by
water (suspended or Bed load),
Recommended velocity is 2.5 m/s

Size and Shape of Tunnel

Geometric design (shapes) of tunnel

a) Circular Section
Suitable when the tunnel is subjected high
internal pressure but does not have good
quality rock around it
Most suitable from structural considerations Fig: Circular Section
but difficult for excavation (construction)

b) D-shaped section:
Suitable for tunnels located in good quality rocks.
More working space compared to other sections

Fig: D-shaped section

c) Horse-Shoe Section:
Compromise between circular and D-shaped sections.
Structurally strong to withstand external rock and water pressure.
Suitable for moderately good rocks
Preferred more due to construction techniques.
Fig: Horse-Shoe section
Tunnel Alignment:
Some points to be noted during tunnel alignment selection:
Shortest as far as possible (economic, minimum head loss).
Straight as far as possible (bends increase construction cost as well as head loss)
Easily accessible near the entrance and exit for easy construction.
Careful selection of the alignment with no weathered, loose or fractured layers
Tunnel Lining
After excavation of tunnel, tunnel lining is done to increase hydraulic capacity of tunnel, to increase strength, to
reduce resistance, and to reduce losses from the tunnel.
Advantages:
Acts as a structural unit and transmits part of load to the surrounding rock. So, Structural stability is increased.
Hydraulic resistance of lined tunnel is much less than that of unlined tunnel. So, it minimizes losses, saves energy
and revenue.
Velocity of water in lined tunnel can be higher than in unlined tunnel. Hence, small section may have better
discharge carrying capacity.
The seepage losses through the tunnel are reduced significantly.
Concrete Lining

Design of tunnel lining

The principle factors that should be considered in the design and
detailing are:
Material (PCC, Shotcrete, RCC, Steel)
Required performance criteria
Geological conditions
Design Life
PCC lining is preferred when tunnel walls are to support high outside
pressure due to rock, but low inside pressure
While internal pressure is high, RCC or Steel linings are required.

Shotcrete
Tunneling method:
1) Heading and Benching
2) Full face blasting
3) Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM)

1) Heading and Benching:

An old technique
Only part of total tunnel cross-section is excavated first which is known
as heading.
This part is then enlarged to the required size.
Heading may be at top, middle or bottom.
2) Full face blasting:
A comparatively new method adopted
Entire tunnel section is excavated uniformly.
Suitable for tunnel passing through strong ground rocks.
3) Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM)
Full face of tunnel is excavated mechanically by means of tunnel boring
machine.
Latest technology
Suitable for long tunnels.
Suitable for easily accessible sites (road).
Cost: Expensive compared to other methods
Fast, easy and safe construction in weak to strong ground rock
conditions

https://www.geotech.hr/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/faze_tuneliranja.gif

Support in tunnel:
Necessity of tunnel support arises from the fact that the excavated rock has
tendency to dropout of the roof tunnel.
Time elapsed between the blasting and beginning of collapse of unsupported roof is
called Bridge action period. It may range from few minutes to few weeks.
Supports are provided by Rock bolts of varying length.
Rock bolting may be spot bolting or pattern bolting.
Steel Ribs (Girder) may also be provided to support the tunnel.
Videos Link
Bheri Babai Diversion
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rvl4BxRGbHY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wHfoCMSTl74
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kz4VcZa-Seo
Nagdhunga Tunnel (JICA)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u-5FyyIFRTQ
Tunnel construction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qvkytMLBKFc
Forebay
A tank line structure at the beginning of penstock.
Allows the transition from open channel to pressure flow..
Distributes water evenly in penstocks

Condition of applications:
Generally, forebay are applicable if power canal or pipe is used
instead of tunnels.
Sufficient space available for forebay construction.

Settling
Basin

Trash rack

Spillway
Design Principles
Forebay is designed to supply about 2 to 4 minutes of design discharge to turbine. It must have
sufficient capacity to accommodate the required volume of water.
Water removed from spillway and flushing exit should be safely disposed avoiding the potential soil
erosion of the surrounding.
The minimum water level should not be lower than the minimum required submergence depth (so as
to deny air entrainment in the penstock pipe during the down surge in the power plant).
The velocity in forebay is assumed to be 0.2-0.8 m/s.
Design Guidelines:
1) Volume of Forebay (V) = Q * t * 60 ; where Q is the design discharge, t is time in minutes (take t = 2 to 4 minutes)
2) Calculation of minimum submergence
a) Hs >= 1.5 * Vp2/(2g) or
b) Hs = 0.545 Vp ; where d is diameter of penstock, Vp is velocity in penstock
Vp = Q / Ap , /4
Adopt whichever is greater in a) or b)
4) Minimum 300 mm clearance from bottom of forebay to bottom level of penstock is provided to prevent the entry of high
sediment concentration in the penstock pipes
5) Depth of Forebay = Depth of submergence + Penstock diameter + Settling depth + Freeboard
(Take freeboard = 0.3 to 1 m, Minimum settling depth = 300 mm = 0.3 m)
6) Q = (B*H)* v ; where B is width, H is depth and v is horizontal flow velocity (Take v = 0.2 to 0.8 m/s)
B = Q/(H* v) , where v is velocity
7) Volume (V) = L*B*H
L = V/(B*H) , where V is volume or capacity of forebay

5) Check for Length of Spillway,

Q.1) Find out the dimension of a forebay, which accommodates a storage for 3 minutes of operation for a
hydropower plant having following data:
Design discharge = 20 m3/s
Diameter of penstock = 2.2 m
Draw plan and section of the forebay showing main components.

(Take 0.2 to 0.8 m/s)

20

(Take freeboard between 0.3 m to 1 m )

( Minimum settling depth is 300 mm)

B =12 m

0.2 X
L = 35.5 m

Check for length of spillway

Q spillway = Cd * Ls 3/2
Assuming, Cd = 1.7 (sharp crested weir)

Ls = Q/ (Cd * 3/2)
= 20/ (1.7* 0.5 3/2 )
Ls = 33.275 m
Here, Length of forebay > Length of spillway. (OK)
 Surge tank A surge tank is a cylindrical open topped storage tank.
The general arrangement of surge tank is shown in the figure.

Lt

the time

Location Surge tank: Condition of application:

A surge tank is always located as close as possible to the If water is conveyed through tunnel system.
powerhouse in order to minimize the length of penstock and Generally, if the site is located in steep topography.
preferably on high ground, to reduce height of tower. Also, when there is restriction of space for forebay.

The height of the surge tank is governed by the highest possible water level that can be anticipated
during operation.
Water hammer pressure are transient and oscillatory in nature and also termed as mass oscillation.
Stable surge tanks are those where the mass oscillation gets dampened quickly. Nearer the surge
tank to the powerhouse, greater the frequency of oscillation.

Surge tank video:

https://www.aboutcivil.org/surge-tanks-functions-types.html

(shown in figure below).

 :

riser

(Dampen the oscillations in water level)

(stores additional water)

Design considerations of Surge tank

Some of the basic surging conditions that are to be examined for the design of the surge tank are listed below:
i) Stability condition
Small water level fluctuation during the operation should be damped and water in the surge tank should be made
stable.
ii) Up-surging conditions
The top elevation of surge tank should be higher than the up-surging water level due to rapid interception of full
load.
iii) Down-surge condition
The bottom elevation of surge tank should be lower than the down surging level. In no case air should be drawn
into the pipe.
iv) Damping condition
A surge tank should be damped even if the succeeding load fluctuation arises.
 Hydraulic design:
Minimum Cross-sectional area is given by equation:

where, Vo = flow velocity in headrace tunnel in steady state condition,

hf = head loss in headrace tunnel in steady state condition
Lt = Length of headrace tunnel
At = Cross-sectional area of headrace tunnel
H = Gross Head
In actual practice, factor of safety (Fs) = 1.5 is taken, & the cross-section area = Fs* As, min

Lt

For Negligible or no friction, maximum upsurge or downsurge is given by

here Ast = Cross-sectional area of surge tank, Vt= velocity in tunnel

In actual case, friction effects are not negligible so considering friction,

the upsurge is given by

where,
Note:
Maximum Water hammer pressure head

Time of oscillation:
Where C is Celerity or velocity propagation of the
pressure wave in penstock

Vp is velocity of water in penstock

g is acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2

Q-2

Length of Tunnel (Lt) = 2500 m

 m2

m2

= 11.29 m

Q) The design discharge through the tunnel of a hydropower project is 60 m3/sec which is
conveyed by three number of penstocks to the turbine of 2 m diameter each. Take length of
tunnel to be 7 km, diameter of tunnel is 10m, frictional factor of tunnel is 0.016, frictional factor
of penstock = 0.04 and velocity of wave in penstock = 1800 m/sec. If the surge tank of 30 m
diameter has been provided at the end of the tunnel, find the following:
i) Maximum up-surge and down-surge in the tank
ii) Water hammer pressure
iii) Time of oscillation of wave

Velocity of wave or Celerity (C) =

(Qp)

= 6.8 m

x0.049
 Note:
Maximum water hammer pressure

Maximum water hammer pressure head

(hd)max = (1800 * 6.37 )/9.81 = 1168.8 m
Where C is Celerity or wave velocity
Pw = * hw = 9810 * 1168.8 = 11.46* 106 N/m2
in penstock
Vp is velocity of water in penstock
g is acceleration due to gravity =
9.81 m/s2

iv) Calculate the factor of safety of tank and ascertain whether it is adequate. Take gross head = 200 m

= * = 248.23 m2
F.O.S(Fs) = Ast provided / Minimum Ast required = 706.86/ 248.23 = 2.85 >1.5 (OK)
Hence the factor of safety of the tank provided is adequate.
 5.4 Penstock: Importance, location, condition of their application,
hydraulic hammer, Hydrodynamic pressure calculation, turbine head
and determination of penstock diameter.
Penstocks are pressurized water conduits which convey water to the turbines
from fore bay/surge tank/reservoir.
The penstocks are usually made of steel, although reinforced concrete pipe, HDPE
penstocks have also been built recently in increasing numbers for low head HP project.
The steel pipe (mild steel of fy = 2192 kg/cm2 or ToR steel of high strength 5500
kg/cm2 and stain less steel 6500kg/cm2) are mostly used in penstock with thickness of
0.6 cm to 5 cm.
Based on the location of pipe with reference to the Ground level, penstock pipe can
be over or under the ground or in combination of them in a project.
Separate penstock pipe may be provided for each turbine (e.g.Trishuli, Sunkosi) for
length up to 500 m depending upon the overall economy of the construction.
Single penstock pipe is separated (branched) into many pipes equal to the number of
turbine units in powerhouse just before the inlet system. Such division (branching) is
known as manifold (Bifurcations for 2 Y type in Modi HP and Puwa HP, trifurcation for
3 in Kulekhani HP, Marshyangdi HP and KaligandakiHP)
Penstocks are designed to carry water to the turbines with the least possible loss of
head consistent with the overall economy of the project.

Separate penstock pipelines

Bifurcation in penstock
 Location / Alignment Layout of Penstock pipe
Penstock should be located on stable foundation sites avoiding
troublesome sites such as underground water courses, landfill, fault zones
and potential land slide areas etc.
To decrease the cost of construction, the pipe length should be short as far
as possible.
Pipe bends in the alignment (horizontal and vertical bends) should be kept as
minimum as possible to minimize the head loss and construction cost of
anchors blocks (costly or expensive). Furthermore, vertical bends,
horizontal bends, and changes in diameter pipe transition sections, all
should be kept at the same location as far as possible.
Special treatment (coal tar/ bitumen painting with proper drainage) need
to be applied for underground penstock.
Minimize the cross drainage works (aqueduct, siphon or super passage
etc.) as far as possible to minimize head loss and cost of construction.

Hydraulic hammer also known as water hammer

Water hammer is the result of a change in flow velocity in a closed conduit causing
elastic waves to travel upstream and downstream from the point of origin due to sudden
closure and opening of the gates before the turbine inlet. The elastic waves, in turn,
cause increase or decrease in pressure as they travel along the pipe line, and these
pressure changes are variously referred to as water hammer, surge or transient pressure
or hydrodynamic pressure or inertia pressure.
Two approach for water hammer analysis:
Rigid water column theory
Elastic water column theory
1) Rigid water column theory

Gradual Closure condition

The closure is said to be gradual if T > Tc ;
where T = Closing time of Valve,
Tc = Time taken by wave for a complete cycle

Tc = 2L/ Vc , L = Length of pipe , Vc = wave velocity

Derivation of Water hammer pressure for gradual closure condition
The maximum head due to water hammer pressure

hw =

, L = Length of pipe
Water hammer pressure
Pw =

= 9.81 KN/m3

2) Elastic water column theory

If T <= Tc , it is said to be rapid closure condition
a) Pw = * Vo * Vc , Pw = Water hammer presssure
Vo = Steady state flow velocity in penstock,
Vc = Velocity of wave, = density of water
Vo =

b) hw = = =

c) Vc =

K = Bulk Modulus of elasticity

= density of water, D = Pipe diameter,
t = pipe wall thickness

Velocity of wave (Vc) for Rigid condition

For Rigid condition, E tE
i) Vc =
ii) Pw = * Vo * Vc

Numerical
Q) A steel penstock 60 cm in diameter has shell thickness of 1.2 cm. The pipe is required to
design to convey a discharge with mean velocity of 2.1 m/s. Determine water hammer
pressure head due to sudden closure condition by using:
1) Rigid water column theory
2) Elastic water column theory
Take K = 2.1 *103 N/mm2, E = 2.1 * 105 N/mm2.
Discuss the result and compare when the pressure wave travels faster.
Solution:
Given,
D = 60 cm = 0.6 m, Vo = 2.1 m/s
t = 1.2 cm = 0.012 m
K = 2.1 *103 N/mm2 = 2.1* 109 N /m2
E = 2.1 * 105 N/mm2 = 2.1* 1011 N /m2

1) Rigid Water column Theory

Vc = = = = 1449.13 m/s
Pw = * Vo * Vc = 1000* 2.1* 1449.13 = 3.04 x 106 N /m2

Pressure head (hw )= Pw/ w = 3.04 x 106 / (9810) = 310.21 m, w= 9810 N/m3
 2) Elastic Column Theory

D = 60 cm = 0.6 m, Vo = 2.1 m/s

Vc = t = 1.2 cm = 0.012 m
K = 2.1 *103 N/mm2 = 2.1* 109 N /m2
E = 2.1 * 105 N/mm2 = 2.1* 1011 N /m2

Vc =

Vc = 1183.21 m/s
Pw = * Vo * Vc
= 1000* 2.1*1183.21
= 2.48*106 N/m2
Pressure head (hw ) =
Comparing case 1) and 2),
1) The wave travels faster with rigid water
column theory assumption
2) Water hammer pressure is greater with rigid
= = 253.29 m water column theory assumption

Determination of wall thickness of Penstock Pipe

Wall thickness of the pipe materials depends on the pipe materials, its ultimate tensile
strength (hoop stress) and the operating pressure including the water hammer pressure.

Thickness of penstock pipe is given by (ASME recommendation)

;where D is diameter of penstock

Q) A penstock having diameter 1.8 m supply water from head of 150 m, there is possibility of
30% increase in pressure head due to the transient condition of flow. If the efficiency of joint
is 90% and design stress is 1250 kg/cm2 respectively. Find the thickness of penstock pipe.

Solution:
D = 1.8 m , R = 1.8/2 = 0.9 m = 90 cm
Pressure head (H) = 150+ 30% of 150 = 195 m
P= H ( = 9.81 KN/m3 = 9810 N/m3)
= 9810* 195 N/m2
= kg/cm2

= 19.5 kg/cm2
Shell Thickness of penstock pipe

t = 1.726 cm
 / cm2

Pw = * Vo * Vc
Vo = Steady state flow velocity in penstock, Vc = Velocity of wave,
= density of water
Vo =

Vc =

K = Bulk Modulus of elasticity, = density of water,

D = Pipe diameter, t = pipe wall thickness,
E pipe

hw =
Total pressure head = 100 + water hammer pressure head (hw)
Total Pressure (P) = * Total pressure head (convert this to kg/cm2)

Economic diameter of penstock

The economic diameter of the penstock is trade-off between the sum of annual cost of penstock pipe
(construction cost, maintenance, operation) and annual value of power loss due to loss of head in the
penstock line in order to determine the optimum diameter where the cost is minimum.
Methods:
1) Empirical Method
2) Graphical Method
3) Analytical Method

1) Empirical method (used in Preliminary analyses)

A) B)

H is head, D is economical diameter,

Q is design discharge, P is Power

*
1 HP = 745.7 W
745.7

78407.67
745.7
78407.67
0.85 m
 Fig: Economical Diameter of Penstock

[
]

V= = or, V2 = ( )2 V2 =

Power
lost

L
Power lost
Cost
L

Power lost Cost

 A penstock carries 8 m3/s of water at head of 25 m. The cost of pipe is given by 35 hd2 Rupees per meter
length where h and d denotes head and internal diameter of the penstock pipe. Annual fixed charges including
investment and maintenance of the penstock pipe are 8% of the pipe line cost. If the coefficient of friction
factor in weisbach equation for the pipe flow in the penstock pipe is 0.025, overall electromechanical
efficiency is 80% and setting power (energy) price is 70 NRs/KW/annum. Calculate the most economical
diameter of the penstock for the project.
Solution:
Head loss in penstock (hf) = = =

= KW
6. Spill way
Spill way is structure constructed at a dam/weir site for
disposing the surplus water effectively and safely in rainy
season from upstream to the downstream of the dam

1. Function of spillway, types and capacity, provision of

gates
2. Occurrence of cavitations and Erosion
3. Energy dissipation: types of energy dissipators, their
necessity, role of tail water depth,
4. Design of stilling basin
 6.1. Function of spillway, types and capacity, provision of gates
• Functions of spillways : i) dispose surplus water keeping the water level not to
rise above the pre defined water level for the reservoir or head pond, ii)
spillways must have adequate capacity to dispose of entire surplus water at the
time of the arrival of worst design flood.
• Design considerations: i) surplus water should be disposed without causing any
damages to the u/s and d/s, ii) should be strong hydraulically and structurally,
iii) precise estimation of design flood is important as over estimate of flood
causes high cost of investment while under estimate may cause serious
damage at d/s due to overtopping and breaching of the dam iii) dissipation of
energy to prevent downstream erosion and dam toe safety.
• Types of Spill way:
1. Based on control of water flow:
a) Controlled spillway in which, the spill way of water are controlled by installing
gates over the spill way crest. Out flow through spillway can be controlled by
operation of the gates. Controlled spillway are preferred in modern dams for
flood control.
b) Uncontrolled spillway in which no gates and control structures are installed.
Water will flow over the spill way depending upon the water level in the
reservoir and corresponding head overthe spill way.
 Types of Spill way
2. Based on structures:
 Types of Spill way
c) Chute Spillways/ trough spillways:
• Chute spillway is a type of spillway in which the discharge is conveyed from a
reservoir to the downstream river level through a steep concrete open channel .
• In a chute spillway, the velocity of flow is always greater than the critical velocity
and hence provided with RCC of 25 cm to 50 cm thick at the base and with
proper energy dissipater at the downstream.
• The chute is narrowed at the reservoir dam level and widened at the end to
reduce the velocity.

Q  CLH 3/ 2
C = 2.2
Chute
Spillway
 Types of Spill way
d) Side Channel spillways:
• It is provided in the narrow valley where no side flanks of sufficient
width to accommodate a chute spillway are available.
• The side channel spillway differs from the chute spill way in the sense of
water flow direction at the reservoir level.

Q  CLH 3/ 2

C = 2 to 2.1
E) Shaft Spillways/ Drop Inlet
Types of Spill way
/Morning Glory Spillway
• Water from the reservoir enters
into a vertical shaft and tunnel.
• Such spillways are provided in
dams where chute and side
channel spillways can not be
provided due to limited space,
topography and geology.
• The shaft spillways are not much
effective compared to the side
channel and chute spillways at
the time of worst flood events.
• It is ideal for sites where
maximum spillway overflow is Q  c d A 2gH
to be low (small) or limited. Cd = 0.8 to 0.9
 Types of Spill way
F) Siphon spillways
A siphon spillway is a short enclosed duct whose longitudinal section is curved.
When flowing full, the highest point in the spillway lies above the liquid level in
the upstream reservoir, and the pressure at that point must therefore be sub-
atmospheric. This is the essential characteristics ofa siphon.
• The siphon has usually three parts,
1) the inlet or mouth; 2) throat; and 3) lower limb.
• When the water level exceeds the crest level, the water commences to spill
and flows over the downstream slope in much the same way as a simple Ogee
spillway.

H2
 F) Siphon spillways (contd.)
Potential problems encountered with siphon spillway are:
i) blockage of spillway entrance by floating debris ( this problem could be overcome by
ii) Substantial foundations required to resist vibrations during operation of siphon
iii) Waves arriving in the reservoir during storms may alternately cover and uncover the
entry, thus interrupting smooth siphon action

The discharge through siphon can be calculated from the following formula;
Q = CA (2gH)0.5
Where A = area of cross section at crown;
A = L x b, L = length of hood (going into the perpendicular of paper) b = height of throat,
H = operating head = Reservoir level – downstream tail water level
C = Coefficient of discharge. Its average value may be taken as 0.65.
Q-1)

MWL = Maximum Water level

or W.L. in reservoir
TWL = Tail Water Level

75 m2
3)

c) Emergency Spillway
An Emergency spillway is the one which is provided addition to main
spillway but it comes into operation only during the emergency
condition when the incoming discharge exceeds the maximum
designed flood discharge.
 6.2 Occurrence of cavitations and Erosion
• The crest of Ogee spillway (d/s profile) can be made to confirm only to one particular
nappe formed by the corresponding design head of the spillways.
• But in practice, the actual head of the water on the spillway crest may be less or more
than the designed head. When the head is greater than the design head, the lower nappe
of the flowing jet may leave the ogee profile there by generating the negative pressure at
the point of separation.
• The generation of vacuum or negative pressure may lead to formation of bubbles or
cavities trapped in the water. Such cavities or bubbles are filled up with air vapour and
other gasses which go on condensation when flows down and resulting implosion or
collapse of the cavities. When the cavity collapses, extremely high pressures are
generated.
• The continuous bombardment of these implosions with high pressure will thus take place
near the surface of the spillway causing fatigue failure of its materials. The small particles
of masonry or particles of spillway structure are thus broken away causing formation of
pits on its surface giving the spongy appearance.
• This damaging action of cavitations is called pitting.
• The cavitations plus the vibrations form the alternative making and breaking of contact
between the water and face of the ogee may thus result in serious structural damages to
the spillway crest and its downstream surface.
• If the head of water over the spillway is less than the design head, the falling jet adhere to
the crest of the ogee spillway, creating additional positive hydrostatic pressure leading wear
and tear by the sediment particles. It also reduces the discharge coefficient of the weir.
 h = head over weir,

a) b)

Preventive Measures for Cavitation in Spillways:

1) Use of surface finishes so that water can flow smoothly
2) Use of construction materials which are resistant to cavitation
damage.
3) Supply of air into flowing water (Aeration)
 6.3 Energy dissipation: types of energy dissipators,
their necessity, role of tail water depth
• The velocity of water passing through a spillway is so high that it is liable to
cause erosion of the bed channel immediately below the toe of the structures.
It can produce serious scouringeffects.
Necessity of Energy Dissipator:
• To dissipate energy (K.E.) which causes scouring of downstream material.
• To prevent cavitation
• To prevent failure of structure

Types of Energy Dissipators: Energy dissipation below the overflow sections of

river diversion structures weir/barrage/dam of hydropower projects shall be
achieved through one of the followingstructures:
A. Hydraulic jump type energy dissipater
B. Roller buckets type energy dissipater,
C. Deflector or flip buckets also called as Sky jump bucket type dissipater.
 Energy Dissipator: A. Hydraulic Jump Type
• Hydraulic jump at the toe of spill way shall be used to dissipate the energy of
discharge passing the overflow section before the discharge is returned to the
downstream river channel.
• This shall be attained through formation of a controlled hydraulic jump within the
confines of certain length at the toe of spillway which is known as stilling basin for the
entire range of flow conditions under which the basin is expected to operate.
• The design of these stilling basins shall depend on the type of hydraulic jump expected which
depends on the Froude number of the incoming flow, F1 computed as

Note: y1 is depth before jump and y2 is post depth of hydraulic jump

Fig: Hydraulic jump formation

 Energy Dissipator: Hydraulic Jump Type (EXTRA)
Froude % of loss of
Types of jump Remarks
number energy loss
F1< 2.5 Weak jump Less than 17% flowingwater has less energy
Oscillating jump Givesrise to heavy waves on
F1 is 2.5 to 4.5 Length of jump L = Less than 45% the surface. Waves
5(D2-D1) suppressor may be needed
For large spill ways D2 is
Jump performance is quite high, very long length L
F1 is 4.5 to 9
best called steady and expensive stilling basins
generally
jump and length of Less than 70% are required. Chute blocks,
occurs in spill
the jump is almost baffle walls and end sills are
ways
constant L = 6 D2 provided to reduce the
length of basin up to 4.3 D2
Bucket type energy
Strong jump & jump
F1 greater than dissipator is preferred than
is likely to be rough Less than 85%
9 hydraulic jump energy
and choppy.
dissipator
 Tail water Depth

Note:
T.W.C= Tail water Curve
y2 = post depth of the
hydraulic jump
q = specific discharge

Importance of Tail water Depth***

• If the Tail Water Depth (TWD) is equal to the post depth of the hydraulic jump (y2)then effective
energy dissipation occurs through hydraulic jump
• If the tail water depth at the downstream y2 is slightly (10%) greater than the y2 then jumps get
submerged and effective energy dissipation takes place. For high TWD>>y2 i.e complete
submergence of jump occurs which is not good for energy dissipation. In such case, Provide sloping
apron or roller bucket type energy dissipator for effective energy dissipation
• If the tail water depth (TWD) is less than the y2 then jumps get swept off downstream and cause
river bed and bank erosion. In such case, ski-jump energy dissipater is provided.
B. Roller Bucket Type Dissipater
C. Ski jump Bucket type dissipater:
 Stilling Basin
• The formation of hydraulic jump and its performance is facilitated by some
appurtenances like Chute blocks, Baffle blocks, and End sills in stilling basins.
Chute blocks are at the toe of the spillway, friction blocks or baffle walls piers
on the horizontal apron and solid or notched end sills at the end of the apron.
• The structure with chute block, Baffle walls and end sills or combination of
them is known as stilling basin for effective jump formation.

Fig: Stilling Basin

 (2)

y2
yt

(2)

Figure: Stilling Basin

a)
or find H if BBis
 V1 y1 = Pre-jump depth
y2 = Post-jump depth
gy1

i (or s) = slope,
n = Manning's coefficient
yo = normal depth

yc = Critical depth
q = specific discharge

i) If F1 > 4.5, V1 >=15 m/s, USBR type-II is recommended; Lsb = 4.3y2

ii) If F1 > 4.5, V1 <15 m/s, USBR type-III is recommended; Lsb = 2.7 y2
iii) If F1 is between 2.5 to 4.5, USBR type-IV is recommended; Lsb = 6.1 y2
 Stilling basin (EXTRA)

USBR III Settling Basin without notched end sill for use on small spillways ,
structures in RoR and PROR HPP, canal structures where V1 does not
exceed 50-60 ft/s and Froude number is above4.5.
 Stilling basin (EXTRA)
• The values of F1 = 2.5 to 4.5 generally in canal weirs, canal falls and
diversion weir etc. USBR stilling basin IV is used in rectangular X-section
• Oscillating waves are generated in this range, they are controlled at source
by providing large chute blocks (L = 2 D1, B = D1, H= 2D1 spacing at distance
2.5 D1 to 0.75 D1 depending on the requirement of the better performance)
with the top surface slope at 50. Sill is not denated or not notched
(grooved) as given below.

See page no 1184-

1185 of SK Gorg
books of Design
of Hydraulic
structures for
details. R.S.
Varsheny book
“Hydropower
Structures” for
details.

USBR IV stilling basin applicable for F1 number 2.5 to 4.

 20 m.

B = 20 m

F1 =2.915

V1
or, 2.915 =
9.81 ∗1.3
V1 =10.41 m/s

Q = A1*v1= B*y1* v1
= 20*1.3*10.41
= 270.66 m3/s
where, Z = dam crest height over river bed
i = slope, n = Manning's coefficient
 15 m/s
Type-II
B =10m
*B

𝑃𝑜 𝑉𝑜2 𝑃1 𝑉12
+ + Z 0 = + + Z1
ϒ 2𝑔 ϒ 2𝑔
V0 =
𝑄
=
300
= 5 m/s , 𝑃𝑜 = P1 = atmospheric pressure
𝐵∗𝐻 10∗5.95

𝑉𝑜2 𝑉12
+ Z0 = + Z1
2𝑔 2𝑔
 𝑞2 302 1/3
yc = ( )1/3 = ( ) = 4.51 m
𝑔 9.81
Since yn> yc, Hydraulic Jump is formed.
F1 > 4.5, V1 >15 m/sec, USBR type-II is recommended
 More Numerical:

1. In order to dissipate energy below the spillway by forming a hydraulic jump in the
stilling basin with depth y1 = 1 m, to y2 = 3.8 m. calculate the discharge over the spillway for
the provided effective length of 50 m spill way.

(Guidelines for Solution): For hydraulic jump

1) Calculate F1 = 3.02,
2) calculate V1 = 9.45 m/s and
3) then Q = V1*y1*L=472.5 m3/s

2. A concrete overflow dam has been designed to pass a flood of 1000 m3/s in a
downstream of a reservoir. The profile of dam permits a head of 5.3 m over the crest.
If the discharge coefficient cd is 0.95, approach velocity = 0.8 m/s and dam height is 23
m determine the crest length to safely discharge the flow and design hydraulic jump
with stilling basin (PU Exam 2012 Q. N. 6 b)
Ans B (or Le) = 28.947 m, Y1 = 1.50576 m, V1 = 22.9422 m/s, Y2 = 11.9808 m, F1 = 5.969,
USBR type II Stilling basin
Lb = 4Y2
 Anchor

Face of Compression
pier fc diagram

l
Load carrying
xy
anchors
l
Face of
Face of pier
pier Radial ram
Yoke girder
Y CLof Trunnion
H orizontal
girder Force diagram
Y
Pin Yoke girder
Enlarged section X-X

X
CLof pin

Braces
Gusset plate X
? of trunnion

Skin En
plate Wall plate Face of pier

Lifting
d arm
bracket

Rubber seal
Skin plate
Stiffener

Enlarged section Y-Y

Radial gates: in Marshyangdi, SundarijalHPP

Vertical gates: Phewa HPP
 Vertical Lift Gate

Vertical Lift Gate

For Drum gate: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CsrddL190_4
 2/16/2020

7. Hydro-Electrical Machines 6 hours

The machines which produces Electricity from water are known as Hydro-Electrical
Machines,.

Water Turbine Generator

(Kinetic Energy + Pressure Energy) Mechanical Energy Electrical Energy
7.1. Hydro-mechanical installation: turbines- pelton Francis, Kaplan and their
performance characteristics
7.2. Selection of turbines and their specific speed
7.3. Introduction to bulb draft tube, tailrace canal and their importance
7.4. Pumps: Centrifugal, reciprocating and their performance characteristics,
selection and starting speed
7.5. Electromechanical installation: Generators and their types
7.6. Purpose and working principles of Governors
7.7. Classifications and dimensions of powerhouses

7.1. Hydro-mechanical installation: turbines- pelton Francis,

Kaplan and their performance characteristics
• Hydro-mechanical machines are Turbines also called as runner: They are mechanical
machines to transform the water energy (potential energy, flowing energy like Kinetic
and pressure Energy) into mechanical rotational energy. Turbines are called runners.
• The rotational energy is transformed to the generators through the power shaft
(connecting rod and fly wheel) to run the generator smoothly for electricity production.
• Turbines are developed form of water wheels in water mills used for ore crushing and
flour mills (developed 400-500 years ago)

1
 2/16/2020

Types of Turbines
Basis Types
Pressure Impulse Turbine: pressure less turbines, energy of water is converted
to kinetic in the form of water jet issuing from nozzle/s and hitting
the wheel vanes, runners. Flow in atmospheric pressure.
Reactive Turbine: High pressure turbine, flow in high pressure
Head Low head 2-15 m Propeller type like Kaplan also known as High
discharge low head turbines
Medium head: 16-70 m Kaplan/Francis Turbine
High head: 71-500 m Francis/pelton Turbine
Very high head>500 m Pelton Turbine, low discharge high head

Francis Turbine,
Patented by
Francis in 1849

Dandekar book

Low head Less than 15 m

Medium head 15 to 70 m

High Head 71 to 250 m

Very High Head above 250 m

Pelton
Turbine
patented Interesting
by Pelton facts about
in 1889
turbine:
Maximum
output
power from a
single unit:
a)Pelton
Double 330,000 hP,
regulated
b) Francis
Kaplan 960,000 hP,
Turbine
c)Kaplan
patented by
Kaplan in
300,000 hp
1913

Propeller
Turbine
patented by
Kaplan in
1913
Double regulated Bulb turbine

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If both blades and guide-vanes are adjustable it

is described as "double-regulated". If the blades
are fixed it is "single-regulated". Fixed runner
blade Kaplan turbines are called propeller
turbines.

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7.2 selection of turbines and their specific speed

• Selection Guidelines of Turbines depends on
• Range of operating heads and their Variation for each type of turbines
(ESHA Guide line Part II)

Note: Low < 10%, Medium 10-20% and High 20-30% Hn = Net head
• Actual governing main factor for selection of the turbine depends on the
Head, Discharge and power production efficiency from each unit.
• Type of Turbines, geometry and dimensions (size) of the turbine
fundamentally depends on (conditioned by) the following criteria:
I. Net head,
II. Range of discharges through the turbine,
III. Rotational speed, and
IV. Cost

rpm

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Additional Consideration for selection of Turbine

The following points may additionally be noted:
1. The performance of a turbine is ideal at the design head. Fall of efficiency with head
incase of Pelton, Kaplan and Bulb turbines is much less in comparison to Francis-and
Propeller types. Therefore in overlapping head ranges, selection of type of turbine
should consider the possible head variation which may exists at site due to variation of
flow in different seasons and corresponding loss of efficiency of turbines.
2. Turbine efficiency also varies with variation of load other than rated or designed load.
Fall of efficiency at partial load for Francis and Propeller is much steeper (more) in
comparison to that for Kaplan and Pelton turbines. Therefore, necessity of operating
turbines at part loads for longer time influences the choice of turbines in the
overlapping head ranges. Thus in the head ranges where both Kaplan and Francis are
suitable. The requirement of large pressure head and electrical load variation dictates,
Kaplan turbine is to be superior to Francis turbine from considerations of higher power
generation on account of better overall efficiency. Similarly, in the overlapping head
ranges where both Francis and Pelton could be used, Pelton has advantages over
Francis in overall performance level when variation of load and head is higher.
3. Highest specific speed of turbine resulting in higher speed of rotation for generator
with consequent reduction in cost of generator. This criteria is very important for
selecting-type of turbine from cost consideration in the overlapping head ranges. High
specific speed generators are cheaper than low specific speed generator

Deriaz turbine

• the runner of a Deriaz turbine, which has adjustable-blade modification of a

diagonal turbine i.e. double regulated turbine.
• the flow of water against the turbine blades is neither axial nor radial, but at
an angle. The angle θ made by the blade axes with the main shaft decreases
with increasing head and ranges between 300 to 600. As with Kaplan turbines,
the mechanism for adjusting the blade angles is located within the hub

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Specific Speed of a Turbine:

• Specific speed of the turbine is the speed of the turbine in rpm which produce
1 metric Horse power (1 hP = 735.5 Watt) under the head of 1 m.
• Since the generator and turbines are directly coupled, the rated speed of the
turbine is same as that of the synchronous speed of the generators.
60 * f
• The speed of the generator is given by N 
p
where f = 50 HZ and p = number of pairs of magnetic poles (fixed, 8 to 10 pairs
in general) and N is constant irrespective of the power output.
• The Specific Speed of the Turbine Ns is given by Ns  N 5 /P4
H
• Where
P = Power produced from the turbine (hP) = P   g Q H 
735.5
H = Net head over the turbine
Types of runner based on Specific speed of Turbines Ns (rpm)
Range of Head Max dia (m)
Runner Slow Medium High Max power (HP)
(m) of turbine
Pelton 4-15 16-30 31-70 300-2000 5.5 330000

Francis 60-150 151-250 251-400 30-500 10 960000

Kaplan 300-450 451-700 701-1100 2-70 10 300000

Classification of the turbines based upon specific speed

S.N. Type of turbine Head H (m) Specific speed (Ns)
1 Pelton with 1 jet Up to 2000 12 to 30
2 Pelton with 2 jets Up to 1500 17 to 50
3 Pelton with 4 jets Up to 500 24 to 70
4 High head Francis Up to 300 80 to 150
5 Medium head Francis 50 to 150 150 to 250
6 Low head Francis 30 to 60 250 to 400
7 Propeller and Kaplan 4 to 60 300 to 1000
8 Bulb or tubular turbines 3 to 10 1000 to 1200
Source: NTNU lecture note
Derivation of Specific Speed Ns Equation: P  Q and H, While Tangential velocity V
=  DN/60 so V tangential  DN & V also Velocity of flow V  H1/2 so, D H1/2/N
where D = diameter of turbine and function of pipe diameter feeding the turbine
Also Q = A* V  D2 H1/2 or Q  H3/2/N2 Again, P QH  H5/2/N2 So, P = k H5/2/N2 if H
=1 and P =1 then N = Ns so, k = Ns2 Hence Ns = N*P1/2/H5/4.
If P is taken in Metric HP = 735.5 w, Ns is obtained in MKS and
if P is taken in Kilowatt, Ns, is obtained in SI Unit ,
So, Ns in SI unit is not same as Ns in MKS system. Specific speed in MKS is more
common than in SI Units

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Specific Speed of a Turbine:

• Pelton Turbine with single nozzle jet, the Max Ns = 30 and the Ns value for the
multiple nozzle jet n = Nmj = n  30 and the maximum number of jet for a
single pelton turbine = 6 without having interference or disturbances of flow jet
• Hence the maximum Specific speed of the Pelton wheel Ns max = 6  30  73  70
The use of single jet for large discharge is not practical (limited) and not
convenient so multiple jets are provided to increase specific speed Ns.
• The efficiency of the turbine can be increased with the introduction of multiple
jet (max 6) as it increase the specific speed Ns of the turbine.
• The jets interference should be avoided and the water jet should strike the
buckets tangentially. The Bucket deflection angle is to be about 1650.
Performance Characteristics
• Performance characteristics curves indicates the performance (efficiency) of the
turbine over the full range of the turbine running at different discharge and
Speed of turbine (Q, speed of turbine Ns, Efficiency Variations )
• The curves of discharge and efficiency verses speed at a constant head are
called main characteristics curves of the turbines

Performance Characteristics
(at constant head)
Main Performance Characteristics Curve of Turbines
Kaplan
The performance
curves are given by the
Discharge Q

Pelton turbine
maker/manufacturer
based on the design of
Francis the turbine runner, its
shape/size, used
materials and shape of
the blades. The curves
are prepared based
Efficiency ()

on laboratory
observations/
experiments

The discharge corresponding to maximum efficiency for

Speed of Turbine N (rpm) particular (constant) head is known as rated discharge and the
maximum efficiency is known as rated efficiency and
corresponding speed is known as optimum speed.

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Turbine Type, Best Efficiency ( max)

Kaplan single regulated 0.91
Kaplan double regulated 0.93
Francis 0.94 Q max= Q rated
Pelton n nozzles 0.90  max =  rated
Pelton 1 nozzle 0.89

Universal characteristics curves

• Universal characteristics curves are generally used to compare the performance of
the turbine under different heads.
• The parameters of the universal characteristics curves are Unit Discharge
) and Unit Power Pu  P  QH  Qu
Q N
(Qu = H ), Unit Speed (Nu =
H H 3/ 2
H 3/ 2

the gate opening 

Efficiency
Runway speed: the runway speed is
the maximum speed of the machine
(turbine) under no load and no
Guide vane opening governing condition i.e. the speed of
the machine that can reach maximum
when there was sudden reduction in
load but the gates are not closed and
Pu remained in full opening situations.
The hydraulic design of the machines
are done for optimum speed but the
structural designs are done to satisfy
the safety conditions at runway speed.
The runway speed can be 1.8 to 2.3
times of the optimum speed of the
turbine.
See Dandekar book 305-350 for detail

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Numerical Examples:
1. The quantity of water available for a hydroelectric station is 275 m3/s under the head
of 18 m. assuming the speed of the turbine (N) to be 150 rpm and their efficiency to
be 82%. Determine the least number of machines, all of the same size, that will be
needed if i) Francis turbine whose Ns must not exceed 395, ii) Kaplan turbine whose
Ns must not exceed 690 are chosen. What would be the individual output of the units
in two cases?
Solution: Power to be developed from the project
N P
Pout = QH  1000  9.81  275  18  0.82  54138.4 hP Now Ns =
H 5/ 4
735.5 735.5 150  P
Case i) for Francis Turbine the limiting value of Ns = 395 = 5/ 4 or P = 9532.195 hP
18
P 54138.4
• Number of units to be installed for the Francis turbine = n = out   5.679  6 nos
so the power output from each unit = 54138.4/6 = 9023.06 hP P 9532.195
• Hence the specific speed of the Francis turbine to be used in the power plant will be Ns
= N P  150  9023.06  384.306  385 rpm.
H 5/ 4 185/ 4
150  P
Case ii) for Kaplan Turbine, the limited Ns = 690 = or P = 29086.865 hP
185 / 4
• Number of units =2 and power poutput from each =54138.4/2 = 27069.2 hP and the
Specific speed of the Kaplan turbine will be Ns = N P 150  27069.2
= 666 rpm   665.6  666
H 5/ 4 185/ 4

Numerical Examples (Design of Pelton Turbine):

2] A powerhouse is equipped with 4 units of vertical shaft pelton turbines to be coupled
with 70000 KVA 3 phase 50 hertz generators. The generators are provided with 10
pairs of poles. The gross design head is 505 m and transmission efficiency of
headrace tunnel and penstock together is to be 94%. The four units together will
provide total power of 348000 hP at the guaranteed efficiency of 91% and the
nozzle efficiency is 0.98 then find
a. jet diameter and numbers of jets
b. the nozzle tip diameter
c. the pitch circle diameter of the wheel
d. the specific speed of the turbine
e. number of buckets on the wheel
60  f 60 * 50
Solution: Synchronous speed of the generators N = P  10  300 rpm
• Water transmission efficiency = 94%, So, net head H = 505*0.94= 475 m
• The total power output from all 4 units = 348000 hP so, Power output from each
unit P = 87000 hP at overall efficiency of 91%.
• So, for each turbine unit P = QH or Q  87000  735.5
 15.1 m 3/s
735.5 9.81  1000  475  0.91
N P 300  87000
a. Specific speed of the turbine Ns = H = 5/ 4 5/ 4
475 2
= 39.90 40>Nsj max = 30 so
multi jet runners is required. Number of jet =  Nmj    40   1.77 nos  2 taking Nsj =30
2

 Nsj   30 
So, Discharge through each nozzle jet = 15.1/2 = 7.55 m3/s and the velocity of the
nozzle jet V = K 2 gH  0.98  2  9.81  475  94.5m / s
 4Q 
For jet diameter Q =AV or d   V   0.319m  31.9cm

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Numerical Examples:
b. Nozzle pipe diameter = 25% bigger than the diameter of the jet flow =
1.25*31.9=39.88 cm

c. For pitch circle diameter of the wheel: for maximum efficiency, linear
velocity of moving wheel u (i.e. linear velocity of rotating turbine wheels
of diameter D) is kept 48% of the nozzle jet velocity i.e u = 0.48 V =
0.48*94.5 = 45.3 m/s. (Modi and sethi, Hydraulics and fluid mechanics
and hydraulic machines chapter 20-22) u  DN
60
So, For the mean bucket circle diameter

so Diameter of the wheel = D = (45.3*60) /(300*22/7) = 2.88 m

d. Number of buckets or striking plates = D 2.88

Z  15  0.5  15  0.5  19.514  20nos
d 0.319
The term D/d is also called as jet ratio =m in some book

7.3 Introduction to bulb draft tube, tailrace canal

and their importance
• Bulb turbine units are derived from
Kaplan turbines, with the generator
contained in a waterproofed bulb
submerged in the flow.
• Figure illustrates a turbine where the
generator (and gearbox if required),
cooled by pressurized air, is lodged in
the bulb.
• Only the electric cables, duly
protected, leave the bulb. The bulb
unit are specially designed for low
head (<10 m) power project.
• The draft tube provided for the bulb turbine is called as bulb draft tube which connects the
outlet of the reactive turbine runner to the tail race. The draft tube recovers the velocity
head creating negative suction pressure at the runner outlet. The draft tube also permits
to set up the turbine above the tailrace which might be critical for very low head power
plants.
• Tail race canal is the canal in which water is discharged after passing through the turbine.
For low head turbine like bulb turbine the tailrace canal may be very short or may be
discharged directly in to the stream. The tail race canal should be designed in such a way to
have non silting and non scouring and the minimum head loss.

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7.4 Electromechanical installation: Generators

and their types
Installation of Electromechanical equipments (generators) produces Electricity from
the mechanical energy produced by turbines
• Generators transform mechanical energy into electrical energy.
• Three-phase alternating current generators with speed 100 to 1000 rpm are used in
Hydropower plant Depending on the characteristics of the networks of electric supply,
the producer can choose between: i) Synchronous generators and ii) Asynchronous
generators:
i). Synchronous generators: They are equipped with a DC electric or permanent magnet
excitation system (rotating or static) associated with a voltage regulator to control the
output voltage before the generator is connected to the grid. They supply the reactive
energy required by the power system when the generator is connected to the grid.
Synchronous generators can run isolated mode from the grid and produce power since
excitation is not grid-dependent.
The synchronous generator is started before connecting it to the mains by the turbine
rotation. By gradually accelerating the turbine, the generator must be synchronized
with the mains, regulating the voltage, frequency, phase angle and rotating sense.
When all these values are controlled correctly, the generator can be switched to the
grid. In the case of an isolated or off grid operation, the voltage controller maintains a
predefined constant voltage, independent of the load. In case of the mains supply, the
controller maintains the predefined power factor or reactive power.

7.4 Electromechanical installation: Generators and their types

ii) Asynchronous generators: They are simple squirrel-cage induction motors with
no possibility of voltage regulation and running at a speed directly related to
system frequency. The speed of generators are not same as that of the turbine
and gear box arrangements are made for changing the speed of turbine and
generator
• They draw their excitation current from the grid, absorbing reactive energy by
their own magnetism. Adding a bank of capacitors can compensate for the
absorbed reactive energy.
• They cannot generate when disconnected from the grid because they are
incapable of providing their own excitation current. However, they (capacitors)
are used in very small stand-alone applications as a cheap solution when the
required quality of the electricity supply is not very high

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7.5 Purpose and working principles of Governors

• Turbines are designed for a certain net head (Rated head) and discharge (Rated
Discharge). Any deviation from these parameters must be compensated for by
opening or closing the control devices, such as the wicket-gates (guide vanes), spear
nozzles or valves, to keep the outlet power frequency constant.
• In schemes connected to an isolated or grid network, the parameter that needs to
be controlled is the turbine speed, which controls the frequency. if the generator
becomes overloaded the turbine slows-down therefore an increase of the flow of
water i.e. discharge is needed to ensure the turbine does not stall or stopped. If
there is not enough water to do this then either some of the load must be removed
or the turbine will have to be shut down. Conversely if the load decreases then the
flow to the turbine is to be decreased.
• A governor is a combination of devices and mechanisms, which detect speed
deviation and convert it into a change in servomotor position to operate gates. A
speed-sensing element detects the deviation of speed from the set (fixed) point; this
deviation signal is converted and amplified to excite an actuator (hydraulic or
electric) press, that controls the water flow to the turbine. In a Francis turbine,
wicket gates are rotated to move (close) guide vanes for reduction of water flow
through the turbines. For this, a powerful governor comprised of hydraulic press is
required to overcome the hydraulic and frictional forces and to maintain the wicket-
gates in a partially closed position or to keep close them completely as per
necessary depending upon the situations .

In a modern electrical-hydraulic governor a sensor located on the generator

shaft continuously senses the turbine speed. The input signal is fed into a
summing junction, where it is compared to a reference (optimum) speed. If
the speed sensor signal differs from the reference signal, it emits an error
signal (positive or negative) that, once amplified, is sent to the servomotor
so this can act in the required sense and adjust the guide vanes or valves to
maintain the speed of the turbine.

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Which close/open the wicket gates or piston of the turbine

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7.6 Classifications and dimensions of powerhouses

• Classification of powerhouse based on ground level: a) surface powerhouse, b)
underground powerhouse and c) semi underground powerhouse
a. Surface powerhouse
Surface powerhouse is made above the natural ground level and mostly used in small
RoR to PROR projects having low head and at the wide river valleys for powerhouse
area. The surface powerhouse generally does not have space limitations and need
sound rock in foundation and some architectural design. Proper River training works is
important to protect the powerhouse from flood damage. Generally the surface
powerhouse are economical and ease of construction if the river valley is wide and free
from land and rock slide having stable river banks free from the flood hazard and bank
erosion.
b. Underground powerhouse: under special circumstances such as when gorge or valley
forms is narrow providing not enough space for surface powerhouse, underground
powerhouses are worth or provided. Underground powerhouse would be an
appropriate when there are more surface hazards like rock slides, land slide, floods etc.
the basic requirements of the underground power house is the availability of good
sound rocks at the desired location and depth. Underground power houses are safe
from air attack during war time. Important characteristics of underground power house
station are its flexibility of layout. The first fully underground power station was
constructed in 1911 in Sweden. In Nepal, underground powerhouses are constructed in
Khimti (69 MW) and Chilime, Upper Tamakoshi (456 MW) hydropower project.

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Powerhouse Structures

• The hydropower station (powerhouse) can be broadly classified into three parts:
i) Substructure ii) Intermediate structure and iii) Super structures
i. The sub structure of the power house is that part of the structures which is situated
below the turbine level. This part is almost universally below the ground level and it
includes the draft tube, tail water channel, the other natural drainage pipes of waste
water from the power house, drainage galleries etc.. The sub structure transmits the
load of the structure above it to the foundation strata and is usually constructed with
massive concrete construction.

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 2/16/2020

Powerhouse Structures
ii. The intermediate structures: extend from the top of the draft tube to the top
of the generator foundation. The turbine including its casing, the galleries for
the auxiliary machines and governor servo-motor system are housed in this
part. The turbine floor is generally provided immediately above the turbine
level and it can be used to have an access to the turbine runner and the
regulating ring (fly wheel). For vertical turbine setting, the turbine floor is
below the generator floor and is accessible through stairs. For horizontal shaft
arrangement, the intermediate structures may be absent as the turbine and
generators are housed in adjacent halls at the same floor.
iii. The superstructure of the powerhouse is the portion extending from the
generating floor, called the main floor, up to the roof top. It consists of the
generators and governors, control room, the exciters and the auxiliary
equipment such as needed for ventilation and cooling. The generators
themselves are either entirely above the floor level or partially above the
floor level. The super structure consists of walls and the roof with a main
travelling gantry “crane” at the roof beam level. The control room is often
provided with the large glass panel which looks down upon the generator
floor. The super structure also consists of one wing having the office and
necessary stores.

Powerhouse Dimensions
• The powerhouse dimension of superstructure is important and need to consider
dimension of following three bays: a) machine hall or the unit bay b) erection or
the loading bay, c) control bay.
• Machine hall: Length of the machine hall depends upon the number of units, the
distance between the units, and size of the machines. For the vertical alignment unit,
the centre to centre distance between the units is controlled by the total width of the
scroll casing layout and it is about 4.5 D to 5 D with the turbine outlet diameter as D.
The minimum clearance of about 2 to 3 m. so the centre to centre distance between
the units is taken as (5D+2.5) m. For higher specific speeds, this requirements can be
reduced to (4D+2.5)m. knowing the total number of units, the total length of the
machine hall can be worked out. The additional space for the erection//loading is
generally equal to minimum one unit length by size. For Horizontal alignment, the
power shaft connecting rod and the spiral casing diameter are important for length of
the powerhouse.
• Machine hall Width of the machine hall is also determined by the size and the
clearance space from the walls needed for crane termed as a gangway. Since the
gangway requirements are of the order of 2.5 m, as a first approximation, the width of
the machine hall can be presumed to be (5D+2.5)m. the width is kept as less as
possible to keep small span of the girder and roof structures. In machine halls, the
generator placing is not exactly on the center line of the hall but shifted to one side so
as to provide adequate operating space for the crane operations on the other side.

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Powerhouse Dimensions
• Machine hall Height: the height of the machine hall is fixed up by the head
room requirements (about 2.0 m to 2.5 m) of the crane operations. The hall
must have a height which will enable the cranes to lift the rotor of the
generator or the runner of the turbine clear off the floor without forming any
obstruction due to other machine sets installed in powerhouse .
• Loading bay: the loading bay, also known as erection or service bay, is a space
where the heavy vehicles can be loaded and unloaded with machines, the
dismantled parts of the machines can be placed and where small assembling of
the equipments can be done. The loading bay should be of sufficient to receive
the large parts like the rotor and runner. The loading bay floor will be having a
width at least equal to the centre to centre distance between the machines
(5D+2.5) m .
• Control bay: is the main room and control other equipments like runner, gate
valves through governor, generator etc. it may be adjacent to the unit bay i.e.
machine halls as it sends instructions to the operation bay from where the
operation control is achieved.
• The total length (L) of the power houses may be determined from the
following formula: L = N0 × (unit spacing) + Ls + K
Where N0 = Number of units , Ls = Length of erection bay K = Length required
for overhead gantry crane to handle the last unit = 2 to 2.5 m

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7.7 Pumps: Centrifugal, reciprocating and their performance

characteristics, selection and starting speed
• Pumps are mechanical devices which converts mechanical energy supplied to it from
the external source in to hydraulic energy. Almost all the pumps increase the pressure
energy of the liquid which is subsequently converted into potential energy as the liquid
is lifted from a lower level to higher level.
• The main parameter of a pump is the quantity of liquid displaced per unit time i.e that
is, the actual volumetric capacity Q. the water pressure produced p or the
corresponding head H i.e. lifting head, the input power P, and the efficiency η.
• The pumps can be broadly classified into two groups:
a) reciprocating (positive displacement) pumps, b) Centrifugal (Rotodynamic) pumps
a. Reciprocating Pump: A reciprocating pump are also called positive displacement pumps
in which the liquid is sucked and then it is actually pushed or displaced due to thrust
exerted on it by moving member which results in lifting the liquid to the required height.
These pumps usually have one or more chambers which are alternately filled with the
liquid to be pumped and then emptied again. As such the discharge of liquid pumped by
these pumps almost wholly depends on the speed of the pump.
A reciprocating pump essentially consists of a piston or plunger which moves to and fro in
close fitting cylinder. The cylinder is connected to suction and delivery pipes, each of
which is provided with a non return or one way valve called suction valve and delivery
valve respectively. The suction valve allows the liquid only to enter the cylinder and the
delivery valve permits only its discharge from the cylinder. The piston or plunger is
connected to a handle or crank by means of connecting rod.

Reciprocating Pump
• If the liquid is in contact with one side of the piston or plunger only, it is
known as single acting pump. If the liquid is in contact with both the sides of
piston or plunger, it is known as double acting pump. Double acting pump
has two suction and two delivery pipes with appropriate valves, so that
during each stroke when suction takes place on one side of the piston, the
other side delivers the liquid thus gives continuous discharge of pumping
water while single acting pumps deliver water intermittently.
Discharge (ideal) The characteristics
curves are plotting
of discharge, power
Discharge (actual) input and overall
efficiency against
the head developed
Discharge Q

Input Power

Efficiency by the pump when it

Efficiency

is operating at a
constant speed.
The discharge of a
reciprocating pump
decreases as the
head developed by
the pump increases.

Head (m)
Typical characteristics curves of reciprocating curve

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Power-driven single-action
reciprocating pump: (1)
working chamber, (2) piston,
(3) cylinder, (4) rod, (5)
crosshead, (6) connecting rod,
(7) flywheel,

Power-driven Double-action
reciprocating pump

Centrifugal pumps Roto-dynamic Pumps

• Centrifugal pumps are also called as roto
dynamic type of pumps in which dynamic
pressure is developed by rotating the fluid by a
rotor.
• The basic principle on which centrifugal pump
works is that when a certain mass of fluid is
made to rotate by an external force, it is thrown
away from the central axis of rotation and Single-suction centrifugal pump:
centrifugal head is impressed (created) due to (1) intake aperture, (2) impeller,
centrifugal action which enables it to rise to the (3) casing, (4) liquid discharge
higher level. pipe, (P) centrifugal force
• If more liquid is made available at the centre of
rotation through inlet pipe, a continuous supply
of liquid at higher level may be ensured
(delivered).
• Based on the direction of flow of liquid within
the passage of the rotating wheel or impeller, the
rotodynamic pumps are classified as: i)
centrifugal, ii) mixed flow and iii) axial flow or
propeller pumps

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Centrifugal pumps Roto-dynamic Pumps

• In centrifugal pump the liquid flows in the outward
radial direction while the flow of liquid in a
propeller is in the axial direction parallel to the
rotating shaft.
• The mixed flow pump, impeller has an intermediate
form so that the flow of liquid is in between the
radial and axial directions. However there are no
rigid boundaries for separating these three types of
pumps and often all the three types of pumps are Axial pump (inverse of propeller turbine
called centrifugal pumps. All these pumps are in (less than 12 m and Q > 20 L/s
close to the reverse of reactive turbine.
• The main advantages of the centrifugal pump is
that its discharging capacity is very much greater
than that of the reciprocating pump which can
handle relatively small quantity of liquid only.
• Reciprocating pumps may be in trouble due to
clogging of valves in pumping muddy, viscous fluid
etc compared to that of the centrifugal pump. The
maintenance cost of centrifugal pump is low and
reciprocating pumps are low speed pumps
compared to that of the centrifugal pumps

Head

Efficiency
Output Power

Input power
Input Power
Efficiency
Head

Output power

Discharge

Typical operating characteristics curves of the centrifugal pumps

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 2/16/2020

Selection Guidelines for Pumps

1000
Positive
displacement

100
Radial
6000
4000
Pumping head (m)

2000
10 Mixed 1000

Power (kW)
600
400
200
1 100
Axial 60
40
1 2 4 6 20
0.1 10
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Flow (m3/s)

Suction Head
• The suction head is the vertical distance from the surface of the source
water supply to the centerline of the pump.
• If the source of water supply surface is below the centerline of the pump,
the distance is negative suction head, or suction lift. If the source water
supply surface is above the centerline of the pump, it is known as positive
suction head.
• Atmospheric pressure and the ability of the pump to pull a vacuum limit
governs the limitation of negative suction head .
• At sea level the absolute maximum negative suction head is 33.8 feet or
equivalent to 10.3 m head of water.
• For most pumping applications negative suction heads should never exceed
20 feet or 6.0 m .
• If the suction head is below 10.3 m the pump can not suck the water, hence
lower the elevation of pump setting
• Connect the pumps in parallel or series based on the requirement
conditions.
• Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) = 10.3 – Suction head (m ) and it varies
pump to pump depending upon pump manufacturer

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Pumps in Parallel or in Series

• Parallel
– Flow ________
adds

– Head ________
same

• Series
– Flow ________
same

– Head ________
adds

Minimum starting speed

• When the impeller is rotating, the water in contact with the impeller is also
rotating. This is the case of forced vortex which creates centrifugal head.
• The centrifugal head created in the pump should be equal to the manometric
head equivalent of delivery head from the pipe outlet.
• In case of forced vortex, the centrifugal head or head due to pressure rise in the
impeller is given by

• There will be no flow of liquid until the speed of the pump is such that the
required centrifugal head is developed. So, for minimum speed,

Problem: The diameter of an impeller of a centrifugal pump at inlet and

outlet are 10 cm and 20 cm respectively. Determine the minimum starting
speed of the pump if it works against a head of 25 m.
Solution: Diameter of impeller at inlet, D1=0.1 m; Diameter of impeller at
outlet, D2=0.2m; head, Hm=25 m. For minimum speed, using the relation,

Problem #2: The diameters of the impeller of a centrifugal pump at inlet and outlet are 40cm and
80cm respectively. Determine the minimum starting Speed if it works against a head of 25m.

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Thanks for your attention

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