Graduation Project Book

Solar Home Building July 2016
First and foremost, we would like to express our thanks to God for
his strength, encouragement and peace give into us.
Then we wish to express our deep thanks to our supervisor :
Dr.Eng. / Ibrahim Nassar

For parentally guidance, advising, his valuable helping, and
continuous encouragement for us until achieving the present work.
Special thanks are extended to academic staff of Electrical power

and machines engineering department "Al-Azhar University ”for
their grateful efforts during our four graduate years with us.
Teamwork Members
Solar Home Building
Graduation project 2016
1
Abstract
S olar electricity is one of the most accessible forms of renewable energy
available, and it can be adapted to fit anyone‘s specific needs. The source of it,
sunlight, allows photovoltaic (PV) modules to produce electricity and perform
useful work, such as running electrical loads or putting energy back into the utility
grid.
Globally, there has been an incredible increase in demand for solar modules
and PV systems since the turn of the 21st century. No longer is PV technology
limited to NASA spacecraft and backwoods cabins. Nowadays, PV systems are
within reach for many people. This global demand and increased accessibility and
affordability have helped transform the PV industry from a small cottage industry
into a worldwide mega business.
As a renewable energy educator, advocate, and user, our primary goal is to
see the solar industry grow successfully and sustainably — two things that
require consistent high-level performance from the people ―in the trenches‖
or, more appropriately, ―on the roofs.‖ PV system designers and installers
are tasked with providing high-quality systems that can benefit clients for
more than 20 years. If you follow the information, advice, and tips we present in
this book, you‘ll be well on your way to completing this task with the best of them.
(Of course, no perfect power source is out there. To be a good PV system
designer and installer, you have to realize the limitations of PV systems, which
are why we help you consider those limitations in this book, too.)
2
3
1.1.1 Introduction
1.1.2 History of Photovoltaic Technology
1.1.3 Energy Plan of Egypt
1.1.4 Energy forms from sun
1.1.5 The Solar Radiation
1.1.6 Light spectrum and wavelengths
1.1.7 Semi-Conductor
1.1.8 P-N Junction
4
1.1.1 Introduction
The human population of the earth has now passed 6 billion and all of
these inhabitants want the energy necessary to sustain their lives. Exactly how
much energy is required to meet these needs and exactly what sources of energy
will meet these needs will be questions to be addressed by the present and by
future generations. One certainty, however, is that developing nations will be
increasing their per capita energy use significantly. For example, in 1997, the
People‘s Republic of China was building electrical generating plants at the rate of
300 megawatts per week. These plants have been using relatively inexpensive,
old, inefficient, coal-fired technology and provide electricity to predominantly
inefficient end uses.
As the demand for solar electric systems grows, progressive builders are adding
solar photovoltaic (PV) as an option for their customers.
PV devices generate electricity directly from sunlight via an electronic process

that occurs naturally in certain types of material, called semiconductors. Electrons
in these materials are freed by solar energy and can be induced to travel through
an electrical circuit, powering electrical devices or sending electricity to the grid.
PV devices can be used to power anything from small electronics such as
calculators and road signs up to homes and large commercial businesses.
Photovoltaic (PV), the technology which converts sunlight into electricity, is one of
the fastest growing sectors of the renewable energy industry. It is already well
established in many countries and looks set to become one of the key
technologies of the 21st century. The market is being driven by concerns about
carbon emissions, energy security and the rising price of fossil fuels.
5
1.1.2 History of Photovoltaic Technology

The photovoltaic effect was observed as early as 1839 by Alexander
Edmund Becquerel .it was the subject of scientific inquiry through the early
Twentieth century. In 1954 Bell Labs in U.S introduced the first solar PV device
that produced a usable amount of electricity. In 1958 solar cells were being used
in a Varity of small scale scientific and commercial applications. the begging of
using PV in homes and businesses was in 1970.but the high price made it
impractical to be used in large applications. After that industry and research
began to make it feasible, low price and increasing production. The end of 2011,
total of 67.4GW had been installed, sufficient to generate 85 TWH/year and by
the end of 2012 the 100 GW installed capacity was achieved. Solar PV is now,
after hydro and wind power the third most important renewable energy source in
terms of globally installed capacity .more than 100 countries use solar
photovoltaic.
Fig. 1.1
6
1.1.3 Energy Plan of Egypt

The Government of Egypt (GoE) has declared
that electricity production and distribution were not
developed enough to keep up with consumption.
It estimated that Egypt needs an additional 2,500
megawatts annually for the next five years to
meet rising demands, at a total investment of
$12.5billion.
The Government announced in
September 2013 that it will allocate $100-120 million
to a Clean Technology Fund to co-finance a high Fig. 1.2
capacity transmission system from the wind farms in the Gulf of Suez to serve
heavily populated areas such as Cairo.
NREA, New and Renewable Energy Authority, has prepared a study in

cooperation with the German Government to identify suitable locations for thermal
solar stations.
The Egyptian solar power industry is gearing up for maturity, well supported at
the institutional level with the NREA and the Solar Energy Development
Association (SEDA).
Government Strategy
20% of the Energy Mix by 2020 will be generated by RE
6% Hydro (~ 3000MW)
12% wind (~ 6000MW)
2% solar (
Status of PV System in Egypt.
7
1.1.4 Energy forms from sun

Its energy to us in two main forms: heat and light. There are two main
types of solar power systems, namely, solar thermal systems that trap heat to
warm up water, and solar PV systems that convert sunlight directly into electricity
as shown in Fig. 1.3
Fig. 1.3‫ز‬
When the PV modules are exposed to sunlight, they generate direct current
(―DC‖) electricity. An inverter then converts the DC into alternating current (―AC‖)
electricity, so that it can feed into one of the building‘s AC distribution boards
(―ACDB‖) without affecting the quality of power supply.
8
1.1.5 The Solar Radiation

Global Radiation is the sum of direct and diffuse solar radiation.
Usually measured at horizontal plate, it is possible to calculate it at
diagonal surface on the horizontal and it is the common way. In Egypt
the average value of the radiation is in between 1600 Kwh/m2 to 2600
Kwh/m2 in a year as shown in Fig 1.4
Fig. 1.4‫[هلس‬
Classification of Global Solar Radiation:

Direct incoming solar radiation
(direct radiation)
Radiation that reaches the earth
surface through diffusion by clouds,
vapor and dust(diffuse radiation)
Reflection radiation
9
Difference between irradiation (H) and irradiance (G):
Fig. 1.6‫[هل‬ Fig. 1.7‫[هل‬
Irradiance has units of watts per square meter (W/m2) so the irradiance is the
incident sunlight power density.
The area under the latter irradiance curve is the irradiation collected over this day
thus the irradiation has units of watt second per meter square (Ws/m2) : this
means energy collected per square meter during a specific time interval.
Cairo Sun Path Charts.
10
Solar radiation variation
Solar radiation just above the earth‘s

atmosphere depends on the distance
between the Sun and the earth which
slightly varies over the year.
The Sun‘s average power density
(I.e. the power per unit area normal to its rays)
is known as the solar constant and equals
1366 W/m2. Fig. 1.9‫[هلس‬
Solar Irradiation in Cairo According to Angles
11
1.1.6 Light spectrum and wavelengths

Visible light is a very small part of the electromagnetic spectrum, a
continuous range of energy wavelengths that includes radio waves, light and
X-rays.
Visible light measure between 400 and 700 nanometers, although the sun‘s
spectrum also includes shorter ultraviolet waves and longer waves of infrared.
The silicon atoms in a photovoltaic cell absorb energy from light wavelengths
that roughly correspond to the visible spectrum.
If you carefully plot a solar cell‘s output energy against the wavelength of
incoming light, your graph will show a response curve that begins at about 300
nanometers.
It arrives at a maximum at about 700 nanometers.
12
1.1.7 Semi-Conductor
It is a material that is classified some Where between being a good
conductor and being a good insulator such as silicon and germanium.
There are no free electronics in a pure silicon crystal. So, it is a poor conductor
of electricity.
To make silicon that is useful n electronics devices such as a diode,
transistors or solar cells, we must add amount of elements to it, this process is
called doping of silicon.
When a very small amount of phosphorus is add to silicon, there will be some
free electrons in the material which don‘t have a definite place in the crystal
structure.
Silicon that was doped phosphorus is called n-type silicon, if we add boron
instead to the silicon; there will be some free holes which can move easily in
the crystal.
Silicon that was doped with boron is called p-type.
Light consist of particles called photons, when a photon penetrates a semi-
conductor material such as silicon it will force an electron out of it is place in
the crystal that forms what we call :( hole-electron pair).
Electron has a negative charge and the ole has appositive charge.
The depth to which photon will penetrate the silicon depends on it is energy,
light of shorter wave produce photons with more energy.
Fig. 1.12 pure silicon Fig. 1.13 P-type and N-type silicon
25% of earth crust is made up of silicon
13
1.1.8 P-N Junction

Absorption of a photon in a material means that its energy is used to excite an
electron from an initial energy level Ei to a higher energy level Ef, as shown in
Fig. 1.14.
Photons can only be absorbed if electron energy levels Ei and Ef are present so
that their difference equals to the photon energy, hv = Ef - Ei. In an ideal
semiconductor electrons can populate energy levels below the so-called valence
band edge, EV, and above the so called conduction band edge, EC. Between
those two bands no allowed energy states exist, which could be populated by
electrons. Hence, this energy difference is called the band gap, Eg = EC- EV.
If a photon with energy smaller than Eg reaches an ideal semiconductor, it will not
be absorbed but will traverse the material without interaction.
In a real semiconductor, the valence and conduction bands are not flat, but
vary depending on the so-called k-vector that describes the crystal momentum of
the semiconductor.
If the maximum of the valence band and the minimum of the conduction band
occur at the same k-vector, an electron can be excited from the valence to the
conduction band without a change in the crystal momentum. Such a
semiconductor is called a direct band gap material.
If the electron cannot be excited without changing the crystal momentum, we
speak of an indirect band gap material. The absorption coefficient in an indirect
band gap material is much higher than in an indirect band gap material, thus the
absorber can be much thinner.
If an electron is excited from Ei to Ef , a void is created at Ei.
This void behaves like a particle with a positive elementary charge and is called a
hole. The absorption of a photon therefore leads to the creation of an electron-
hole pair, as illustrated in Fig. 1.15 1 the radioactive energy of the photon is
converted to the chemical energy of the electron-hole pair. The maximal
conversion efficiency from radioactive energy to chemical energy is limited by
thermodynamics.
This thermodynamic limit lies in between 67% for non-concentrated sunlight and
86% for fully concentrated sunlight.
14
Usually, the electron-hole pair will recombine, i.e. the electron will fall back to the
initial energy level E, as illustrated
in Fig. 1.15 . 2 The energy will then be released either as photon (radiative
recombination) or transferred to other electrons or holes or lattice vibrations
(nonradioactive recombination). If one wants to use the energy stored in
the electron-hole pair for performing work in an external circuit, semipermeable
membranes must be present on both sides of the absorber, such that electrons
only can ﬂow out through one membrane and holes only can ﬂow out through the
other membrane as illustrated in Fig.1.15 3 In most solar cells, these
membranes are formed by n- and p-type materials.
A solar cell has to be designed such that the electrons and holes can reach the
membranes before they recombine, i.e. the time it requires the charge carriers to
reach the membranes must be shorter than their lifetime. This requirement limits
the thickness of the absorber.
Fig. 1.14 (a) Illustrating the absorption of a

photon in a semiconductor with band gap
Eg The photon with energy Eph= hv excites
an electron from Eito Ef. At Ei a hole
created. (b) If Eph> Eg, a part of the energy
is thermalised.
15
1.2.1 Introduction
1.2.2 The PV Cell
1.2.3 Solar cells types
1.2.4 Electrical properties of solar cells
1.2.5 Module and array design.
16
1.2.1 Introduction
Photovoltaic systems are designed around the photovoltaic cell. Since a
typical photovoltaic cell produces less than 3 watts at approximately 0.5 volt dc,
cells must be connected in series-parallel configurations to produce enough
power for high-power applications. Fig. 2.1 shows how cells are configured
into modules, and how modules are connected as arrays. Modules may have
peak output powers ranging from a few watts, depending upon the intended
application, to more than 300 watts. Typical array output power is in the 100-watt
to-kilowatt range, although megawatt arrays do exist.
. Fig. 2.1 Cells, modules and arrays.
17
1.2.2 The PV Cell

The physics of the PV cell is very similar to the classical P-N junction diode
Fig. 2.2 when light is absorbed by the junction; the energy of the absorbed
photons is transferred to the electron system of material, resulting in the creation
of charge carriers that are separated at the junction. The charge carries may be
electron-ion pairs in a liquid electrolyte or electron hole pairs in a solid
semiconductor material .The charge carries in the junction region create a
potential gradient, get accelerated under the electric field and circulate as the
current through an external circuit .The current squared times the resistance of
the circuit is the power converted into electricity. The remaining power of the
photon elevates the temperature of the cell. The origin of the photovoltaic
potential is the difference in the chemical potential, called the Fermi level, of the
electrons in the two isolated material. When they are joined, the junction
approaches a new thermodynamic equilibrium. Such equilibrium can be achieved
only when the Fermi level is equal in the two materials. This accrues by the flow
electrons from one material to the other until a voltage difference established
between the two materials which have the potential just equal to the initial
difference of the Fermi level. This potential drives the photocurrent.Fig.2.3 shows
the basic cell construction. For collection the photocurrent the metallic contacts
are provided on both sides of the junction to collect electrical current induced by
the impinging photons on one side . Conducting foil (Solder) contact is provided
over the bottom (dark) surface and on one edge of the top (illuminated) surface.
Thin conducting mesh on the remaining top surface collects the current and lets
the light through. The spacing of the conducting fibers in the mesh is a matter of
compromise between maximizing the electrical conductance and minimizing the
blockage of the light. In addition to the basic elements, several enhancement
features are also included in the construction. For example, the front face of the
cell has anti-reflective coating to absorb as such light as possible by minimizing
the reflection. The mechanical protection is provided by the cover glass applied
with a transparent adhesive.
18
Fig. 2.2 Photovoltaic effect converts the photon energy into voltage across the p-n junction.
Fig. 2.3 Basic construction of PV cell with performance enhancing features (current
collecting mesh, anti-reflective coating and cover glass protection)
19
1.2.3 Solar Cell types
20
Fig.2.4
Crystalline Silicon and Thin Film Technologies

Crystalline cells are made from ultra-pure silicon raw material such as those used in
Semiconductor chips. They use silicon wafers that are typically 150-200 microns (one
fifth of a millimeter) thick.
Thin film is made by depositing layers of semiconductor material barely 0.3 to 2
Micrometers thick onto glass or stainless steel substrates. As the semiconductor
layers are so thin, the costs of raw material are much lower than the capital
equipment and processing costs.
21
Conversion efficiencies of various PV module technologies
Technology Module efficiency

Mono-crystalline Silicon 12.5-18%
Poly-crystalline Silicon 11-16%
Thin film 6-8%
Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) 9-12%
AmorphousSilicon (a-Si) 5-7%
Table 2.1
Apart from aesthetic differences, the most obvious difference amongst PV cell
technologies is in its conversion efficiency, as summarized in Table 2.1
For example, a thin film amorphous silicon PV array will need close to twice the
space of a crystalline silicon PV array because its module efficiency is halved, for
the same nominal capacity under Standard Test Conditions (STC) rating.
For crystalline silicon PV modules, the module efficiency is lower compared to the
sum of the component cell efficiency due to the presence of gaps between the
cells and the border around the circuit i.e., wasted space that does not generate
any power hence lower total efficiency.
22
1.2.4 Electrical properties of solar cells

A solar cell looks like a large scale diode .the characteristic curve of a
silicon diode is shown Fig.2.5. if a positive potential is present at the anode and
negative potential is present at the cathode, the diode is connected in forward
biased direction. The characteristic curve in the first quadrant applies Starting
from a particular voltage (the threshold voltage here is 0.7V), current flows. If the
diode is connected in reverse-biased direction, current flow is prevented in this
direction. The characteristic curve in the third quadrant applies. Only starting from
a high breakdown voltage (here, 150V) does the diode become conductive? This
can also lead to the destruction of the diode.
Fig.2.5 Current voltage curve for

silicon diode
- An un-illuminated Fig. 2.6 solar cell is described in the equivalent circuit

diagram by a diode. Accordingly, the characteristic curve of a diode is also
applicable. For a mono crystalline solar cell, one can assume a forward
voltage of approximately 0.5V and a breakdown voltage of 12V to 50V
(depending upon the quality and cell material).
23
Fig.2.6 Dark equivalent circuit diagram and characteristic curve
- When light hits the solar cell fig. 2.7, the energy of the photons generates free
charge carriers. An illuminated solar cell constitutes a parallel circuit of a power
source and a diode. The power source produces the photoelectric current
(photocurrent).The level of this current depends upon the irradiance. The diode
characteristic curve is shifted by the magnitude of the photocurrent in the
reverse-biased direction (into the fourth quadrant).
Fig.2.7 Illuminated equivalent circuit diagram and characteristic curve

curvesilicon diode
24
This extended equivalent circuit diagram Fig. 2.8 is termed a single-diode model
of a solar cell and is used as a standard model in photovoltaic. In the solar cell, a
voltage drop occurs as the charge carriers migrate from the semiconductor to the
electrical contacts. This is described by the series resistor Rs, which is in the
range of a few milliohms. In addition, what are known as leakage currents arise,
which are described by the parallel resistor. Both resistors bring about a flattening
of the solar cell characteristic curve. With the series resistor, it is possible to
calculate current/voltage characteristic curves of solar cells at different irradiances
and temperatures.
Fig.2.8 Extended equivalent circuit diagram
25
I-V Curve
Solar cell and gives the electrical behavior of different current-voltage range. Isc
represent the short circuit current, i.e. the value at which the current is at
maximum and where the voltage is equal to zero. Voc represents the open
voltage,i.e. the value at which voltage is at its maximum and where the current is
equal zero. The green line represents the resulting power curve (power= current *
voltage). The maximum power point (MPP) is the current and voltage value at
which the power output of the solar cell is at its maximum. The maximum of the
green lines will give the current value of the MPP (Impp) and from here the voltage
value of the MPP (Vmpp) can be found by using the I-V curve
Effect of light intensity on the I-V Curve
The I-V curve of a module strongly depends on the incoming irradiation. The
output current of a solar cell directly related to the incoming irradiation: The higher
the irradiation, the more electron-hole pairs are produced and therefore the
current increase. On the other hand, the volt-age slightly varies with varying
radiation.
26
1.2.5 Module and array design.

Module design
Most commercial and industrial system requires a large number of
collectors to satisfy the heating demand. Connecting the collectors with just one
set of manifolds makes it difficult to ensure trainability and low pressure drop. It
would also be difficult to balance the flow so as to have the same flow rate
through all collectors. A Module is a group of collectors that can be grouped into
parallel flow and combined series-parallel flow. Parallel flow is more frequently
used because it is inherently balanced, has a low pressure drop, and can be
drained easily.
Fig. 2.9 illustrates the two most popular collector header designs: external and
internal manifolds.
Fig. 2.9 Connection manifolding arrangements for parallel flow modules
Generally, flat-plate collector is made to connect to the main pipes of the

installation in one of two methods shown Fig. 2.9. The external manifold collector
has a small-diameter connection because it is used to carry the flow for only one
collector. Therefore each collector is connected individually to the collector
incorporates several collectors with large headers, which can be placed side by
side to form a continuous supply and return manifold, so the manifold piping is
integral with each collector. The number of collectors that can be connected
depends on the size of the header.
27
External manifold collectors are generally more suitable for small systems.
Internal manifolding is preferred for large systems because it offers a number of
advantages. These are cost saving because the system avoids the use of extra
pipes (and fittings), which need to be insulated and properly supported, and the
elimination of heat losses associated with external manifloing, which increases
the thermal performance of system.
It should be noted that the flow is parallel but the collectors are connected in
series. When arrays must be greater than one panel high, a combination of series
and parallel flow may be used, as shown Fig.2.10. This is a more suitable design
in cases where collectors are installed on an inclined roof.
The choices of series or parallel arrangement depend on temperature required
from the system. Connecting collectors in parallel means that all collectors have
as input the same temperature, whereas when a series connation is used, the
outlet temperature from one collector (or row of collector) is the input to the next
collector (or row of collectors) .
Fig. 2.10 Collector manifolding arrangements for combined series-parallel flow modules
28
Array design
An Array usually includes many individual groups of collectors, called Modules to
provide the necessary flow characteristic. To maintain balanced flow, an array or
field of collectors should be built from identical modules. Basically, two types of
systems can be used: direct return and reverse return. In direct return, shown in
Fig.2.11, balancing valves are needed to ensure uniform flow through the
modules. The balancing valves must be connected at the module outlet to provide
the flow resistance necessary to ensure filling of all modules on pump start up.
Whenever possible modules must be connected in reverse-return mode, as
shown Fig. 2.12. The reverse return ensure that the array is self-balanced, as all
collectors operate with the same pressure drop: i.e., the first collector in supply
side is the supply manifold is the last in the return manifold; the second on the
supply side is the second before last in the return, and so on. With proper design,
an array can drain, which is an essential requirement for drain-back and drain
down freeze protection. For this to be possible, piping to and from the collectors
must be slope properly. Typically, piping and collectors must slop to drain with an
inclination of 20 mm per linear meter.
External and internal manifold collectors have different mounting and plumping
consideration. A module with external main folded collectors can be mounted
horizontally, as shown in Fig 2.13 a. In this case, the lower header must be
pitched as shown. The slope of upper header can be either horizontal or pitched
toward the collectors, so it can drain through the collectors.
Arrays with internal manifolds are a little more difficult to design and install. For
these collectors to drain, the entire bank must be tilted, as shown in Fig 2.13 b.
Reverse return always implies an extra pipe run, which is more difficult to drain,
so sometimes in this case it is more convenient to use direct return.
Solar collectors should be oriented and sloped properly to maximize their
performance. A collector in the Northern hemisphere should be located to face
due south and a collector in the southern Hemisphere should face due north. The
collectors should face as south or as north, depending on the case, as possible,
although a deviation of up to 10o is acceptable. For this purpose, the use of a
compass is highly recommended.
29
Fig. 2.11 Direct-return array piping
Fig. 2.12 reverse-return array piping
For Fig. 2.13 Mounting for drain-back collector module
30
Solar Module collection practical
For Fig. 2.14 Solar Module collection
Steps
1-Soldering
Fig. 2.15 Soldering
31
2- Put EVA foile adhesive sheet between low iron tempered glass and solar
cells , put Tpt back sheet and testing
Fig. 2.16
3- Encapsulate Solar Module
Fig. 2.17
32
4-Get Solar Module
Fig. 2.18 Solar panel
5- Put junction box and bypass diode
Fig. 2.19 junction box and bypass diode
33
1.3.1 Shading
1.3.2 Angel
1.3.3 Types of Solar PV System
1.3.4 Cables and wiring
1.3.5 Mounting structure
1.3.6 site survey
34
1.3.1 Shading
Shadowing on Solar cells
It is very common to find solar cells which have lower output than the
maximum one, due to several causes such as manufacturing defects, degradation
of cells, high temperatures on the solar cell, or partial shading. This chapter has
been focused on the power drop due to shadowing effect.
A cell can be seen as a combination of a current generator and a diode. The
photo current goes in the reverse direction of the diode. This means that if one
cell is partially shaded, it will produce less current than the other cells in the
string, and the other cells will try to push more current through the poor cell than
the poor cell deliver. This is however not possible since then the cell acts as a
diode in the reverse direction. Then the current produced in the poor cell will limit
the current in the string.
Bypass diodes have to be installed in order to avoid the current losses either to
avoid the restriction of the current.
One of the parts that are going to be measured in this project is a system where
two solar PV modules are connected in parallel. In order to know how they work
when shadowing occurs, it is going to be described the behavior of two
mismatched solar cells in parallel connection.
Behavior of solar cells in parallel connection.
In practice all the cells have different characteristics, hence when some
cells are connected the module output is limited by the lowest one.
This subchapter is focused on the output of two mismatched cells when they are
connected in parallel. When one of the two cells will have lower output caused by
shadowing problems, degradation or higher temperatures, in the graphs below it
can be observed how to get the combined current of the two cells and how to get
the open circuit voltage.
35
In the Fig. 3.1, it can be seen two different IV curves for the two mismatched cells
in parallel. The combined curve is determined by summing the currents I1 and I2
for each voltage V.
Fig. 3.1 mismatch of two parallel connected solar cells
Fig. 3.2 Shadow effect by PV syst. Simulation
36
1.3.2 Angel
Understanding the sun’s relationship to your location: Altitude and
azimuth
When talking about the sun‘s position in the sky, we use a couple key terms:
altitude and azimuth. The altitude refers to how high in the sky the sun actually
is, and the azimuth describes where the position is in relation to north. (Check out
Fig. 3.3 to get an idea of what I‘m talking about.)
Fig. 3.3
Altitude
You‘re probably well aware that the angle of the sun off the horizon varies
throughout the year. The amount of variation is consistent across the globe,‎
with the exact measurement dependent on the time of day and your specific
latitude on the earth.‎Latitude is defined as the number of degrees north or south
of the equator.‎
Your latitude affects where the sun is positioned in the sky throughout each
day (relative to your position, that is).
Azimuth
Just as the sun has a position in the sky based off of the horizon (altitude), it
also has a position in the sky that moves from east to west. This position is
known as the solar azimuth, and it has a steady movement on a daily basis.
37
The earth rotates around its own axis once every day, or once every 24-hour
period. Because a full rotation of the earth measures 360 degrees, the motion
of the sun is 360 degrees divided by 24 hours, which equals 15 degrees per
hour. So over the course of an hour, the motion of the sun from east to west
is 15 degrees.
Fig. 3.4
38
1.3.3 Types of Solar PV System

Solar PV systems can be classified based on the end-use application of
the technology.There are two main types of solar PV systems: grid-connected (or
grid-tied) and off-grid (or stand-alone) solar PV systems.
Grid-connected solar PV systems
The main application of solar PV in Singapore is grid-connected, as Singapore‘s

main island is well covered by the national power grid. Most solar PV systems are
installed on buildings or mounted on the ground if land is not a constraint. For
buildings, they are either mounted on the roof or integrated into the building. The
latter is also known as Building Integrated Photovoltaic (―BIPV‖). With BIPV, the
PV module usually displaces another building component, e.g. window glass or
roof/wall cladding, thereby serving a dual purpose and offsetting some costs.
The configuration of a grid-connected solar PV system is shown in Fig.3.5
Fig.3.5 Grid-connected solar PV system configuration
A building has two parallel power supplies, one from the solar PV system and the
other from the power grid. The combined power supply feeds all the loads
connected to the main ACDB.The ratio of solar PV supply to power grid supply
varies, depending on the size of the solar PV system. Whenever the solar PV
39
supply exceeds the building‘s demand, excess electricity will be exported into the
grid. When there is no sunlight to generate PV electricity at night, the power grid
will supply all of the building‘s demand.
A grid-connected system can be an effective way to reduce your dependence on
utility power, increase renewable energy production, and improve the
environment.
Off-grid solar PV systems
Off-grid solar PV systems are applicable for areas without power grid. Currently,
such solar PV systems are usually installed at isolated sites where the power grid
is far away, such as rural areas or off-shore islands. But they may also be
installed within the city in situations where it is inconvenient or too costly to tap
electricity from the power grid.
For example, in Singapore, several URA parking sign lights are powered by off-
grid solar PV systems.
An off-grid solar PV system needs deep cycle rechargeable batteries such as
lead-acid, nickel-cadmium or lithium-ion batteries to store electricity for use under
conditions where there is little or no output from the solar PV system, such as
during the night, as shown in Fig. 3.6 below.
Fig.3.6 . Off-grid solar PV system configuration
40
Grid-connected solar PV systems Block diagram
Fig.3.7
Off-grid solar PV systems Block diagram
Fig.3.8
41
Fig.3.9 Line diagram of on grid system
42
1.3.4 Cables and wiring

PV system cable requirements
Earth-fault and short circuit proof.
UV- and weatherproof (temperature range approx. -40⁰C to 120⁰C).
High voltage range (up to 1000vDC, 600vDC in USA and MEXICO).
Exceptionally robust, but flexible.
Flame retardant with low toxicity in case of fire, halogen-free.
Low cable losses (voltage drop), up to 1-2 .
Conductor material = copper (most common), insulation material =
thermoplastic (most common).
DC and AC wiring
Table 3.1
Table 3.2
43
Cables
Wire size selection based on two criteria:

Capacity
Voltage drop
 Capacity: current carrying ability of a wire without degrading

 The larger the wire, the greater its capacity to carry current
 Wire size given in terms of millimeter square
 Voltage drop: the loss of voltage due to a wire's resistance
and length.
Cable Selection Considerations
The cable conductor type and cross section should be selected

according to the length, operating voltage and current. (Vamp, Impp,
Isc, Voc).
Resistivity of the cable materials (Usually Copper or aluminum)
is given by the manufacturer and should be used to calculate the
cross section required for the acceptable Voltage loss (1% up to
5%).
Fig. 3.10 The cable the cable installation
44
1.3.5 Mounting structure

Design criteria for mounting structures
45
For flat roofs
Features
Material
Typically hot dipped galvanized steel
Aluminum is 3 time lighter, but also expensive
Conations bolted
Length/distance between poles

Determined by string connection
< 20 cm distance between tables
Flexible to follow ground slope
Dead load of PV generator
Structure weight
Depends on material and mounting structure type
PV module weight
46
15 kg/m2 for c-Si, glass module can be larger
Combiner Box
The combiner box material should be selected according to the conditions

of the environment it will be installed in.
For Outdoor installations IP65 enclosures are recommended.
It is recommended to install the combiner box in a shaded area.
All conduits leading to the combiner box should be Installed in 90° angles
and include accessible junction boxes for easy access
Fuses should be installed for the +ve and -ve leads if the system earthing
is not coupled with any polarity.
The fuse ratings should be selected according to the designed Voc and Isc
and the temperature conditions of the system
DC fuse characteristics are: rapid rupture, low heat dissipation, and Very
low arc sustaining time.\
Normal fuses usually have 2 ratings 1 for DC and one for AC.
Fig. 3.11 Combiner Box
47
Mounting Structures in roof building of electrical engineering department

,Al-Azhar University
Fig. 3.12 Mounting Structures
Module Specifications that we used it
Fig. 3.13 Module Specifications
48
We used two modules in parallel connection and the output of array is 18 volt
, 3.32 Ampere and 59.76 watt
1.3.6 Site survey

The following points should be born in mind during the on-site visit
and recording of data. They form the basis for good planning:
Customers' wishes with regarded to module type, system concept and

method of installation.
Desired PV power or the desired energy yield.
The financial framework, taking the respective subsidy conditions into
account.
Usable roof, façade and open space surface.
Orientation and angle of inclination.
Roof shape, roof structure, roof substructure and type of roofing.
Usable roof openings (vent tiles, free chimney flues, etc.).
Data on shading.
Installation sites for PV combiner/junction boxes, isolating facility and
inverter.
Meter cupboard and space for extra meters.
Cable length, wiring routes and routing method.
Access, particularly when equipment is required for installing the PV array
(crane, scaffolding, etc.).
Required Documents:
Site plane of the building to ascertain its orientation;

Construction drawings of the building to ascertain roof slope, the usable
area and the cable length;
Photographs of the roof and of the electric meter location.
49
50
2.4.1 Introduction
2.4.2 Inverter Types
2.4.3 Types of Solar Inverter
2.4.4 Inverter Ratings
2.4.5 Single and three phase inverters
2.4.6 Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
2.4.7 Inverter Circuit
51
2.4.1 Introduction
Inverters convert power from dc to ac, while rectifiers convert it from ac to
dc. Many inverters are bi-directional, i.e., they are able to operate in both
inverting and rectifying modes. In many stand-alone photovoltaic installations,
alternating current is needed to operate 230 V (or 110 V), 50Hz (or60 Hz)
appliances. Generally stand-alone inverters operate at 12, 24, 48, 96, 120, or
24 V dc, depending on the power level. Ideally, an inverter for a stand-alone
photovoltaic system should have the following features:
Sinusoidal output voltage
Voltage and frequency within the allowable limits
Cable to handle large variation in input voltage
Output voltage regulation
High efficiency at light loads
Less harmonic generation by the inverter to avoid damage to
electronic appliances such as televisions, additional losses, and heating
of appliances
Ability to withstand overloading for a short term to take care of higher
starting currents from pumps, refrigerators, etc.
Adequate protection arrangement for over/under voltage and
frequency, short-circuit, etc.
Surge capacity
Low idling and no load losses
Low battery voltage disconnect
Low audio and RF noise
Classification of inverter depending on requirements:
Single phase inverter usually using for low power.
Three phase inverter usually using for high power
52
2.4.2 Inverter Types

Various types of inverters are in use for grid-connected PV applications,
including the following:
Line-commutated inverter
Self-commutated inverter
PV inverter with high-frequency transformer
Line-Commutated Inverters are generally used for electric-motor applications.

The power stage is equipped with thyristors. A maximum-power tracking control is
required in the control algorithm for solar application. The basic diagram for a
single-phase line commutated inverter is shown in Fig4.1.The driver circuit has to
be changed to shift the firing angle from rectifier operation (0_ < f < 90_) to
inverter operation (90_ < f < 180_). Six-pulse or 12-pulse inverters are used for
grid interfacing, but 12-pulse inverters produce fewer harmonics. Thyrsistor-type
inverters require a low-impedance grid interface connection for commutation
purposes. If the maximum power available from the grid connection is less than
twice the rated PV inverter power, then the line-commutated inverter should not
be used. The line-commutated inverters are cheaper but can lead to poor power
quality. The harmonics injected into the grid can be large unless taken care of by
employing adequate filters. These line-commutated inverters also have poor
power factors that require additional control to improve them. Transformers can
be used to provide electrical isolation. To suppress the harmonics generated by
these inverters, tuned filters are employed and reactive power compensation is
required to improve the lagging power factor.
Self-Commutated Inverter A switch-mode inverter using pulse-width modulated

(PWM) switching control can be used for the grid connection of PV systems. The
basic block diagram for this type of inverter is shown in Fig4.2
The inverter bridges may consist of bipolar transistors, MOSFET transistors,
IGBTs, or GTOs, depending on the type of application. GTOs are used for higher-
power applications, whereas IGBTs can be switched at higher frequencies, i.e.,
20 kHz, and are generally used for many grid-connected PV applications. Most
present-day inverters are self-commutated sine-wave inverters.
53
Based on the switching control, voltage-source inverters can be further classified

as follows:
PWM (pulse width modulated) inverters
Square-wave inverters
Single-phase inverters with voltage cancellations
Programmed harmonic elimination switching
Current-controlled modulation
PV Inverter with High-Frequency Transformer The 50-Hz transformer for a

standard PV inverter with PWM switching scheme can be very heavy and costly.
When using frequencies more than 20 kHz, a ferrite core transformer can be a
better option. A circuit diagram of a grid connected PV system using high
frequency transformer is shown in Fig4.3
The capacitor on the input side of the high-frequency inverter acts as a filter. The
high-frequency inverter with pulse-width modulation is used to produce a high-
frequency ac across the primary winding of the high-frequency transformer.
The secondary voltage of this transformer is rectified using a high-frequency
rectifier. The dc voltage is interfaced with a thyristor inverter through a low-pass
inductor filter and hence connected to the grid. The line current is required to be
sinusoidal and in phase with the line voltage. To achieve this, the line voltage (V1)
is measured to establish the reference waveform for the line current IL This
reference current IL multiplied by the transformer ratio gives the reference current
at the output of the high-frequency inverter. The inverter output can be controlled
using current-controls technique. These inverters can be used with low-frequency
or high-frequency transformer isolation. The low-frequency
(50/60 Hz) transformer of a standard inverter with pulse width modulation is a
very heavy and bulky component. For residential grid interactive rooftop inverters
below 3-kW rating, high-frequency transformer isolation is often preferred.
Fig.4. 1
54
Fig.4. 2
Fig.4.3
2.4.3 Types of Solar Inverter

Stand-alone inverter:
Used in isolated system and do not need an anti-islanding system.
Battery backup inverter:
Special type of inverter which required an anti-islanding protection
Grid tied inverter:
Is the most common type used in grid connected solar syste. It takes the direct
current voltage from battery or PV array and converts it to ac voltage to be used
in homes and business. The output of grid tie inverter must be in phase with Grid
to have the ability of selling the remaining energy back to Grid and reduce
consumer bill. This process called net metering which
Inverters for Stand-Alone PV Systems: Several different semiconductor
devices, such as MOSFETs (metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors)
and IGBTs (insulated-gate bipolar transistors) are used in the power stage of
55
inverters. Typically MOSFETs are used in units up to 5 kVA and 96 V dc. They
have the advantage of low switching losses at higher frequencies. Because the
on state voltage drop is 2V dc, IGBTs are generally used only in systems above
96 V dc.
Voltage source inverters are usually used in stand-alone applications. They can
be single-phase or three-phase. There are three switching techniques commonly
used: square wave, quasi-square-wave, and pulse-width modulation. Square-
wave or modified square-wave inverters can supply power tools, resistive heaters,
or incandescent lights, which do not require a high-quality sine wave for reliable
and efficient operation. However, many household appliances require low-
distortion sinusoidal waveforms. The use of true sine-wave inverters is
recommended for remote area power systems. Pulse-width modulated (PWM)
switching is generally used for obtaining sinusoidal output from the inverters
2.4.4 Inverter Ratings

Continuous Rating:
This is the amount of power you could expect to use continuously without
the inverter overheating and shutting down.
Half Hour Rating:
This is handy as the continuous rating may be too low to run a high energy
consumption power tool or appliance, however if the appliance was only
to be used occasionally then the half hour rating may well suffice.
Surge Rating:
A high surge is required to start some appliances and once running they
may need considerably less power to keep functioning. The inverter must
be able to hold its surge rating for at least 5 seconds.
IP Rating:
Define the ability of inverter to be used to prevent water and dust ingress
Peak Efficiency:
Represent high efficiency inverter can achieve.
56
2.4.5 Single and Three phase inverters

Single phase inverters Used in low power applications. The typical
single phase output values are 120V at 60Hz & 220V 50Hz. There are two
types either half bridge or full bridge inverters. The basic operation of
those is the square wave & quasi-square wave output voltage operation
A general layout of a single-phase system, both half-bridge and full bridge,
is shown in Fig 4.4 In single-phase half bridge Fig4.4a with two switches,
S1 and S2, the capacitors C1 and C2 are connected in series across the dc
source. The junction between the capacitors is at the mid-potential.
Voltage across each capacitor is Vdc/2. Switches S1 and S2 can be switched
on/off periodically to produce ac voltage. A filter (Lf and Cf) is used to
reduce high-switch-frequency components and to produce sinusoidal
output from the inverter. The output of the inverter is connected to the
load through a transformer. Fig4. 4b shows the similar arrangement for a
full-bridge configuration with four switches.
Fig.4.4a Half bridge Fig.4.4b full bridge
57
Three phase inverters for the same input source voltage, the full-bridge output is
twice as high, and the switches carry less current for the same load power. The
power circuit of a three phase, four-wire inverter is shown in Fig 4.5 the output of
the inverter is connected to load via a three-phase transformer (delta/star
Fig.4.5
2.4.6 Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)

Now most inverters have built-in MPPT device and provide the following
parameters in datasheet:
Vmp for MPPT input
Number of MPPT input
Number of strings per each MPPT
MPP tracking this point to achieve maximum yield power from PV system.
For better performance inverter datasheet advice with a certain value for
rated voltage.
The maximum power, Pmax=PMMP=VMMP*IMMP that a solar cell can produce at the
MPP is always slower than the value obtained by multiplying open –circuit voltage
Voc by short-circuit Isc.In as much as a PV system needs to be able to withstand
both open-circuit and short-circuit current, along with efficiency this ratio is known
as the fill factor:
58
Fill factor FF =
The fill factor for commercially available solar cells ranges from around 60 to
80 , while this factor for lab cells can go as high as about 85 .
Fig.4.6 IV Curve
59
2.4.7 Inverter Circuit

The only input to the inverter subsystem is from the battery. As described
previously, the battery is being charged from the PV panels through the charging
subsystem. Our key concerns regarding the power inverter system were as
follows:
Safety - because we are dealing with high currents, many safety concerns
needed to be accounted for.
Output Waveform - pure vs. modified sine wave vs. square wave
Power Output needs to handle at least 300W
Efficiency generally there is a lot of losses associated with converting
power
The inverter will receive DC power from the battery, and convert it to usable DC
and AC outputs.
All other subsystems receive information from the output of the power inverter. As
such, the inverter is critical to the integrity of the entire system. Safety concerns
must be at the forefront of the circuit design. These concerns stem to the safety of
the users, as well as the circuitry itself.
We recognized this issue, and accounted for it with properly placed kill-switches
and fuses/circuit breakers. The circuit was designed so that if a power spike
occurred, or something malfunctioned, the key components of the system would
be saved, and the system would be shutdown.
Our next major concern was the output waveform. The three major waveform
options were a square wave, modified sine wave, and pure sine wave. The
difficulty of the system increases greatly with each waveform option, respectively.
Fig. 4.7 shows the three different waveforms on a single graph. A pure sine wave
is required to run any type of load, but most loads can run on a modified sine
wave. The primary side effect to a modified sine wave is a decrease in efficiency
and an increase in noise in the system. Fewer (but still a significant amount of)
loads can run on a square waveform. Because of the immense difficulty
associated with designing a pure sine wave inverter, and the limited amount of
loads which can run off of a square wave inverter, our team decided to go with a
modified sine wave output. This can be obtained by producing a square wave
60
from the output, and filtering it to resemble a sine wave. The desired result would
look like an average of the three waveforms presented in Fig.4.7
Fig.4.7
Implementation: The power inverter design chosen will output a standard

modified sine wave at 220Vrms and 50Hz. We initially constructed the circuit on a
proto-board and were able to achieve the output we expected from the driver
stage.
61
Circuit diagram:
Fig.4.8
Components of this circuit:

IC 4047
ZENER DIODE (6.2v)
Capacitors (473nf-10uf (350v))
RESISTORS (100K, 1K, 68,10K)
-MOSFET (IRFP064)
DIODE (4001)
This circuit divided into two circuits:
 Inverter oscillator
Fig.4.9
62
This circuit generates 50 Hz required to operate the inverter and consists of:
Zener diode with resistor 1k utilizes to hold the voltage and to undertaking
the frequency is constant.
Resistor 100k and capacitor (473nf) to control the output frequency.
Two resistors 68ohm for output of IC.
IC 4047 digital equipment where low power dissipation and/or high noise
immunity are primary.
Design requirements:
Envelope detection
Frequency multiplication
Frequency division
Frequency discriminators
Timing circuit
Time delay application
The block diagram of operation of IC4047
Fig.4.10
63
The minimum and maximum operating voltage of IC:
Min 3 V Max 18 V
 Driver circuit
Fig.4.11
This circuit using to determine the operation power of the inverter.

The maximum operation power of this circuit is (300W) and consists of:
MOSFET IRFP064 by insert the frequency 50Hz to the gate making
as amplifier for this frequency.
Resistor 10k making eliminate some impurities undesirable and
capacitor 10uf (350v) connected to the gate of the MOSFET
Diode (4001) making with capacitor eliminating of impurity waves
resulting from rising operation.
Transformer with center- taped using to step-up voltage from 12v to
220v.
64
PCB circuit
Fig.4.12
PCB layout
Fig.4.13
65
Circuit on Board:
Fig.4.14
Finishing Circuit
Fig.4.15
66
The output voltage wave form at no load
Fig.4.16
The output voltage wave form with resistive load:
Fig.4.17
67
The output voltage wave form with R-L-C circuit (mobile charger load)
Fig.4.18
68
2.5.1 Batteries for PV Systems

2.5.2 PV Charge Controllers
69
2.5.1 Batteries for PV Systems

A stand-alone photovoltaic energy system requires storage to meet the
energy
demand during periods of low solar irradiation and night time.
Several types of batteries are available, such as lead-acid, nickel-cadmium,
lithium, and zinc bromide, zinc chloride, sodium–sulfur, and nickel–
hydrogen, redox and vanadium batteries. The provision of cost-effective
electrical energy storage remains one of the major challenges for the
development of improved PV power systems. Typically, lead-acid batteries are
used to guarantee several hours to a few days of energy storage. Their
reasonable cost and general availability
has resulted in the widespread application of lead-acid batteries for remote area
power supplies despite their limited lifetime compared to other system
components. Lead acid batteries can be deep or shallow cycling, gelled
batteries.
Batteries with captive or liquid electrolyte, sealed and non-sealed batteries, etc.
Sealed batteries are valve regulated to permit evolution of excess hydrogen gas
(although catalytic converters are used to convert as much evolved hydrogen and
oxygen back to water as possible). Sealed batteries need less maintenance.
The following factors are considered in the selection of batteries for PV
applications:
Deep discharge (70–80% depth discharge)

Low charging=discharging current
Long-duration charge (slow) and discharge (long duty cycle)
Irregular and varying charge=discharge
Low self-discharge
Long lifetime
Less maintenance requirement
High energy storage efficiency
Low cost
Battery manufacturers specify the nominal number of complete charge and
discharge cycles as a function of the Depth-of-discharge (DOD), as shown in Fig.
5.1.
70
Fig. 5.1
Although this information can be used reliably to predict the lifetime of lead-acid
batteries in conventional applications, such as uninterruptable power supplies or
electric vehicles, it usually results in an overestimation of the useful life of the
battery bank in renewable energy systems.
Two of the main factors that have been identified as limiting criteria for the cycle
life of batteries in photovoltaic power systems are incomplete charging and
prolonged operation at a low state-of-charge (SOC). The objective of improved
battery control strategies is to extend the lifetime of lead-acid batteries
to achieve the typical number of cycles shown in Fig. 5.1. If this is achieved, an
optimum solution for the required storage capacity and the maximum depth-of-
discharge of the battery can be found by referring to the manufacturer‘s
information. Increasing the capacity will reduce the typical depth-of discharge
and therefore prolong the battery lifetime. Conversely, it may be more economical
to replace a smaller battery bank more frequently.
71
Construction of lead acid battery:
Fig. 5.2
Battery Characteristics
Rated voltage (lead acid):12 V, 24 V, 48 V,…..
Rated capacity: Ah, mAh
Ebatt=Cbatt * V
Wh=Ah * V
Fig. 5.3
72
Efficiency of storage
Battery Efficiency
Fig. 5.4
State Of Charge and Depth Of Discharge (SOC and DOD )
Fig. 5.5
73
2.5.2 PV Charge Controllers

PV Charge Controllers Blocking diodes in series with PV modules are used
to prevent the batteries from being discharged through the PV cells at night when
there is no sun available to generate energy. These blocking diodes also protect
the battery from short circuits. In a solar power system consisting of more than
one string connected in parallel, if a short-circuit occurs in one of the strings, the
blocking diode prevents the other PV strings from discharging through the short-
circuited string. The battery storage in a PV system should be properly controlled
to avoid catastrophic operating conditions like overcharging or frequent deep
discharging. Storage batteries account for most PV system failures and contribute
significantly to both the initial and the eventual replacement costs.
Charge controllers regulate the charge transfer and prevent the battery from
being excessively charged and discharged. Three types of charge controllers
are commonly used:
Series charge regulators.
Shunt charge regulators.
Dc–dc Converters.
 Series Charge Regulators: The basic circuit for the series regulators is
given in Fig. 5.6. In the series charge controller, the switch S1 disconnects
the PV generator when a predefined battery voltage is achieved. When the
voltage falls below the discharge limit, the load is disconnected from the
battery to avoid deep discharge beyond the limit. The main problem
associated with this type of controller is the losses associated with the
switches. This extra power loss has to come from the PV power, and this
can be quite significant. Bipolar transistors, MOSFETs, or relays are used
as the switches.
Fig. 5.6
Series Charge
Regulators
74
 Shunt Charge Regulators In this type, as illustrated

in Fig. 5.7, when the battery is fully charged the PV generator is short-circuited
using an electronic switch (S1). Unlike series controllers, this method works more
efficiently even when the battery is completely discharged, as the short circuit
switch need not be activated until the battery is fully discharged. The blocking
diode prevents short-circuiting of the battery. Shunt charge regulators are used
for small PV applications (less than 20 A).Deep-discharge protection is used to
protect the battery against deep discharge. When the battery voltage reaches
Below the minimum set point for the deep-discharge limit, switch S2 disconnects
the load. Simple series and shunt regulators allow only relatively coarse
adjustment of the current flow and seldom meet the exact requirements of PV
Systems.
Fig. 5.7 Shunt Charge Regulators
75
Dc–DC Converter Type Charge Regulators Switch mode DC to DC converters

are used to match the output of a PV generator to a variable load. There are
various types of DC-DC converters:
Buck (step-down) converter
Boost (step-up) converter
Buck-boost (step-down=up) converter.
Fig. 5.8a, Fig. 5.8b, and 23.11c show simplified diagrams of these three
basic types of converters. The basic concepts are an electronic switch, an
inductor to store energy, and a ‗‗flywheel‘‘ diode, which carries the current
during that part of switching cycle when the switch is off. The DC-DC
converters allow the charge current to be reduced continuously in such a
way that the resulting battery voltage is maintained at a specified value.
Fig. 5.8a Buck Converter
Fig. 5.8b Boost Converter
76
2.6.1 Introduction
2.6.2 Fault types
2.6.3 String protection
2.6.4 Array protection
77
2.6.1 Introduction
We know that we must take the protection of any system we installed it our
calculation so we must know. How we protect our system from any things may
damage it or let our system be out of work? We have two sides (A.C; DC) and PV
module we must protect them as we can.
Fig. 6.1
78
2.6.2 Fault types

In this Fig 6.2 . The original GFPD prototype was developed in two
versions that were similar except for voltage rating. The basic concept was to
insert a 0.5 or 1.0 amp circuit breaker in the dc system-bonding conductor
connecting the grounded circuit conductor (usually the negative) to the grounding
system (the point where equipment grounding conductors and grounding
electrode conductor are connected together). Any ground-fault currents must flow
through this bond on their way from the ground-fault point back to the driving
source, the PV module or PV array
Fig. 6.2
We can make a protection against:
ground fault
lightning
reverse current
over current
over voltage
79
And our protection will be in two sides according to the dangerous which faced it
Now we will talk about the four elements in details and any side it may occurs
Ground fault and its protection
definition of ground fault :
A ground fault in photovoltaic (PV) arrays is an accidental electrical short circuit

involving ground and one or more normally designated current-carrying
conductors. Ground-faults in PV arrays often draw people‘s safety concerns
because it may generate DC arcs at the fault point on the ground fault path. If the
fault is not cleared properly, the DC arcs could sustain and cause a fire hazard.
And it could potentially result in large fault current which may increase the risk of
fire hazards too. And it is the most common fault in PV.
Causes of ground fault
 Insulation failure of cables by a rodent animal chewing through cable

insulation and causing a ground fault.
 Incidental short circuit between normal conductor and ground by a cable
in a PV junction box contacting a grounded conductor incidentally
Ground-faults within PV modules in a solar cell short circuiting to ground
module frames due to deteriorating encapsulation or impact damage.
How we do reduction to the hazard fire (ground fault):
Detect ground faults in PV array.

Interrupt the fault current
Indicate that a ground fault had occurred
Disconnect the faulted part of the PV array
Short circuit the PV array
80
Lightning
We know that the lightning is less happen in Egypt but we must say about it due
to its high effect in the system if it occurs. Photovoltaic (PV) arrays are
generally constructed in large, open, and unobstructed locations. If lightning
occurrences are present in those locations, the system may be highly susceptible
to a lightning strike. Direct discharges to the PV array, nearby strikes to earth, and
cloud to cloud discharges may have damaging effects On the PV system and its
components. The most effect is that the component of PV system will damage
and we will need to make a new system from A to Z. And we have two type of
lightning we will protect system from them. And we will protect our system from
(direct and indirect) lightning.
At DC side Lightning may cause magnetic fields to induce transient currents into
PV system wire loops. Then transient voltages will appear at equipment terminals
and cause insulation and dielectric failures of key Components, such as inverters,
combiner boxes. So we can use air terminal to protect the system as shown
Fig. 6.2.
At AC side the inverter may also be affected by induced lightning transients and
utility switching transients that will appear at the service entrance, such as voltage
tap changing or capacitor bank switching actions and we can protect ac or dc side
by the secondary protection device Surge Protective Devices and its classification
to get it
Ability of the devices to change states quickly enough for the brief
time the transient is present
Ability to discharge the magnitude of the transient current that is
associated with the transient voltage without failing
Minimizing the voltage drop across the SPD circuit to protect the
equipment it is connected to
No interference with the normal operation of that circuit
81
String protection against reverse currents
Recalculated current can reach extremely high values, especially when there are
a large number of strings.
The modules are unable to withstand this value of current and, in the absence of
protection devices; they develop faults within a very short time.
Over current and voltage protection.
As in any installation, there should be protection against thermal effect of over

current causing any danger. The National Electrical Code defines the maximum
circuit current as 125% of the short-circuit current of the PV module (Isc).
The conductors and the over current protective device are then sized at 125% of
the maximum circuit current or 1.5 x Isc Current (Imp) of the PV module.This
means that unlike typical grid connected AC systems, the available short circuit
current is limited and the over current protective devices will need to operate
effectively on low levels of fault current.
2.6.3 String protection

Where string overcurrent protection is required, each PV string shall be protected
with an overcurrent protection device. The nominal overcurrent protection (Fuse
or Circuit breaker) rating of the string overcurrent protection device shall be
greater than 1.25 times the string short circuit current Isc stc_string. PV systems
that have three or more strings connected in parallel need to have each string
protected. Systems that have less than three strings will not generate enough
fault current to damage the conductors, equipment or modules. Therefore they do
not present a safety hazard, provided the conductor is sized correctly, and based
on local codes and installations requirements. Where three or more strings are
connected in parallel, a fuse link on each string will protect the conductors and
modules from over current faults and help minimize any safety hazards. It will also
isolate the faulted string so that the rest of the PV system can continue to
generate electricity.
It should be remembered that PV module output changes with the module
temperature as well as the amount of sun it is exposed to. The exposure is
dependent on irradiance level, incline as well as shading effect from
82
trees/buildings or clouds. In operation, fuse links, as thermal devices, are

influenced by ambient temperature. Whilst a full study of all the parameters is
recommended, the following factors should be used: 1.25 for current and 1.2 for
voltage when selecting the fuse link which covers most variation due to
installation.
2.6.4 Array protection
The nominal rated trip current of overcurrent protection devices for PV arrays
(fuses or circuit breaker) shall be greater than 1.25 times the array short-circuit
current Isc of array
The selection of overcurrent protection rating shall be done in order to avoid
unexpected trip in normal operation taking into account temperature.
A protection rating higher than 1.4 times the protected string or array short-circuits
current Isc is usually recommended. Each fuses manufacturer provides rating
selection recommendation. For Schneider Electric circuit breakers.
Notes:
Fuses (common use)
Fuses are the string protection most widely used by designers .

Unlike diodes, they disconnect the circuit if faults occur.
83
84
3.7.1 Introduction
3.7.2 Important definitions
3.7.3 Factors affecting the illumination and wattage of a
certain lamp.
3.7.4 Lamps
3.7.5 Luminaire
3.7.6 Lighting calculations and Luminaires selection
3.7.7 Lighting Project Calculations
3.7.8 Sockets
3.7.9 Methods of Layout
3.7.10 Design of Sockets
3.7.11 sockets ‎Project Calculations
85
3.7.1 Introduction
Light is electromagnetic radiation within a certain portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Thou lighting or illumination is the deliberate use of
light to achieve a practical or aesthetic effect. Lighting includes the use of both
artificial light sources like lamps and light fixtures, as well as natural illumination
by capturing daylight. Proper lighting can enhance task performance, improve the
appearance of an area, or have positive psychological effects on occupants.
Since light is the prime factor in the human life as all activities of human depend
upon the light.
Where there is no natural light, a source of artificial light was needed. Light may
be produced by passing electric currents through filaments as in the incandescent
lamps, through arcs between carbon or metal rods, or through suitable gases as
in neon and other gas tubes. In some forms of lamps the light is due to
fluorescence excited by radiation arising from the passage of electricity through
mercury vapor
3.7.2 Important definitions
Light fixture or luminaire : is an electrical device used to create artificial

light by use of an electric lamp. All light fixtures have a fixture body and a light
socket to hold the lamp and allow for its replacement.
Lamp: Energy conversion device that converts electrical energy into light.
Light : It is defined as the radiant energy from a hot body, which produces the
visual sensation upon the human eye.
Luminous flux : (lumen) it is the energy in the form of light wave radiated per
second from a luminous body. Its symbol is (F) and is measured in lumens.
Lumen: It is the luminous flux per unit solid angle from a source of candlepower
Lumen = candle power * solid angle
Illumination: When the light falls on any surface, the phenomenon is called the
illumination. It is defined as the number of lumens, falling on the surface per Unit
area. It is represented by symbol E and its unit in (lumens /m2) or (Lux)
86
Lux : a unit of illumination equal to the direct illumination on a surface that is

everywhere one meter from a uniform point source of one candle intensity or
equal to one lumen per square meter indicated as ( lm/m2 ).
Luminous intensity (candela) : It is the luminous flux emitted by the source of

light per solid angle measured in the direction, which the intensity is required.
Luminous Efficacy (η): It is defined as the ratio of the luminous flux to the
power. It is expressed in lumen per watt
Glare: Phenomenon arising from the increase of direct light intensity of the light
source itself or reflected from a surface which leads to vision absence or eye
strain.
Fig.7.1
Inverse square law : Formula stating that illumination at a point on a surface

varies directly with the intensity of a point source, and inversely as the square of
the distance between the source and the point; it illustrates how the same
quantity of light flux is distributed over a greater area as the distance from the
source to the surface is increased.
Fig.7.2 Fig.7.3
87
Mounting height (h): Distance from the bottom of the fixture to either the floor or
work plane, depending on usage.
Fig.7.4
Space high ratio: It is defined as the ratio of horizontal distance between

adjacent lamps and bright of their mountains.
Space high ratio=
Color Rendering Index (CRI): A quantitative measure of the ability of a light

source to reveal the colors of various objects faithfully in comparison with an ideal
or natural light source. Light sources with a high CRI are desirable in color-critical
applications such as neonatal care, photography and cinematography.
Uniformity ratio : A measure of the intensity of the lighting is irregular at some

level or on a surface and has two measures the first one is the ratio between the
lowest value and the value of average intensity lighting and the other is the ratio
between the lowest value and the maximum value of the intensity of illumination
88
3.7.3 Factors affecting the illumination and wattage of a

certain lamp.
Utilization factor. (U.F) (0.2 - 0.6)
It is the ratio of the lumen actually received to the total Lumens emitted by the
source, it depends on:
Room dimensions. - Color of the walls. - Type of lighting scheme.
Light Loss Factor (LLF) (0.6 - 0.85) usually known as Maintenance factor (M.F): It
is the ratio between illuminations under normal working conditions to the
illumination when everything is clean. It depends on the rate of cleaning.
M.F = 0.8 for houses = 0.3 for streets. = 0.6 - 0.7 for schools and shopping
centers.
3.7.4 Lamps
General
Lamp is a replaceable component which is designed to produce light from

electricity.
The origins of the very first lamp dates back to 70,000 BC.
Innovation of the first practical incandescent lamp by Thomas Edison and joseph
Swan in the nineteenth century.
Types of Lamps
Lamps used for lighting g purposes can be classified as follow chart:
89
Chart 7.1
Filament Lamps The filament lamp is a common type of light bulb. It contains a
thin coil of wire called the filament. This heats up when an electric current passes
through it, and produces light as a result.
Fig. 7.5
90
Discharge Lamps
Are families of artificial light sources that generate light by sending an electrical
discharge through an ionized gas, a plasma. The character of the gas discharge
depends on the pressure of the gas as well as the frequency of the current.
Fig. 7.6
Light Emitting Diodes (LED)
is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction diode, which emits

light when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons
are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in
the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the
light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy
band gap of the semiconductor.
Fig. 7.7
91
Fiber optic Lamps
Optical fiber can be used for transmitting light from a source to a remote location
for illumination as well as communications. In fact, fibers are made to not only
transmit light but to glow along the fiber itself, so it resembles a neon light tube.
Applications for fiber optic lighting are many, generally based on utilizing the
special attributes of the fiber as well as its unique characteristics
Table 7.1 Comparing between Fluorescent lamp and incandescent filament lamp
92
3.7.5 Luminaire
Every type of Lamps comes with a case according to the consumer needs
to allow its usage in the different fields and to suit every condition around it there
for we have water proof lamps for using inside toilets kitchens and there are
surface mounted types and also reassessed type.
The luminaire consists of
 Housing: the outer body of the luminaire.
 Diffuser: responsible of diffusing lumens on a narrow beam or a wide

beam.
 Reflector: placed behind the lamps and responsible of reflecting the

lumens from going up to the celling to ground.
The luminaire controls the lighting by its diffuser therefor the inner lighting can be
divided as
1. Direct lighting: 90 % of lumens are directed to the working plane where the
remaining 10 % are directed to the walls. It is used in the Drawing rooms and
medical operation rooms.
2. Semi Direct light: 70 % of lumens are directed to the working plane where the
remaining 30% on the walls this type is used in offices and libraries
3. Indirect lighting: 10% of the lumens are directed to the working plane and the
other 90 % on the walls.
This type is used in cinemas and museums.
4. Semi indirect lighting: 30% of the lumens are directed to the working plane
and the remaining 70 % are directed to walls.
This type is used in shows, tunnels, commercial markets and pharmacies.
93
3.7.6 Lighting calculations and Luminaires selection

Luminaires selection
1. We have to specify the type of the celling whether it is recessed or

suspended or surface celling
2. Specify the type or lamp suitable for the room application.
3. Specify the luminaire specifications like type of the cover and the number
of IP Index Protection (IP) A two-digit number is used to provide and IP Rating to
a piece of electronic equipment or to enclosure for electronic equipment.
The two digit represents two different forms of environmental influence the first
digit represents protection against ingress of solid objects the second digit
represents protection against ingress of liquids
The higher the value of each digit, the greater the protection from that influence.
Fig. 7.8
94
Lighting Calculations
There are two types of calculations manual calculation and programed

calculations A – Manual calculations:
Steps of Calculations
1. Calculate the dimensions of the room (A _ B _ H ) where

A = length of the room
B = Width of the room
H = height of the room
Then calculate the area of the room Area = Length (A) * Width (B)
2. Specify the amount of luminance (E) Lux required, according to the space
purpose (see appendix A )
3. Specify the lamp type according to purpose of the place from different lighting
catalogues
Like Philips, Hansel, BEGA, ASTZ or any other company.

Then specify the lumen ( Ф ) of the single lamp.
4. Specify the factors of the Room:
 Utilization Factor ( U.F ) : reveals how much of the flux emitted by the
lamp reach the working plane, this is obtained from the tables, ceiling
and wall reflectance's are of the factors affecting the (U.F) usually
equals 0.8 .
 Maintenance factor ( M.F ) : Selected based on where the luminaries

(fixture) are to be used usually equals 0.75 for indoor regular
luminaires cleaning applications or equals 0.8 for indoor irregular
luminaires cleaning applications.
95
5. Calculate the No. of the lamps (N) required to give the calculated amount of
lumen
( ) ( )
N= ( ) ( )
6. Calculate No. Of Luminaires used
( )
No. of luminaires =
7. Arrange the luminaires by using line arrangement or field arrangement taking

into consideration the Aesthetic touch and the regular distribution of lumens and
avoiding glare
Also taking the luminaires distribution rules the distance between the luminaires
and each others are equal the distance between the luminaires near the wall and
the wall is half the distance between luminaires and each other.
Fig. 7.9
96
Example :
Prepare the lighting design for the following A toilet of

Area 5*4 m2 & height 4m, surface celling
 Celling type : surface
 Type of lamp : Fluorescent
 Type of luminaire : Water proof Pacific TCW 215 (2*36W) ( 1.6 m * .14 m)
 lumen by one luminaire : 8750 lumen
 Area = 5 * 6 = 30 m2
 from the table of lux the toilet requires 300 lux
 Factors ( U.F = .8 & M.F = .8 )
 N = (300 * 30 ) / ( 8750 * 0.8 * 0.8 ) =1.607 after approximation N = 2
luminaires
X + 1.6 + 2X + 1.6 + X = 6 X = 0.8333 m

Y + 0.14 + Y = 5 Y = 2.33644 m
Fig. 7.10
Programmed Calculations
Lighting calculations can be done by programs designed especially for this

purpose like Dialux, Calculux
97
3.7.7 Lighting Project Calculations
Lighting distributions
Fig. 7.11 Lighting distribution and wiring of basement
Fig. 7.12 Lighting distribution and wiring of Roof
98
Fig. 7.13 Lighting distribution and wiring of 2nd floor
Fig. 7.14 Lighting distribution and wiring of 1st floor
99
Fig. 7.15 Lighting distribution and wiring of ground floor
Used Lamps
Fig. 7.16
100
3.7.8 Sockets
General Discussion:
Sockets are the electrical outlets, which supply the electrical equipment &
instruments by its needed power (current & voltage).
Distribution of different types of sockets in a building depends mainly on the type
and use of that building
Types of Sockets:
 Normal sockets.
 Power sockets.
Normal Sockets


 .

the room.

the circuit.

Fig. 7.17
101
Power Sockets:
 e used mainly for heavy loads such as heaters, dishwasher,

microwave, freezer, exhaust fans, oven, and cleaners.

 el
board.

rating and taking
 Into consideration the starting period which increases the delivered current
higher than
 Rated current at running operation.
 ets =32A
Fig. 7.18
102
3.7.9 Methods of Layout
There are two methods for sockets layout:
 Wall Mounted
 Floor Sockets
Sockets are mounted on wall at different locations.
Floor Sockets
For under floor trucking system is required enables a quick and neat installation of
all the new buildings as well as for the refitting of modern facilities, airports and
office areas, an cables and equipment for power, communications and data
processing, yet permitting the
clean combination of a number of different cable layouts within the same trucking.
3.7.10 Design of Sockets
 Sockets used to supply the electrical equipment.

 Sockets should be fixed at height (35-40 cm), but in kitchen & bathrooms
should be fixed at height (135 cm) that's from the final ground datum.
 Sockets are defined at a certain value of voltage & current ,there are
sockets may work under different values of voltage , so when the previous
two types are used in the same project they must be of different terminals to
avoid overlap of using them.
 Sockets must have a strong mechanical & electrical contact with its suitable
plug.
103
 Sockets must have an earthed contact with size differs from the size of the
life & neutral contacts (terminals).
 Sockets copper terminals must be prevented from touching during the
operation.
 The socket box must contain the value of its rated voltage & current.
 The socket box is made of rigid insulating material & also nonflammable
material & has high melting temperature.
 The space between the boxes of sockets behind each other on a wall must
be separated by a distance at least 20 – 30 cm to avoid making a hall in the
wall.
 Each two successive sockets are placed (2 - 3 m) apart according to the
location where it is placed.
 Each circuit contains maximum 5- 6 sockets in order to use cable to the
distribution board 3 mm2
3.7.11 socket ‎Project Calculations
Normal socket
 Supply install 220V, 16A normal socket outlet inside the wall (MAJIC type)
complete with all the necessary accessories. The outside cover is in a
suitable color. The contacts are manufactured from thick copper.
 The sockets circuit take from 4 to 5 normal socket.
 Locations of normal socket are shown in drawings.
 units
30 units in basement
20 units in ground floor
24 units in first floor
23 units in second floor
3 units in Roof
104
Power socket
 Supply install 220V, 25A Power socket outlet inside the wall (MAJIC type)
complete with all the necessary accessories. The outside cover is in a
suitable color.
 The contacts are manufactured from thick copper.
 Power sockets can be put in kitchens and offices.
 There is only one power socket on the circuit.
 Locations of power socket are shown in drawings.
 Quantity: 30 units
Socket distributions
Fig. 7.19 Sockets & Switches Distribution & Wiring of Basement
105
Fig. 7.20 Sockets & Switches Distribution & Wiring of ground floor
Fig. 7.21 Sockets & Switches Distribution & Wiring of 1st floor
106
Fig. 7.22 Sockets & Switches Distribution & Wiring of 2nd floor
Fig. 7.23 Sockets & Switches Distribution & Wiring of roof
107
Load Schedule
Fig. 7.24 Ground floor
Fig. 7.251st floor
108
Fig. 7.26 2nd floor
Fig. 7.27 Roof
109
Fig. 7.28 Basement
Fig. 7.29 Total Building
110
3.8.1 How we calculate system design for solar cell

3.8.2 PV Sizing
111
3.8.1 How we calculate system design for solar cell

Step 1:Calculate your load
1. Decide what appliances (type,number,rating and operation number of
hours)
2. Calculate the power of all appliances (P load)
3. Calculate the total Watt Hour (E load)
Step 2: Calculation of PV array and selection of module.

Assume efficiency of inverter 90%
Depth of discharge battery 70%
Efficiency of Charger controller 85 %
E array =E load / ( ) ( ) ( )
P array = E array/peak sun hour
Assume P module=250 w
No. of modules=P array/P module
You should have decided your system voltage, 12/24 V or 48 V. The higher the
voltage, the lower the current and the lower the copper loss will be in the
conductor.
We will choose system voltage 48 V.
Connection of modules:
Assume data of modules (I s.c =7.5A,Vo.c =14.3V,12V)
If there were 10 modules, then we will connect modules one of them in series and
the rest in parallel.
Step 3: Rating of inverter
P inv=P load/ ( )
Step 4: Selection of battery
Battery data (100A.h, 12V)

Assume days of autonomy =2 days
Depth of discharge (DOD)=70%
112
Total Ah of the batteries=Eload*days of autonomy/ ( ) ( )*DOD*Vsys

NO. of batteries=Total A.h/A.h of battery, connecting in parallel.
Connection in series:
If Vsys=48 V and Vbatt=12V.
Then we will connect 4 batteries in series.
Step 5: Selection charge controller
Calculate short circuit current of the array.

I s.c(array)=I s.c(module) *No. of modules connecting in parallel
I s.c(reg) =I s.c(array) *1.3
Rating of regulator=P inv/ ( )
113
3.8.2 PV Sizing
KWh Estimation
Fig. 8.1
114
System Design
Fig. 8.2
115
Solar Energy Fundamentals, Technology, and Systems,

2014 edition , Klaus Jäger, Olindo Isabella, Arno H.M. Smets,
René A.C.M.M. van Swaaij, Miro Zema.
Solar Electricy handbook, 2013 edition , Michael Boxwell.
Solar Electric System Design,Operation and Installation,
2009 edition, the Washington State University
Photovoltaic Systems Engineering, 2nd Edition, Roger A.
Messenger
and Jerry Ventre
Egyptian Electrical Code, 2013 edition.
Official Lectures in power and machines engineering
department , El-Alzhar university ,2016, Dr. Ibarhim Nassar.
‫المرجع فى التركبياث والتصمياث الكهربيت الخبرة العمليت واألسس النظريت‬
‫ الذكتىر محمىد الجيالنى‬, 2010 ‫ أكتىبر‬,
116

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Solar Home Building July 2016

Then we wish to express our deep thanks to our supervisor :

Dr.Eng. / Ibrahim Nassar

Special thanks are extended to academic staff of Electrical power

Solar Home Building

Graduation project 2016

S olar electricity is one of the most accessible forms of renewable energy

PV devices generate electricity directly from sunlight via an electronic process

1.1.2 History of Photovoltaic Technology

1.1.3 Energy Plan of Egypt

NREA, New and Renewable Energy Authority, has prepared a study in

Status of PV System in Egypt.

1.1.4 Energy forms from sun

1.1.5 The Solar Radiation

Classification of Global Solar Radiation:

Difference between irradiation (H) and irradiance (G):

Fig. 1.6‫[هل‬ Fig. 1.7‫[هل‬

Cairo Sun Path Charts.

Solar radiation variation

Solar radiation just above the earth‘s

Solar Irradiation in Cairo According to Angles

1.1.6 Light spectrum and wavelengths

1.1.8 P-N Junction

Fig. 1.14 (a) Illustrating the absorption of a

. Fig. 2.1 Cells, modules and arrays.

1.2.2 The PV Cell

1.2.3 Solar Cell types

Crystalline Silicon and Thin Film Technologies

Conversion efficiencies of various PV module technologies

Technology Module efficiency

1.2.4 Electrical properties of solar cells

Fig.2.5 Current voltage curve for

- An un-illuminated Fig. 2.6 solar cell is described in the equivalent circuit

Fig.2.6 Dark equivalent circuit diagram and characteristic curve

Fig.2.7 Illuminated equivalent circuit diagram and characteristic curve

Fig.2.8 Extended equivalent circuit diagram

Effect of light intensity on the I-V Curve

1.2.5 Module and array design.

Fig. 2.9 Connection manifolding arrangements for parallel flow modules

Generally, flat-plate collector is made to connect to the main pipes of the

Fig. 2.11 Direct-return array piping

Fig. 2.12 reverse-return array piping

For Fig. 2.13 Mounting for drain-back collector module

Solar Module collection practical

For Fig. 2.14 Solar Module collection

Fig. 2.15 Soldering

3- Encapsulate Solar Module

4-Get Solar Module

Fig. 2.18 Solar panel

5- Put junction box and bypass diode

Fig. 2.19 junction box and bypass diode

Behavior of solar cells in parallel connection.

Fig. 3.1 mismatch of two parallel connected solar cells

Fig. 3.2 Shadow effect by PV syst. Simulation

1.3.3 Types of Solar PV System

Grid-connected solar PV systems

The main application of solar PV in Singapore is grid-connected, as Singapore‘s

Fig.3.5 Grid-connected solar PV system configuration

Off-grid solar PV systems

Fig.3.6 . Off-grid solar PV system configuration

Grid-connected solar PV systems Block diagram

Off-grid solar PV systems Block diagram

Fig.3.9 Line diagram of on grid system

1.3.4 Cables and wiring