Renewable Energy Focus 44 (2023) 344–356

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Renewable Energy Focus

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Floating solar photovoltaic (FSPV) potential in Zambia: Case studies on

six hydropower power plant reservoirs
Damaseck Chirwa a, Rahul Goyal b,⇑, Enock Mulenga c
a
Energy Regulation Board of Zambia, Copperbelt Region, Kitwe, Zambia
b
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Department of Energy Science and Engineering, Delhi, India
c
School of Engineering, Copperbelt University, Kitwe, Zambia Division of Energy Science-Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Lulea University of Technology, Sweden

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study assesses the technical resource potential for floating solar photovoltaic systems on Zambia’s
Received 22 July 2022 existing hydro-based power plants. The research uses System Advisor Model (SAM) and has made some
Revised 22 January 2023 input changes to adapt the standard photovoltaic performance model to Floating Solar Photovoltaics. The
Accepted 22 January 2023
input changes are the tilt angle and the losses. Tilt has been taken as 5o, while the soiling losses have been
Available online 1 February 2023
taken as zero (0). Zambia’s theoretical maximum floating solar photovoltaic potential (100% coverage)
was found to be 254.083 GWp. The floating solar photovoltaic potential in Zambia at 10% coverage is
Keywords:
the best option. It was found to be 25.408 GWp, while the energy generated was 43,448.1212 GWh.
Floating Solar Photovoltaics
theoretical maximum
Compared to the total installed electricity (3.011) GW, this power is 8 times more than the current
FSPV resource potential installed capacity. Kariba dam shows the highest potential of 24.461 GWp, followed by Itezhi Tezhi
hydropower (0.506 GWp), Kafue Gorge Upper (0.393 GWp), Mita Hills (0.0314) GWp, Mulungushi Dam (0.0131)
National Energy Policy GWp, and Kafue Gorge Lower (0.0043 GWp). The country has an average photovoltaics electricity daily
Evaporation Savings output ranging from 4.54 to 4.85 kWh/kWp, which equates to 1658 to 1772 kWh/kWp totals. The find-
ings of this study will increase public awareness of floating solar photovoltaic systems and It will allow
the government and investors to consider investing in the technology. This shall ultimately increase
power generation in Zambia, helping to alleviate the country’s 0.81 GWp power deficit. The National
Energy Policy facilitates the development and deployment of renewable and alternative energy sources
like hydropower and solar photovoltaic power. Through this policy, an assessment of the resource poten-
tial for ground-mounted Solar photovoltaics has been conducted. The policy does not mention the new
technology of floating solar photovoltaic systems, which benefits from an increased energy yield due
to the cooling effect of water since it is located on the water’s surface. Lower shading, decreased civil
works, lower grid interconnection costs, reduced water evaporation, enhanced water quality, lowered
algae blooming, and valuable land are released for other uses, such as agricultural land or residential
developments, when existing water reservoirs are used. Some potential benefits come with the new tech-
nology, although it is still nascent.
Ó 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction solar energy generation’s cost competitiveness (IRENA 2019) [1].

A floating solar photovoltaic (FSPV) system is a novel technol-
ogy in which a photovoltaic (PV) system is installed directly on
top of a body of water, such as a reservoir, lake, pond, or canal,
rather than on land or at the roof of buildings, like conventional
PV installation. In recent years, technological developments and
decreasing PV module capital costs have dramatically increased
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: dchirwa@erb.org.zm (D. Chirwa), rahulgoyal@dese.iitd.ac.in,
goel.rahul87@gmail.com (R. Goyal), enock.mulenga@ltu.se (E. Mulenga).
This new opportunity has resulted in installing over 300 floating
solar installations worldwide, allowing for expanding solar gener-
ating capacity, particularly in countries with dense populations
and multiple competing uses for available land [2]. This system
is configured similarly to a land-based photovoltaic system, except
that the photovoltaic arrays and inverters are located on the float-
ing platform, as shown in Figure 1.1. Inverters convert direct cur-
rent (DC) electricity generated by PV modules to alternating
current (AC). For small-scale FSPV plants near the shore, inverters
can be placed on land close to the array. Otherwise, special floats
equipped with either central or string inverters are typically used.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ref.2023.01.007
1755-0084/Ó 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D. Chirwa, R. Goyal and E. Mulenga Renewable Energy Focus 44 (2023) 344–356

Nomenclature

FSPV Floating Solar Photovoltaics SAM System Advisory Model

GMPV Ground Mounted Photovoltaics NEP National Energy Policy
GHG Green House Gas ESR Energy Sector Report
PV Photovoltaics SERIS Solar Energy Research Institute of Singapore
GHI Global Horizontal Irradiation HDPE High Density Polyethylene
DNI Direct Normal Irradiation MDPE Medium Density Polyethylene
DHI Diffuse Horizontal Irradiation KGL Kafue Gorge Lower
kWh Kilo Watt Hour KGU Kafue Gorge Upper
kW Kilo Watt MPS Mulungushi Power Station
TERI The Energy and Resources Institute MOL Minimum Operating Level
IPP Independent Power Producers NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory
LHPC Lunsemfwa Hydro Power Company
ITPC Itezhi Tezhi Power Company
MCL Maamba Collieries Limited

Fig. 1.1. Critical components of a large-scale FSPV system [2].

Any floating PV installation would be incomplete without the float-
ing platform, anchoring, and mooring system.
Zambia currently has approximately 0.89 GWp of solar PV
capacity, all of which are ground-mounted. While installing a
ground-mounted solar photovoltaic (GMPV) system requires a sig-
nificant amount of territory, land-scarce developing nations such
as Zambia have to priotise land use for agricultural, forestry, or
other purposes. By co-locating solar PV systems above man-made
bodies of water such as dams, FSPV systems may provide an alter-
native to scaling up renewables by increasing generation capacity
and alleviating conflicting land-use constraints [3].
The temperature of GMPV panels significantly impacts the
behaviour of a PV system, as it affects system efficiency and output
energy. GMPV modules’ higher operating temperatures are a sub-
stantial loss factor for energy generation in hot climates. [4] The
greater the cell operating temperature, the lower the power output
and, as a result, the efficiency. Installing PV panels on bodies of
water cools the PV module, improving performance by 5–10 %
and resulting in substantial cost savings over time [5]. Therefore,
it is necessary to carry out an evaluation of the resource potential
of FSPV in Zambia and explore its benefits, particularly when com-
bined with current hydropower such as:

Water reservoirs can be utilised to minimise land-energy con-
flicts by freeing up valuable land to be used for other purposes
such as agriculture or residential constructions (e.g., a land-use
designation based on energy versus food concerns);

Significant reduction in land acquisition as well as site prepara-
tory costs;

Reduced evaporation is a benefit of placing solar PV modules on
the surface of a water body, which is especially important in
locations where water is limited. It is a big benefit for countries
whose rainfall pattern has been disturbed due to global
warming;

Due to the temperature-regulating influence of water, potential
system efficiency and production can be increased;

Improvements in solar PV performance as a result of reduced
shading;

Increasing the density of panels in a particular area (larger
installed capacity per unit area);

Less water-body maintenance expenditures as a result of
reduced algal growth; and

When hydropower is co-located with solar, the power system
improves, and capital costs are reduced since there is no cost
for constructing a transmission line and substations [3].

345
D. Chirwa, R. Goyal and E. Mulenga
The fifth goal of the National Energy Policy (NEP) of Zambia; is
to increase the use of renewable energy to broadening the energy
mix and, as a result, reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) while
also protecting and preserving the environment [6]. Part of this
goal was achieved by conducting a Solar Resource and PV Potential
Assessment, but only for GMPV systems, with no consideration
given to other PV technologies such as FSPV.
Increased access to electricity is the sixth objective of the NEP,
which is in line with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Develop-
ment’s goal of improving the living conditions of citizens [6]. The
Government of the Republic of Zambia has set a deadline of 2030
for achieving universal access to electricity for all people in the
country. Currently, only 31 % have access to electricity, with urban
residents accounting for 67 % of those with access and rural resi-
dents accounting for only 4 % [7]. As such, a technical resource
potential for FSPV is inevitable.
Zambia’s 2020 projected demand focus, according to the Energy
Sector Report (ESR) 2020, was around 2.31 GWp, with an average
generation of around 1.5 GWp. It resulted in an 0.81 GWp power
deficit in the electricity supply industry in 2020, which was attrib-
uted to lower water levels in the major power generation reser-
voirs. In recent years, changes in rainfall patterns have impacted
the country’s electricity generation, resulting in low water levels
in several reservoirs. According to the Zambia Meteorological
Department, rainfall in Zambia’s Southern Region, where most
power plants are located, remained below normal throughout the
2018/2019 rainy seasons [8]. As a result, FSPV’s technical resource
potential is needed to guide the government and power plant own-
ers on how much power can be generated from the technology.
Zambia’s population is expected to increase from 17.9 million in
2019 to 26.9 million in 2035, increasing the demand for energy ser-
vices like electricity. Due to demographic and socioeconomic fac-
tors, the country’s energy consumption increases at a 6% annual
rate or 0.15-0.2 gigawatts. As a result, the energy sector must take
measures and make interventions to ensure that future energy
demands are met [6].
Hydropower dominates Zambia’s generation mix, accounting
for approximately 79.65% of installed capacity. Coal (10.96%),
heavy fuel oil (3.65%), diesel (2.78%), and solar account for the
remainder of the generation (2.96%). Wind, geothermal, and
waste-to-energy technologies contribute 0% to the electricity gen-
eration mix [9]. The country has a total installed capacity of 3.011
GWp, of which 2.4 GWp comes from hydropower, which has the
potential to grow to 6GWp [8]. Other sources of power include coal
power plants (0.33 GWp), heavy fuel oil (0.11 GWp), solar energy
(0.089 GWp), and diesel-powered plants, which account for the
remaining 0.084 GWp Large hydropower projects in Zambia with
a combined capacity of more than 2.800 GWp are undergoing fea-
sibility studies on the country’s major rivers. Unfortunately,
according to the energy sector report for 2020, climate change sig-
nificantly impacts hydropower generation. Table 1.1 shows the
capacity of installed electricity generation in the country [8].
As shown in Table 1.1, most of Zambia’s generation is domi-
nated by hydropower. When a drought is experienced, power gen-
eration capacities are significantly lost at all the power stations.
Table 1.1
Generation Capacity for Electricity in Zambia [8].
SN. Technology Capacity (GWp) Percentage (%)
1 Hydro 2.40 79.65
2 Coal 0.33 10.96
3 Heavy fuel oil 0.11 3.65
4 Solar 0.089 2.96
5 Diesel 0.084 2.78
Total 3.01
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Renewable Energy Focus 44 (2023) 344–356
Other low-carbon energy technologies, such as FSPV, must be pri-
oritised and deployed at large scales in light of the climate change
targets set for 2030. World Bank’s solar resource assessment found
that Zambia is one of Africa’s countries with the highest concentra-
tion of solar resources. The country has average solar irradiation of
5.5 kWh/m2/day and approximately 3,000 sunshine hours per
year; it is an excellent location for photovoltaic and solar thermal
systems (including electricity generation, solar home systems,
solar water pumping, and solar water heating). Currently, the
country has an installed capacity of 0.089 GWp GMPV. Many fac-
tors, including high capital costs and insufficient regulatory frame-
works for renewable energy systems, have been attributed to the
low level of investment in solar energy electricity generation.
These factors have created investment uncertainty, which has led
to a lack of investment [6].
In light of Zambia’s growing energy needs of about 0.2 GWp
every year, a deficit of 0.81 GWp that was experienced in 2020
leading to daily load shedding, reduced generation as a result of
decreased water levels in the storage facilities, and now abun-
dant solar resources available; it is essential to evaluate the
FSPV resource potential on existing hydropower dams so that
a favourable policy and regulatory framework for FSPV can be
established in Zambia. Increasing the renewable energy share
through solar PV technology, which is currently 2.96 %, and
expanding access to clean, dependable, and inexpensive electric-
ity must be accomplished through proven and workable tech-
nologies like FSPV.
State of the Art
Numerous papers on a similar subject area have been published
on the potential FSPV, and its benefits [1–4,10], and several
pertinent studies focus on the evolution, technical potential, and
efficiency improvement of FSPV.
In 2007, the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science
and Technology (AIST) in Aichi, Japan, completed the construction
of the world’s first FSPV plant with a capacity of 20 kWp. In Califor-
nia, the United States of America, Far Niente Winery implemented
the first commercial-scale system with a 1.75 x 10-3 GWp capacity
in 2008 [2,11]. They floated it over a reservoir to avoid taking up
valuable vineyard space. Due to the proven reliability and banka-
bility of FSPV systems, plants with tens or even hundreds of mega-
watts of capacity have recently been built in China and worldwide.
In 2016, the world’s first plant with a capacity greater than 0.01
GWp was built, and in 2018, multiple plants with a capacity
greater than 0.1 GWp were installed, the biggest of which was
0.15 GWp. Figure 2.1 shows the evolution of the FSPV technology.
The global installed capacity reached over 1.6 GW in 2019, a 35 %
increase from 2018 [12]. There is a trend of increasing FSPV tech-
nology used globally, from barely 0.002 GW in 2009 to 1.656 GW
in 2019.
Studies on the assessment of floating solar photovoltaic poten-
tial in existing hydropower reservoirs in Africa have been con-
ducted; this study analyses the potential for FSPV installation in
Africa using highly accurate water surface data from the conti-
nent’s largest 146 hydropower reservoirs. The results indicate that
harnessing the full potential of the FSPV resource for electricity
production (100% of the reservoir area, which totals 29,222 km2)
would result in a nearly 50-fold increase in output compared to
hydropower (from 105 TWh to 5293 TWh). FSPV’s total installed
capacity would be 2922 GW (more than 250 times the cumulative
installed PV capacity of roughly 11GW at the end of 2020 and 104
times compared to the current installed hydropower capacity of 28
GW. The research further shows results for Zambia’s FSPV potential
on five (5) reservoirs with a total surface area of 3379.8 km2; the
D. Chirwa, R. Goyal and E. Mulenga
Fig. 2.1. Global FSPV Capacity Progression [12].
results indicate that coverage of 0.46% of the reservoirs’ surface
area shall produce 2961.2 GWh of energy [13].
Africa has the highest untapped technical hydropower poten-
tial, with Zambia possessing 6 GW but exploiting only 2.4 GW.
According to the International Hydropower Association, only 11%
of the total technical potential has been developed. In light of Afri-
ca’s growing energy needs, the study examines the feasibility of a
viable energy symbiosis between solar PV and hydropower via
the development of floating photovoltaic systems. According to
the study, FSPV solutions could quickly ramp up installed power
capacities by leveraging current facilities and local expertise. The
FSPV could also compensate for reduced hydroelectric power pro-
duction throughout dry periods and minimise water loss due to
evaporation [14].
According to the World Bank and Singapore’s Solar Energy
Research Institute (SERIS), the worldwide potential of FSPV may
range between 400 GW and 1000 GW based on the available sur-
face area of man-made water bodies worldwide, with China lead-
ing the way. Flooded coal mines are being used by solar
developers, fuelled by China’s ‘‘Top Runner” initiative, converting
these environmental and social calamities into opportunities; this
has resulted in China possessing the world’s largest floating solar
arrays, ranging in size from 0.2 to 0.15 GW per site and located
in Anhui Province. A gain in energy of 5% to 10% is reported in war-
mer regions with global horizontal radiation for flat-plate PV of
more than 1600 W/m2 like Zambia [2].
Another report titled Top 200 Operational Floating Solar PV
Plants; reports that FSPV has continued to gain popularity as of
2019 due to its many benefits and following market developments.
As the technology improves and becomes more affordable, many
countries are creating their own (FSPV) systems in freshwater
and marine environments. FSPV systems’ demonstrated depend-
ability and bankability have increased the average project size in
recent years. By the end of 2019, there were a few operational FSPV
projects with more than 0.1 GW capacities [12].
In the United States of America, a technical potential of photo-
voltaic Systems on Man-Made Water Bodies was performed.
Despite growing interest in FSPV, the report says that there has
been no systematic assessment of technical potential. Even with
conservative assumptions, the results indicate that FSPV can con-
tribute significantly to the United States’ electric sector. A maxi-
mum of 24,419 man-made bodies of water was identified as
potentially appropriate for FSPV generation, accounting for 27%
of the total number and 12% of the area of man-made bodies of
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Renewable Energy Focus 44 (2023) 344–356
water in the contiguous United States. FSPV systems covering just
27% of the identified suitable water bodies could generate nearly
10% of the nation’s current generation. Additionally, varying the tilt
angle from 5° to 15° resulted in 4% and 2% annual generation
change, respectively. A standard tilt of 11° was assumed for FSPV
[15].
The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) in New Delhi
researched medium and large reservoirs in India to determine FSPV
potential. FSPV plants with a capacity of 280 GWp can be built on
approximately 18,000 km2 of water surface area across several
states, according to research [10]. At Ambazari Lake in Nagpur,
Maharashtra, a proposed 1 MWp FSPV plant’s techno-economic
analysis was conducted. The results indicate that the FSPV plant’s
generation efficiency will be 2.5% to 3% higher than that of a con-
ventional ground-mounted photovoltaic (PV) system, and 191 mil-
lion litres of water will be saved annually through evaporation. The
energy generation and price of electricity are estimated at least
1614 MWh per year and 3 INR/kWh for the chosen location. The
FSPV plant will be responsible for bridging the gap between electri-
cal energy demand and supply. When likened to ground-mounted
solar PV systems, it has a more significant environmental benefit
[16].
Young-Kwan Choi’s report for K-Water, Korea Water
Resources Corporation, compares the performance of a floating
photovoltaic system to that of an on-land plant. According to
the study, FSPV modules operate at a lower temperature than
GMPV modules; the chosen FSPV has an average efficiency of
11% higher than GMPV [17]. The University of Malaysia con-
ducted another study that simulated an 80W floating PV plant
using multi-crystalline cells. Compared to a standard PV over-
land module, the experimental system produces 6% and 15%
more power in the short-term (2 hours during midday) and
long-term simulations. The advantages of such floating applica-
tions for tropical countries with high irradiance and temperature
are also emphasised [18].
Another study in Korea examines the potential of floating pho-
tovoltaic (PV) systems and estimates the generation capacity for
3401 reservoirs. OpenAPI is used to create and analyse a water
depth database to find a suitable reservoir for floating PV installa-
tion. Data from a typical meteorological year (TMY) and topo-
graphical information are used to predict the irradiance
distribution. Yearly electricity production from all reservoirs was
estimated at 2932 GWh, reducing GHG emissions by around
1,294,450 tons per year (according to the study) [19].
D. Chirwa, R. Goyal and E. Mulenga
In the Zambian context, the World Bank assessed and mapped
solar resources for the country as part of a broader technical assis-
tance project supported by the Energy Sector Management Assis-
tance Program (ESMAP). The project included biomass, solar, and
wind mapping. Six ESMAP measuring stations in Zambia were used
to collect and harmonise data to obtain reference solar radiation
data to reduce the model’s uncertainty. According to the findings,
the average daily output of photovoltaic electricity ranges between
4.3 and 4.6 kWh/kWp (equivalent to average annual totals of 1550
to 1680 kWh/kWp). As a result, Zambia falls among countries with
a high potential for photovoltaic power generation. This assess-
ment is for land-based or ground-mounted solar PV, not SPV
[20]. As a result of this assessment, the country now has an
installed capacity of 0.89GW of GMPV. Other outcomes include
GET FiT Zambia, a government-run program designed to attract
private-sector investment in small and medium-sized renewable
energy, especially for independent power producers (IPPs) in Zam-
bia. Accordingly, to increase solar power capacity, GET FiT Zambia
awarded three consortiums a total of six solar PV projects totalling
0.12 GWp in 2019. Zambia’s energy mix will be diversified region-
ally and technologically with these projects. Unfortunately, since
2019, none of the projects has been completed due to challenges,
such as land for GMPV installations being occupied by settlers
who need to be resettled and renewable energy sector uncertainty
[21].
The 2019 edition of the Energy Sector Report contains valuable
information about the performance of Zambia’s energy sector. The
report highlights the various programs, projects, and initiatives
undertaken to improve the sector’s performance during the review
period. It reports that climate change has negatively impacted the
electricity sub-sector and has negatively impacted rainfall patterns
and compromised hydropower generation over the years. To
address this, the Zambian government, in accordance with the
National Energy Policy 2019, which aims to expand renewable
energy use to diversify the energy mix, has continued to imple-
ment various initiatives, such as the diversification of electricity
sources, in 2019 [9]. The 2020 Energy Sector Report highlights that;
changes in climatic conditions such as global warming, insufficient
rainfall, and drought put the country at risk due to the electricity
sub-dominance sectors of hydropower generation. Only 1.5 GW
of generation capacity was available in 2020, compared to a
demand of 2.31 GW, resulting in an 0.81 GW shortfall [8]. Zambia
needs to evaluate the potential of FSPV on its man-made dams,
especially the ones used for hydroelectric power generation, since
there are already existing electricity infrastructures such as step-
up substations and transmission lines for exporting the generated
FSPV power to the national grid.
In conclusion, there has been a significant amount of research
into floating solar PV; research entitled ‘‘Assessment of floating
solar photovoltaics potential in existing hydropower reservoirs in
Africa” concludes that from Zambia’s five (5) big hydro reservoirs,
the total surface area available is 3379.8 km2. It states that 6823.8
GWh of energy can be produced using only 0.46% of the total sur-
face area available [13]. However, no in-depth technical perfor-
mance analysis has been conducted to produce other outcomes
such as the Performance Ratio (PR), Capacity Utilisation Factor
(CUF), Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE), Net Present Value (NPV),
and Payback Period. Photovoltaic Geographical Information System
(PVGIS), an online software that calculates how much energy can
be produced from various PV systems, is used in the report to
assess the technical potential for Africa and Zambia. It leaves out
the performance analysis parameters, such as the PR, CUF, and
LCOE, that help select a viable project. Hence in this research, Sys-
tem Advisory Model (SAM) software shall be used to evaluate the
technical potential of FSPV in Zambia. It is an unrestricted
techno-economic software model that assists people working in
348
Renewable Energy Focus 44 (2023) 344–356
the renewable energy industry in deciding their investments.
SAM software can simulate FSPV, whereas PVGIS only supports
rooftop and GMPV simulations [4]. When a particular site such
as the Itezhi Tezhi dam is simulated in SAM for a 1 MW, the output
energy of 2127000 kWh is higher than the simulation done in
PVGIS energy output of 152059.68 kWh.
Methods and data applied
The major goal of this research is to evaluate the FSPV technical
resource potential in ZAMBIA on its existing hydropower dams,
namely, Kariba, Itezhi-Tezhi, Kafue Gorge Upper & Lower, Mulun-
gushi, and Mita Hills. This shall enable the government to develop
sound policies and also provide more information to project devel-
opers and researchers concerning FSPV in Zambia. Figure 3.1 below
shows the map of Zambia and the location of each hydropower
dam used in the analysis of the technical resource potential. Four
of the dams are located in the Southern province (Kariba dam –
1080 MW, KGU – 990 MW, KGL – 750 & ITT – 120 MW) while
the other two are in the Central province (Mulungushi – 32 MW
& Mita Hills – 24 MW) [22,23].
The predicted effects of installing a 1 MW FSPV system at the
selected sites can be evaluated in simple steps using the flowchart
shown in Figure 3.2 and are modelled in system advisor model
software.
System advisor model (SAM)
The System Advisor Model (SAM) is free financial, economic,
and technological performance simulation software that helps
users in the renewable energy industry make decisions based on
the obtained results. To model a renewable energy project in
SAM, you select a performance model and a financial model to rep-
resent the project and assign values to input parameters to provide
information about the project’s location, equipment type, cost of
installation and operation, and financial and incentive assump-
tions. Once certain and confident with the values assigned to the
input variables, run simulations and then analyse the results. PV
systems that can store excess electrical energy in batteries, concen-
trating solar; industrial process heat; solar water heating; wind;
geothermal; biomass; and conventional power systems that either
send electricity directly to the power grid or interact with the elec-
tric load of a building that is connected to the grid are covered in
SAM. SAM cannot model off-grid or hybrid power systems with
more than one power source. The performance models of SAM per-
form hourly calculations of a power system’s electric output, pro-
ducing 8,760 hourly values that represent the system’s annual
electricity production. A few performance models also support
simulations on a sub-hourly basis. The financial models of SAM
compute financial metrics for various types of power projects
based on the cash flows of a project over a specified analysis per-
iod. The financial models use the performance model’s calculation
of the system’s electricity output to figure out a series of annual
cash flows. SAM can be downloaded and installed for free at
http://sam.nrel.gov. The software must be registered as your ver-
sion of SAM by presenting NREL with a valid email address before
it can be utilised. Then, initiate a new project and adhere to the
steps outlined in Figure 3.2.
Reservoir data
The obtained reservoir data from all major dammed hydro-
power plants to determine the total surface area available is shown
in Table 3.1 for the six sites selected. Table 3.2, Table 3.3.
D. Chirwa, R. Goyal and E. Mulenga
Fig. 3.1. Map of Zambia showing the six hydro dam sites.
Kariba Reservoir is designed to operate between 475.50 m and
488.50 m for hydropower generation as the world’s largest artifi-
cial reservoir. The minimum operational level covers 4354 km2,
while the maximum operational level covers 5577 km2 of reservoir
surface area. The Itezhi-Tezhi (ITT) main reservoir is designed to
operate between 1,006 m and 1,030.50 m, corresponding to surface
areas of 90 km2 and 392 km2, respectively. The Kafue Gorge Upper
(KGU) main water reservoir is designed to operate at a minimum
and maximum levels of 974 m and 977 m, corresponding to surface
areas of 70 km2 and 1175 km2, respectively. The Kafue Gorge
Lower Reservoir (KGL) is located 17.3 kilometres downstream of
the existing Kafue Gorge Upper (KGU) hydroelectric dam site and
5.9 kilometres from the KGU water outlet. It is planned to function
at 530 m and 579 m, respectively, which is approximately 0.76 km2
and 1.85 km2 of surface area as it is yet to be fully commissioned.
According to the design, the Mita Hills Dam may be operated at
36.6 meters and 67.1 meters, corresponding to 5.58 and 67.1
square kilometres of river surface area, respectively. Minimum
and maximum operating levels of 173.7 m and 192.1 m, respec-
tively, are specified for the Mulungushi Dam (MPS). These levels
equate to surface areas of 2.33 km2 and 35.23 km2. With FSPV,
the modules are sited on the surface of the dams; in this case, from
Table 3.1, the total surface area relating to the minimum operating
levels is 4522.67 km2 while 7243.94 km2 corresponds to the max-
imum operating levels of the dams. According to the Energy Sector
Reports of 2020 & 2019, most of the major hydropower plant dams
did not fill up to the maximum due to poor rainfall in the catch-
349
Renewable Energy Focus 44 (2023) 344–356
ment areas for the 2018/19 & 2019/20 seasons. Hence the total sur-
face area relating to the minimum operating level is used to assess
FSPV as it is the worst-case scenario.
FSPV electricity output
The model of this study in SAM, to evaluate the potential for
FSPV generation in Zambia, is based on previous research from
NREL that indicates that the primary input change required to con-
vert the standard photovoltaic performance model in these tools
(PV Watts & System Advisor Model (SAM) to a floating solar speci-
fic model is to set the tilt to 11 degrees, as well as research from
the World Bank in collaboration with SERIS that indicates that tilt
angles for FSPV can range from 5° to 11°. [4 24] Typically, FSPV
deployments require approximately 0.01 km2 of floating island
space and 0.017 km2 of water, including the area required for
anchoring and mooring the FSPV. [12]. The simulation of a 1 MW
FSPV using SAM takes up 0.0178 km2 of land, which is very similar
to the findings by SERIS. The estimation of the power output (PO )
can be done with Eq. (1).
PO ¼ SA =ð0:0178Þ½MW ð1Þ
Where SA is the known surface area of the dam to be covered by
FSPV.
Therefore, if the surface area of the dam to be covered by FSPV is
known, the power output in Megawatts corresponding to the
known surface area can be found using Eq. (1). To get the possible
D. Chirwa, R. Goyal and E. Mulenga Renewable Energy Focus 44 (2023) 344–356

Fig. 3.2. Process flowchart for FSPV evaluation in SAM.

Table 3.1
Reservoirs Operating Characteristics

Station Min. Operation Level Characteristics Max. Operation Level Characteristics Installed Capacity (GW) Water Level Variation (m)
Min. RWL (m ASL) Area (km2) Max. RWL (m ASL) Area (km2)
Kariba 475.5 4354 488.5 5577 1.08 13
ITT 1006 90 1030.5 392 0.12 24.5
KGU 974 70 977 1175 0.99 3
KGL 530 0.76 579 1.85 0.75 49
Mita 36.576 5.58 67.056 62.86 0.032 30.48
MPS 173.736 2.33 192.112392 35.23 0.024 18.376392
Total 4522.67 7243.94

Table 3.2
Annual Averages Calculated from Weather File Data.

Kariba ITT KGU KGL Mita MPS

GHI (kWh/m2/day) 6.06 6.12 5.79 5.75 5.79 5.90
DNI (kWh/m2/day) 6.29 6.29 5.66 5.44 5.70 5.82
DHI (kWh/m2/day) 1.82 1.86 1.88 1.88 1.97 1.99
Average Temperature (°C) 24.20 22.00 21.30 25.00 20.90 20.80
Average Wind Speed (m/s) 2.50 3.30 2.70 2.50 3.00 2.80

annual energy generation (EO ), the expression for power output is EO ¼ 1710  SA ½MWh ð2Þ
multiplied by the total average yearly output energy obtained from
The total energy expected from the installation can be found
the simulations. The obtained relationship is shown in Eq. (2).
using Eq. (2).

350
D. Chirwa, R. Goyal and E. Mulenga
Table 3.3
Sensitivity Analysis of a PV system at the different Tilt Angles at Itezhi-Tezhi Dam.
Performance Metric Tilt 1
5°
Annual AC energy in Year 1 (GWh) 2.13
Energy yield in Year 1(kWh/kW 1772
LCOE Levelized cost of energy 6.15¢/kWh
Location and solar resource evaluation
The performance models of SAM utilise data from weather files
to represent the renewable resources and ambient weather condi-
tions that affect the performance of the system. The weather files
containing information about solar radiation and weather observa-
tions at all the locations are required because solar PV systems’
electricity generation is location-dependent. The European Com-
mission website is used to obtain weather data for African loca-
tions in System Advisor Model (SAM); they are saved in the epw
format, and the library is refreshed so that the files appear in the
common SAM library [31].
The assessment of solar irradiance available for energy conver-
sion for six locations over a historical time of interest makes it pos-
sible to find exactly how much solar radiation is available for
developing, deploying, and using cost-effective solar energy tech-
nologies. Air temperature and solar irradiation are two essential
variables in energy simulation models. When photovoltaic mod-
ules are installed on water, the mean temperature is typically
cooler than on land, and the wind speed is higher, allowing for
improved ventilation. Because cooling is more effective than
ground-mounted or rooftop-based photovoltaic systems, floating
solar photovoltaic systems have a higher performance efficiency.
Solar radiation at the planned water surface is also critical, as it
affects the energy yield and economics of the project.
From table 32, Itezhi Tezhi dam has the highest global horizon-
tal solar radiation, followed by Kariba dam, and Kafue gorge lower
has the lowest; GHI is the sum of the received beam and diffuse
radiation on a horizontal plane [25]. Considering that the temper-
ature of the sites is almost the same, the site with the highest GHI
shall produce more energy. Otherwise, FSPV has a specified tilt and
azimuth; hence it uses the Global Tilted Radiation (GTI), some-
times referred to as Plane on Array (POA). GTI or POA is the total
of scattered, direct, and reflected radiation.
Photovoltaic system design
In addition to the sections above, the complete system needs to
be designed. The system includes, among others, the following:

Modules and Inverter selection
PV module selection is determined in large-scale power plants
by integrating module voltage and current ratings with inverter
voltage and current ratings. In this particular case, monocrystalline
Sunpower SPR – X22-480-COM type of PV modules is selected due
to their higher efficiency of about 22%; as such, more sunlight is
captured, and more power is generated compared to standard solar
panels; PV modules of this sort are built to withstand environmen-
tal pressures like shade, daily temperature variations, and exces-
sive humidity hence they are durable [26]. Within the SAM
library, an inverter whose voltage input matches the PV module
is selected; since the simulation is for a 1 MW FSPV, 2 by 500
kW inverters are chosen to allow for power continuity in case of
a breakdown or maintenance on either inverter.
Renewable Energy Focus 44 (2023) 344–356
Tilt 2 Tilt 3 Tilt 4 Tilt 5
10° 15° 15.761° 20°
2.09 2.01 1.99 1.91
1,742 1,671 1,659 1,589
6.25 ¢/kWh 6.52 ¢/kWh 6.56 ¢/kWh 6.85 ¢/kWh

System Design:
SAM default parameters are used for electrical configuration, AC
sizing & sizing summary since the PV module and inverter have
been selected except for the tracking & orientation. In this simula-
tion, tracking is taken as fixed. In contrast, from the results of the
sensitivity analysis in table 33, it is observed that a tilt angle of
5° produces more energy than other angles up to 20° in SAM and
also has a lower cost for producing the power As reported by NREL,
the primary input change to adapt the standard photovoltaic per-
formance model in (PVWatts & System Advisor Model (SAM) to a
floating solar-specific model is to set the tilt to 11 degrees. Accord-
ing to the Floating Solar Handbook for Practitioners, the majority of
FSPV plants have a tilt angle of less than 15°, which enables the so-
called self-cleaning effect, in which rainfall is frequently sufficient
to wash away significant dirt and dust accumulations on the PV
module surfaces. Tilt angles can be varied from 5° to 20° on some
commercially installed floats. As stated earlier, 5° shall be
employed in our FSPV simulations. As for the system losses, the
default 14% losses are changed to 9% for FSPV due to the fewer
shading and soiling losses for installations on water bodies away
from buildings and obstructions, as reported by SERIS.
Financial parameters (cost of the system)
In this study, it is assumed that the capital and operating
expenses of FSPV and GMPV are the same since there is no cost
of construction of new transmission lines and substations, land
cost, and civil works involved in a GMPV as the solar PV modules
are sited on the dam surface.
During the actual design of the floating island, they are some
considerations that are taken into account for assessing the site’s
suitability for the installation of FSPV [4]; these are: -

solar, resource;

local climate conditions;

available water surface area and shape;

Bathymetry; Bathymetry is the mapping of the bed of a body of
water, with depth contours providing information about the
size, shape, and distribution of underwater features [2].

Water level, wave amplitudes, and wind speeds;

Subsurface soil conditions;

Shading, soiling, and other site conditions;

Environmental considerations;
Otherwise, all other parameters are taken as default in SAM.
Saving on evaporation
As stated in the Energy Sector Report for 2020, the country
experienced less rainfall, resulting in reduced water levels in dams;
thus, reducing water evaporation from reservoirs, particularly in
Zambia, is critical [8]. Numerous methods exist for computing
evaporation losses. However, since the information from the six
hydropower sites is not readily available, this study uses a simpli-
351
D. Chirwa, R. Goyal and E. Mulenga
fied Penman formula to calculate the evaporation rate (EVa ) as
given in equation (3) [27].
700Tm=ð100  AÞ þ 15ðT  TdÞ
EVa ¼ mmday1 ð3Þ
80  T
Where Tm = T+0.006h, h is the elevation in meters, T is the mean
temperature, A is the latitude in degrees, and Td is the mean dew-
point. All these parameters are available in the weather files for
each location in System Advisory Model. After determining the
daily evaporation, the annual volume of water lost due to evapora-
tion is calculated from the relationship given in Eq. (4) below:
365
V ¼ EVa SA ½28 ð4Þ
106
Where V: is the annual volume of water loss (billion m3/
year);EVa : evaporation rate per day (mm day-1) SA : surface area of
the dam (km2)
Numerous techniques exist to reduce the amount of water
evaporated from open surfaces. In the present study, covering
was accomplished using an FSPV, and the most conservative
approach of reservoir surface covering percentages (10% was eval-
uated. Annual water saving is calculated by equation (5) below:
AWS ¼ AEVA  %FSPV  0:7 ð5Þ
Where AWS: is the Annual water-saving; AEVA: annual evapora-
tion; %FSPV: percentage covered by FSPV [29].
Scenarios for FSPV reservoir coverage
The Energy and Resources Institute of India has assigned a per-
centage range for calculating FSPV potential. An FSPV plant can
cover between 5% and 30% of its surface area for irrigation pur-
poses, whereas it can cover between 5% and 10% for electricity gen-
eration [9]. For this reason, three different scenarios are examined
to determine FSPV’s potential in the reservoirs in Zambia. It is
important to note that all three treat the coverage as a set percent-
age: the whole theoretical resource potential (100%), 10%, and 1%.
Even though only man-made reservoirs shall be used to estimate
Zambia’s FSPV potential, covering the entire surface area is not
possible for a variety of reasons:

There is a possibility that aquatic life has developed in the reser-
voirs because they are over 20 years old on average. For this,
covering the entire water surface may have a significant impact
on local ecosystems as well as aquatic life;

Other uses for these reservoirs include irrigation and water sup-
ply and recreational activities such as boating or fishing. As
such, it is impossible to cover the entire surface area; &

Many such reservoirs are spread across vast swaths of land,
making access nearly impossible.
Results
The research results in this section present an overview of Zam-
bia’s FSPV resource potential at six hydropower reservoirs: Kariba,
Kafue Gorge Upper, Kafue Gorge Lower, Itezhi Tezhi, Mita Hills, and
Mulungushi Dams. The total surface area available for FSPV
deployment is 4 522.67 km2; this area corresponds to the reservoir
minimum operating level (M.O.L). The M.O.L was selected as the
worst-case scenario; it considers the lowest water levels in the
dam when the country experiences poor rainfall. These results
obtained in this research are important for the country as they will
help policymakers and investors know about the potential of elec-
tricity generation from FSPV. Furthermore, as the country has been
experiencing power shortages, increasing generation from clean
352
Renewable Energy Focus 44 (2023) 344–356
and reliable energy sources free from GHG emissions is an
opportunity.
FSPV potential in Zambia
The total surface areas for the dams are known based on the
data obtained. Equations (1) and (2) are applied to give the total
power and energy generated with the assumption of FSPV on the
dams. The results obtained for the dams are shown in Table 4.1.
The results show three scenarios for the theoretical maximum
FSPV coverage (100% coverage), 10% coverage, and 1% coverage.
Table 4.1 shows the FSPV resource potential results in Zambia.
The total surface area at the dams, which is considering 100% util-
isation of the area, gives out an estimated 254. 083 GW of solar
power, the latter translates to 434.5 TWh of energy. The 100% gives
an ambitious entry into the FSPV technology band. Practical
aspects could be surface areas less than 100% considered in the lat-
ter illustration. A comparison is made between the installed capac-
ities and the expected when FSPV is implemented for 10% surface
area. A graph is shown the comparison in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1 shows a more feasible case considering 10% dam sur-
face area coverage; as such, the total FSPV that can be installed in
Zambia is 25.41 GW, comparing this to the total installed electric-
ity (3.011) GW and the hydro potential (6.0GW) in the country, this
power is 8 times more than the current installed capacity and 4
times more than the projected hydro potential. Kariba dam has
the highest potential of 24.46 GWp, followed by the Itezhi-Tezhi
dam with a potential of 0.505.62 GW. Kafue gorge upper with a
potential of 0.39GW, Mita hills dam with a potential of 0.031GW,
Mulungushi dam with a potential of 0.013 GW, and Kafue Gorge
lower has the least potential of 0.0043 GW. Interestingly, KGL is
located 5.9 km away from the KGU water outlet. Therefore, this
power generated from FSPV can be used to pump backwater into
the reservoir for KGU. In turn, two power stations, namely KGU &
KGL, will use this pumped water to generate electricity at peak
times and when solar power is unavailable.
In addition to the power comparisons shown in Figure 4.1, the
annual energy expected from the FSPV sites is evaluated. This
aspect of it is shown in Figure 4.2.
The results in Figure 4.2 shows the annual energy generation
from FSPV in Zambia. It is from all the reservoirs at the sites of
interest. Among the site, the Kariba dam has the highest contribu-
tion to the energy share. The least site is Kafue gorge lower, which
produces the least energy. The site’s energy trend is similar to what
is presented in Figure 4.1.
Perfect location for FSPV installation
Six locations were selected, namely Mulungushi, Mita Hills,
KGU, KGL, Kariba, and ITT dams; Table 4.2 shows the results
obtained from the simulation of a 1 MW FSPV in SAM. These results
show that solar PV output energy is location dependent as the site
with the highest GHI produces more energy than other sites.
The results in Table 4.2 highlights the aspects of the different
dams. The LCOE is shown to be between 6-7 ¢/kWh. Kariba dam,
which showed the highest potential for power and energy, has
an LCOE higher than that of the Itezhi-Tezhi dam. ITT dam has
the lowest LCOE of the other sites. The other aspects of the dam
parameters also vary between the dams despite the potentials that
have been shown in Section 4.1.
Evaporation savings
One of the primary benefits of installing FSPV is that it reduces
evaporation in hydropower reservoirs, a major problem in Africa
and Zambia. From Table 4.3, the annual volume of water lost due
D. Chirwa, R. Goyal and E. Mulenga Renewable Energy Focus 44 (2023) 344–356

Table 4.1
FSPV Resource Potential.

Station Min. Operating Level Max. Operating Level FSPV POTENTIAL (GWp) Possible annual energy generation
(GWh/year)
Percentage of Total Max. Operation Level Characteristics
Surface Area Used
2 2
Total Surface Area Available (Km ) Total Surface Area Available (Km ) 1% 10% 100% 1% 10% 100%
Kariba 4,354.00 5,577.00 2.45 24.46 244.61 4,182.78 41,827.75 418,277.53
ITT 90.00 392.00 0.05 0.51 5.06 86.46 864.61 8,646.07
KGU 70.00 1,175.00 0.04 0.39 3.93 67.25 672.47 6,724.72
KGL 0.76 1.85 0.00 0.004 0.04 0.73 7.30 73.01
Mita 5.58 62.86 0.00 0.03 0.31 5.36 53.61 536.06
MPS 2.33 35.23 0.00 0.01 0.13 2.24 22.38 223.84
Total 4,522.67 7,243.94 2.54 25.41 254.08 4,344.81 43,448.12 434,481.22

Fig. 4.1. FSPV Potential in Zambia.

Fig. 4.2. Energy Generated from FSPV.

to evaporation is very high; hence, applying FSPV on the dam sur-
face would enable reduction.
The water loss through evaporation at the hydropower dams in
terms of volume was found to be 16.51 x 109 m3, and the water saved
by installing FSPV on the dam surface was found to be 1155.50 x 106
m3, as shown in Table 4,3. The dam level (head) is essential for power
production; hence, the application of FSPV shows that hydropower
353
generation can benefit as the water saved can aid in more production
potential at the power station of interest.
FSPV vs world bank results
The World Bank’s solar resource assessment and mapping activ-
ity is summarised in Table 4.3; according to the findings, Zambia’s
D. Chirwa, R. Goyal and E. Mulenga Renewable Energy Focus 44 (2023) 344–356

Table 4.2
Simulated Results for FSPV with modules tilted at 5°.

Column1 Mulungushi Dam Mita Hills Dam Kariba Dam Itezhi Tezhi Dam Kafue Gorge Upper Kafue Gorge Lower
PVOUT - Average daily total [kWh/kWp] 4.72 4.61 4.78 4.85 4.61 4.54
PVOUT - Yearly total [kWh/kWp] 1722 1681 1743 1772 1684 1658
Performance ratio (year 1) 0.82 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.82 0.81
Annual energy (year 1) 2067000 2018000 2093000 2127000 2022000 1991000
Capacity factor (year 1) 0.197 0.192 0.199 0.202 0.192 0.189
Levelized cost of energy (LCOE) 6.32¢/kWh 6.48¢/kWh 6.25¢/kWh 6.15¢/kWh 6.47¢/kWh 6.57¢/kWh

Table 4.3
Annual Water saved from evaporation.

Station Dam Surface Tm A (Latitude T (Mean Td is mean h (Elevation Evaporation V (Annual Volume of Annual water
Area (Km2) in degrees) Temperature) dew-point in meters) (mm day-1) water loss) (billion m3/ saving (m3/year) x
year) 10⁶
Kariba 5577 27.122 16.522 24.2 16.02 487 6.27 12.7728735 894.10
ITT 392 28.114 15.761 22 12.61 1019 6.46 0.923775379 64.66
KGU 1175 27.096 15.809 21.3 12.59 966 6.06 2.600558733 182.04
KGL 1.85 27.544 15.896 25 16.9 424 6.38 0.004306247 0.301437309
Mita 62.86 27.572 14.147 20.9 13.16 1112 5.77 0.132347683 9.26
MPS 35.23 27.16 14.627 20.8 13.15 1060 5.70 0.073296744 5.13
Total 16.51 1155.50

average daily photovoltaic energy output ranges between 4.49 and
4.66 kWh/kWp (equivalent to annual averages of 1638 to 1702
kWh/kWp). The country has been designated as having a high
potential for photovoltaic energy generation. Comparing the
results from the research (Table 4.2) and the World Bank report
(Table 4.4) in terms of daily average energy output, yearly average
energy output, and the performance ratio.
FSPV efficiency
From the results obtained in the research for FSPV, the yearly PV
output power ranges from 1658 to 17172 kWh/kWp. The results
from the World Bank reports have a range of 1638 to 1702 kWh/
kWp, to get the efficiency of the PV modules when sited on the
dam’s surface, the upper limit values are used, and the efficiency
is calculated from those values.
FSPVaverage = 1772
GMPVaverage = 1702
1772 - 1702 = 0.0411  100 = 4.11%
1702
Discussion
In this study, six hydropower reservoirs were evaluated for FSPV
potential; the maximum FSPV resource potential at 100% coverage is
estimated to be 254.083 GW which translates to 84 times the cumu-
lative installed capacity (3.011 GW) of Zambia at the end of 2020.
While it is impossible to deploy the entire FSPV technical capability,
it does provide insight into the full potential of FSPV installation in
Zambia in terms of dam surface areas that are potentially accessible
for FSPV installation. Considering the total surface area at 10 % cov-
erage, as this is the most conservative case, the total power and
energy generated from FSPV in Zambia on the six big hydro reser-
voirs are 25.408 GW and 43,448.122 GWh, respectively.
With only 10% coverage, the Kariba dam produces 22.65 times
more power than its installed capacity, while ITT produces 4.21
times more power. At Mita hills dam, FSPV will double the installed
capacity during the daytime, with excess power being stored in the
dam for use at night and at times when there is not much solar
irradiation. With the current power shortages in Zambia arising
from low water levels in the reservoirs due to poor rainfall (effects
of global warming), a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity has presented
itself for the country to shift from a hydro-dependent to a solar-
dependent, providing affordable and greener energy by the appli-
cation of FSPV technology. All these sites have transmission line
infrastructure reducing the total cost of FSPV installation, and the
food versus energy conflict is also eliminated as there is no land
requirement since the solar modules are installed on the dam
surface.
The temperature at the sites ranges from 20.80 °C to 24.20 °C
with a mean temperature of 22.37 °C, which is within the standard
test condition temperature of 25 °C. It means that the solar mod-
ules shall operate well to produce the intended power output.
The country’s average daily PV electricity output ranges
between 4.54 and 4.85 kWh/kWp, equating to average annual
totals of 1658 to 17172 kWh/kWp from the country’s six hydro-
power reservoirs. Indeed, Zambia is one of the countries with a
high potential for photovoltaic energy generation; the following
have been noted:

The research findings’ daily average energy output is higher
than the results reported in the World Bank report. It ranges
from 4.54 to 4.85 kWh/kWp as compared to 4.49 to 4.66
kWh/kWp.

The research findings show that the annual average energy out-
put is higher than the values stated in the World Bank report.
Compared to 1638 to 1702 kWh/kWp, it ranges from 1658 to
1772 kWh/kWp.

Table 4.4
World Bank Results for Solar PV Potential at a fixed optimum angle.

Performance Metric Lusaka Mount Makulu Mochipapa Longe Misamfu Mutanda

PVOUT - Average daily total [kWh/kWp] 4.56 4.52 4.63 4.66 4.52 4.49
PVOUT - Yearly total [kWh/kWp] 1665 1649 1689 1702 1651 1638
Performance ratio (year 1) 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.79 0.79

354
D. Chirwa, R. Goyal and E. Mulenga

The performance ratio (PR) tells the plant owner about the PV
facility’s energy efficiency and reliability. The research findings
show that the PR for FSPV technology ranges from 81% to 85%,
while GM-PV ranges from 77.8% to 79%.
The site with the highest PV output energy was ITT, with 1772
kWh/kWp, followed by Kariba, Mulungushi, KGU, and Mita Hills,
and the least is KGL, with 1658 kWh/kWp. ITT also has the least
Levelized energy cost of 6.15¢/kWh while KGL has the highest
6.57¢/kWh. ITT is the most suitable site for FSPV installation since
it has the highest PV output power and the least cost in electricity
production. Otherwise, all six hydropower sites are viable for FSPV
deployment. Based on these two locations, the country’s average
PV electricity daily output shall be determined; it is in the range
of 4.54 to 4.85 kWh/kWp, corresponding to an average yearly
energy yield of 1658 to 1772 kWh/kWp) for FSPV in Zambia.
Estimates of total water loss due to evaporation in the six reser-
voirs studied to result in significant savings when FSPV technology
is used. The Penman formula for determining the evaporation rate
was used, and the results obtained differ from the measured values
by about 1.7 mm day-1. [28] The Kariba dam has the highest water
loss of 12.77 billion m3/year compared to other sites because it has
a larger surface area. The total amount of water lost on all six sites
was found to be 16.51 billion m3/year. Arising from the application
of FSPV by installing solar modules on the dam surfaces for the six
sites, 1155.50 x 106 m3/year (1155.5 mcm) of water is saved. This
amount of water does not pass through the turbines as it is lost due
to evaporation; therefore, once the application of FSPV saves it, it
remains in the dam and can be used for power generation.
Other studies have determined that the efficiency of PV mod-
ules increases with the application of FSPV technology. [30, 14].
The results obtained indicate that the cooling effect of bodies of
water increases module efficiency by 4.11 %, which improves the
performance of solar photovoltaic modules. It translates into sig-
nificant cost savings over time.
Conclusion
From this research, it can be concluded that Floating Solar PV
generates more energy than conventional ground-mounted PV,
and Zambia can apply this technology to increase its generation
and mitigate power shortages. It also allows for the increased pen-
etration of solar PV into the national grid, which only stands at 3%,
as reported in the energy sector report of 2020.
Research available in Zambia about its FSPV potential only high-
lights the capacity that can be produced but does not underline the
viability of FSPV technology; this paper emphasises the fact that
simulations can be done in SAM by altering the PV module tilt
angle between 5o and 20o and reducing the losses due to soiling.
The LCOE was found to be between 6 and 7 (US¢/kWh), while
the performance ratio of the plant was between 81% and 82%.
The capacity utilisation factor was found to be between 18.9%
and 20.2%, and the daily average PV energy output ranged from
4.54 to 4.85 kWh/kWp. It demonstrates that FSPV technology can
be implemented in Zambia, especially given the country’s reliance
on hydroelectricity and the abundance of dam surfaces that can be
used to install PV modules and transmit the power generated via
pre-existing transmission lines.
In conclusion, with a total dam surface area of 4522.67 km2,
assuming full utilisation of the area, an estimated 254.083 GW of
solar energy can be generated. The 100% dam surface area coverage
represents an audacious entry into the field of FSPV technology.
Assuming a more feasible case of 10% dam surface area coverage,
the total resource potential for FSPV that can be installed in Zambia
is 25. 408 GW. Compared to the country’s total 3. electricity capac-
ity (3.011) GW and hydro potential (6. GW), the FSPV potential is 8
355
Renewable Energy Focus 44 (2023) 344–356
times greater than the current installed capacity and 4 times
greater than the projected hydro potential.
Further research can be considered in the following areas

Zambia has many big lakes, such as Lake Tanganyika, with a
surface area of 32 900 km2; from the data in this research, the
PV potential for FSPV on the lakes can be determined.

Benefits of increased power generation by co-locating FSPV
with hydropower. It means that the transmission lines have to
be updated to accommodate increased generation.

Predicting the environmental impact of FSPV on rivers, lakes,
ponds, and dams.

Other areas of future research include electrical safety since
floating solar involves both water and electricity, cable manage-
ment and insulation testing, and anchoring and mooring issues,
which must be given more thought.
Data availability
The data that has been used is confidential.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
References
[1] I.R.E. Agency, Future of Solar Photovoltaic, International Renewable Energy
Agency, Abu Dhabi, 2019.
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