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DESIGN AND COSTING OF A COST EFFECTIVE SOLAR PV SYSTEM
CHAPTER- 1
INTRODUCTION
World Economic growth is driven by energy, whether in the form of finite resources
such as coal, oil and gas or in renewable forms such as hydroelectric, wind, solar and
biomass or its converted form. This energy generation and consumption strengthens
the nation’s industries, vehicles, homes and offices. It also has significant impact on
the quality of the country’s air, water, land and forest resources. For future growth to
be both rapid and sustainable, it needs to be as resource efficient and environmentally
benign as possible.
The growth in installed power generating capacity has not kept pace with the
projected demand. To solve this problem, it is necessary to set up more power plants
and most of these power plants will be either fossil fuel based or hydroelectric units.
However, the conventional power stations cause enormous damage to be environment
due to pollution and other side effects. Renewable energy sources energy source are
wonderful options because they are limitless. These will not be exhausted though
fossil fuel will be gradually exhausted in course of time. Also another great benefit
from using renewable energy is that most of these sources do not pollute the
environment; the way burning of fossil fuels dose.
The energy consumption of India is now soaring and may face severe electricity
shortages in the near future. India needs a sustained growth rate of 9 to 10% over the
next twenty years to meet its growth objectives. This implies that it will need to
increase its primary energy supply buy a factor of three to four and to the electricity
generation by a factor of five to six. India receives nearly 300-330 days of solar
energy and there is a large potential available for generating solar power using
unutilized space on rooftops of individual houses.
Industrial buildings, commercial buildings, educational institutes or any other type of
buildings can be used to moderately fulfil the requirement of the building occupants
and excess, if any, can be fed into the grid. So the best suitable long term design
solution for India would be highly distributed set of individual rooftop power
generation systems connected through a local grid. In grid interactive rooftop solar
PV power systems.
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, BBDITM, LUCKNOW Page 1

The DC power generated from solar panel is converted to AC power using power
conditioning unit and is fed to the grid .The generated power during the day time can
be utilized fully by powering locked up many and excess can be fed to the grid as
long as grid is available. In case, were Solar Power is not sufficient due to cloud cover
or during the cloudy hours, the captive loads are served by drawing power from the
grid. The grid interactive rooftop solar system can work on net metering basis where
in the beneficiary pays to the utility on net meter reading basis only.
Energy plays a pivotal role in our daily activities. The degree of development and
civilization of a country is measured by the amount of utilization of energy by human
beings. Energy demand is increasing day by day due to increase in population,
urbanization and industrialization. The worlds fossil fuel supply viz. Coal
petroleum and natural gas will thus be depleted In a few hundred years. The rate
of energy consumption increasing, supply is depleting resulting in inflation and
energy shortage. This is called energy crisis. Hence alternative or renewable sources
of energy have to be developed to meet future energy requirement.
1.1 ENERGY CLASSIFICATION

Energy can be classified into several types:
1.1.1 Primary and Secondary Energy
Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature. Common
primary energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass (such as wood). Other
primary energy sources available include nuclear energy from radioactive substances,
thermal energy stored in earth interior, and potential energy due to earth gravity. The
major primary and secondary energy sources are Coal, hydro power, natural gas,
petroleum etc. Primary energy sources are mostly converted in industrial utilities into
secondary energy sources; for example coal, oil or gas converted into steam and
electricity. Primary energy can also be used directly. Some energy sources have non-
energy uses, for example coal or natural gas can be used as a feedstock in fertilizer
plants.

1.1.2 Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy
The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as
commercial energy. By far the most important forms of commercial energy are
electricity, coal and refined petroleum products. Commercial energy forms the basis
of industrial, agricultural, transport and commercial development in the modern
world. In the industrialized countries, commercialized fuels are predominant source
not only for economic production, but also for many household tasks of general
population.
The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are
classified as non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels
such as firewood, cattle dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally
gathered, and not bought at a price used especially in rural households. These are also
called traditional fuels. Non-commercial energy is often ignored in energy accounting.
1.1.3 Renewable and Non- Renewable Energy
All forms of energy are stored in different ways, in the energy sources that we use
every day. These sources are divided into two groups renewable (an energy source
that we can use over and over again) and non-renewable (an energy source that we are
using up and cannot recreate in a short period of time).
Figure 1.1: Renewable Energy Sources and Non-Renewable Energy Sources

Renewable and non-renewable energy sources can be used to produce secondary

energy sources including electricity and hydrogen. Renewable energy sources include
solar energy, which comes from the sun and can be turned into electricity and heat.
Wind, geothermal energy from inside the earth, biomass from plants, and hydropower
and ocean energy from water are also renewable energy source However, we get most
of our energy from non-renewable energy sources, which include the fossil fuels oil,
natural gas, and coal.
They are called fossil fuels because they were formed over millions and millions
of years by the action of heat from the Earth's core and pressure from rock and soil
on the remains (or "fossils") of dead plants and animals. Another non-renewable
energy source is the element uranium, whose atoms we split (through a process called
nuclear fission) to create heat and ultimately electricity.
We use all these energy sources to generate the electricity we need for our homes,
businesses, schools, and factories. Electricity "energizes" our computers, lights,
refrigerators, washing machines, and air conditioners, to name only a few uses.
We use energy to run our cars and trucks. Both the gasoline used in our cars, and the
diesel fuel used in our trucks are made from oil. The propane that fuels our outdoor
grills and makes hot air balloons soar is made from oil and natural gas.
1.2 WHY DO WE PREFER SUN NON-CONVENTIONAL

ENERGY SOURCE THAN ANOTHER NON-CONVENTIONAL
SOURCES?
Various types of non-conventional energy sources are such as geothermal ocean tides,
wind and sun. All non-conventional energy sources have geographical limitations.
but Solar energy has less geographical limitation as compared to other non-
conventional energy sources because solar energy is available over the entire globe,
and only the size of the collector field needs to be increased to provide the same
amount of heat or electricity.
It is the primary task of the solar energy system designer to determine the amount,
quality and timing of the solar energy available at the site selected for installing a
solar energy conversion system so among all these solar energy seems to hold out the
greatest promise f or the mankind. It is free, inexhaustible, non- polluting and devoid
of political control. Solar water heaters, space heaters and cookers are already on
the market and seem to be economically viable. Solar photo voltaic cells, solar
refrigerators and solar thermal power plants will be technically and economically
viable in a short time.
It is optimistically estimated that 50% of the world power requirements in the middle
of 21st century will come only from solar energy. Enough strides have been made
during last two decades to develop the direct energy conversion systems to increase
the plant efficiency 60% to 70% by avoiding the conversion of thermal energy
into mechanical energy. Still this technology is on the threshold of the success and it
is hoped that this will also play a vital role in power generation in coming future.
India is one of the few countries with long days and plenty of sunshine, especially in
the Thar Desert region. This zone, having abundant solar energy available, is suitable
for harnessing solar energy for a number of applications. In areas with similar
intensity of solar radiation, solar energy could be easily harnessed. Solar thermal
energy is being used in India for heating water for both industrial and domestic
purposes. A 140 MW integrated solar power plant is to be set up in Jodhpur but the
initial expense incurred is still very high.
Solar energy can also be used to meet our electricity requirements. Through Solar
Photovoltaic (SPV) cells, solar radiation gets converted into DC electricity directly.
This electricity can either be used as it is or can be stored in the battery. This stored
electrical energy then can be used at night.
When we hang out our clothes to dry in the sun, we use the energy of the sun. In the
same way, solar panels absorb the energy of the sun to provide heat for cooking and
for heating water. Such systems are available in the market and are being used in
homes and factories.
In the next few years it is expected that millions of households in the world will be
using solar energy as the trends in USA and Japan show. In India too, the Indian
Renewable Energy Development Agency and the Ministry of Non-Conventional
Energy Sources are formulating a programme to have solar energy in more than a
million households in the next few years. However, the people’s initiative is essential
if the programme is to be successful.

1.3 WHAT IS SOLAR?

The Sun is the star at the centre of the Solar System. It is almost perfectly spherical
and consists of hot plasma with magnetic fields. It has a diameter of about 1,392,000
km, about 109 times that of Earth, and its mass (about 2×10 30 kilograms, 330,000
times that of Earth) accounts for about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System.
Chemically, about three quarters of the Sun's mass consists of hydrogen, while the
rest is mostly helium. The remainder (1.69%, which nonetheless equals 5,628 times
the mass of Earth) consists of heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon, iron,
and others.
The Sun's stellar classification, based on spectral class, is G2V, and is informally
designated as a yellow dwarf, because its visible radiation is most intense in the
yellow-green portion of the spectrum and although its colour is white, from the
surface of the Earth it may appear yellow because of atmospheric scattering of blue
light. In the spectral class label, G2 indicates its surface temperature of approximately
5778 K (5505 °C), and V indicates that the Sun, like most stars, is a main-sequence
star, and thus generates its energy by nuclear fusion of hydrogen nuclei into helium.
In its core, the Sun fuses 620 million metric tons of hydrogen each second. Once
regarded by astronomers as a small and relatively insignificant star, the Sun is now
thought to be brighter than about 85% of the stars in the Milky Way galaxy, most of
which are red dwarfs. The absolute magnitude of the Sun is +4.83; however, as the
star closest to Earth, the Sun is the brightest object in the sky with an apparent
magnitude of 26.74. The Sun's hot corona continuously expands in space creating the
solar wind, a stream of charged particles that extends to the heliopause at roughly 100
astronomical units. The bubble in the interstellar medium formed by the solar wind,
the heliosphere, is the largest continuous structure in the Solar System.
1.3.1 Sunlight
Sunlight is Earth's primary source of energy. The solar constant is the amount of
power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. The solar
constant is equal to approximately 1,368 W/m2 (watts per square meter) at a distance
of one astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun (that is, on or near Earth). Sunlight on the

surface of Earth is attenuated by the Earth's atmosphere so that less power arrives at
the surface closer to 1,000 W/m2 in clear conditions when the Sun is near the zenith.
Solar energy can be harnessed by a variety of natural and synthetic processes
photosynthesis by plants captures the energy of sunlight and converts it to chemical
form (oxygen and reduced carbon compounds), while direct heating or electrical
conversion by solar cells are used by solar power equipment to generate electricity or
to do other useful work, sometimes employing concentrating solar power (that it is
measured in suns). The energy stored in petroleum and other fossil fuels was
originally converted from sunlight by photosynthesis in the distant past.
1.4 ENERGY FROM THE SUN
About half the incoming solar energy reaches the Earth's surface.
The Earth receives 174pet watts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (isolation) at the
upper atmosphere. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is
absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's
surface is mostly spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges with a small part
in the near-ultraviolet.
1.5 POWER GENERATION CAPACITY IN INDIA
Figure.1.2 Power generation capacity in India

1.6 RENEWABLE ENERGY INSTALLED CAPACITY IN INDIA
India's electricity sector is amongst the world's most active players in renewable
energy utilization, especially wind energy. As of 31 Jan 2015, India had grid
connected installed capacity of about 38.82 GW non-conventional renewable
technologies-based electricity capacity, about 13.32% of its total. For context, the
total installed capacity for electricity in Switzerland was about 18 GW in 2009.
No. Technology Capacity (in MW)
A. Grid Connected Power
1 Wind 25088.19
2 Small Hydel Power Projects 4176.90
3 Biomass Power and Gasification and Bagasse 4550.55

Cogeneration
4 Solar 4878.87
5 Waste to Power 127.08
Total 38821.59
B. Off Grid Connected Power
1 Biomass (non-bagasse) Cogeneration 602.37
2 Solar PV System (>1 KW) 289.01
3 Waste to power 146.51
4 Biomass Gasifiers 188.87
5 Water Mills/ Micro Hydel 17.21
6 Aerogenerator / Hybrid System 2.67
Total 1236.64
Total (A+B) 40058.23
Table 1. Renewal Energy Installed Capacity in India

As of August 2011, India had deployed renewal energy to provide electricity in 8846
remote villages, installed 4.4 million family biogas plants, 1800 Micro hydel units and
4.7 million square metres of solar water heating capacity. India plans to add about 30
GW of installed electricity generation capacity based on renewal energy technologies,
by 2017.
1.6.1 Solar PV power system status in India
In India, the solar market is undergoing changes from the incentive driven market to
parity driven market. But this change is creating problem to policy makers and
creating delays in policies. One of the results of this transition is that Indian solar
market is moving from utility market to generation market. Let us expect that 2014
will lay a strong ground for roof top solar market. To understand the above statement
we can take the delays that has been occurring in states like Andhra Pradesh,
Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh that has been continuing in delays
different states are facing many litigations and no PPA`s have been signed. On the
other side, it is encouraging to see that many central and state governments have
announced some policies, subsidies, Feed-in-Tariff`s (FITs) etc.
To promote rooftop solar power but there may also suffer some delays due to the
election paralysis in India. The solar energy corporation of India (SECI) was
providing a capital subsidy for 100MW every year. Due to all the above reasons, we
can expect new solar PV capacity of 750 MW in 2014.
Installed PV Capacity (in MW)
Year End Total Capacity Yearly Installation

2010 161 ------
2011 461 300
2012 1205 744
2013 2319 1114
2014 2632 313
2015 4680 2048
29 February 2016 5547 ------
Table 2. Solar PV power status in India system

1.7 WAYS FOR CONVERTING SOLAR ENERGY INTO

ELECTRICAL ENERGY
There are two ways by which we can convert solar energy into electrical energy.
Figure 1.3: Ways of converting solar energy into electrical energy
1.7.1 Solar Thermal:
The solar collectors concentrate sunlight to heat a heat transfer fluid to a high
temperature. The hot heat transfer fluid is then used to generate steam that drives the
power conversion subsystem, producing electricity. Thermal energy storage provides
heat for operation during periods without adequate sunshine.
Figure 1.4: Solar thermal

1.7.2 Solar Photovoltaic

Another way to generate electricity from solar energy is to use photovoltaic
cells; magic slivers of silicon that converts the solar energy falling on them directly
into electricity. Large scale applications of photovoltaic for power generation,
either on the rooftops of houses or in large fields connected to the utility grid
are promising as well to provide clean, safe and strategically sound alternatives
to current methods of electricity generation.
Figure 1.5: Solar Photovoltaic
1.8 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR

1.8.1 Advantages:
Solar energy is a resource that is not only sustainable for energy consumption, it is
indefinitely renewable (at least until the sun runs out in billions of years). Solar power
can be used to generate electricity, it is also used in relatively simple technology to
heat water (solar water heaters). The use of skylights in home construction can also
greatly reduce energy expenditure required to light rooms in a home’s interior during
the day.
Solar panels also require little maintenance. After installation and optimization they
are very reliable due to the fact that they actively create electricity in just a few
millimetres and do not require any type of mechanical parts that can fail. Solar panels

are also a silent producer of energy, a necessity if dealing with picky neighbours. The
federal government has also introduced generous tax credits for individuals and
companies that invest in solar and other clean energy systems.
1.8.2 Disadvantages:
The primary disadvantage of solar power is that it obviously cannot be created during
the night. The power generated is also reduced during times of cloud cover (although
energy is still produced on a cloudy day). Solar panel energy output is maximized
when the panel is directly facing the sun. This means that panels in a fixed location,
such as the building above, will see a reduced energy production when the sun is not
at an optimal angle. Many large scale solar "farms" combat this problem by having
the panels on towers (above left) that can track the sun to keep the panel at optimal
angles throughout the day.
Even today’s most efficient solar cells only convert just over 20% of the sun’s rays to
electricity. With increased advances in solar cell technology this number is likely to
increase. Besides their low conversion efficiency, solar panels can be a substantial
initial investment. However, the cost of solar panels incurred is only the initial cost,
after buying and installation they create free energy for use.

CHAPTER-2
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC TECHNOLOGY
Photovoltaics offer consumers the ability to generate electricity in a clean, quiet and
renewable way. Photovoltaic systems are comprised of photovoltaic cells, devices that
convert light energy directly into electricity. Because the source of light is usually the
sun, they are often called solar cells. The word photovoltaic comes from “photo”
meaning light and “voltaic” which refers to producing electricity. Therefore, the
photovoltaic process is “producing electricity directly from sunlight. Photovoltaic are
often refer red to as PV.
2.1 Brief History
In 1839 Edmond Becquerel accidentally discovered photovoltaic effect when he was

working on solid-state physics. In 1878 Adam and Day presented a paper on
photovoltaic effect. In 1883 Fxitz fabricated the firs thin film solar cell. In 1941 Ohl
fabricated silicon PV cell but that was very inefficient. In 1954 Bell labs Chopin,
Fuller, Pear son fabricated PV cell with efficiency of 6%. In 1958 PV cell was used as
a backup power source in satellite Vanguard-1. This extended the life of satellite for
about 6 years.
2.1.1 Photovoltaic Cell
A device that produces an electric reaction to light producing electricity. PV cells do

not use the sun s heat to produce electricity. They produce electricity directly when
sunlight interacts with semiconductor materials in the PV cells.
Figure 2.1: Photovoltaic cell

“A typical PV cell made of crystalline silicon is 12 centimetres in diameter and 0.25
millimetres thick. In full sunlight, it generates 4 amperes of direct current at 0.5 volts
or 2 watts of electrical power.

2.1.2 Basic Theory of Photovoltaic Cell
Photovoltaic cells are made of silicon or other semi conductive materials that are also
used in LSIs and transistors for electronic equipment. Photovoltaic cells use two types
of semiconductors, one is P-type and other is N-type to generate electricity.
When sunlight strikes a semiconductor, integer ate pairs of electrons (-) and protons
(+).
Figure 2.2: Basic theory of photovoltaic cell 1
When an electron (-) and a proton (+) reach the joint surface between the two types
of semiconductors, the former is attracted to N-type and the latter to the P-type
semiconductor. Since the joint surface supports only one way traffic, they are not able
to region once they are drawn apart and separated.
Since the N-type semiconductor now contains an electron (-), and P-type
semiconductor contains a proton (+), an electromotive (voltage) force is generated.
Connect both electrodes with conductors and the electrons runs from N- type to P-
type semiconductors, and the proton from P-type to N-type semiconductors to make
an electrical current.

2.1.3 Series and parallel connection of PV cells
Solar cells can be thought of as solar batteries. If solar cells are connected in series,
then the current stays the same and the voltage increases.
Figure 2.5: Series connection of cells
If solar cells are connected in parallel, the voltage stays the same, but the current
increases.
Figure 2.6: Parallel connection of cells

As we know those Solar cells are combined to form a module to obtain the voltage
and current (and therefore power) desired.

2.2 Types of Photovoltaics cells
The heart of the solar energy generation system is the Solar cell. It consists of three
major elements, namely:
1. The semiconductor material which absorbs light and converts it into electron-hole
pairs.
2. The junction formed within the semiconductor, which separates the photo-
generated carriers (electrons and holes).
3. The contacts on the front and back of the cell that allow the current to flow to the
external circuit.
Two main streams of technologies have been evolved for the manufacture of
Solar Cells/Modules namely
1. Flat plate Technology
2. Concentrated Technology
The Flat Plate Technology is further classified in two ways namely crystalline
technology and Thin Film Technology. The Concentrated Photovoltaic Technology
has been classified according to the Type of cell and the Optical system.
2.2.1 Crystalline Technology
Crystalline Silicon (c-Si) was chosen as the first choice for solar cells, since this
material formed the foundation for all advances in semiconductor technology.
The technology led to development of stable solar cells with efficiency up to 20%.
Two types of crystalline silicon are used in the industry. They are
1. Mono-crystalline Silicon
2. Multi-crystalline Silicon
2.2.2 Mono-Crystalline Silicon
Mono-Crystalline Silicon cells are produced by growing high purity, single crystal Si
rods and slicing them into thin wafers. Single crystal wafer cells are expensive. They
are cut from cylindrical ingots and do not completely cover a square solar module.
This results in substantial
waste of refined silicon. The efficiency of mono-crystalline silicon cells remains
between 17-18% because of the purity level.
Figure 2.7: Mono crystalline silicon cell
2.2.3 Multi-Crystalline Silicon
Poly-crystalline silicon cells are made from sawing a cast block of silicon first
into bars and then wafers. This technology is also known as Multi crystalline
technology. Poly Silicon cells are less expensive to produce than single crystal
silicon cells as the energy intensive process for purification of silicon is not
required. They are less efficient than single crystalline cells. The efficiency of poly-
crystalline silicon cells ranges from 13-14%.
2.2.4 Thin Film Technology
In Thin Film Solar technology, a very thin layer of chosen semiconductor

material (ranging from nanometre level to several micrometres in thickness) is
deposited on to either coated glass or stainless steel or a polymer substrate.
Various thin-film technologies are being developed to reduce the amount of light-
absorbing materials required to construct the solar cell. This results in reduction of
processing cost. However, conversion efficiencies are also lower in these cases
(average 710%). As the modules are of lesser efficiency for same level of
energy requirement, longer collector area is required and consequently more
requirement of land. This technology is, therefore, apt where non-productive land is
available for example deserts of Rajasthan. They have become popular compared to
wafer silicon due to lower costs, flexibility, lighter weights, and ease of
integration Figure below depicts the Thin Film Cell.

Figure 2.8: Thin film solar cell
2.2.5 Amorphous Silicon Thin Film Technology
Silicon thin-film cells are mainly deposited by chemical vapour deposition (typically
plasma enhanced PE-CVD process) from silage gas and hydrogen gas. Depending on
the deposition parameters, this can yield:
1. Amorphous silicon (a-Si or A-Si: H)
2. Proto-crystalline silicon
3. Nano crystalline silicon (NC-Si or NC-Si: H), also called microcrystalline silicon.
It has been found that proto-crystalline silicon with a low volume fraction of
nanocrystal line silicon is optimal for high open circuit voltage. The solar cells made
from these materials tend to have lower energy conversion efficiency than bulk
silicon, but are also less expensive to produce. The quantum efficiency of thin-film
solar cells is also lower due to reduced number of collected charge carriers per
incident photon.
2.2.6 Cadmium Telluride Thin Film Technology
A Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) solar cell is a solar cell based on cadmium telluride, an
efficient light- Absorbing material for thin-film cells. Compared to other thin-film
materials, CdTe is easier to deposit and more suitable for large-scale production.
CdTe technology significantly refined over the past few years. It is uniquely capable
of producing high-volume, low-cost modules, making widespread, affordable solar
electricity a reality.
The physical characteristics of CdTe are such that it is almost perfectly matched to the
solar spectrum. This allows CdTe modules to absorb more of the available solar

energy in low and diffuse light situations such as dawn and dusk and under cloudy
skies and convert it into electricity more efficiently than conventional cells. As a
result, CdTe thin film modules will generally produce more electricity under real
world conditions than conventional solar modules with similar power ratings.
2.2.7 Concentrated Photovoltaic Technology
In Concentrated Photovoltaic (CPV) systems, solar energy collected over large

area is focused on each cell having smaller area, to achieve higher power
output and improved conversion efficiency. Thus the expensive semiconductor
material required for power generation is reduced giving a substantial cost
advantage. Although Si based SPV technology is fairly mature, CPV technology is
still evolving and has a huge potential. Primary reason for using CPV is that, same
amount of semiconductor material can produce higher amount of energy thus
reducing the cost of power generation significantly.
In CPV systems, optical materials like mirror or lenses are us to collect
sunlight on large area and focused onto each cell having smaller area. Despite
the advantages of CPV technologies, their application has been limited because of
the costs of focusing, sun tracking and cooling arrangements.
Figure 2.9: Concentrated PV Module (Source: green and gold energy)

2.3 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
The equivalent circuit of an ideal cell is formed by a current source in parallel with a
diode (figure 1a). There are several circuits that include resistors for real effects of a
photovoltaic cell, for example, figure 1b includes a resistor in series, and figure 1c
includes parallel and series resistance. Other models include two diodes as in figure
1d. The circuit of figure 1c is the more commonly used, although in several
simulations simplifies the parallel resistance value with a high value, using the series
resistance to include effect of fill factor, gets a similar circuit of figure 1d and used Rp
to avoid problem with simulation. Then, this circuit has a simple and accurate model
to simulate a photovoltaic cell. The problem is the parameter values of circuit
components. Therefore, in Section 4 are calculated parameters using data from the
photovoltaic cell indicated in datasheets, for equivalent circuit on figure 1c.
Figure 2.10. Equivalents circuits of photovoltaic cell
2.4 CURRENT-VOLTAGE (I-V) CURVE
Calculate equivalent circuit parameters need to know the I-V curve. In the I-V curve
(figure 2.11) can extract the electrical characteristics of the photovoltaic cell in
standard conditions of measurement (SCM) ISC (short circuit current) is maximum
intensity that can generate a photovoltaic cell or module when measuring the current
if performing a short circuit (output voltage of 0 volts), VOC (open circuit voltage) is

maximum voltage that can generate a photovoltaic cell or module when measuring the
voltage if not flowing current (current of 0 amps), PMAX (Maximum power) is
maximum power that can generate a photovoltaic cell or module and it’s the product
of maximum voltage and current, VMAX (Maximum Voltage) is the voltage at
maximum power (around 80% of open circuit voltage) and IMAX (Maximum Current)
is the current at maximum power.
Figure 2.11. I-V Curve of photovoltaic module
Compare the figure 2.11 with equivalent circuit (figure 1b), value of ISC related with
IL and value of VOC related with voltage and current diode (Id). Then diode includes
effects of exponential of I-V curve. Finally RS adjusts value of PMAX. All parameter
information is extract to datasheets, and SCM are: 25ºC for cell temperature (TC),
1000 W/m2 for irradiance (G), 1, 5 for spectrum solar and 3m/s for wind speed.
2.5 MODELING EQUATIONS OF PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
Reference to the circuit of figure 1c, then show all equations needed to obtain all the
parameters that define the model in standard conditions of measurement (SCM). In
equation 1 shows the intensity value generated by the photovoltaic cell, I is output
current of photovoltaic cell, V is output voltage of photovoltaic cell, IL is the photo
generated current, Io is the saturation current of diode, RS is series resistance due to

the junction between the semiconductor and the metal contacts (interconnects), R P is
parallel resistance due to no linearity of union PN, m is ideal factor of diode and Vt is
thermovoltage shown in equation 2 (where: k is the Boltzmann constant, q is the
electron charge and T is temperature in degree Kelvin).
V+I·Rs
( m·Vt ) V+I·Rs
I = Il − Io [e − 1] − [ ] (1)
Rp
𝑘·𝑇
𝑉𝑡 = 𝑞
(2)
Equation 1 can simplify the last term with a high value of RP (for example 100kΩ).
Furthermore, IL is considered equal to the short circuit current in SCM (ISC_SCM). Then
we obtain the equation 3 at SCM.
V+I·Rs
( )
I = ISC_SCM − IO_SCM [e m·Vt − 1] (3)
The value of I0 is obtained for SMC (I0_SMC) using equation 4, based on, considering
open voltage circuit in SCM (VOC_SCM) and cell temperature in SCM (TC_SCM).
ISC_SCM
IO_SCM = q · VOC_SCM|m · k · TC_SCM)
( (4)
(e −1)
There is an empirical relationship between the value of VOC_SCM and ISC_SCM with RS.
Then, needs calculate fill factor of ideal device (FF0) at equation 5, using parameter
voc of equation 6, and calculate RS using equation 8. The fill factor (FF) of
photovoltaic cell shows at equation 7. This approach only use when R P is high,
therefore fill factor depends of RS value.
voc−ln(voc+0,72)
FFO = voc+1
(5)
VOC_SCM
voc =
Vt
(6)
VMAX_SCM·IMAX_SCM
FF = (7)
ISC_SCM·VOC_SCM

FF VOC_SCM
RS = (1 − )·( ) (8)
FFO ISC_SCM
Changes in temperature affect the values of ISC, VOC and PMAX, when cell temperature
increase the VOC decrease, same with the PMAX, and when irradiation increase the ISC
also increase. The datasheet used parameters of table 1, establishing the relationship
between units (voltage, current and power) and temperature. Temperature can be
expressed on degree Celsius or Kelvin, depends of manufacturer.
2.6 PHOTOVOLAIC MODULES
PV cells are the basic building blocks of PV modules. For almost all applications, the
one-half volt produced by a single cell is inadequate. Therefore, cells are connected
together in series to increase the voltage. Several of these series strings of cells may
be connected together in parallel to increase the current as well.
These interconnected cells and their electrical connections are then sandwiched
between a top layer of glass or clear plastic and a lower level of plastic or plastic and
metal. An outer frame is attached to increase mechanical strength, and to provide a
way to mount the unit. This package is called a "module" or "panel". Typically, a
module is the basic building block of photovoltaic systems. PV modules consist of PV
cells connected in series (to increase the voltage) and in parallel (to increase the
current), so that the output of a PV system can match the requirements of the load to
be powered. The PV cells in a module can be wired to any desired voltage
and current.
The amount of current produced is directly proportional to the cell s size, conversion
efficiency, and the intensity of light. Groups of 36 series connected PV cells are
packaged together into standard modules that provide a nominal 12 volt (or 18 volts
@ peak power). PV modules were originally configured in this manner to charge 12-
volt batteries.
2.7 PHOTOVOLAIC ARRAY
Desired power, voltage, and current can be obtained by connecting individual PV

modules in series and parallel combinations in much the same way as batteries.
When modules are fixed together in a single mount they are called a panel and
when two or more panels are used together, they are called an array. Single panels

are also called are rays. When circuits are wired in series (positive to negative), the
voltage of each panel is added together but the ampere remains the same. When
circuits are wired in parallel (positive to positive, negative to negative), the voltage of
each panel remains the same and the amperage of each panel is added. This wiring
principle is used to build photovoltaic (PV) modules. Photovoltaic modules can then
be
wired together to create PV arrays.
Figure 2.12: PV cells are combined to create PV modules, which are linked to create
PV arrays
2.8 ELEMENTS INCLUDED IN A SYSTEM OF PHOTOVOLTAIC

CONVERSION
The main elements that can be included in a system of photovoltaic conversion are:
Batteries, Photovoltaic Modules, Loads DC and AC, Load Regulators, Invertors,
Converters.

2.8.1 Batteries
Normally they have been considered as a simple element of storage of

electrical energy. Batteries are often sold with a PV system. The primary purpose is
to store the electricity not immediately used, which could be used at some later time.
With net metering, the value of batteries is less because the utility grid
basically acts as a storage facility. For a reliable generation system that can
function independent of the utility grid, however, batteries may be a viable
component to the total system. Back-up generators may be included in a system to
provide power when the PV system is not operating, and are generally included
when systems are not grid connected. Neither batteries nor generators are eligible
for rebate money.
2.8.2 Solar panel
The solar panel is the power source of all photovoltaic installation. It is the result of a
set of photovoltaic cells in series and parallel. Solar panel gives power to battery or
inverter through charge controller (Regulator).
2.8.3 Regulator
It is the element to protect the battery against to risking situations as over

loads and over discharges. The theoretical formulation of the model can be simple,
although it is necessary to consider the peculiar discontinuities of the model and the
inter performance with the rest of the analysed models.
2.8.4 Inverter
The inverter allows transforming the DC current to AC. A photovoltaic installation

that incorporates an inverter can belong to two different situations, based on the
characteristics of the alternating network. In first an isolated system, where the
inverter
is the element of the network and has to feed the set of loads and in second
situation the inverter is connected to the public network, to which it sends the
energy generated by the system.

2.8.5 Converter
The positioning of a converter between the panels and the batteries will
improve the whole photovoltaic installation, allowing different controls from the
system. Depending on the applied regulation, the panels will contribute to the
maximum energy given to the system or the optimal energy for their operation,
assuring an efficient charge of the battery.
2.8.6 Load
It is the component responsible to absorb this energy and transform it into work.
2.9 TYPES OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM
PV technology was first applied in space, by providing electricity to satellites.

Today, PV systems can be used to power just about anything on Earth. On the basis
working operation PV systems operate in four basic forms.
2.9.1 Grid Connected PV Systems
These systems are connected to a broader electricity network. The PV system is

connected to the utility grid using a high quality inverter, which converts DC
power from the solar array into AC power that conforms to the grid electrical
requirements. During the day.
The solar electricity generated by the system is either used immediately or sold off to
electricity supply companies. In the evening, when the system is unable to supply
immediate power, electricity can be bought back from the network.
Figure 2.13: Grid Connected PV Systems

2.9.2 Standalone Systems
PV systems not connected to the electric utility grid are known as Off Grid PV
Systems and also called „stand-alone systems. Direct systems use the PV power
immediately as it is produced, while battery storage systems can store energy to be
used at a later time, either at night or during cloudy weather. These systems are used
insolation of electricity gr ids, and may be used to power radio repeater stations,
telephone booths and street lighting. PV systems also provide invaluable and
affordable electricity in developing countries like India, where conventional
electricity grids are unreliable or non-existent.
Figure 2.14: Off Grid PV Systems
2.9.3 Hybrid System
A hybrid system combines PV with other forms of power generation, usually a diesel
generator. Biogas is also used. The other form of power generation is usually a type
which is able to modulate power output as a function of demand. How evermore than
one form of renewable energy may be used e.g. wind and solar. The photovoltaic
power generation serves to reduce the consumption of non-renewable fuel.

Figure 2.15: Hybrid System
Grid Tied with Battery Backup PV system: Solar energy stored in batteries can be
used at night time. Using net metering, unused solar power can be sold back to the
grid. With this system, you will have power even if your neighbourhood has lost
power.

CHAPTER-3
SOLAR SYSTEM DESIGN
3.1 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN SOLAR SYSTEM
DESIGN
There are following factors on which design depends.
3.1.1 Solar Radiation
Solar Energy is a perennial and pervasive source of energy. Solar electricity is ideal
for remote electrification in the current context. Standalone SPV power plants is the
ideal choice for rural remote villages where conventional grid extension is not
viable either due to inhospitable terrain or due to poor density of load.
Figure shows regions of high isolation where solar energy conversion systems
will produce maximum amount of energy from a specific collector field size.
Figure 3.1: Areas of the world with high isolation (Source: Power from the sun)
The annual average isolation level can be found out in the NASA website given
longitude, latitude, altitude and certain other details. Solar technologies using
concentrating systems for electrical production require sufficient direct beam
radiation, which is the beam radiation from the sun that passes through the
planet's atmosphere without deviation and refraction. Consequently, appropriate site

locations are normally situated in arid to semi-arid regions. Acceptable production

costs of solar electricity occur where radiation levels exceed about 1700 kWh/m²-yr.
Most Suitable regions include the southwest United States, Northern Mexico,
the
North African desert, the Arabian Peninsula, major portions of India, Central
and
Western Australia, the high plateaus of the Andean states, and north eastern Brazil.
Promising site locations in Europe are found in Southern Spain and several
Mediterranean islands.
3.1.2 Atmospheric effect on Solar Radiation
For utilization of solar energy, it is necessary to know the amount of depletion

of incoming solar radiation by the atmosphere. It has been reported that for clear
sky conditions, the fractions of direct solar radiation which is depleted due to various
reasons are:
1. Atmospheric scattering 9%
2. Surface reflection 6%
3. Other gases, smoke, dust etc. 3%
Figure 3.2 how much solar energy?

In astronomy, air mass is the optical path length through the earth's
atmosphere for light from a celestial source. As it passes through the atmosphere,
light is attenuated by scattering and absorption; the more atmosphere through
which it passes, the greater the attenuation. Consequently, celestial bodies on
the horizon appear less bright than when at the zenith. The attenuation, known
as atmospheric extinction, is described quantitatively by the Beer-Lambert-Bouygues
law.
3.1.3 Air Mass
“Air mass” normally indicates relative air mass, the path length relative to that
at the zenith at sea level. By definition, the sea-level air mass at the zenith is
one. Air mass increases as the angle between the source and the zenith increases,
reaching a value of approximately 38 at the horizon. Air mass can be less than one at
an elevation greater than sea level. However, most closed-form expressions for air
mass do not include the effects of elevation, so adjustment must usually be
accomplished by other means. Designation of Solar Air Masses is shown in Figure
3.3 below.
Fig.3.3 Daily and Seasonal Temperature Variations

One of the most popular myths about the use of solar energy is that on cloudy days
there will not be any electricity generation. This is classified in detail below:

3.2 SOLAR PV SYSTEMS
In a cloudy day Solar PV panels produce electricity from diffused sunlight. The
amount of energy that can be collected is certainly less than the amount that can be
captured on a sunny day, the process of collection depends on degree of sunlight. This
energy can be stored in batteries, which can cater to needs during the night.
3.3 AVAILABILITY OF LAND AND FOUNDATION NEEDS
The land must be plain and continuous. Non fertile, barren land should only be
considered. Rocky terrain shall be preferred so that the cost of foundation will be
cheaper.
3.4 ORIENTATION AND OBSTRUCTIONS
The proposed land for SPV power generation must have a clear south facing without
any obstruction in Southern hemisphere.
3.5 PROXIMITY OF POWER EVACUATION
Proximity of high tension substation is an important factor for the proposed site as the
cost of laying transmission line is significant.
3.6 WATER AVAILABILITY

Water is required for the construction purpose and for periodic cleaning of solar
panels as a part of daily Operation and Maintenance.
3.7 ANY INDUSTRIES OF POLLUTION NEARBY
It is suggested that the site be selected, which does not have any Polluting
industries in the neighbourhood. Otherwise the smoke and dust emitted by these
industries forms a deposition on top of panels resulting in Array losses.
3.8 POWER SUPPLY FOR CONSTRUCTION

Availability of adequate power supply for construction work is necessary.

3.9 INSTALLATION ISSUES
In a theoretically well designed system, if the equipment is not installed

properly, the system could fail. Bad communications between designers and
installers can lead to wasted time and money resulting in a faulty system.
The following are installation issues that need to be considered in system design:

CHAPTER-4
SITE LOCATION & LOAD ANALYSIS
4.1 SITE LOCATION:
Site is F – block of SRMGPC building. Technical data about location is mentioned

below.
Latitude 26.893⁰N
Longitude 81.073⁰E
Altitude 160m
Available Roof Area 8500ft^2
Usable Shadow Free Area 8000ft^2
Average Solar Radiation 5.1Kwh/m^2 (as per NASA report)
Table 3. Site location

India is the seventh largest country in the world and blessed with adequate solar
radiation, therefore to setting up a Photovoltaic power plant is a lucrative option.
Indian climatic conditions vary enormously from east to west and north to south due
to its geographical position in the world map. The average solar radiation is an very
important factor when we are going to install a solar photo voltaic plant. The radiation
data per month of NASA is shown below to get the average data.

SSE Parameters
Find A Different Location Accuracy Methodology
Homepage (Units & Definition)
NASA Surface meteorology and Solar Energy:

RETScreen Data
Latitude 26.893 / Longitude 81.073 was chosen.

Climate data
Unit
location
Latitude °N 26.893
Longitude °E 81.073
Elevation m 160
Heating design temperature °C 10.30
Cooling design temperature °C 35.96
Earth temperature amplitude °C 20.32
Frost days at site day 0
Daily
solar
Air Relativ Atmospheric Wind Earth
Month radiation
temperature humidity horizontal pressure speed temperature
°C % 2 kPa m/s °C
kWh/m /d
January 15.9 48.2% 3.81 99.7 2.2 16.8
February 19.6 42.7% 4.88 99.5 2.5 21.6
March 25.4 34.5% 6.03 99.1 2.6 28.6
April 30.1 33.3% 6.61 98.7 3.0 34.4
May 31.2 47.7% 6.69 98.3 3.3 35.5
June 30.7 65.1% 5.84 98.0 3.4 33.0
July 28.7 80.1% 4.74 98.1 2.8 30.0
August 28.0 82.7% 4.47 98.3 2.4 28.7
September 26.6 80.2% 4.57 98.7 2.3 27.2
October 24.3 62.5% 4.93 99.2 1.9 25.1
November 20.8 44.8% 4.35 99.6 1.9 21.5
December 16.8 46.8% 3.72 99.8 2.0 17.4
Annual 24.8 55.7% 5.05 98.9 2.5 26.7
Table 4. NASA Surface meteorology and Solar Energy

4.2. LOAD CALCULATIONS
We need to calculate the load to determine the size of plant. To perform the load
calculation operation we have received the actual data from panel of organization of
one day. Continuous reading after one hour is shown below.
Hour Load From To
1st hour 18.226kwh 8:45am 9:45am
2nd hour 31.316kwh 9:45am 10:45am
3rd hour 34.032kwh 10:45am 11:45am
4th hour 29.660kwh 11:45am 12:45pm
5th hour 30.215kwh 12:45pm 01:45pm
6th hour 18.060kwh 01:45pm 02:45pm
7th hour 18.305kwh 02:45pm 03:45pm
8th hour 16.180kwh 03:45pm 04:45pm
Table 5.Load analysis (SOURCE-SRMGPC Panel)
TOTAL AVERAGE LOAD 21.24kwh

ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN A DAY 196.18KWH (approx.)
LOAD FACTOR 62.42%
So plant must produce 200(approx.) units per day.

4.3 SIZING OF THE PLANT:

1kw Solar Photo Voltaic Panel Generates 4.5 Units (approx.) per day.
So Size of The Plant Will Be 50kw Which Will Generate 225units (approx.) per day.
The 50kw size will be sufficient to supply the calculated load. Excess energy will be
bypassed to the rest part of organisation.
4.4 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:

The schematic diagram is shown below. It clearly depicts that arranged panels are
connected to the inverter and then to the AC panel board. There are also two cut out
one is of DC and other one is AC disconnect to restrict the supply in the either side of
inverter.
Figure 4.1 Schematic Diagram

4.5 PANEL SPECIFICATION:

4.5.1 PV Module:
Here we are going to use panels of WAREE 250W.
4.5.2 Vital Details

Type:
72 cells polycrystalline solar PV module
Figure 4.2 PV Module
4.5.3 Key Features

1. Superior Module Efficiency as per international Benchmarks
2. Positive Power Tolerance 0 / + 5W
3. PID Resistant Modules
4. Glass with Anti Reflective Coating (Improves light transmission)
5. Salt mist, Ammonia and Hail Resistant
6. Sustain Heavy Wind & Snow loads (2400 Pa & 7500 Pa)
7. IP 67 rated MC4 compatible connectors
8. Excellent Performance in low light

9. Sand and Dust Storm Resistant
4.5.4 Standard Test Condition
All electrical parameters specified at Standard Test Conditions

1. 25 degree C cell temperature
2. 100m W/cm2 irradiance
3. Air Mass(AM) 1.5
4.5.5 Warranty:
1. 5 Years product warranty.

2. 10 Years: 90% of power.
3. 20 Years: 80% of power.
4.6 INVERTER DETAILS
Here we are going to use string inverters which are quiet useful in the aspect of future
expansion. String inverters have a proven trajectory. Because of their established
reliability, accessibility and high efficiency, they remain well-suited for most
residential and small commercial systems under performance incentives.
With added competition from micro-inverters and two-stage inverter systems, solar
string inverter designers continue to make advancements in efficiency and power
density using new and better components and topology innovation. In addition, they
also face the demand to provide improved grid management and safety functions.
Enhancing power control features, providing environmental data analytics, and
addressing serial arc fault circuit interruption are challenges facing every solar string
inverter designer.


CHAPTER-5
BILLING OF MATERIAL & FINANCIAL ANALYSIS
5.1 BILLING OF MATERIALS:
The components of the plant are listed below with their specification and price. Price
is compared by market rate through market survey. Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy provides 15% subsidy over project cost of all solar projects, this is also
included in below billing.
Sr. Component Specification No of Total

No unit
1 Solar Panel Capacity 250W 200 2250000(45rs/watt)
2 Inverter( String Inverter) 10kw 5 500000(10rs/watt)
3 Module mounting Fixed angle 200 600000(12rs/watt)

&cables system
4 Solar Panel Technology Poly Crystalline
5 Total 3350000
6 Vat 0% 0
7 Installation 10% 335000

&Supervisions
8 Contingencies 5% 167500

9 Project management, 10% 335000

Design & Engineering
10 Total Cost 4187500
11 Subsidy 15% 628125

(MNRE+STATE
Govt.)
12 Grand Total 3559375
Table 6. Material Cost
5.2FINANCIAL OVERVIEW:
Billing enables us to know about required capital to install the plant. In financial
analysis we review about outcome from the plant, internal rate of return & Payback
period of the system.
Here while considering electricity tariff rate we have considered it in accordance with
current charge by Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Limited& we have also made
assumption of 7% increment in per unit charge.
Sr. No. Financial Parameters Value Unit
Plant Cost
1 A-Solar panels
B-Grid tied inverters
C-Mounting structure 3559375 INR
D-Array junction boxes
E-Monitoring System
TAX SAVING
2 Tax depreciation in 1st Year 854250 INR

Tax depreciation in 2nd Year 170850 INR
Tax depreciation in 3rd Year 34170 INR
Tax depreciation in 4th Year 6834 INR
Total tax saving after 4th year 1066104 INR
BILL SAVING(With 7% 7.1/unit

increment per year)
3 Bill saving for 1st year 550176 INR
Bill saving for 2ndt year 588688.32 INR
Bill saving for 3rd year 629896.5 INR
Bill saving for 4th year 673989.25 INR
Bill saving for 5th year 721168.5 INR
Years Total Bill Saving Up to Five 3163918.50 INR
Tax+Bill Saving up to 5 years 4230022.50 INR
Payback period with accelerated 5 years Max

depreciation
Table 7. Financial Overview

CHAPTER-6
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
6.1 CONCLUSION
We have undergone the design and costing of a 50 KW solar PV plant under this
thesis. We get that solar energy is the most popular future energy and a big hope for
world when other conventional energies will be exhausted in upcoming years.
Solar power plant may look expensive at the time of installation but it is feasible in
long term. The system is very useful for academic purposes and researches. The
payback period of solar power plant is very good. Payback period of the plant is 5
years which is magnificent for a generating plant. Plant will work for 20 years with its
80% efficiency. After 5 years plant will ask for just maintenance charges and the total
electricity generation will be free of cost.
These roofs must be oriented southwards in order to receive the maximum amount of
solar radiation. In selecting the solar PV components, both international and local
dealers were contacted and the best in terms of performance and cost were selected. A
polycrystalline PV module was selected because if combines benefits from both cost
and total area required. We found in the analysis that area provided to install was as
per requirement and we have used roof mounted structure for PV panels facing north
to south.
The string of the proposed PV system can easily be integrated with other renewable
energy sources available. Each inverter of the system is independent and therefore the
supply of electricity will be available all the time regardless of whether one inverter
fails. Thus this system is available and reliable.
Solar PV is gradually becoming economical & sustainable with both crystalline
silicon & thin film converters. India has a varied geographic pattern with some areas
having to suffer grid inaccessibility or very weak power flows. Under this diversity of
power flows solar PV power is being utilised as stand - alone power for solar lanterns
& lighting system (5w-200w) to penetrate areas with grid inaccessibility or
unavailability of power. Solar PV stand - alone application have a growing market.
There are also some non-financial benefits like the greenhouse gas emission savings
which can in the long run help mitigate the adverse effects of the climate change
problem plaguing the entire earth.
The highlighted key points from above analysis is listed below:

1. Total cost of 50KW SPV plant OFF grid without battery backup is
35.59357Lacs (approx.) with 15% subsidy.
2. Total cost of 50Kw SPV plant OFF grid without battery backup is 41.875 Lacs
(approx.) without any subsidy.
3. Payback period of the plant is 5 years (max).
The thesis provides us complete information about requirements in installation
of a 50KW solar PV power plant. From material requirement to supervision charges
everything is analyzed closely and then we have got results of thesis.

6.2 FUTURE SCOPE
India, a rapidly growing economy with more than 1 billion people, is facing a huge
energy demand. The country stands fifth in the world in the production and
consumption of electricity. The electricity production has expanded over the years but
we cannot deny the fact that the population of the country is also expanding. The
power produced in the country is mostly from coal (53%) and it is predicted that
country’s coal reserves won’t last beyond 2040-50. More than 72% population living
in villages and half of the villages remain without electricity. It’s high time that our
country should concentrate more on energy efficiency, conservation and renewable
energy. To meet this surging demand, solar energy is the best form of energy to fulfill
the energy needs of India and bridge the energy demand-supply gap.
6.2.1 Solar Energy Power in India: Future
1. Thar Desert has some of India’s best solar power projects, estimated to
generate 700 to 2,100 GW.
2. On March 1st, 2014, the then Chief Minister of Gujarat, Narendra Modi,
inaugurated at Diken in Neemuch district of Madhya Pradesh, India’s biggest
solar power plant.
3. The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) launched by the
Centre is targeting 20,000 MW of solar energy power by 2022
4. Gujarat’s pioneering solar power policy aims at 1,000 MW of solar energy
generation.
5. In July 2009, a $19 billion solar power plan was unveiled which projected to
produce 20 GW of solar power by 2020.
6. About 66 MW is installed for various applications in the rural area, amounting
to be used in solar lanterns, street lighting systems and solar water pumps, etc.
India’s National Action Plan on climate change (NAPCC) identifies eight critical
missions to promote climate mitigation and adaptation. National Solar Mission, which
has the specific goal of increasing the usage of solar thermal technologies in urban
areas, industry, and commercial establishments, is one of the core components of this
policy. The government also offers capital subsidies to semiconductor manufacturing
plants in Special Economic Zone (SEZs) and outside SEZs through semiconductor

policy launched in 2007. In 2009, MNRE launched “Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar
Mission (JNNSM)” with the ambitious goal of making India a global leader in solar
energy. JNNSM plans a three-phase approach with specific targets for each phase as
given in Exhibit 3. The other targets of this mission include achieving grid parity
(same production cost as current electricity source) by 2022 and parity with coal
based power generation in 2030.
Solar Application Target-Phase I Target-Phase II Target-Phase III

Off grid solar application 200 MW 1000 MW 2000 MW
On grid solar application 1000-2000MW 4000-10,000 MW 20,000 MW
Table 8. JNNSM Targets
India is slowly gaining its prominence in the generation of solar power due to the
comprehensive and ambitious state and the Centre’s solar policies and projects and
National Solar Mission. In the latest 2014 budget, Finance Minister Jaitley declared
that the Government has proposed an amount of 500 crore rupees to develop some
mega solar power plants in Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, and Ladakh. He also said
that solar power-driven agricultural water pumping stations and 1 MW solar parks on
canal banks will be developed in the country at an estimated cost of $74 million and
$18.5 million, respectively. Considering all these facts, we do have a bright picture in
front of us as India’s potential to be a solar power driven country of the world.
6.2.2 Photovoltaics: The Future of Solar Power
The fastest-growing energy technology in the world is solar, but it’s very
unlike passive solar. Photovoltaic solar collectors capture solar energy in a supremely
adaptable and portable form. Photovoltaic panels and films, made mostly of silicon,
convert sunlight into electricity by allowing sunlight to stimulate electrons to a higher
state of energy, then converting that energy into electrical current. Basically, the
photons in sunlight, hitting a collector, create free electrons that can be siphoned off
as electrical current. Beginning in the early 2000s, worldwide production of
photovoltaics had been doubling every two years up until 2008 when the rate of
growth suddenly accelerated, more than doubling the number of photovoltaics in use
in just one year. At the end of 2008 it was estimated that photovoltaics were
generating about 15,000 megawatts of energy, worldwide, enough to provide about 8

million average U.S. homes with all the electricity they need, and photovoltaic
expansion was accelerating.
The technology is getting better. So-called “thin-film” photovoltaics are

manufactured on a flexible surface that can be adhered directly to a metal roof. The
electronics fit neatly under a cap that runs along the peak of the roof and the whole
apparatus looks perfectly integrated and natural. Some power stations set up their
collectors on swivels to track the sun. Others concentrate sunlight using mirrors.
The most intriguing new developments in photovoltaics are transparent collectors and
concentrators. Both technologies promise to turn everyday objects into power-
generating solar collectors. Japan’s National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science
and Technology has developed transparent collectors that generate electricity from
ultraviolet light, allowing light in the visible spectrum to pass right through –
effectively a transparent solar collector. The implications are astonishing. Imagine
transparent solar films that could be adhered to the roofs of cars or the windows of
skyscrapers. Every outdoor surface is a potential source of electricity. Glass buildings
could cool themselves. Electric vehicles, parked outside, could charge their own
batteries.

APENDIX-A
LIST OF FIGURE
Figure No. Description Page No
Figure 1.1 Renewable Energy Sources and Non-Renewable Energy Sources 3
Figure1.2 Power generation capacity in India 7
Figure 1.3 Ways of converting solar energy into electrical energy 10

Figure 1.4 Solar thermal 10
Figure 1.5 Solar Photovoltaic 11
Figure 2.1 Photovoltaic cell 13
Figure 2.2 Basic theory of photovoltaic cell 1 14
Figure 2.5 Series connection of cells 15
Figure 2.6 Parallel connection of cells 15
Figure 2.7 Mono crystalline silicon cell 17
Figure 2.8 Thin film solar cell 18
Figure 2.9 Concentrated PV Module (Source: green and gold energy) 19
Figure 2.10 Equivalents circuits of photovoltaic cell 20
Figure 2.11 I-V Curve of photovoltaic module 21
Figure 2.12 PV cells are combined to create PV modules, which are linked to
create PV arrays 24
Figure 2.13 Grid Connected PV Systems 26
Figure 2.14 Off Grid PV Systems 27
Figure 2.15 Hybrid System 28
Figure 3.1 Areas of the world with high isolation (Source: Power from the sun)29
Figure 3.2 How much solar energy? 30
Figure 3.3 Daily and Seasonal Temperature Variations 31
Figure 4.1 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM 37
Figure 4.2 PV Module 38

APENDIX-B
LIST OF TABLES
Table No Description Page No
Table 1. Renewal Energy Installed Capacity in India 8
Table 2. Solar PV power status in India system 9
Table 3. Site location 34
Table 4. NASA Surface meteorology and Solar Energy 35
Table 5. Load analysis (SOURCE-SRMGPC Panel) 36
Table 6. Material Cost 42
Table 7. Financial Overview 43
Table 8. JNNSM Targets 47

APENDIX-C
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATION
AC : Alternative Current
PV : Photovoltaic
AU : Astronomical Unit
DC : Direct Current
SPV : Solar Photovoltaic
FITs : Feed-in-Tariff`s
SECI : Solar Energy Corporation of India
C-Si : Crystalline Silicon
A-Si : Amorphous Silicon
NC-Si : Nano Crystalline Silicon
PE-CVD : Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition
CdTe : Cadmium Telluride
CPV : Concentrated Photovoltaic
SCM : Standard Conditions of Measurement
FF : Fill Factor

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DESIGN AND COSTING OF A COST EFFECTIVE SOLAR PV SYSTEM

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, BBDITM, LUCKNOW Page 1

1.1 ENERGY CLASSIFICATION

1.1.1 Primary and Secondary Energy

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, BBDITM, LUCKNOW Page 2

1.1.2 Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy

1.1.3 Renewable and Non- Renewable Energy

Figure 1.1: Renewable Energy Sources and Non-Renewable Energy Sources

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, BBDITM, LUCKNOW Page 3

Renewable and non-renewable energy sources can be used to produce secondary

1.2 WHY DO WE PREFER SUN NON-CONVENTIONAL

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, BBDITM, LUCKNOW Page 5

1.3 WHAT IS SOLAR?

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, BBDITM, LUCKNOW Page 6

1.4 ENERGY FROM THE SUN

1.5 POWER GENERATION CAPACITY IN INDIA

Figure.1.2 Power generation capacity in India

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, BBDITM, LUCKNOW Page 7

1.6 RENEWABLE ENERGY INSTALLED CAPACITY IN INDIA

No. Technology Capacity (in MW)

A. Grid Connected Power

2 Small Hydel Power Projects 4176.90

3 Biomass Power and Gasification and Bagasse 4550.55

5 Waste to Power 127.08

B. Off Grid Connected Power

1 Biomass (non-bagasse) Cogeneration 602.37

2 Solar PV System (>1 KW) 289.01

3 Waste to power 146.51

4 Biomass Gasifiers 188.87

5 Water Mills/ Micro Hydel 17.21

6 Aerogenerator / Hybrid System 2.67

Total (A+B) 40058.23

Table 1. Renewal Energy Installed Capacity in India

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, BBDITM, LUCKNOW Page 8

1.6.1 Solar PV power system status in India

Installed PV Capacity (in MW)

Year End Total Capacity Yearly Installation

Table 2. Solar PV power status in India system

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, BBDITM, LUCKNOW Page 9

1.7 WAYS FOR CONVERTING SOLAR ENERGY INTO

Figure 1.3: Ways of converting solar energy into electrical energy

1.7.1 Solar Thermal:

Figure 1.4: Solar thermal

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, BBDITM, LUCKNOW Page 10

1.7.2 Solar Photovoltaic

Figure 1.5: Solar Photovoltaic

1.8 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, BBDITM, LUCKNOW Page 11

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, BBDITM, LUCKNOW Page 12

2.1 Brief History

In 1839 Edmond Becquerel accidentally discovered photovoltaic effect when he was

2.1.1 Photovoltaic Cell

A device that produces an electric reaction to light producing electricity. PV cells do

Figure 2.1: Photovoltaic cell

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, BBDITM, LUCKNOW Page 13

2.1.2 Basic Theory of Photovoltaic Cell

Figure 2.2: Basic theory of photovoltaic cell 1

Figure 2.3: Basic theory of photovoltaic cell 2

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, BBDITM, LUCKNOW Page 14

Figure 2.4: Basic theory of photovoltaic cell 3

2.1.3 Series and parallel connection of PV cells

Figure 2.5: Series connection of cells

Figure 2.6: Parallel connection of cells

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, BBDITM, LUCKNOW Page 15