College of Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reading Assignment

Chapter -8- Chapter -

Power Plant Economy:
10-
Introduction
What is economics?
Principles of Engineering economy;
Concepts of cost and benefit
Financial Analysis
Indicators of financial performance;
Economics of power generation
 College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter -9-
Renewable Energies
Target Group: Fifth Year Mechanical Engineering
Students

Serious Prepared By:-Yohannes Feyissa

November, 2016
 9. INTRODUCTION
9.1 Solar Energy
 One answer to global warming and economic inflation due to
fuel price is to replace current technologies , is so called
renewable energy
 Renewable energy is naturally replenished on a human timescale
such as: sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal
 Solar energy is sustainable and totally inexhaustible
 It is radiant light and heat from the sun
 It classified as passive solar or active solar depending on the
way they capture and convert it into solar power
3
Cont
... The history of solar energy begins from the 7th Century B.C
magnifying glass and burning mirror used to concentrate sun’s
rays to make fire
 Horace de Saussure develop a solar energy collector (also
known as a “hot box”), a first in the entire world.
 By 1883, the first solar cell was invented by Charles Fritz
 In 1921 Albert Einstein study the photoelectric effect
 Cooking using just the power of the Sun is not a new
technology, but problems are happened

4
Cont
...
 The nature of energy generation in the sun is still an unanswered question.
Spectral measurements have confirmed the presence of nearly all the known
elements in the sun. however, 80 percent of the sun is hydrogen and 19
percent is helium.
 The nature of the energy-creation process is of no importance to terrestrial
users of the sun’s radiation. Of interest is the amount of energy, its spectral
and temporal distribution, and its variation with time of day and year.
 Solar energy is the world’s most abundant permanent source of energy. The
amount of solar energy intercepted by the planet earth is 5000 times greater
than the sum of all other inputs. Of this amount, 30% is reflected to space,
47% is converted to low temperature heat and reradiated to space, and
23% powers the evaporation/precipitation cycle of biosphere. 5
Cont
...
 In order to use the sun's energy for applications such as water
heating, or air heating or photovoltaic etc, it is necessary to
determine the solar radiation incident on the surface.
 This can be done only from the knowledge of the relationship
between the sun's position and the surface of interest at any
given instant of time.
Knowledge of the nature of extraterrestrial radiation, the
effects of orientation of receiving surfaces and the theoretically
available solar radiation at the earth’s surface are important
parameters in optimization and performance evaluation of solar
systems. 6
 1.1 Thermal Radiation Fundamentals
 Radiation: Energy emitted from all substances at temperatures above absolute
zero, in the form of electromagnetic waves.
 Heat transfer by radiation is the transport of energy by photons released from
excited atoms and traveling on straight paths until they are absorbed or scattered
by some other atoms.
 Heat transfer by radiation is distinguished
 Its velocity of propagation, which is from the heat
independent transfer by
of frequency,
Conduction and
andConvection by:
 The fact that no intervening medium is required for its
 From the fusion furnace of the sun, energy is transmitted radically (outward as
transmission.
electromagnetic radiation) called “solar energy”.
 This electromagnetic spectrum extends from gamma rays to radio waves ( of
wavelength 10+5 cm and longer).
7
 The quantity of energy radiated by the sun can be estimated from the knowledge
23
of the sun's radius and its surface temperature (assuming it to be black body) and
this amounts to a rate of about 3.8x10 kW.
 The electromagnetic spectrum, divided into different wavelength regions, is
Table 1.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum
presented in Table 1.1.

8
 Most important radiation is that lying within the ultraviolet, visible and

infrared spectral regions.

 The radiation of practical importance to the solar energy users falls between
0.15 and 3.0 μm.

1.1 .1 The Sun as the Source of Radiation

 With an effective black body temperature Ts of 5760 K, the sun is, effectively,
a continuous fusion reactor.
 The energy produced at the surface of the sun is obtained from the relation;
E = εσTs
1.1 ε = Emissivity of the surface;
σ = Stefan Boltzmann constant and
Ts = Surface temperature

9
 A schematic diagram representation of the structure of the sun is shown
in Fig. 1.1.

Fig 9.1: The Structure of the Sun

10
 Is estimated that 90% of the sun's energy is generated in the region 0 to 0.23R
(where R is the radius of the sun);
 The average density and temperature T in this region are 105 kg/m3 and about
8-40 x 106 K; respectively.
5
 At a distance of about 0.7 R from the center, the temperature drops to about
1.3 x 10 K and the density to 70 kg/m3.
 For r > 0.7 R convection begins to be important and the region 0.7 R < r < R
is known as the Convective Zone.
 The outer layer of this zone is called the photosphere.
 Above the photosphere is a layer of cooler gases several hundred kilometers
deep called the reversing layer. Outside of that is a layer referred to as the
chromospheres, with a depth of about 10,000 km. This is a gaseous layer.

11
 The simplified picture of the sun (fig 9.1) , its physical structure, and its temperature and
density gradients will serve as a basis for appreciating that the sun does not, in fact, function
as a blackbody radiator at a fixed temperature.
 Rather, the emitted solar radiation is the composite result of the several layers that emit
and absorb radiation of various wavelengths.
 The resulting extraterrestrial solar radiation and its spectral distribution have now been
measured by various methods in several experiments.
1.1.2 Solar Spectrum
 Extraterrestrial radiation - the radiation that would be received in the absence of the
atmosphere. As shown in Fig. 9.2, the maximum spectral intensity occurs at about a
wavelength λ = 0.48 μm in the green portion of the visible spectrum.
 About 6.4 % of the total energy is contained in ultraviolet region (λ < 0.38 μm).
 Another 48 % is contained in the visible region (0.38μm < λ< O. 78 μm); and
 The remaining 45.6 % is contained in the infrared region (λ > O. 78 μm).

12
Fig 9.2: Spectral Solar Irradiance

13
 The solar irradiance from the black body, either sun or earth, as a function of
wavelength (μm) can be governed by Planck's law of radiation given by:

Where: Ebλ – the spectral emissive power -represents the energy emitted per unit area per
unit time per unit wavelength (μm) interval at a given wavelength;

 The variation of the solar irradiance Ebλ with wavelength in μm is shown in Fig. 1.3.

14
Fig 1. 3 (a): Variation of the solar irradiance

15
Table 1.2: Values of f0-λT for different values of λT (μmK)

16
 The total emitted radiation from zero to any wavelength from the
sun can be obtained from Equation 1.2 as:
9.1

 Frequently one needs to know the amount of energy emitted by a

black body within a specified range of wavelengths. This type of
calculation can be performed easily with the aid of the radiation
functions.
 To construct the appropriate radiation functions in dimensionless
form, the black body radiation can be made a function of only the
single variable λT.
17
1.2 Variation of Extraterrestrial radiation
 Solar radiation outside of the earth’s atmosphere is called extraterrestrial solar radiation.
 The intensity of the extraterrestrial radiation outside a planet varies inversely to the
square of the distance of the planet from the sun.
 If the intensity of the radiation at a point and the distance of the point from the sun is
known, then the intensity at another point can be calculated from the knowledge of its
distance from the sun.
 The earth revolves around the sun every 365.25 days in an elliptical orbit - called the
ecliptic plane, with a mean earth sun distance of defined as an
 The earth’s orbit reaches a maximum distance from the sun, or Aphelion, of
astronomical unit (1 AU = 149.5 million km).
on about the 3rd day of July.
 The minimum earth-sun distance, the Perihelion, occurs on about January 2nd, when the
earth is from the sun.
 The distance between the sun and the earth varies every day and is a minimum on
January 2 and a maximum on July 3.

18
 Solar irradiance varies by ±3.4% with the maximum irradiance occurring at the
Perihelion (where the earth is closest to the sun) and the minimum at the Aphelion (where
the earth is farthest from the sun).

Fig 9.2: Variation of Earth-Sun Distance

19
 Solar Constant (Isc)
 The solar constant (Isc): is the total amount of electromagnetic energy that falls on a unit
area normal to the sun in unit time at the top of the earth‘s atmosphere when the earth is at its
mean distance
from the sun.
The current accepted value of Isc is 1367 W/m2.
 The top of the atmosphere is about 40 km from the earth's surface.
 A study of the extraterrestrial radiation is important because of the following features:
 It indicates the maximum possible radiation that could be expected on the earth's surface
(on an extremely clear day).
 The extraterrestrial radiation on top of the earth‘s atmosphere could be used as a
reference in the absence of solar radiation data on the earth’s surface. Expressions related to
the extraterrestrial radiation can be applied to generate solar radiation data on the earth’s
surface.
 A knowledge of the spectral distribution and the radiation intensity identifies in what
wavelength energy is greater. 20
 1.2.1 Intensity of Extraterrestrial Radiation
 The extraterrestrial radiation (ETR) falling on a surface normal to the sun's rays
(mean sun earth distance) is given by solar constant (Isc).
 The intensity of extraterrestrial radiation Iext measured on a plane normal to a
surface on the Nth day of the year is given in terms of solar constant (Isc) as
follows (Duffie and Beckman, 1991):

 An important concept that is often used in solar irradiance models

is the extraterrestrial solar irradiance falling on a horizontal surface.
 Consider a flat surface just outside the earth’s atmosphere and
parallel to the earth’s surface below, Fig. 9.3.

21
 When this surface faces the sun (normal to a central ray), the solar irradiance falling on
it will be Io , the maximum possible solar irradiance.
 If the surface is not normal to the sun, the solar irradiance falling on it will be reduced
by the cosine of the angle between the surface normal and a central ray from the sun.

Fig 9.3: The cosine effect as related to the

concept of extraterrestrial horizontal irradiance

22
Table: Value of Hour Angle with time of the day (for Northern Hemispheres)

23
 Fig 9.3

Fig 9.3

Fig 9.3

24
 Fig 9.3

Fig 9.3

25
 Measurement of Solar Radiation
Solar radiation measurements of importance to most engineering
applications, especially thermal applications, include total (integrated
over all wavelengths) direct or beam and sky diffuse values of solar
radiation on instantaneous, hourly, daily and monthly bases.

Instruments for measuring solar radiation

There are two basic types of instruments used to measure solar
radiation, pyrano meter and perihelion meter.
A pyrano meter has a hemispherical view of the surroundings and
therefore used to measure the total, direct and diffuse, solar radiation
on a surface.
26
Fig 9.1: Commercially available pyranometer

27
Fig 9.2: Schematic arrangement of an Eppley pyrheliometer used to measure the
normal incidence (direct) intensity of sunlight.

28
 9.1.1 APPLICATION OF SOLAR ENERGY
 Some of application of solar energy
 Power plant
 Homes
 Commercials
 Solar Powered Ventilation
 Heat Your Swimming Pool With Solar Energy
 Power Pumps With Solar Energy
 Solar Energy for Battery Charging
 Solar Energy for Cooking
 Solar cars

29
 9.1.2 IMPORTANCE OF SOLAR ENERGY

is good for our environment

do not create noise they operate extremely silently

It’s free

It’s clean

It’s infinitely renewable

It can reduce your utility costs

It comes with incentives

It can also increase your home’s value

It’s extremely reliable

30
 9.1.4 Mechanism of Extracting Energy From Solar
1. Photovoltaic Modules
1.1 Working principle of PV system
I. Photons bombard and penetrate the cell.

II. Activate electrons, loose in both silicon layers.

III. Electrons in the bottom layer sling-shot to the top

IV. These electrons flow into metal contacts as electricity, moving into a circuit
throughout cell module.
V. Electrons flow back into the cell via a solid contact layer at the bottom,
creating a closed loop or circuit.

31
 9.1.5 Solar Intensity of Ethiopia
 Because their distances from the Sun vary, the planets do not all receive
the same intensity levels of solar energy
 Ethiopia has a huge solar power potential, especially in the western and
eastern lowlands, which receive a high density of irradiation
 Ethiopia has installed capacity of just 5 MW

32
Cont
...
 Sunshine hour represents the average number of hours in the daytime that
the sun is visible ,for expect the sun to shine for an average of 10 hours
 Ethiopia, which aspires to generate 20 percent of its electricity from solar
power over the next five years, enjoys an average daily radiation of 5.26
kWh/m2
 Some of the areas that have been identified with potential for huge solar
energy generation include western Ethiopia, especially the Gambella
region, with an annual average radiation range of 4,25kWh/m2
 Northern Ethiopia especially Tigray region where an average of 6.25
kWh/m2 is experienced most part of the year. Extreme solar radiation in
western lowlands to 6.25 kWh/m2/day in Adigrat
33
 9.1.6 Solar Energy in Ethiopia
 

 Ethiopia, promoting itself as a nation with “13 months of sunshine” and one of the

highest solar radiation endowed countries in Sub-Saharan Africa

 solar have been first introduced to Ethiopia in the 1980s

 The main area of application for solar PV has been in off-grid telecom systems which

account for more than 80% of the total solar system installations in the country PV

systems.

 The first PV systems were installed in 1980s ,these systems were installed for rural

home and for school lighting.

 The largest of these was a 10.5kWp system installed in 1985 in Central Ethiopia

which served 300 rural households through a micro grid in the village. This system

was later upgraded to 30kWp in 1989 to provide power for the village water pump and

grain mill 34
Cont
...
 It is estimated that a total of some 5.3MWp of PV is now in use in
Ethiopia
 Ethiopia is to have its first ever photovoltaic module assembly plant
and plans to establish the 20 MW in Ethiopia’s capital, Addis Ababa
 An estimated 80% of total installed capacity of SWHs is within Addis
Ababa. It is estimated that the residential housing SWH market takes
the lion’s share of 90% while the surplus goes to hotels and tourism
 Solar thermal water heating requires both temperature and solar
radiation so we extract much amount of energy in northeast Ethiopia,
The area is known for its volcanoes and extreme heat, with daytime
temperatures surpassing 50 °C called Danakil Desert
35
 9.2 Operation, Maintenance and Installation Of
Solar Energy
1. PV Systems
 After site location orientation of the panel has to be accurate to within
20°-34°of the right direction
 When installing batteries, special care should be taken to connect
them with the right polarity and in the right configuration (series-
parallel).

36
 2. Maintenance
 Solar energy systems require periodic inspections,
routine maintenance and preventive maintenance to
keep them operating efficiently. Also, from time to
time, components may need repair or replacement.
You should also take steps to prevent scaling,
corrosion, and freezing
 Removal obstacles, tree branches, etc. which cause
shadowing

37
3. PV cell Characteristic, Electrical Model

38
 4. Types of solar cell
 Solar cells are classified as:
 By the thickness of their material: thick-film or thin-film

ii. Thick Crystalline

i. Thin Film Materials Materials
 Amorphous Silicon (a-Si)
 Crystalline Silicon
 Cadmium Telluride
Single-crystal
(CdTe)
Multi crystalline
 Copper Indium Di
Edge-defined film-fed
selenide
growth
(CuInSe2, or CIS)
Dendritic
 By their crystal structure: crystalline (Mono-crystalline or Polycrystalline) or Amorphous
 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
 By their semiconductor material

39
Cont.
.. 1. Monocrystalline Silicon Modules
 Most efficient commercially

available module (11% - 14%)

 Most expensive to produce
 Circular (square-round) cell creates
wasted space on module

40
Cont.
.. 2. Polycrystalline Silicon Modules

 Less expensive to make than single crystalline modules

 Cells slightly less efficient than a single crystalline (10%
- 12%)
 Square shape cells fit into module efficiently using the
entire space

41
3. Amorphous Thin Film

 Most inexpensive technology to produce

 Metal grid replaced with transparent oxides

 Efficiency = 6 – 8 %
 Can be deposited on flexible substrates
 Less susceptible to shading problems

 Better performance in low light conditions

than with crystalline modules

42
9.1.2 Components of PV
1. PV module

2. Battery (Energy storage)

3. Charge controller (Dc power conditioning )
4. Inverter

4. Loads
5. Wire Components

43
Cont.
..
 Cell < Module (Panel) < Array

44
Cont.
..
 Modules Classification
 Various module classifications are used commercially. The

general term 'module' (or panel) is defined more precisely by

highlighting the module's specific qualities.

Modules can be Classified according to:
 Cell type:
 mono-crystalline modules;
 polycrystalline modules;
 thin-film modules (amorphous, CdTe).
Encapsulation material:
 Teflon modules;
 PVB modules.
45
Cont.
.. Characteristic I -V curves for modules and
interconnection
 As mentioned in previous section several solar cells are
interconnected in order to achieve greater power. Here, two
types are possible:

 series and

 parallel cell interconnection.

46
Cont.
.. 4. Loads
1. Incandescent Lamps
• Advantages
• Disadvantages
 Most common
 Low efficiency
 Least expensive
 Short life ~ 750 hours
 Pleasing light

 Electricity is conducted through a filament which resists the flow

of electricity, heats up, and glows.

 Efficiency increases as lamp wattage increases

47
Cont.
..
2.Fluorescent Bulbs
 Less wattage, same amount of lumens

 Longer life (~10,000 hours)

 May have difficulty starting in cold environments
 Not good for lights that are repeatedly turned on and off

 Contain a small amount of mercury

48
 9.1.3 Design of any PV system
Calculate the loads,
 Calculate the PV array current and array tilt angle, (depends on
the solar Energy received at the site during the year)
 Calculate the battery size,
 Calculate the PV array size, and
 Wire size

49
Cont.
.. In practice, designing a PV system depends if it is off-grid or
grid-tied.

Off-grid systems require a rigorous design, often with several iterations to

optimize the number of modules, batteries, and stand-by generators, if
necessary, to minimize system costs. Loads must be carefully calculated.
Grid-tied systems generally are sized by one of two methods:
a. How big of a system is possible with the available budget, i.e.
budget constrained.
b. How big of a system is possible given a limited area, i.e. area
constrained.
NOTE: Systems rarely are large enough to match the load. Approach (a) is
50
generally used. Also, the PV industry is marketing pre - engineered
 Cont.
..Example :- Off-Grid Design
tep 1: Determine the DC Load.
DC Device Device Watt × Hours of Daily Use Per Day
DC Watt-Hrs

24 60 1,440
Refrigerator

Lighting 150 4 600

fixtures
Device A 12 8 96

Total DC Watt-hrs/Day [Wh/d]

2,136
51
Cont.
..
2: Determine the AC Load, Convert to DC

AC Device Device Watt × Hours of Daily Use Per Day

AC Watt-Hrs

Device B 175 6 1,050

Pump 80 0.5 40

Television 175 2 350

Total AC Watt-hrs/Day Divided by 0.85 (Inverter,

losses) 1,440 52
Cont.
..
Step 3: Determine the Total System Load
Total DC Loads [A] 2,136 Total DC
Loads [B] 1,694
Total System Load 3,576 Whrs/Day
Step 4: Determine Total DC Amp-hours/Day
Total System Load / System Nominal Voltage = (3,576 Whrs/Day) /
12 Volts = 298 Amp-hrs/Day

Step 5: Determine Total Amp-hr/Day with Batteries

Total Amp-hrs/Day X 1.2(Losses and safety factor) 298

Amp-hrs/Day X 1.2 = 357.6 or 358 Amp-hrs/Day
53
 Cont.
.. 6: Determine Total PV Array Current
Step

Total Daily Amp-hr requirement / Design Insulation*358 Amp-

hrs / 5.0 peak solar hrs = 71.6 Amps * Insulation Based on
Optimum Tilt for Season
Step 7: Select PV Module Type

Choose BP Solar-Solarex MSX-60 module:

Max Power = 60 W (STP)
Max Current = 3.56 Amps
Max Voltage = 16.8 Volts
Nominal Output Voltage 12 Volts
54
Cont.
..
Step 8: Determine Number of Modules in
Parallel
Total PV Array Current / (Module Operating Current) X (Module Derate Factor)
71.6 Amps / (3.56 Amps/Module)(0.90) = 21.79 modules
Use 22 Modules

Step 9: Determine Number of Modules in

Series
System Nominal Voltage / Module Nominal Voltage
12 Volts / (12 Volts/module) = 1 Module
Step 10: Determine Total Number of
Modules
Number of modules in parallel X Number of modules in Series
22 X 1 = 22 modules

55
 Cont.
..
Step 11: Determine Minimum Battery Capacity

[Total Daily Amp-hr/Day with Batteries (Step 5)

X Desired Reserve Time (Days)] / Percent of
Usable Battery Capacity
(358 Amp-hrs/Day X 3 Days) / 0.80 = 1342.5 Amp-hrs

Step 12: Choose a Battery

Use an Interstate U2S – 100 Flooded Lead Acid Battery

Nominal Voltage = 6 Volts
Rated Capacity = 220 Amp-hrs
56
Cont.
..Step 13: Determine Number of Batteries in Parallel

Required Battery Capacity (Step 11) / Capacity of Selected

Battery
= 1342.5 Amp-hrs / (220 Amp-hrs/Battery) = 6.1
Step 14: Determine NumberUse
of Batteries in Series
6 Batteries

(Nominal System Voltage / Nominal Battery Voltage)

= 12 Volts / (6 Volts/Battery) = 2 Batteries

Step 15: Determine Total Number of Batteries

Number of Batteries in Parallel X Number of Batteries

in Series (6 X 2) = 12 Batteries
57
 + +
Series: 3A 3A
Voltage is additive 12 V 12 V + 3A
- - - 24 V

+ +
3A + 6A
3A
12 V - 12 V Parallel:
12 V
- - Current is additive

58
 9.2 Wind Energy
 Wind energy is a nature renewable energy RE
 Wind energy relies, indirectly, on the energy of the sun.
 A small proportion of the solar radiation received by the Earth is
converted into kinetic energy
 The main cause of which is the imbalance between the net
outgoing radiation at high latitudes and the net incoming
radiation at low latitudes.

59
 9.2.1 Background

 Wind energy has been used for millennia. before 3,000BC, with
mechanical applications of wind energy:
 In grinding grain,

 Pumping water and

 Factory machinery
 By 200 BC, for example, simple windmills in China were
pumping water,
 in the late 19th century, they began using windmills to pump
water for farms and ranches.
60
 The first successful experiments with the use of wind to
generate electricity are often credited to:
 James Blyth (1887),
 Charles Brush (1887),

 Poul la Cour (1891).

 Global wind power potential is 11,000 GW.
 It is about 5 times the global installed power generation capacity,
This excludes offshore potential

61
 9.2.2 Wind Power
 Global wind patterns related to solar heating and seasonal
variations in solar incidence.

 Wind speed generally increases with height above ground.

 This is because the roughness of ground features such as

vegetation and houses cause the wind to be slowed.

 Significant areas of the world have mean annual wind speeds of

above 4-5 m/s

The power in the wind is Proportional to:

 The area of windmill being swept by the wind
62
 The cube of the wind speed
 The air density - which varies with altitude

The formula used for calculating the power in the wind is

shown below:
Power = density of air x swept area x velocity cubed
P = ½.ρ.A.V3
Where, P is power in watts (W)
ρ is the air density in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m 3)
A is the swept rotor area in square meters (m2)
V is the wind speed in meters per second (m/s)
63
 The actual power that extract from the wind is significantly less
than this theoretical.

The actual power will depend on several factors, such as :

 The type of machine and rotor used

 Sophistication of blade design,

 Friction losses,.

 Any windmill can only possibly extract a maximum of 59.3% of

the power from the wind (this is known as the Betz limit).

64
• In reality, usually around 45% (maximum) for a large
electricity producing turbine and around 30% to 40% for a
wind pump
• So, actual power which is produced by the wind machine
can be given by:
Where,
PM is power (in watts) available from the machine
• Cp is the coefficient of performance of the wind machine

65
 Wind energy conversion system (WECS)
 The wind energy conversion system (WECS) includes

 Wind turbines,

 Generators,

 Control system,

 Interconnection apparatus.

 Wind Turbines are mainly classified into horizontal axis wind

turbines (HAWT) and vertical axis wind turbines (VAWT).

66
Modern wind turbines use HAWT with two or three blades and

operate either downwind or upwind configuration.

This HAWT can be designed for a constant speed application or for

the variable speed operation.

Among these two types variable speed wind turbine has high

efficiency with reduced mechanical stress and less noise.

 Variable speed turbines produce more power than constant speed

type, comparatively,

But it needs sophisticated power converters, control equipment’s to

provide fixed frequency and constant power factor.

67
 Wind Energy Conversion Modeling
 The basic device in the wind energy conversion system is the wind turbine

which transfers the kinetic energy into a mechanical energy.

 The wind turbine is connected to the electrical generator through a coupling

device gear train.

 The output of the generator is given to the electrical grid by employing a

proper controller to avoid the disturbances and to protect the system or

network

Wind Turbine
 Wind energy is transformed into mechanical power through wind turbine and

hence it is converted into electrical power.

68
• The mechanical power is calculated by;

Pm = 0.5ρACp(λ,β) v3wind

• Where, ρ is the air density value in the range .

• A is the area swept out by turbine blades (m2),

• is the wind speed (m/s),

• Cp(λ,β) is the power coefficient which depends on two factors:

• β,the blade pitch angle and the tip speed ratio and, λ, which is
defined as: λ = Ω.R /

• where, Ω is the angular speed (rad/s) and R is the blade radius (m).
and the rotational torque is obtained as: Tm = Pm / Ω 69
 Principles of Wind Energy Conversion
 There are two primary physical principles by which energy can
be extracted from the wind; these are either lift or drag force (or
through a combination of the two).
 Lift forces are the most efficient means of propulsion but being
more subtle than drag forces.
 With a good airfoil, the lift produced can be more than thirty
times greater than the drag
 Lift devices are generally more efficient than drag devices

70
 Types and Characteristics of Rotors
 There are two main families of wind machines: vertical axis
machines and horizontal axis.

71
 Parameters Characterize Windmill Rotors
 The tip speed ratio is defined as the ratio of the speed of the tip

of rotor to the speed of the free wind.

 Drag devices always have tip-speed ratios less than one and

hence turn slowly,

 whereas lift devices can have high tip-speed ratios (up to 13:1)

and hence turn quickly relative to the wind.

 Solidity ;defined as the percentage of the area of the rotor,

which contains material rather than air.

72
Type Speed Torque Cp Solidity Use
(%)
Horizontal          
Axis
Multi blade Low High 0.25 - 0.4 50 - 80 Mechanical
Power
Three-bladed High Low up to 0.45 Less than 5 Electricity
aero foil         Production

Vertical Axis        

Darrieus Moderat Very low 0.25 - 0.35 10 - 20 Electricity

e Production

Table 9.1: Comparison of rotor types

73
 Ethiopian Wind Farms
 Generally, the overall wind potential of the country is
approximated to be about 10GW
 Ethiopian government build a 120MW wind farm at Ashegoda
site to a French wind turbine manufacturing company Vergnet SA
 Ashegoda project is the first wind farm in the country and the
largest wind farm in Africa,
 Adama and Mesobo Harena sites projects also been signed
between EEPCo and Hydro China .

74
No. Project Generating Capacity Year of
(MW) commissioning
1 Adama1 WPP 51 2011
 
2 Ashegoda WPP 120 2012
3 Aysha 300 2012
  Messobo 42 2012
5 Adama 2 51 2013
6 Assela 100 2013
7 Debre birhan 100 2013
Total   764  

Table 9.2: wind power project projects EEPCo planned to

install before 2013 75
 9.3 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
 Geothermal energy is the energy obtained from the earth (geo)
from the hot rocks present inside the earth.
 It is produced due to the fission of radioactive materials in the
earth’s core and some places inside the earth become very hot.
These are called hot spots.
 They cause water deep inside the earth to form steam. As more
steam is formed, it gets compressed at high pressure and comes
out in the form of hot springs which produces geothermal power.
 It is considered a renewable resource

76
 9.3.1 Geothermal Energy Extraction
Hot water is pumped from deep underground through a well under high

pressure. When the water reaches the surface, the pressure is dropped,

which causes the water to turn into steam.

The steam spins a turbine, which is connected to a generator that

produces electricity.

The steam cools off in a cooling tower and condenses back to water. The

cooled water is pumped back into the Earth to begin the process again

77
 9.3.2 Design of Geothermal Energy power plant

 Three basic designs for geothermal power plants,.

 In the simplest design, known as dry steam, the steam goes
directly through the turbine, then into a condenser where the
steam is condensed into water.
 In a second approach, very hot water is depressurized or
"flashed" into steam which can then be used to drive the turbine.
 The third approach binary cycle system, the hot water is passed
through a heat exchanger, where it heats a second liquid—such
as isobutane—in a closed loop

78
 The choice of which design to use is determined by the
resource.
 If the water comes out of the well as steam, it can be used
directly, as in the first design. If it is hot water of a high
enough temperature, a flash system can be used; otherwise it
must go through a heat exchanger.
79
 9.3.3 Advantage Of Geothermal Energy

 It is a renewable source of energy.

 By far, it is non-polluting and environment friendly. 
 There is no wastage or generation of by-products.
 Geothermal energy can be used directly. In ancient times, people
used this source of energy for heating homes, cooking, etc.
 Maintenance cost of geothermal power plants is very less.
 Geothermal power plants don't occupy too much space and thus
help in protecting natural environment. 
 Unlike solar energy, it is not dependent on the weather conditions
80
 9.3.4 Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy

 Only few sites have the potential of Geothermal Energy.

 Total generation potential of this source is too small.

 There is always a danger of eruption of volcano.

 Installation cost of steam power plant is very high.

 There is no guarantee that the amount of energy which is

produced will justify the capital expenditure and operations costs.
 It may release some harmful, poisonous gases that can escape
through the holes drilled during construction.

81
 9.3.5 Geothermal energy in Ethiopia
 According to the World Bank only an estimated 12% of the Ethiopian
population has access to electricity.
 With almost 85% of the Ethiopians living in rural areas, there is a
significant bias between the power supply of urban and rural
population:
 only 2% of the rural but 86% of the urban residents has access to
electricity. The overloading of the network frequently disrupts the
power supply of large commercial and industrial customer.
 Ethiopia’s geothermal resources agree estimated to be 5 GW of
which 700 MW are suitable for electric power generation.
 Geothermal resources are primarily located in the Rift Valley area,
82
Cont…
 Only one 7.3 MW geothermal power plant has been commissioned so far,
which started operating in 1998/1999 but was shut down due to lacking
technical maintenance in 2002.
 Operation was taken up again, but only at a much reduced generation rate.
 Exploration of geothermal resources is still ongoing

 Ethiopia is among the few countries in Africa with a significant amount of

geothermal resources.  These resources are found scattered in the Main
Ethiopian Rift and in the Afar Depression that covers an area of 150,000
Km2.

83
Cont…
• Based on the results of the investigations, Ethiopia could
possibly generate more than 5000 MW of electric power from
geothermal resource alone.
• Exploration work peaked during the early to mid-1980s when
exploration drilling was carried out at the Aluto-Langano
geothermal field.
• Eight deep exploratory wells were drilled to a maximum depth
of 2.5 km and temperature up to 350° C, of which four are
potentially productive .
• During the early 1990s, exploration drilling was also carried out
84
Cont…
 Three deep (about 2100m) and three shallow (about 500m) wells were
drilled at the Tendaho geothermal field, and proved the existence of
high temperature and pressure fluid. 
 Other geothermal prospect areas in the Ethiopian Rift Valley are at
various stages of exploration that vary from reconnaissance to detailed
geo scientific studies including drilling of temperature gradient (TG)
wells.
 A new era of resource utilization started in 1998 by installing the 7.2
MW net capacity pilot power plant at Aluto-Langano. 
 Initially, there was a disruption in power generation due to technical
problems. 

85
Cont…
 These were studied and are currently being rectified. The plant
is now achieving partial generation 5Mw
 Expansion of the Aluto-Langano Geothermal Pilot Power Plant
Work at Tendaho geothermal field for progressing it towards
 A 7.3 MW e pilot geothermal plant was installed in 1999
utilizing the production from the above exploration wells.
 Ethiopia and Japan signed a memorandum of understanding in
June 2009 to generate geo scientific and reservoir. Engineering
data that can be used for expansion and further development of
the Aluto Langano geothermal field.
86
Cont…
 Ethiopia and Japan conducted a feasibility study for the
expansion development of the Aluto Langano Geothermal Field
in 2010 which proved the expansion plan to be feasible, a
project for resource evaluation by drilling of three appraisal
deep wells and one reinjection well has been designed.
 In our country for next 30 years, we will need to harness as
much as 80,000 MW of hydro, geothermal, wind and solar
power, not just for Ethiopia, but for our neighboring countries .

87
 9.4 Hydropower

 A cross-section of a typical hydroelectric dam Water flows

down the penstock, turns the turbine blades which power the
generators

88
Cont…

 Hydropower is a very clean, pollution-free, renewable energy

source

 The water is not consumed, but rather simply passes thru the
generating equipment, and since several dams may occur along the
same river, the water can be reused and reused

89
 9.5 Tidal Power

 Tidal power, also called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that

converts the energy of tides into useful forms of power, mainly
electricity.
 Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined
effects of gravitational forces exerted by the Moon, Sun, and
rotation of the Earth .

 All large bodies of water, including the oceans and large lakes,
have tides

 Tidal power captures the energy contained in moving water mass

due to tides 90
 9.4.1 Extraction of Tidal Power
 Two types of tidal energy can be extracted:

1. Kinetic energy of currents between ebbing and surging tides

2. Potential energy from the difference in height (or head) between

high and low tides

91
 9.5 Biomass Energy
 Biomass is a term used to describe all organic matter produced by
photosynthesis, existing on the earth’s surface.
 They include all water and land-based vegetation and trees, and all
waste biomass such as municipal solid waste (MSW), municipal
bio-solids (sewage), and animal wastes (manures), forestry and
agricultural residues, and certain types of industrial wastes.

92
 9.5.1 Benefits of Biomass Energy:
 Some of the advantages of using biomass as a source of energy are;
 Biomass does not add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere as it
absorbs the same amount of carbon in growing
 One of the major advantages of biomass is that it can be used to
generate electricity
 Biomass energy is not associated with environmental impacts such
as acid rain, mine spoils, open pits, oil spills, radioactive waste
disposal or the damming of rivers.
 Biomass fuels are sustainable

 Alcohols and other fuels produced by biomass are efficient, viable,

and relatively clean burning.

93
 9.5.2 The main application of biomass includes:
 Biomass can readily be used in boilers to produce directly heat
and/or steam to generate electricity.
 One of the simplest forms of biomass is a basic open fire used to
provide heat for cooking, warming water or warming the air in our
home.
 For transporting purpose, i.e. fuels for vehicle.

94
9.5.3 Methods of Extracting Biomass Energy
 Biomass can be converted to thermal energy, liquid, solid or
gaseous fuels and other chemical products through a variety of
conversion processes.
1. Direct Combustion
 This is perhaps the simplest method of extracting energy from
biomass.
 Industrial biomass combustion facilities can burn many types of
biomass fuel, including wood, agricultural residues, wood
pulping liquor, municipal solid waste (MSW) and refuse-derived
fuel.
95
2. Gasification
 Gasification is a process that exposes a solid fuel to high
temperatures and limited oxygen, to produce a gaseous fuel.
 Gasification has several advantages over burning solid fuel.
 One is convenience – one of the resultant gases, methane, can be
treated in a similar way as natural gas, and used for the same
purposes.
 Another advantage of gasification is that it produces a fuel that
has had many impurities removed and could therefore cause
fewer pollution problems when burnt.

96
3. Cytolysis
 In its simplest form, pyrolysis represents heating the biomass to
drive off the volatile matter and leaving behind the charcoal.
 This process has doubled the energy density of the original
material because charcoal, which is half the weight of the
original biomass, contains the same amount of energy, making
the fuel more transportable.
 The charcoal also burns at a much higher temperature than the
original biomass, making it more useful for manufacturing
processes.

97
4. Digestion
 Biomass digestion works by utilizing anaerobic bacteria.

 These microorganisms usually live at the bottom of swamps or in other

places where there is no air, consuming dead organic matter to produce
methane and hydrogen.

 We put these bacteria to work for us. By feeding organic matter such as
animal dung or human sewage into tanks, called digesters, and adding
bacteria, we collect the emitted gas to use as an energy source.

 This process is a very efficient means of extracting usable energy from

such biomass.

98
5. Fermentation
 For centuries, people have used yeasts and other microorganisms
to ferment the sugar of various plants into ethanol.
 Producing fuel from biomass by fermentation is just an extension
of this process, although a wider range of plant material from sugar
cane to wood fiber can be used.
 For instance, the waste from a wheat mill in New South Wales is
used to produce ethanol through fermentation.

99
 9.5.4 Biomass energy supply potential and utilization
1.Biofuel resources potential (Supply)
 The total biomass fuel supply of Ethiopia is about 990billion
tons excluding Addis Ababa and Somalia.
 Woody biomass constitutes 95% of total potential supply.
 Animal dung and crop residues account mainly for 3% and 2%
respectively.
 Regional distribution reveals that Oromia supplies about 40%
of biomass resources followed by SNNP (24%) and Amhara
(15%) in that order.

10
2. Sourcing strategies for renewable energy from biomass
 Key biomass based energy strategy may largely involve innovative
technological investment, which use biomass more efficiently to
produce modern renewable fuels to meet energy needs in various
sectors.
 Such technological investment requires biomass conversion to non-
solid form (biogas, biofuel, bioethanol and bio electrification) and
more efficient use of solid biomass fuel using modern cooking stove
technologies.
 These potential advantages include: reduction in indoor air pollution,
decreased per capita energy consumption and various other societal
welfare benefits. 10
9.5.5 CONSTRAINTS TO BIOMASS ENERGY USE:
 Biomass is still an expensive source of energy, both in terms of
producing biomass and converting it into alcohols
 Biomass is difficult to store in the raw form.
 One of the disadvantages of biomass is that direct combustion of
biomass can be harmful to the environment as burning biomass
releases carbon dioxide, which contributes to the warming of the
atmosphere and possible climatic change.

10
Cont…

 Over-collecting wood can destroy forests. Soils bared of trees erode

easily and do not hold rainfall.
 When plant and animal wastes are used as fuel, they cannot be added
to the soil as fertilizer. Soil without fertilizer is depleted of nutrients and
produces fewer crops.
 Biomass has less energy than a similar volume of fossil fuels.

10
 9.5.6 Bio-Diesel Development
 Ethiopia is endowed with natural resource suitable for bio-diesel
development.
 In this regard, at national level, an estimated area of 23.3 million
ha suitable land is available for development of bio-diesel.
 Regionally, the available land in million ha is : Oromia 17.2,
Benishangul-Gumuz 3.1, Gambela 2.8, Somali 1.5, Amhara 1,
Southern Nations Nationalities 0.05, Tigray 0.007.

10
1. Ethanol Fuel

 Ethanol fuel is a biofuel alternative to gasoline, which is

gaining popularity world-wide

 Car engines can be designed to run on 10%, 50% even

100% pure ethanol
 It is cleaner burning than
gasoline

 Worldwide, the use of

ethanol is rapidly increasing

10
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