NEW B.

ED SYLLABUS OF KASHMIR UNIVERSITY

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1ST SEMESTER 100% SYL COVERAGE

COURSE TITLE: ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

COURSE CODE: BED15105

FARASH PRINT POINT

990671 3963
 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
1ST SEMESTER

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UNITS DESCRIPTION |2

i) Meaning, scope and importance of environmental

UNIT-I education.
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION ii) Objectives of Environmental Education
iii) Approaches of Environmental Education, Role of
Environmental and
Natural resources in sustainable development.

i) Causes and consequences of environmental degradation

UNIT-II ii) Air pollution: causes consequences and remedies
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS iii) Water pollution: causes, consequences and remedies
iv) Deforestation and its implications suggest some remedial
measures

i) Salient features of environmental awareness through

education:
UNIT-III
programmes of environmental education for secondary
ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS
school
children.
ii) Programmes of environmental education for attitude
changes among
the children with special reference to Save Dal, Save
Hangul, Save
Tiger Project.
iii) Chipko movement.

UNIT-IV i) Man as a creator and destroyer, effect of human activities

MAN AND ENVIRONMENT on environment, values and ethics related to environment.
ii) Concept of hazard, disaster and vulnerability.
iii) Natural Disasters: Floods, Flash floods, Drought,
Earthquakes,
Cloudbursts and Landslides

“Kindly note that any mistake in the contents of this notice is due to my imperfection as a human being as only Allah Subhanahu Wa-Ta'ala is perfect in all affairs”.
 LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

UNIT-1 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

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Q: - MEANING OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION.

Environmental Education is the new area of study of the discipline of education

with recent development and advances. Environment Education is virtually a new
source of concerns for educators, teachers and students.
“Environmental Education is the process of recognizing values of clarifying
concept in order to develop skills and attitude necessary to understand and
appreciate the Inter-relatedness among man, his culture and his bio-Physical
surroundings. It also entails picture in decision making and self formulation of code
of behavior about problems and issues concerning “Environmental Quality”
“Environmental Education is a way of implementing the goals of
environmental protection. It is not a separate branch of science or field of study. It
should be carried out according to the principles of lifelong integral education”.
Environmental Education appears to be process that equips human beings
with awareness, Knowledge, skills, attitudes and commitments to improve
environment.
Environmental Education refers to the awareness of Physical and Cultural
environment and perceives its relevance for real life situations. The problems and
issues are to be identified. The imbalances of environment are to be improved in
view of sustainable development.
The terms Environmental Education and Environmental Awareness are used Page
interchangeably for the some meaning but there is a significant difference in these | 4
two terms. The study of Physical and Bio-Sciences, Geography and agriculture
provides the environmental awareness does not help in developing skills and
attitudes for improving environment. Therefore, it is essential to understand the
concept of environmental awareness and differentiate it with Environmental
Education.
Environmental awareness may be defined as to help the social groups and
individuals to gain a variety of experience in and acquire a basic understanding of
environmental and its associated problems.

SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

As the subject is interdisciplinary, the areas identified belong to different

disciplines include:

 Population ecology (Density, Natality, Mortality)

 Ecosystem ecology (Food chain, Energy flow, Ecological succession)
 Bio-geochemical ecology (Cycling of Nitrogen, CO2, O2,P etc.)
 Radiation ecology (Nuclear fallout into Air, H2O or Land, causes and Control)
 Natural resources (Forestry, Soil, Wildlife management, Conservation, Land use)
 Pollution (Land, Air, Water Pollution, causes, Control measures)
 Freshwater ecology (including lakes and ponds and lotic including streams an
rivers)
 Remote sensing Page
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 Hazards (Green House Effect, Global Warming, Ozone Layer Depletion, Acid
Rain, etc.)

IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Environment is closely related to living organisms. So its study is very important in

present scenario. Like all other living beings, humans have clearly changed their
environment. These changes in environment are vast and diverse. These changes
in environmental studies deeper in depth and wider in volume. The importance of
environmental studies is given below: -

 Environmental studies is useful in controlling water pollution and in ecological

health.
 It deals with air pollution check-up and teaches us diversified ecologies.
 It also teaches us deforestations and forest conservation and gives us basic
knowledge of environment and associated problems.
 It provides an opportunity to be involved at all levels working towards the
resolution of environmental problems.
 It provides help to evaluate environmental measures and education
programmers in terms of ecological, social, aesthetic and education factors.
 It develops skills for indentifying and solving environmental problems.
 Environmental studies provide and awareness and sensitivity to the total
environment and allied problems.
 It relates environmental sensitivity, knowledge, problem, problem-solving and Page
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values classification at every grade level.
 It provides diverse learning about environment and different approaches to
teaching and learning about environment.

10) It promotes the value and necessity of local, national and international
cooperation in the prevention and solutions of environmental problems.

11) It requires focusing current, potential environmental situations.

12) Environmental studies help learners to discover the symptoms and the real
cause of environmental problems.
Apart from these, environmental studies are important in many files at all
levels in both formal and non formal levels.

Q: - OBJECTIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION.

The objectives of environmental education can be submitted in three domains
discussed by Bloom on his book “Taxonomy of Educational Objectives” Cognitive,
affective and Psychomotor.
The objectives in the cognitive domain are:
 To help acquire knowledge of the immediate environment.
 To help acquire knowledge of the environment beyond the immediate
environment including distant environment.
 To help understand the biotic and a-biotic environment.
 To help understand the effects of unchecked population growth or unplanned
resources utilization on the world of tomorrow. Page
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 To help diagnose the different causes of environmental pollution and to suggest
remedial measures.
 To examine trends in the growth of population and interpret them for the socio-
economic development of the country.
 To evaluate the utilization of Physical and human resources and suggest
remedial measures.
 Besides the foregoing objectives, the following skills and ability also fall in the
Cognitive domain:
 To help develop observational skills and notice details usually not seen by an
untrained eye.
 To help develop ability to draw unbraided inferences and conclusions.
 To help develop ability to make meaningful suggestions. The affective objectives
of environmental Education are:
 To help acquire interest in the flora and fauna of the near and also distant
environment.
 To show tolerance towards different casts, races, religions and cultures.
 To appreciate the gifts of nature.
 To love he neighbours and value mankind as a whole.
 To value equality. Liberty, fraternity, truth and Justice.
 To respect the National and purity of our environment.

Environmental Education also fulfills some objectives of the psychomotor domain

as are achieved though participation in environmental activities, excursions an Page
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camping Programmes. Some of these objectives are listed below:

 To participate in afforestration Programmes’

 To participate in Programmes aimed at minimizing air. Water and noise
pollution.
 To participate in Programmes aimed at preventing soil erosion.
 To participate in Programmes aimed at eliminating food contamination and
adulteration.
 To participate in Programmes such as installation of Global Gas Plants, Solar
heaters et.
 To participate in cleaning neighborhood.

The aforesaid objectives have been more or less delineated by the UNESCO’s
tublihi conference also, through in a nutshell are quoted below:

AWARENESS:-i.e. acquire awareness of and sensitivity to the total environment and

its allied problems.

KNOWLEDGE:-i.e. gain a variety of experiences and acquire a basic understanding of

the environment and its associated problems.

ATTITITUDE:-i.e to help social groups and individuals acquire a set of values and

feelings of concern for the environment and the motivation of actively

participating in environmental improvement and protection. Page
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SKILL:-i.e. acquire skills for identifying and solving environmental problems.

EVALUATION ABILITY:-i.e. evaluate environmental measures and education

Programmes in terms of ecological. Economic, social, aesthetic and educational
factors.

PARTICIPATION:-i.e. provide an opportunity to be actively at all levels in working

towards the resolution o environmental problems.

Q: - APPROACHES OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION.

India is a very diverse country climatically, geologically, geographically,

Edaphically, Ethnically, lingual Education has not to be essentially location specific
paid to school going children and women (about 50% of the population. They are
to be made aware of health, family planning, nutrition, rural development, slum
improvement, sanitation, hygiene, water and food contamination, fuel wood etc.
Newman (1981) proposed three fold classification of environmental
Education Programme based on different disciplines.
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES – this is concerned with the environmental disturbances

and minimization of their impacts through charges in the society.

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE – It deals with the study of the process in water, air, soil

and organisms which lead to pollution or environmental damage and to know a

scientific basis for establishing a standard which can be considered acceptably Page
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clean, safe and healthy for human and the natural ecosystem.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – This is the study of the technical processes which

are the assessment of impact of these on environment.

Environmental Education can be imparted in two ways: -
FORMAL APPROACH: -Formal education is given in schools, colleges and universities,

limited to a specific period and has a well defined and systematic curriculum.
The best approach in any awareness programme is to propagate through children
and youth as they quickly take to new ideas and are the future activities.
PRIMARY SCHOOL STAGE: - Here the emphasis should be mostly on building up

awareness. Thus, attempt should be to only sensitize the child about environment.
The content to be used are surroundings from home to school to outdoor
situations. Teaching strategy includes audio-visual and filed visits.
LOWER SECONDARY STAGE: - By lower secondary level, the child is conscious about

the Physical, Social and aesthetic aspects of environment. At this stage and beyond
interdisciplinary approach must be adopted and the emphasis must be on
increasing the knowledge about environment problems, conservation and
sustainable development.
HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL STAGE: - Here the emphasis must be on conservation,

assimilation of knowledge problem identification and action skills. There should be

proper teaching, practical’s and fieldwork. Page
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TERTIARY (COLLEGE) STAGE: - Maximum emphasis would be here on knowledge

regarding sustainable development based on experience with conservation

followed in a descending order. The content must be college/university based on
Science and technology.
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION: - Environmental Education at this level is being looked after

by the UGC. There are so many universities teaching courses in environment areas
besides these there are also research institutes and professional institutions as
Indian institute of technology, Engineering colleges, schools of planning and
architecture which offer causes in environmental engineering.
NON-FORMAL EDUCATION: - for a majority that still does not have adequate access

to formal education environmental education and awareness can be acquired by

Programmes that fall outside the formal education system.
Environmental Education needs to be a lifelong affair rather than a matter of
formal schooling. This realization has resulted in an increase in non-formal
education which includes activities outside the framework of the established
formal education system. The process of non-formal environmental education is
experience based involving exercises of solving environmental problems. This gives
the students an out of school exposure. The various approaches of non-formal
environmental education are: -
ADULT EDUCATION: - Adults may influence younger members for better ways of life.

In Local language information packs, posters, slides, audio-visuals etc may be

generated. Page
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TRIBAL/FOREST DWELLERS: - The Programmes of Education can be taken up by

involving their community leaders, women and youth. They are an important
content of our forest wealth.
CHILDREN ACTIVITIES: - Department of Environmental with the help of united School

organization of India organizes such activities. On the spot painting, modeling and
poster design contests are conducted for children by the National Museum of
National History.
ECO-DEVELOPMENT CAMPS: - A set of guidelines has been prepared by department

of Environment (1984). The main objectives are: -

 To create awareness in student and non-student youth about basic ecological
Principles.
 To identify root cause of ecological problems as related to human activities.
 To take steps to solve local ecological problems.
TRAINING SENIOR EXECUTIVES/ADMINISTRATORS: - Regular courses should be

arranged for various institutes imparting such training. These are general
environmental, Management, Industry-specific environmental etc.
Q: - ROLE OF ENV-TAL & NATURAL RESOURCES IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT.

Nature has been very kind to Man. Ever since his appearance on the earth’s
surface, he has been dependent on nature for his subsistence, through everything
that comes from nature has some utility for man, but its utilization is possible only
when an appropriate technology is available in the initial stages of the history of
economic development, man identified plants and animals around him as natural Page
gifts and used them. With time he learned to cultivate land, run the wind and | 13
water mills by using wind and water energy, developed technologies to utilize coal
and mineral oil and so on, and turned the natural materials into resources giving
rise to an industrial society.
The consumption of resources in the industrial society has increased
exponentially during the last fifty years. Since, 1960 as much fossil fuel, metals and
fertilizers have been used as during all times before. Today the consumer life style
of rich countries that accounts for only 24% of the global population consumes at
least 80% of the most important resources. An urbanization process is clear in the
industrial countries, with about 70% of the population in urban areas composed
with 35% in developing counties. The concept of sustainability applied to urban
areas is a paradox as cities are consuming and destructive in an ecological sense.
The urban/industrial society has created a naïve consumer culture which lacks a
necessary respect for other cultures of today and tomorrow. It is feared that
future generations may have to ear the costs for the unsustainable use of natural
resources by present generations. E.g. depleted and contaminated water
resources, destroyed forests, decreased biodiversity, climate change etc. A way
out of this ditemma is the development of a fundamentally new life style which
suits the pre-requisites of sustainability.
 While working with the term “Sustainability” in connection with life style,
the economist he-man Daly has specified three ingredients.
Rates of use of renewable resources do not exceed regeneration rates. Page
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Rtes of use of non-renewable resources do not exceed rates of development of
renewable substitutes; and
Rates of pollution emission do not exceed assimilative capacities of the
environment.
The renewable natural resources can be considered as assets or stocks that could
provide a flow of resources (or services). The management of these resources
should be based on the concepts of maximum sustainable yield (MSY). According
to this concept /Principle, biological resource should not be exploited above it,
otherwise its reproduction rate without management, otherwise its exploitation,
exceeding a certain level, can lead to ultimate loss of productivity if a renewable
natural resource is left alone, its surplus production will not extend infinitely but
the growth will slowly decline the stock or asset will reach its carrying capacity,
where surplus production will reduce to zero. It is, therefore suggested that under
certain circumstances a renewable resource can be exploited at a sustainable rate.
Non-renewable natural resources, unlike natural renewable resources are finite in
quantity and quality. The obvious question then arises about how to use these
resources over time, should they be extracted now or left until later. There are
various kinds of uncertainties involved in the use of depletable resources e.g.,
uncertainty about the quantity of existing reserves, future demand and backstop
technologies. Uncertainty about substitutes will generally shift the depletion
towards the present as the owner would like to reap the benefits sooner than
economically optional under certainty; whereas uncertainty about the available Page
stock may shift depletion towards the future due to the possibility of running out | 15
unexpectedly. The concept of a stock of a depletable resource is rather elastic.
New discoveries are possible and there is always controversy as to whether the
detected or expected stock is fully recoverable or not.
The increasing global concerns of man’s mismanagement of natural resources
has led to the united nations conference on Environment and development in Rio-
de-Jainerio in 1992 established a new UN body, the commission on sustainable
development (CSD), which meets annually to review and promote the follow up of
the main action plan from Norway, the CSD meeting in January 1994 focused on
sustainable consumption by arranging a symposium in Oslo. With reference to a
Dutch study, the summary of the symposium identifies the following four goals to
attain a society based on sustainable consumption:
 Close process cycles (aiming at achieving complete reuse, recycle and repair.
 Halving fossil fuel use (by maximizing the use of energy conservation measures,
shrinking energy intensive sectors and introducing energy taxes).
 Improving the quality of materials (using a cradle-to-grave approach to get
products which are more durable, repairable and recyclable and avoiding the
use of source and hazardous material).
 Reducing transportation (providing goods and services as close as possible to
the consumers in accordance with the proximity principle).

UNIT-1I ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS Page

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Q: - MEANING OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRATION.

Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through
depletion of resources such as air, water, soil etc, the destruction of ecosystem
and the extinction of flora and fauna. It is defined as any change or destruction to
the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. This degradation of
environment is caused by a number of factors including over-increasing
population, urbanization, industrialization, economic growth, unscientific use of
resources etc.
CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION.
GROWING POPULATION: The growing population is a major contributing factor for

environmental degradation by excessive utilization of resources, huge production

of workers is observed. Loss of biodiversity, air pollution, water and soil pollution
has increased many fold. There is pressure on arable land.
URBANIZATION: Due to migration of people to urban areas there is rapid increase,

explosion of unplanned cities and pressure on infrastructural facilities, water,

electricity, sewage, urban slums etc. The urbanization is responsible for depletion
of forest wealth.
CHANGING LIFE STYLES: The increase in use of modern amenities like motor cars,

refrigerators, air conditioners etc has caused environmental degradation due to

release of harmful gases into the air.. Page
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INDUSTRIALIZATION: Due to rapid industrialization, there is depletion of natural

resources like fossil fuels, mineral, timber, soil and contamination of water, air, soil
and great damage to ecosystem. Besides this agricultural development, solid
wastages, pollution, etc are some other causes of environmental degradation.

Q: - MEANING OF AIR POLLUTION.

AIR POPULATION

The WHO defines air pollution as the presence of materials in the air in such
concentration which are harmful to man and his environment. A number of
ingredients find their way in the air and these are mostly gases, which rapidly
spread over wide areas.
SOURSES OF AIR POPULATION
Various sources of air pollution are fossil fuels, industries, agricultural activities,
wars, natural cause’s arid emissions from vehicles.
(i) BURNING FOSSIL FUELS:-Burning of wood, charcoal and other fossil fuels causes air

pollution by the release of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon sulphur dioxide etc.
Petroleum consists mainly of hydrocarbons, sulphur and nitrogen.
(ii) EMISSIONS FROM AUTOMOBILES ;-Vehicles are mainly responsible for more than

80% of total air pollution. The major pollutants released from automobiles,
locomotives, aircraft etc., include CO, unburnt hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxide. Page
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(iii) INDUSTRIES:-Paper and pulp factories, petroleum refineries, fertilizer plants, and

steel industries, thermal power plants are the main sources of air pollution. They
add various harmful gases like CO, SO3, NO, Hydrocarbons etc., to the
atmosphere. Textile factories release cotton dust into the air. Cities experiencing
this type of pollution are Kanpur, Surat and Ahmedabad. The pesticide and
insecticide industries are posing serious threat to the environment. Food
processing industries and tanneries emit offensive odors. Release of poisonous
gases from accidents also poses serious threats. e.g. Bhopal Gas Tragedy in which
methyl isocynate (MIC) gas leakage killed several people. In Tokyo, about 34 tones
of carbon particles mixed with other suspended particles settle per square
kilometer every day.
(iv) AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES:-Spraying of insecticides and weedicides also cause air

pollution. These, when inhaled create severe problems to both animals and man.
(v) WARS:-Various forms of explosives used in war pollute the air by releasing

poisonous gases. This greatly disturbs the ecology of the area. Nuclear explosions
pollute air by radioactive rays. The effects of nuclear explosions on Hiroshima and
Nagasaki are well-known examples.
(vi) NATURAL CAUSES:-Gas emissions from active volcanoes, marsh gas, spores of

fungi and pollens are the natural causes of air pollution.

 COMMON AIR POLLUTANS

Air pollutants are of two main types ~gaseous and particulate. Oxides of carbon.
Nitrogen and sulphur are gaseous pollutants. Particulate pollutants may be solid or Page
liquid particles, larger particles settle down quickly viz., sand and water droplets | 19
whereas small dust particles remain suspended in air for a long time. These are
added into the atmosphere by the processes of blasting, drilling, crushing, grinding
and mixing.
(i) CARBON DIOXIDE:-CO2 content of air has increased by 20% during the last

century. CO2 causes nausea and headache. It’s increase in the air may cause green
house effect, rise in the atmospheric temperature. This may melt the polar ice
resulting in rise in level of oceans and flooding of coastal regions.
(ii) CARBON MONOXIDE:-It is a very poisonous gas and is produced by incomplete

combustion of fuel. If inhaled. It combines with hemoglobin and reduces its

oxygen-carrying capacity. This leads to laziness, reduced vision and death.
(iii) OXIDES OF NITROGEN:-These include NO and NO2, which are released by

automobiles and chemical industries as waste gases and also by burning of

materials. These are harmful and lower the oxygen carrying capacity of blood.

(iv) OXIDES OF SULPHUR:-SO2 and SO3 are produced by burning of coal and

petroleum and are harmful to buildings, clothing, plants and animals. High
concentration of SO2 causes chlorosis (yellowing of leaves), plasmolysis, damage
to mucous membrane and metabolic inhibition. SO2 and SO3 react with water to
form Sulphuric and sulphurous acids. These may precipitate as rain or snow
producing acid rain or acid precipitation.
(v) PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANTS:-Formed by the photochemical reactions between Page

primary pollutants, viz. oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons. Nitrogen oxides in | 20

the presence of sunlight react with unburnt hydrocarbons to form peroxyacyl
nitrate (PAN), Ozone, aldehydes and some other complex organic compounds in
the air.
(vi) HYDROCARBONS:-These are unburnt discharges from incomplete combustion of

fuel in automobiles. These form PAN with nitrogen oxides, which is highly toxic.
(vii) PARTICULATE MATTER:-Industries and automobiles release fine solid and liquid

particles into the air. Fly ash and soot from burning of coal, metal dust containing
lead, chromium, nickel, cadmium, zinc and mercury from metallurgical processes;
cotton dust from textile mills; and pesticides sprayed on crops are examples of
particulate pollutants in the air. These are injurious to respiratory tract.
(viii) AEROSOLS:-Aerosols are chemicals released in the air in vapour form. These

include fluorocarbon (carbon compound having fluorine) present in emissions

from the Jet aero planes. Aerosols deplete the ozone layer. Thinning of ozone layer
results in more harmful ultraviolet rays reaching the earth, which are harmful to
skin, and can lead to skin cancer also.
(ix) RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES:-These are released by nuclear explosions and

explosives. These are extremely harmful for health.

(x) FLUORIDES:-Rocks, soils and. minerals containing fluorides release an extremely

toxic gas called hydrogen fluoride on heating. This gas is highly injurious to
livestock and cattle. Page
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CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION

The various causes of air pollution are: -

NATURAL CAUSES: - Natural causes like volcano eruption, deflation of sand and dust,

forest fires etc cause air pollution.

MAN – MADE CAUSES: - They include human activities such as industries, factories,

urban centers, aircraft, nuclear experiments, automobiles, etc.

Following are some manmade causes of air pollution: -
i) AUTOMOBILES: - Automobiles pour tones of gaseous pollutants into the air daily

which accounts for 70% of the total air pollution.

ii) INDUSTRIES: - Industries are a major cause of air pollution. They release very

toxic gases e.g. Nitrogen oxides which pose the most serious air pollution control
challenge. Thee oxides come from both automobiles and from certain stationary
combustion sources. Industries include: -

PETROLEUM REFINERIES: - They emit a number of gaseous pollutants, chiefly SO2 and

NOx responsible for air pollution.

CEMENT FACTORIES AND STONE CRUSHES: - They emit plenty of dust, which is a

potential health hazard.

FOOD AND FERTILIZATION INDUSTRIES: -Many food and fertilizer industries emit

gaseous pollutants.
In addition combustion of natural gas, petroleum, coal, and wood in industries, Page
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aircrafts, railways, thermal plants, kitchens etc add to air pollution.
Several metallurgical processes and the processing industries like cotton textiles,
wheat flour mills etc contribute to the air pollution. Several metallurgical presses
and the processing industries like cotton textiles, wheat flour mills etc contribute
to the air pollution.

EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

EFFECT ON PLANTS
(i) SO2 causes chlorosis and also results in the death of cells and tissues.
(ii) Fluorides and PAN damage leafy vegetables such as lettuce and spinach.
(iii) Oxides of nitrogen and fluorides reduce crop yield.
(iv) Smog bleaches and blaze foliage of important leafy plants.
(v) Hydrocarbons cause premature yellowing, fall of leave and flower buds,
discoloration and curling of sepals and petals.
(vi) Smoke and dust cover the leaf surface and reduce photosynthetic capacity of
plants.
(vii) Ozone damages cereals, fruits, and cotton crop.
EFFECT ON MAN
The effect of pollutants on animals and man are as follows-
(i) Ozone causes dryness of mucous membranes, changes eye vision, causes
headache, pulmonary congestion and oedema.
(ii) Ozone has been reported to produce chromosomal aberrations. Page
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(iii) SO2 causes drying of mouth, scratchy throat, smarting eyes and disorders of
respiratory tract.
(iv) SO3, CO and NO2 diffuse into blood stream and reduce oxygen transport. CO
damages cardiovascular system. Hydrocarbons and other pollutants act, as
carcinogens and lead to different cancers.
(v) Cotton dust leads to respiratory disorders e.g. bronchitis and asthma.
(vi) Smoking of tobacco causes cancerous growth in lungs.
CHANGE IN CLIMATE
CO2 content of air is increasing due to deforestation and combustion of fuel. This
increase is affecting the composition and balance of gases in the atmosphere.
Increase in CO2 concentration may increase the atmospheric temperature,
producing green house effect
`A rise of global temperature by more than 2-3 degrees may melt glaciers and
polar ice. This would lead to a rise in ocean level and consequent flooding and
submergence of coastal areas. Rainfall pattern may also change, affecting
agricultural output in various regions of’ the world. Aerosols deplete the ozone
layer in the stratosphere. Thinning of ozone layer would permit more of the
harmful ultraviolet rays to reach the earth. This may cause, sunburn, blindness and
inactivation of proteins, RNA, DNA and plant pigments.
AESTHETIC LOSS
Dust and smoke spoils the beauty of nature. Especially the mountain
environments, which serve as a great attraction for tourists. Foul odours emitted Page
by industries, automobiles, dirty drains and garbage heaps in cities are a great | 24
nuisance.

REMEDIES/CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION

Following measures have been suggested to control air pollution-
(i) Some gases, which are more soluble in a particular liquid than air, for example,
ammonia in water, can be separated by dissolving in it
(ii) Particles larger than 50 mm are separated in gravity settling tanks. Using
cyclone collectors or electrostatic precipitators separates fine particles.
(iii) The height of chimneys should .be increased to the highest possible level to
reduce pollution at the ground level.
(iv) SO2 pollution can be controlled by extracting sulphur from the fuel before use.
(v) Pollution control laws should be enforced strictly.
(vi) Trees should be planted on the roadside, riverbanks, parks and’ open places as
they keep the environment fresh.
(vii) Population growth, which is the main cause of pollution should be checked.
(viii) Nuclear explosions should be restricted.

Q: - MEANING OF WATER POLLUTION.

WATER POLLUTION
Water is extremely essential for life, this common fact is known to all. It is required
to meet our basic needs in day to day life viz., cooking, drinking, bathing, disposal Page
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of sewage, irrigation, generating electricity in power plants, cooling and
manufacturing different products in industries and the disposal of industrial
wastes. During all these processes the undesirable substances are added to the
water resources to a great extent. This alters the basic chemistry of water in rivers
and streams.

SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION

(i) DOMESTIC SEWAGE:-This includes household’s wastes like food wastes, synthetic

detergents used for washing clothes and cleaning bathrooms and latrines and
water based paints.
(ii) INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS:-The industrial wastes are discharged in the adjoining

rivers and streams through flush lines of factories. The textiles, sugar and fertilizers
factories, oil refineries, drugs manufacture, rubber, and rayon fibers, the paper
industries and the chemical factories all produce Chemical pollution.
(iii) AGRICULTURAL SOURCE:-Increased use of fertilizers has become essential for high

yielding crop plants. Excess of nitrates used as fertilizers seep into ground water is
carried into lakes and pond. On entering the drinking water supply system these
create several health problems.
(iv) PESTICIDES:-These include insecticides, fungicides, nematicides, rodenticides,

herbicides and soil fumigants. These contain chlorinated hydrocarbons,

organophosphates, metallic salts, carbonates, acetic acid derivatives etc. many Page
pesticides are non-degradable. They pass through the food chains and accumulate | 26
in fatty tissues thus causing several health hazards.
(v) THERMAL POLLUTION:-Power plants and nuclear power stations are the main

sources of thermal pollution of water where water is used for cooling and
becomes hot. The hot water on entering the main water body raises its
temperature, which kills fishes and other aquatic animals and increases the rate of
respiration in aquatic plants.
(vi) PATHOGENIC ORGANISMS:-Sewage and domestic waste from houses introduces

pathogenic organism’s viz., protozoa, worms-eggs and bacteria into water. This
contaminated water if consumed causes jaundice, typhoid, dysentery, cholera,
tuberculosis etc.
(vii) MINERAL OILS:-Oil from oil spills and washings of automobiles finds way into

river water through sewers.

(viii) UNDERGROUND WATER POLLUTION:-Underground water particularly in cities and

industrial areas is no more pure and safe. The sources of underground water
pollution are sewage, seepage, pits, industrial effluents, septic tanks, fertilizers and
pesticides, garbage etc.
(ix) MARINE WATER POLLUTION:-River and stream network sources of water

ultimately end up ocean and seas. Thus, these acts as the sink of all natural and
man-made water based pollutants. The main sources of oceanic pollution are
discharges of oil, greases, petroleum products, detergents, sewage and garbage
including radioactive wastes. Page
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CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION
The major causes of water-pollution are: -
1) SEWAGE AND OTHER OXYGEN-DEMANDING WASTES: -Large carbonaceous organic

material, the decomposition of which leads to oxygen depletion.

2) INFECTIOUS AGENTS.
3) Plant nutrients that can stimulate the growth of aquatic plants, which then
interfere with water uses and when decaying deplete the dissolved oxygen and
produce disagreeable odours.
4) Exotic organic chemicals, including pesticides, various industrial products,
surface active detergents, and the decomposition products of other organic
compounds.
5) Petroleum, especially from oil spills.
6) Inorganic minerals and chemical compounds.
7)Sediments consisting of soil and mineral particles washed by storms and
floodwater from croplands, unprotected soils, mine working, roads and bulldozed
urban areas.

EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION

The main effects of water pollutants are:
1. Compounds of mercury, arsenic and lead are poisonous and chemically harmful
as they even affect water treatment plants e.g. organic sulphur compounds
interfere with nitrification. Page
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2. Mercury when dissolved in water is absorbed by aquatic plants and enters the
food chain. Lead impairs metabolism and brings about congenital deformities,
anaemia etc.
3. Cadmium damages kidneys and liver.
4. Inorganic nitrates and phosphates promote growth of oxygen-consuming algae,
which result in the death of fishes and other aquatic animals.

5. Presence of dyes and compounds in the discharged water changes the colour of
water.
6. Soap, detergents and, alkalis result in foam formation.
7. Industrial effluents containing iron, free chlorine, phenol, manganese, oils,
hydrocarbons, ammonia, algae and microorganisms impair the taste and odours of
water.
8. The nitrates and phosphates dissolved in water accelerate the growth of
microorganisms, which consume much of the dissolved oxygen depriving fish and
other aquatic life (Eutrophication).
9. Biomagnifications is the increase of toxic materials at each tropic level of a food
chain.
For example, DDT after reaching a water system is absorbed by the
microorganisms on which smaller fishes feed. From them, DDT reaches the
carnivorous animals. Since bigger fishes consume more food, large amounts of
DDT accumulates in their body.
(i) Separate ponds and tanks to be used for cattle and animals. Page
| 29
(ii) Use of pesticides, insecticides and fertilizers should be done judiciously. Rapid
biodegradable substitutes for pesticides should be employed.
(iii) In towns where sewage facilities are not available, septic tanks should be made
in the houses.
(iv) Rivers and lakes should not be used for bathing or washing as it contaminates
water. .
(v) Domestic sewage and industrial wastes should be treated before discharging
them into drains.

TREATMENT OF WASTE WATER

Domestic sewage and industrial wastes should be properly treated before these
are drained in the mainstream water. Treatment involves the following two steps:
(i) SEWAGE TREATMENT
It involves following steps:
PRIMARY TREATMENT: - It involves physical processing of sedimentation, flotation

and filtration where sewage water is passed through screens to remove larger
particles and then through grinding mechanism to reduce the larger particles to
smaller size. The sewage is finally passed through settling tanks to remove
suspended impurities.
SECONDARY TREATMENT:-Sewage obtained after primary treatment is sent to

aeration tank where it is mixed with air and sludge laden with bacteria and algae.
The algae provide oxygen to the bacteria and decompose organic matter into Page
| 30
simple compounds. Chlorination is finally done to remove bacteria.
TERTIARY TREATMENT:-In the third and last step water is passed through ion

exchangers to remove dissolved salts.

(ii) TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS
Treatment of industrial effluents involves neutralization of acids and bases,
removal of toxic compounds, coagulation of colloidal impurities, precipitation of
metallic compounds and reducing the temperature of effluents to decrease
thermal pollution.

Q: - DEFORESTATION & ITS IMPLICATIONS.

DEFORESTATION

Deforestation is the process of felling trees indiscriminately resulting in nude or

seminude surface of the hill hitherto covered by thick forests. Deforestation means
clearing of forests to claim land for use by man.

CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION

1) POPULATION EXPLOSION:-Large areas of forests have been cleaned for agriculture,

factories, road and rail tracks, industries, mining and quarrying have seriously
affected the forest.
2) FIRES:- Forest fires destroy trees, seeds and the animal life.
3) PESTS:-Many kinds of insect pests destroy forests by eating the shoots and
spreading diseases. Page
| 31
4) GRAZING AND GNAWING MAMMALS:-These animal seat, trample the young
plants, and damage their trunks and roots.
5) WEATHER:-Storm and snow damage the forests. These natural forces are
beyond human power to control.

6) DAMS:-Barriers constructed across rivers to prevent floods submerge and kill

large tracts of forests.
7) JHUMING (SHIFTING CULTIVATION):- In certain parts of India, forests are burnt
and the ash is mixed with the soil and the land used for cultivation.

EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION

1) Percolation and ground water recharge has decreased.

2) Floods and drought have become more frequent.
3) Soil erosion has increased.
4) Pattern of rainfall has changed.
5) Land slides and avalanches are on the increase.
6) Climate has become warmer in the deforested region due to lack of humidity
added by the plants.
7) Consumption of CO2 and production of O2 is adversely affected.
8) Man has been deprived of the benefits of trees and animals.
9) Extinction of many species of plants and animals, still not discovered by
scientists.
10) Shortage of fuel Page
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ALTERNATIVES OF DEFORESTATION
Ending deforestation and protecting forests will not only preserve biodiversity and
defend the rights of forest communities, it is also one of the quickest and cost
effective ways of curbing global warming.

Combating deforestation is a complex issue that requires a variety of approaches.

Here are a few key solutions
If corporations have the ability to destroy the world's intact forests, they also have
the power to help save them.
CORPORATIONS/MARKETS
Companies can make an impact by introducing zero-deforestation policies that
require suppliers to produce commodities such as timber, beef, soy, palm oil and
paper fiber in a way that has a minimal impact on natural forests and the climate.
POLITICS
In order to achieve zero deforestation we need ambitious and science-based
domestic and international forest policies from our government.
The international community must also urgently commit to mechanisms that
reduce greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation in tropical forest developing
nations.
INDIVIDUAL LEVEL
Make sure that the forest derived products you buy are made from 100% post-
consumer content materials Page
| 33
Buy only from companies that have a commitment to reducing deforestation
through an environmentally friendly purchasing policy
If you are buying products made from virgin forest fiber, make sure that it bears a
seal from a credible forestry certification system, like the Forest Stewardship
Council (FSC) Read more about the FSC and false forms of forest certification
As a consumer ask questions about how the products you buy impact the forests.

Educate your friends, family, and community about how our actions here can
impact forests thousands of miles away.

ALTERNATIVE USE OF TIMBER

Timber is another name for wood, whether still standing in the form of trees or
felled and turned into boards for construction. Some people may also refer to
timber as lumber, or differentiate between timber as unprocessed wood and
lumber as cut wood packaged for commercial sale. The timber industry around the
world is huge, providing wood for a variety of products from paper to
particleboard.
There is currently a movement in the building industry to using timber alternatives
and recycled products, fuelled by the belief that this is a more environmentally
friendly option. The timber industry has released a campaign to address this
perception, centred on the following:
OFFSETTING GREENHOUSE EMISSIONS Page
| 34
Growing trees absorb carbon dioxide (greenhouse gas) from the atmosphere and
store the carbon efficiently. The carbon remains locked up for the life of the wood
and is only released when the timber decays or is burnt.
SUSTAINABILITY AND ACCOUNTABILITY
The positive aspects of timber use are dependent upon forestry being sustainable
and accountable. timber is a 100% organic product with natural benefits –
durability, thermal efficiency and natural versatility. It can be further enhanced
with paint or stain to provide a truly beautiful result.
EMBODIED ENERGY
The recycling of materials can produce emissions that offset the benefits of the
recycling process. When evaluating building materials, it is important to consider
the amount of energy (often derived from finite fossil fuels) that is used in the
manufacturing process. Production of wood requires less energy in the harvest,
transportation and manufacturing processes than timber alternatives do.

EVIL CONSEQUENCES OF DEFORESTATION

With deforestation ecological balance maintain by nature breaks away. Floods or
drought are the terrible consequences. The trees, increase rainfall of an area, as
well as conserve the water which falls on the ground rain. Consequent to
deforestation, the plant reduces evaporation allowing water to remain in solid for
a long time.
In our country unabated deforestation over grazing and the growing hunger for Page
land has hit the ecology of India badly. If it goes on, we may soon have more of | 35
wasteland than productive land. Large-scale deforestation has badly affected the
weather. Evil consequences of deforestation can be summed up as under:
1. ADVERSE EFFECT ON PRODUCTIVITY:-It is noticed that the devasting effects of
deforestation in India include soil, water and wind erosions, estimated to cost over
16,400 crores every year. Deforestation affects productivity of our croplands in
two ways as under:
(i) The deforestation increase the soil erosion increase manifold. The soil so
washed leads to an accentuated cycle of floods and drought.
(ii) Deforestation creates to use cowdung and crop wastes as fuel mainly for
cooking. As a result no part of the plant goes back to loss in soil fertility.
2. LAND/EROSION AND LANDSLIDES:-Deforestation has been causing tremendous
land erosion and landslides. Data reflect that about 6,000 million ton of topsoil is
lost annually due to water erosion in the absence of trees. The loss worked out
from the topsoil erosion in 1973 was Rs. 700 crore. The figures for the years 1976,
1977 and 1978 are Rs. 889 crore, Rs. 1,200 crore and Rs. 1,091 crore respectively.
3. LOW PER CAPITA FORESTLAND:-As far as per capita forestland is concerned,
India today is the poorest in the world. The per capita forestland in India is 0.10
hectare compared to the world average of 1 hectare.
 UNIT-1II ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS

Page
Q: - SALIENT FEATURES OF ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS THROUGH EDUCATION. | 36

The best method to control the environmental pollution is to educate every

person in the country be made aware of the changing environment conditions.

Environmental organizations can be global, regional, national or local; they can be

government-run or private (NGO). Environmentalist activity exists in almost every
country. Moreover, groups dedicated to community development and social
justice also focus on environmental concerns.

There are some volunteer organizations.

1)THE NATURAL RESOURCES DEFENSE COUNCIL (NRDC): - Is a New York City-
based, non-profit, non-partisan international environmental advocacy group, with
offices in Washington DC, San Franciso, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Beijing. Founded
in 1970. NRDE today has 1.3 million members and online activities nationwide and
a staff of more than 3000 scientists, attorneys and other specialists.
Worth magazine has named NRDC one of America’s 100 best charities,
Charity Navigator has given NRDC four out of four stars as of 2007, and the Wise
Giving Alliance of the Better Business Burau reports that NRDC meets its highest
standards for accountability and use of donor funds. The NRDC was co-founded in
1970 by John Adams, Gus Speth, John Bryson and a group of concerned law
students and attorneys at the forefront of the environmental movement.[5]The
organization lobbies Congress and other public officials for a public policy that
promotes conservation of the natural and built environment. The NRDC works Page
against urban sprawl, pollution, and habitat destruction and promotes actions to | 37
mitigate global warming and increase the use of renewable energy. It also
sometimes files suit in federal court against corporations and government
agencies for violations of the Clean Air Act, and Clean Water Act. Other operations
carried out by the NRDC include public education and sponsorship of scientific
studies.
2) ENVIRONMENTAL DEFENSE FUND OR EDF: - (Formerly known as environmental
defense) is a United States-based nonprofit environmental advocacy group. The
group is known for its work on issues including global warming, ecosystem
restoration, oceans, and human health. It is nonpartisan, and its work often
advocates market-based solutions to environmental problems.
3) THE NATIONAL WILDLIFE FEDERATION (NWF): - It is the United States’ largest
private, nonprofit conservation education and advocacy organization, with over
four million members and supporters, and 47 state and territorial affiliated
organizations. The NWF strives to remain “A national network of like-minded state
and territorial groups, seeking balanced, common-sense solutions to
environmental problems that work for wildlife and people.” Its mission statement
is “to inspire Americans to protect wildlife for our children’s future.”
4) THE NATURE CONSERVANCY: - The nature conservancy is a US charitable
environmental organization that works to preserve the plants, animals, and
natural communities that represent the diversity of life on earth by protecting the Page
lands and waters they need to survive. Founded in 1951, the nature conservancy | 38
works in more than 30 countries, including all 50 states of the United States. The
conservancy has over one million members, and has protected more than 69,000
square kilometers (17 million acres) in the United States and more than 473,000
square kilometers internationally. The organization’s assets total $5.64 billion as of
2009.
THE UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME (UNEP): -

The United Nation Environment Programme (UNEP) coordinates United Nations

environmental activities, assisting developing countries in implementing
environmentally sould policies and practices. It was founded as a result of the
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in June 1972 and has it
headquarters in the Gigiri neighborhood of Nairobi, Kenya. UNEP also has six
regional offices and various country offices.

Its activities cover a wide range of issues regarding the atmosphere, marine
and terrestrial ecosystems. It has played a significant role in developing
international environmental conventions, promoting environmental science and
information and illustrating the way those can work in conjunction with policy,
working on the development and implementation of policy with national
governments and regional institution and working in conjunction with
environmental Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). UNEP has also been
active in funding and implementing environment related development projects. Page
| 39
UNEP has aided in the development of guidelines and treaties on issues such
as the international trade in potentially harmful chemicals, transboundary air
pollution, and contamination of international waterways.
The World Meteorological Organization and the UNEP established the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988. UNEP is also one of
several Implementing Agencies for the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the
Multilateral Fund or the Implementation f he Montreal Protocol, and it is also a
member of the United Nations Development Group.

GREENPEACE: -

Greenpeace is a non-governmental environmental organization with offices in over

40 countries and with an international coordinating body in Amsterdam,
Netherlands. Greenpeace states its goal is to “ensure the ability of the Earth to
nurture life in all its diversity” and focuses its work on worldwide issues such as
global warming, deforestation, overfishing, commercial whaling and anti-nuclear
issues. Greenpeace uses direct action, lobbying and research to achieve its goals.
The global organization does not accept funding from governments, corporations
or political p[arties, relying on more than 2.8 million individual supporters and
foundation grants. Greenpeace is a founding member of the INGO Accountability
Charter; an international nongovernmental organization that intends to foster
accountability and transparency of non-governmental organizations.
Greenpeace evolved from the peace movement and anti-nuclear protests in Page
Vancouver, British Columbia in the early 1970s. On September 15, 1971, the newly | 40
founded Don’t Make a Wave Committee sent a chartered ship, Phyllis Cormack,
renamed Greenpeace for the protest, from Vancouver to oppose United States
testing of nuclear devices in Amchitka Alaska. The Don’t Make a Wave Committee
subsequently adopted the name Greenpeace.
Q: - PROGRAMMES OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION FOR SECONDARY SCHOOL CHILDREN.

Over population is the main cause of environmental degradation in India. Increase

in human population leads to lavish consumption of natural resources. This also
adds to pollution of water, air and land resulting in tilting of ecological balance.
Industrialization and Urbanization, use of science and technology for exploitation
of natural resources have all caused serious environmental crisis.
Education is the only mode to make people aware of the environmental
degradation going on in the country and measures to control to be adopted. The
Potentials of education can be best used to promote awareness and consciousness
to understand environment and means to learn the measures to curb
environmental crisis.
 The formal, informal or Non-formal means of education use mass media to
impart knowledge to various targets audience. The exhibition is an important
medium to educate and build awareness in the public besides recreation. Page
| 41
Environmental exhibition, “JOY OF LEARNING”, (JOL) was a part of “Our
Environment Our Future”, during “India International Trade Fair”, at New Delhi
during November, 1989. To make exhibitions more interactive and more
meaningful was also discussed.
Recreational activities to make environmental awareness more meaningful include
full visits, films, culture fairs, festivals, exhibitions, dramas, circus, etc. These are
effective means of communication.
Research indicates that demonstrations is one of the major factors in
building memorability. The exhibits play major role in recreation, education and
dissemination of information that leads to awareness, appreciation and action.
Most people while visiting exhibition satisfy themselves in recreation,
commercial information and educative aspects. They discuss things with friends
and relatives. A good exhibit design satisfies visitors at all levels and is aesthetical.

Q: - PROGRAMMES OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION FOR ATTITUDE CHANGES AMONG THE CHILDREN.

A:-Children be asked to collect and preserve education resources and sharing with
others from resource centre. The resource centre should have collection of books,
booklets, charts, posters, game-boards, video films, computer games, toys, for
children to choose and learn environment and make positive attitude towards the
environment.
 Children be taken for a trip to important pollution problem of the country like Page
| 42
River Ganga or Taj Mahal.
 Field trips to busy streets complex will change the attitude towards
environment by man thee and similarly trips to more or dense populated areas
to see more damage caused to the environment by the more population.
 Field trips to less populated areas to see less damage to environment by man
thee and similarly trips to more or dense populated areas to see more damage
caused to the environment by the more population.
 Sketches, paintings of animals, birds, trees, rivers, lakes, industrial houses, can
induce attitude of children towards environment to understand their
surroundings.
 Student groups with play cards depicting slogans – Trees are temples, Earth
sublime, Plant a tree-live pollution free, water is blood brother of man, Think
globally-act locally can move on cycles to induce thinking among students and
adults about environment and our responsibility towards nature.
 Exhibitions can be used to promote awareness, understanding and attitudinal
change of an individual towards the environment.
 To check pollution of air, water and land, trips to factory sites, sewer-discharge
points and garbage dumping grounds may be organized to make youth and
 people aware of pollution problems. People will develop attitude to live in
harmony with nature.
 Trips to sites where soil erosion is going on due to deforestation to develop love Page
| 43
and preservation of forests.
 Trips to barren lands where winds blow away to inculcate afforestration in
people be organized.
 People be made aware about the hazards like, Ozone layer depletion, Sea level
rise, green house effect or global warming, causes and control of the hazards.
 People be made aware that o protect forests is to protect water, air, land and
wildlife.
 Calamities like, drought and floods, be controlled by afforestation be made
understood to the people.
 Air pollution causes acid rains as SO2 accumulates in air and is washed down
with rain as sulphurous acid
 Noise pollution can be reduced by planting trees along the highways.

SAVE TIGER

A:-Jack Lemmon plays Harry Stoner, an executive at a Los Angles apparel company
on the edge of run. Throughout the film, Stoner struggles with the complexity of
modern life versus the simplicity of his youth. He longs for the days when pitchers
would up, jazz filled the air, and the flag was ore than a pattern to put on a pants
pocket. He wrestles with the guilt of surviving the war and yet losing touch with
the ideals for which his friends died. To Harry Stoner, the world has given up on
integrity, and threatens to destroy anyone who clings to it. He is caught between
watching everything he has worked for evaporate, or becoming another grain of Page
| 44
sand in the erosion of the values he once held so dear.
A bleak story that depicts an outwardly successful man questioning the value
of the material prosperity he’s desperately trying to maintain, it follows the
uncertain path of Harry Stoner (Jack Lemmon), executive at an apparel company
close to ruin. With no legal way to keep the company from going under, Stoner
considers torching his warehouse for the insurance settlement. Meanwhile, he
drinks, laments the state of the world, and tries his best to keep the business
rolling as usual. This last task is complicated when a client has a heart attack in the
arms of a prostitute provided by Stoner. With nerves still bristling, Stoner takes the
stage at the premiere of his company’s new line, only to be overcome by war
memories. He ends the day spontaneously deciding to go home with a young, free-
spirited hitchhiker, whose ignorance of his generation underscores his isolation
from the world around him. At the end of the film, Stoner aggress to the
warehouse getting torched and then walks by a Little League game and attempts
to act as picture to the children. One child shouts out, “You can’t play with us,
Mister!,” leaving Stoner yet again isolated from another part of society.

CHIPKO MOVEMENTS
A:-The Chipko movement or Chipko Andolan (literally “to stick” in Handi) is a
social-ecological movement that practiced the Gandhian methods of Satyagraha
and non-violent resistance, through the act of hugging trees to protect them from
falling. The modern Chipko movement started in the early 1970s in the Garhwal
Himalayas of Uttarakhand, with growing awareness towards rapid deforestation. Page
The landmark event in the struggle took place on March 26, 1974, when a group of | 45
peasant women in Reni Village, Hemwalghati, in Chamoli district, Uttarakhana,
India, acted to prevent the cutting of trees and reclaim their traditional forest
rights that were threatened by the contractor system of the state Forest
Department. Their actions inspired hundreds of such action at the grassroots level
throughout the region. By the 1980s the movement had spread throughout India
and led to formulation of people-sensitive forest policies, which put a stop to the
open felling of trees in regions as far reaching as Vindhyas and the Western Ghats.
The first recorded event of Chipko however, took place in village Khejarli,
Jodhpur district, in 1730 AD, when 363 Bishnois, led by Amrita Devi Sacrificed their
lives while protecting green Khejri trees, considered sacred by the community, by
hugging them, and braved the axes of loggers sent by the local ruler, today it is
seen an inspiration and a precursor for Chipko movement of Garhwal.
The Chipko movement, though primarily a livelihood movement rather than
a forest conservation movement, went on to become a rallying point for many
future environmentalists, environmental protects and movements the world over
and created a precedent for non-violent protect. It occurred at a time when there
was hardly any environmental movement in the developing world, and its success
meant that the world immediately took notice of this non-violent Tree hugging
movement, which was to inspire in time many such eco-groups by helping to slow
down the rapid deforestation, expose vested interests, increase ecological
awareness, and demonstrate the viability of people power. Above all, it stirred up Page
the existing civil society in India, which began to address the issues of tribal and | 46
marginalized the people. So much so that, a quarter of a century later, India Today
mentioned the people behind the “forest Satyagraha” of the Chipko movement as
amongst “100 people who shaped India”. Today, beyond the eco-socialism hue, it
is being seen increasingly as an ecofeminism movement. Although many of its
leaders were men, women were not only its backbone, but also its mainstay,
because they were the ones most affected by the rampant deforestation, which
led to a lack of firewood and fodder as well as water for dirking and irrigation.
Over the years they also because primary stakeholders in a majority of the
afforestation work that happened under the Chipko Movement.

UNIT-1V MAN AND ENVIRONMENT

Q: - MAN AS A CREATOR AND DESTROYER.

A:-Today, man is the most dominant animal in the biosphere. A unique
combination of certain physical features and mental abilities have made him more
powerful than any other animal. With the accumulation of artifacts and machines
man has acquired the capacity to change the environment for his needs. Human
needs and greed coupled with short-sightedness have disturbed the delicate
ecological balance by depleting and degrading the vital life supporting systems
such as air, water and land which rightfully belong t the entire world.
Human ingenuity has helped him to tackle many complex problems. In the Page
process he has developed such devices and synthesized such substances, | 47
indiscriminate use of which can be hazardous to the entire biotic community on
this planet. Some of bringing about enormous damage to the biosphere as whole
as:
1) HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS: - These include harmful and poisonous chemicals
which persist in the environment for long durations and damage the environment
and living beings. The discovery of DDT for example was hailed as a big
achievement for pest control technology and by the time its effects on non-target
organisms, its persistence came to light few years later enormous quantities of the
chemicals were introduced into the environment into the environment. A number
of pesticides in common use these days are potentially damaging agents.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are inert, non-toxic chemicals and have
been used since many years in refrigerators, air conditioners, spray cans, plastic
foams, Solvents etc. However, in 1985, in a sensational letter Joseph Farman and
his co-workers, reported a thinning of ozone layer over the South Pole suggesting
that this could be due to CFCs which through inert, non-toxic, persistent and
harmless in lower atmosphere, yield chorine atoms in the Stratosphere which in
turn attack ozone molecules and cause depletion of the vital ozone layer.
 Manmade radioactive substances pose another threat to the mankind. We
have seen mankind. We have seen many instances when accidental discharge of
radioactive materials caused us much problems. Radioactive isotopes also Page
accumulate within a biological system are magnified and persist in the | 48
environment or the biosphere for long durations as many of them have a very long
half-life. Thus Some of the discovers of yesterday which were hailed as
technological advancement of the time have become problems of today.
2. MISUSE OF BIOTECHNOLOGY: Among the latest weapons of war are certain
bacteria, viruses, toxic chemicals produced by fungi and bacteria and bio-
regulators. Bacillus anthracites, Brucella and toxin from clostridium botulinum etc,
have become some of the powerful instruments of biological welfare. In Vietnam
war, Americans used powerful defoliants over forests and agriculture fields which
caused large area of dense forests and agriculture fields o become barren. Famine
like conditions resulted.
Mass production of many of these agents of biological warfare is simple,
inexpensive and their use convenient but the results are highly unpredictable with
ever-growing human knowledge these uncertainties shall soon be resolved.
Another dimension to all this has been added by rapid studies in genetic
engineering. Man has been playing with germ plasm. He has been creating new
combinations, strains varieties and even species. He can introduce new genes into
an organism. He is capable of repairing genetic faults. He has tamed genetics to
produce progenies tailored to suit his own specifications. No doubt, these
developments may benefit the mankind but what if this knowledge is used to
produce a super bug such as a virus or bacteria which is so formulated as to defy
all available remedial measures? Page
| 49
3) THE NUCLEAR DETEMMA: Science and technology has provided tremendous
destructive powers to the human race. The nuclear bomb which terminated the
second world war has grown, so much powerful that a third world war could mean
total annihilation of our living world.
A collective nuclear strike of 100 MT targeted on strategic location around
the world shall bring a long-long night. A thick mantle of dust smoke and soot shall
cover the globe through which no solar radiations shall penetrate. Photosynthesis
shall stop, temperatures shall drop to sub-zero levels. Changes in perception
patterns and chemical changes of atmosphere all around the globe shall drastically
affect the entire life on this planet. The protective ozone umbrella shall disappear.
These near the point of IMT explosion could be subjected to a temperature of
about 10,000,000oc with clearing of atmosphere the sun will Ultra-Violet rays
reaching right up to the surface of the earth. This will further extinguish whatever
little traces of life shall be left on this planet after the episode. Radioactive
materials produced by the explosion shall continue to emit radiations for
thousands of years to come.
So, with rapid developments in Science and technology man has been
creating implements of his own destruction of the worlds biosphere. He has
immense power at this direction, both constructive as well as destructive. He has
to make a choice.

Q: - EFFECT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ENVIRONMENT. Page

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A:-Earth is the third planet out of from the center of the solar system, but it is very
different from other planets unlike its two immediate neighbors, Venus and Mars,
which both have atmospheres that are 95% to 97% Carbon dioxide, Earth 20.9% O 2
and Only 0.03% CO2. As a result much of the heat reaching the earth is scattered
back into space and earth has an average temperature of 14-150c. At this
temperature water can exist in a liquid state, making it possible for life to be
maintained on earth. Mother earth is blessed with thousands of perennial rivers
that supply sweet water to quench out thirst, an atmosphere that supplies oxygen
for our survival, a natural ozone umbrella that protects us from the dangerous U.V.
Rays, a variety of friends and millions of species of plants and animals that make
life interesting and challenging.

In a natural state, the earth’s life forms live in equilibrium with their
environment. Primitive humans used natural resources to satisfy their basic needs
of air, water, food and shelter. These natural and unprocessed resources were
readily available in the biosphere and the resist uses produced by the use of these
resources were generally compatible with or easily assimilated by the earth. Even
when use of fire became common the relatively small amounts of smoke
generated were easily and rapidly dispersed and assimilated by the atmosphere.
Early human populations left behind very few things which were not readily
broken down and absorbed by the environment. As these things were so few in
quantity, no significant impact was felt on the environment. It may not be out of Page
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place to quote Gandhi Ji, who rightly said;
“EARTH HAS ENOUGH TO SATISFY EVERY MAN’S NEED, BUT NOT FOR
EVERYONE’S GREED”
With the dawn of the industrial revolution, humans’ were better able than
ever to satisfy their needs for air, water, food and shelter. So, human turned their
attention to other needs beyond those associated with survival. Automobiles
household appliances, processed foods, and beverages etc have new become so
popular as to seem necessities and meeting these acquired needs become a major
thrust of Modern industrial society. Man uses much more material and energy war
than any other species on the earth. Human needs and greed’s coupled with
shortsightedness have disturbed the delicate ecological balance. Not only this,
humans are depleting and degrading the vital life supporting systems including air,
water and land which belong to the entire living world.
The fast development of Science and technology which resulted in the
establishment of a good number of variety of industries and the humanity for
sophisticated living are contributing significantly for the degradation of the
environment. If we close our eyes and let the trend continue in the same manner,
man on this globe may become so rare that he may require a sanctuary for his
protection.
 If all the problems man is facing today, the most intriguing is “Air Pollution”.
The air be breathes goes into direct contact with the most sensitive organs of
human body – the respiratory tract and the lungs. Air pollutants one way or the Page
other way have already damaged the art treasurer and cultural heritage of man. | 52
The statue of liberty in New York and Taj Mahal in India withstood the ravages and
plunders of the fury of nature foe centuries but are now showing signs of decay
due to atmosphere pollution.
The state of Environmental report, 2009 categorically observes, “There is
evidence that the health of over 900 million urban people around the world is
deteriorating daily because of high levels of ambient air pollutants. In India urban
air pollution is estimated to cause over 250000 deaths and billions of respiratory
illness every year.
Water is the most ubiquitous material in nature and is most vital and
fascinating of all gods’ creations! These days water pollutions is assuming
menacing proportions. Polluted drinking water claims more lives than all forms of
violence, including war a UN report has said, high lighting, the need for clean
water. The report released on the occasion of world Water Day by the UN
Environment Programme (UNEP) on March 22. 2010, 20 seconds from water
related diseases. It is estimated that close to 90% of diarrhoea cases, killing some
2.0 million people every year, is caused by unsafe drinking water and poor
hygiene.
 Forests are the beds on which the humanity rests but another major activity
of man of concern is destruction of forests. Every year at least 200,000 sqkm of
tropical forests are cleared for farming, settlement, mining, plantation, industry, Page
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timber and fuel.
Burning fossil fuels and cutting down and burning forests raise the
concentration of Co2 and other heat trapping gases in the lower atmosphere within
the next 40-50 years Earth’s climate may become warm enough to disrupt
agricultural productivity, alter water distribution and drive countless species to
extinction. Other chemicals we ass to the ozone layer, which filters much of the
sun’s harmful U.V radiations.
In short, the basic problems we face is that we are depleting and degrading
Earths natural capital at an accelerating rate. In an typical day, we add 258000
people to the world’s population clear 470 sqkm of tropical forests, create 170
sqkm of deserts. Erode 66 million metric tons of top soil, climate 10-100 species
and add 71 million metric tons of heat trapping Co2 and 1600 metric tons of ozone
depleting chlorofluorocarbons to the atmosphere.
Such behavior is unsustainable, which bleeds our Mother Earth. So, the need
of the time is to create a sustainable society that manages its economy and
population size without doing irresponsible environmental harm. This can be done
by regularity population growth, by encouraging earth sustaining rather than
earth degrading forms of economic development and by minimizing poverty and
human misery.
 Q: - VALUES & ETHICS RELATED TO ENVIRONMENT.
A:-Environment ethics is a value system that judges human actions in terms of
whether they harm, sustain or improve environmental quality. Page
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Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with morals (the distinction
between right and wrong) and values (the ultimate worth of actions or things). The
term “ETHIC” derived from the Greek word ‘Ethos’ literary means the character of
a person as described by his or her actions. Ethics thus can be defined as a system
of cultural values motivating people’s behavior. Ethics operates at the level of
individuals, institutions, societies and internationally.
The field of environmental Ethics was formulated in 1970’s. Environmental
Ethics asks about the moral relationship between humans and the world around
as; in contrast to traditional ethics which concerns with relationship among people
only.
The need of environmental Ethics has raised as a result of following factors:

NEW EFFECTS ON NATURE: - The modern technological civilization has been

affecting nature greatly; therefore we should analyze the ethical consequences of
human actions.
NEW KNOWLEDGE ABOUT NATURE: - Untill a few decades back, only a small
section of people realized that human activities could be changing the global
environment. Now the modern science demonstrations how humans have
changed and are changing the global environment in ways not previously
understood e.g. it has now been proved that burning of fossil fuels and
deforestations have increased the Co2 concentration in the atmosphere, and that
this may lead to irreversible changes in global climate. This new knowledge and Page
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better understanding of nature is rising new ethical issues.
EXPANDING MORAL CONCERNS: -perhaps the most important question in
environmental ethics is – whether moral extensionism encompasses non-humans.
Does nature have rights? Do other species have rights as well? Do we have moral
obligation to leave the environment in good condition for our decedent, or are we
at liberty to use environmental resources to the point of depletion within our
lifetime. These expanded concerns lead to a need of environmental Ethics.
Environmental issues involve a consideration of ethics and morals. These ethical
agreements have roots in the value systems of most religions, Philosophies and
cultures and thus can be easily understood by general public. They appeal to a
respect for life, a reverence for the living world, a sense of intrinsic value in nature
and a concept of divine creation. Ethical arguments for conserving biodiversity
appeal to the nobler instincts of people and are based on widely held truths
People will accept these arguments on the basis of their belief systems. Following
are the key ethical arguments put for conservation of bio-diversity

The following assertions based on the intrinsic value of species are important
for conservation of biodiversity.
Each species has a right to exist. Each species has a value for its own sake, an
intrinsic value unrelated to human needs.
All species are interdependent. The loss of one species may have for reaching
consequences for other members of community.
Humans must live within the same ecological limitations as other species do. Page
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People must take responsibility of their actions.
People have a responsibility to future generations
Resources should not be wasted.
It is essential for the society to develop and progress but it should not be at the
cost of life, health and nature it is the duty of every civilized man to keep
surroundings clean but also for the animals, birds, plants and trees.
Almost all religions teach us sacred value of trees and environment.
Allah in his Holy Quran speaks and explains that, He created this world with every
kind of balance and made this earth beautiful so that human beings live happily on
it.
Allah says in the Hoily Quran (Surah Ankaboot, V: 44) “Allah created the heavens
and he earth in true proportions”
In Surah QAMAR; V: 49, He says verily all things have been created in a proportion
and measures, and “He Loves those who keeps themselves pure and clean”
(Chap, 02, V:222)

Allah almighty directs to purity and cleanliness of body, soul and

surroundings.
In Hinduism plants like Tulsi, Neem, Mango and Coconut are worshiped. So, it
teaches us about the environmental preservation & protection.
RIGVEDA: -Believes that universe is made of five basic elements as Earth, Ether,
Fire, Water, Air.
ATHURVEDA: - believes that nature is the body of God so it is necessary for the Page
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followers to work for the betterment of its quality.
YAJURVEDA: - believes that “You Give me and I give you” i.e. man should exploit
nature without nurturing it.
Buddha also preached a doctrine of compassion towards everything in nature
Hazrat Sheikh Noor-U-Din Nooranie (R.A) preached that, there would be enough
food only when there are forests.
Thus it is clear that allah does not like the misuse of his created things and he
stresses up on us to beautify his world not only by good deeds but by making its
environment congenial and balanced. If we do any harm to the earth, it is a sin in
the eyes of Almighty Allah.
Environmental Ethics should confirm to our cultural heritage and religious
traditions our religious respect environment and wildlife. Trees and animals figure
in our scriptures, they have served as topics in art, Poetry and dramas, pets have
been reared with affection since ancient times and sadhus have been selecting
forests as suitable suite for worship. All these facts indicate mans’ original interest
in nature. Environmental ethics demand that man should change his present
attitude towards nature. He should learn to live as a part of nature and not as a
part of nature and not as a master of nature.
 Environmental ethics should become a part and parcel of human life. Only
this can save the environment and wildlife and ourselves too.
Q: - CONCEPT OF HAZAED, DISASTOR AND VULNERABILITY. Page
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HAZARD
Hazard is a situation that poses a level of threat to life, health, property or
environment. A hazard becomes a disaster when it hits an area affecting the
normal life.

CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDS

Though hazards could be classified on many criteria; some of the general

classifications are as follows: (S. Gopalakrishnan).
_ Sudden onset hazards: geological and climatic hazards such as earthquakes,
tsunamis, floods, tropical storms, volcanic eruptions, and landslides.
_ Slow onset hazards: (environmental hazards) drought, famine, environmental
degradation, desertification, deforestation, and pest infestation.
_ Industrial/Technological: system failures/accidents, spillages, explosions, and
fires.
_ Wars and civil strife: armed aggression, insurgency, terrorism, and other actions
leading to displaced persons and refugees.
_ Epidemics: water and/or food-born diseases, person-to-person diseases (contact
and respiratory spread), vecto born diseases and complications from wounds.
DISASTER
A disaster is a serious disruption of a functioning of a community or a society
involving widespread human material economic or environmental losses and Page
impacts which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope | 59
using its own resources.
OR

DISASTER: A disaster is a natural, manmade or technological event that causes

significant physical damage or destruction, widespread loss of life or drastic
change to the environment. Disaster can destroy the economic, social and cultural
life of people.

TYPES OF DISASTER

NATURAL DISASTER: A natural hazard of severe situation is a process or

phenomenon that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property
damage, loss of livelihood and services, social and economic disruption or
environmental damage on a large scale, e.g. earthquake, landslides, volcanic
eruption, floods, tornadoes, blizzard, tsunamis and cyclones and avalanches; cloud
bursts and stampedes.
MANMADE OR ANTHROPOGENIC DISASTERS: The human centered action, which
cause a threat, to the resource like property, lives, environment in every respect
due to the human negligence, error or involving a failure of human made system.
It is also harmful like natural disaster because it either can result in huge losses of
life, property as well as damage to peoples mental, physical and social well being,
e.g. 1984 Bhopal Gas Tragedy, 1994 Kumbokonan school fire, terrorist attacks,
bomb blasts of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, rail accidents, plane crushes, arson war Page
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etc,

AULNERABILITY

Vulnerability gives the extent to which a community is affected by a disaster. It

involves the measure of ‘resilience’ and ‘coping capacity’ of a community in the
face of disasters.
Vulnerability is an ‘inclusive’ concept in that vulnerability of a particular
community to a particular type of disaster (flood or earthquake) is a resultant of a
number of factors; including physical factors, (geographical perspective) social
(sociological perspective) and economic factors (income and employment,
involving micro and macroeconomic policy), besides institutional or administrative,
which are essentially governance related issues.
The process of vulnerability has been evidenced as proceeding along phases such
as; root causes, dynamic pressures that translate these into active problems, which
are a result of a priori decision-making in governance related matters over time,
for example, drought in a dry land area, leading to a famine in the absence of
disaster mitigation efforts.
“vulnerability”. Social scientists tend to view vulnerability as representing the set
of socioeconomic factors that determine people’s ability to cope with stress or
change (Allen, 2003); climate scientists often view vulnerability in terms of the
likelihood of occurrence and impacts of weather and climate related events.
Related terms are fragility, stability, resilience and sensitivity of a system. These Page
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are the constituents of ‘vulnerability’.
Resilience and coping capacity develop over time as a result of proactive
government policies. Stability is the balance, which is disturbed by events such as
disasters; hence restoring balance means correcting distortions. Stability depends
on fragility; or the weakness of the system owing to physical characteristics of its
ecology; sensitivity refers to the extent of alteration that is brought about due to
exogenous pressures exerted by events such as a disasters. Though disaster
related, these are standard sustainable development terminology.
NATURAL DISASTERS
Loss of life and property due to natural disasters like tropical cyclones, floods,
droughts, tornadoes, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions etc, is very large. Fortunately
warning facilities are available today and by mitigation measures, loss of lives and
properties can be minimized. National Meteorological Services of the world to
provide warnings to the public for some of the weather related natural disasters. It
is not possible to forecast a long period ahead precisely when and where a
dangerous natural phenomenon will take place. While natural disasters cannot be
prevented, taking proper long-term and short-term disaster mitigation measures
can minimize the loss of life and property.

Q: - FLOODS, FLASH FLOODS, DROUGHT, EARTHQUAKES, CLOUDBURSTS AND LANDSLIDES.

 FLOODS
Page
Floods are defined as a relatively high flow of water discharged from river and | 62
stream network, which sets the riverbank margins to overflow and lead to the
inundation of low land areas surrounding the riverbed. It is essentially a physical
phenomenon. Floods arise from abnormally heavy rains, dam failures, snow melts,
river blockages. Flood disasters rank second only to droughts in the total number
of people affected worldwide.

TYPES OF FLOODS

Floods can be classified into three categories as under:

(i) RIVER FLOODS:-Rivers get charged due to heavy rains over large catchments
areas or by melting of snow or sometimes both especially in the mountainous
tracts. The floods take place in river systems with tributaries that may drain into
large geographic areas and encompass many independent river basins. Amount of
flooding depends on moisture in the soil, vegetation cover, and depth of snow and
size of catchments basin.
(ii) COASTAL FLOODS:-Coastal flooding is associated with tropical cyclones/ harsh
winds arising at the ocean surface. Coastal floods are often aggravated by wind
induced storm surges along the coastline.
Sea and ocean ‘water floods the inland coasts affecting kilometers of tracts. Ocean
tides, storm surges or tsunamis play a definite role. Prolonged and indefinite rains
in the rainy season marked from June-September results in extreme flood in
coastal river basins.
(iii) FLASH FLOODS:-These floods occur within six’ hours of the beginning of Page
rainfall and; are characterized with rising clouds, thunderstorms and tropical | 63
cyclones. These result from runoff from a torrential downpour, particularly if the
catchments slope is unable to absorb and hold a significant part of water. Other
causes of flash floods include dam failure, sudden break up of glaciers etc. These
offer potential threats in the areas where the terrain is steep, surface runoff is
high, water flows through canyons and where severe rainstorms are likely.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FLOODS

1. Manmade structures and forest vegetation exhibits different levels of tolerance

towards effects of floods.
2. Intensity of damage is governed by the time interval of standing floodwaters.
3. High velocity of running water may uproot or weaken foundations of buildings.
4. Rate of rise and discharge of a river is important as a basis for flood control.
5. Frequency of occurrence estimated over a length of period would determine the
kind of activities the flood plain should be put to.
6. Generally the rainy season is characterized by the floods during which
agricultural economy suffers a huge loss.

EFFECTS OF FLOODS
1. Rising water, erosion and the force damages the residential and commercial
building.
They are dangerous for villages lying in the coastal areas as it sweeps away Page
everything, which comes into its path. In mountainous areas it is the chief cause of | 64
landslides.
2. Fisherman, local people, cattle, animals and vegetation suffer a great loss of life
and property. Most of the deaths are reported to be from drowning.
3. Fresh water supplies by all sources are nearly destroyed and contaminated
hence the areas falling under its impact bear a great risk of suffering from water
borne diseases.
4. The destruction of food and fodder crops result in acute food shortage.
5. Floods also make soil infertile, as the topsoil is lost due to erosional activity.
6. Floods are also known to preserve, wetlands and recharge ground water.

FOOD CONTROL

1. Depth and width of the riverbed could be increased as its capacity to carry
larger loads increases manifold and thus reduce the area of the flood plain.
2. A network of canals can be established from the river systems, which generally
leads to floods. This would also benefit the agricultural economy/ section. Care
must be taken in the design and construction because of the possible
environmental impact and necessary safety features.
3. Reservoirs should be made for storing floodwater and releasing them at
manageable rates. This would require careful engineering. Dams, and reservoirs
would further lead to generation of resources. Page
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4. Newly constructed residential as well commercial buildings should have
foundations, which are strong enough to respond to flood conditions.
5. Rivers and streambeds should be stabilized with stone, masonry or vegetation at
the banks. This should strictly be followed where rivers pass through cities,
specially near bridges.

FOOD PROBLEM IN INDIA

The nature of flood problem varies from one river system to another. Two great
river systems are discussed below considering the flood problems in India:
BRAHMPUTRA RIVER
The main problem of flooding in the northeastern region arises from the
Brahmaputra river and its tributaries. The river in monsoon season overflows its
banks and causes a great damage to life and property both. Several times it has
affected Kaziranga wildlife sanctuary where rhinoceros population died due to
rising floods. In recent years, the erosion along the banks of the Brahmputra has
assumed serious proportions. The rivers also carry considerable amount of silt and
have a tendency to change its course.
GANGA RIVER SYSTEM
In this region the northern tributaries of the Ganga, namely the Rapti, the Sharada,
the Ghaghra and the Gandak cause extensive flooding along their banks. Drainage
congestion is confined to the northwestern parts of U.P., Meerut, Mathura and
Agra suffers the most.
Bihar suffers a considerable amount of damage due to the flooding of the Burhi Page
Gandak, the Baghirati, the Kamla Balan, the Kosi and the Mahananda. In addition | 66
to the crop submergence the area experiences traffic dislocation also. In the
Bengal region Baghirati, the Ajoy and the Damodar cause extensive flooding. Here
the tidal effect of Bay of Bengal also plays a role in flooding. In Delhi and Haryana it
is the Yamuna, the biggest tributary of the Ganga, which causes a marginal amount
of flooding. Most of these flooding regions suffer from inadequate channel
capacity as well as regulation of river water flow in these channels.

2. FLASH FLOODS
These floods occur within six’ hours of the beginning of rainfall and; are
characterized with rising clouds, thunderstorms and tropical cyclones. These result
from runoff from a torrential downpour, particularly if the catchments slope is
unable to absorb and hold a significant part of water. Other causes of flash floods
include dam failure, sudden break up of glaciers etc. These offer potential threats
in the areas where the terrain is steep, surface runoff is high, water flows through
canyons and where severe rainstorms are likely.

3. DROUGHT

Drought can be defined as a situation of an area over an unusually long period

when there is lack, shortage, scarcity, or non availability of water. This situation
occurs when a region receives constantly below average precipitation due to
which the area has low water table as well there is less ground water and surface
water as well. The drought type situation has a substantial impact on environment, Page
agricultural fields, productivity, food safety trade and commerce and in short | 67
socio-economic activities within the area. It leads to famine which in turn causes
great problems for the people of the affected area.

PREVENTIVE MEASURES: For reducing the impacts of drought in a particular area,

society, state or country the following steps should be taken:

 Identification of prone areas that are at risk.

 Comprehensive and integrated development programmes should be initiated.
 Construction of dams, reservoirs, check dams to store water.
 Development of watershed, management technology.
 Proper selection of drought and disease resistant crops.
 Soil conservation techniques.
 Reducing deforestation.
 Mass awareness
 Development of canals.

4. EARTHQUICKES

A:-An earthquake is a major demonstration of the power of the tectonic forces

caused by endogenetic thermal conditions of the interior of the earth. An
earthquake is a motion of the ground surface, ranging from a faint tremor to a wild
motion capable of shaking buildings apart and causing gaping fissures to open in
the ground. The Richter scale devised by Charles F. Richter in 1935 measures the
magnitude or intensity of energy released by an earthquake. Good Friday Page
Earthquake of March 27, 1964 in Alaska (USA) measuring 8.4 to 8.6 on Richter | 68
scale is among the greatest earthquakes of the world ever recorded.

Earthquakes are caused mainly due to disequilibria in any part of the crust of the
earth. A number of causes have been assigned to cause disequilibria in the earth’s
crust such as volcanic eruptions, faulting and folding, gaseous expansion and
contraction inside the earth, hydrostatic pressure of man-made water bodies like
reservoirs and lakes, and plate movements.
(1) VULCAN CITY:-Volcanic activity is considered to be one of the major causes of
earthquakes. Vulcan city and seismic events are so intimately related to each other
that they become cause and effect for each other. Earthquakes follow each
volcanic eruption and many of the severe earthquakes cause volcanic eruptions.
The explosive violent gases during the process of Vulcan city try to escape upward
and hence they push the crystal surface from below with great force and thus is’
caused severe earth tremors of high magnitude.
(2) FAULTING AND ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY:-The horizontal and vertical
movements caused by end genetic forces result in the formation of faults and folds
which in turn cause isocratic disequilibria in the crystal rocks which ultimately
causes earthquakes of varying magnitudes depending on the nature and
magnitude of dislocation of rock blocks caused by faulting and folding. The 1950
earthquake of Assam was believed to have been caused due to disequilibria in Page
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crystal rocks;
(3) HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND ANTHROPOGENIC CAUSES:-Certain human
activities such as pumping of ground water and oil, deep underground mining,
blasting of rocks by dynamites for constructional purposes, nuclear explosion,
storage of huge volume of water in big reservoirs etc. also cause earth tremors of
serious consequences.
The introduction of additional load through the construction of large dams and
impounding of enormous volume of water in big reservoirs behind the dams cause
disequilibria of adjusted rocks below the reservoirs.
(4) PLATE TECTONIC THEORY:-The earth is composed of solid and moving plates
having either continental crust or oceanic crust or even both continental oceanic
crusts. The earth’s crust consists of 6 major plates (Eurasian plate, American plate,
African plate, Indian plate, Pacific plate and Antarctic plate) and 20 minor plates.
These plates are constantly moving in relation to each other due to thermal
convective currents originating deep within the earth. All sorts of disequilibria are
caused due to different types of plate motions and consequently earthquakes of
varying magnitudes are caused.

CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHQUICKES
Each earthquake differs from the other and thus it becomes difficult to classify all
the earthquakes into certain categories.

(1) CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF CAUSATIVE FACTORS Page

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(A) NATURAL EARTHQUAKES are those, which are caused by natural processes i.e.
due to end genetic forces. These are further divided into four subcategories.
(i) VOLCANIC EARTHQUAKES are caused due to volcanic eruptions of explosive
and fissure types and are confined to volcanic areas. Severe earthquake caused by
violent explosions of Etna volcano in 1968.
(ii) TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES are caused due to dislocation of rock blocks during
faulting activity. Such earthquake is very severe and disastrous i.e. 1906
earthquake of California (USA).
(iii) ISOSTATIC EARTHQUAKES are triggered due to sudden disturbance in the
Isostatic balance at regional scale due to imbalance in the geological processes.
(iv) PLUTONIC EARTHQUAKES are in fact, deep focus earthquakes, which occur at
greater depths.
(B) ANTHROPOGENIC EARTHQUAKES are caused by human activities such as
pumping of water and mineral oil from underground aquifers. and oil reserves
respectively, deep underground mining, blasting of rocks by dynamites for
constructional purposes e.g. Koyna earthquake of Maharashtra of 1967 due to
Koyna reservoir etc.
(2) CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF FOCUS
On the basis of the depths of their foci these have been divided into 3 types.
(i) MODERATE EARTHQUAKE: Foci are located at the depths between 0-50 km.
(ii) INTERMEDIATE EARTHQUAKE: Foci at the depths between 50-250 km.
(iii) DEEP FOCUS EARTHQUAKE: Foci at the depths between 250-700 km. Page
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CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF HUMAN CASUALTIES
(i) MODERATELY HAZARDOUS EARTHQUAKES: If deaths of human range below
50,000 due to seismic tremors e.g. Tabas earthquake of Iran 1978 A.D. (death toll
25,000).
(ii) HIGHLY HAZARDOUS EARTHQUAKES: If deaths of human range between
51,000-1,00,000 due to seismic tremors e.g. in 1935, Quetta, Baluchistan, (death
toll 60,000).
(iii) MOST HAZARDOUS EARTHQUAKES: If deaths of human casualties are above
1,00,000 mark e.g., in 1976 Tang-Shan, China (death toll 7,50,000).

WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUICKES

Earthquakes are, in fact associated with the weaker and are statically distributed
areas of the world. Most of the world earthquakes occur in the zones of young
folded mountains, the zones of faulting and fracturing, the junction of continental
and oceanic margins, the zones of active volcanoes and along the different plate
boundaries. The world map of the distribution of earthquakes prepared by
seismologists show the occurrence of earthquakes along the following belts.
(i) CIRCUM-PACIFIC BELT: surrounding the Pacific Ocean.
(ii) MID-CONTINENTAL BELT: representing epicenters located along the Alpine-
Himalayan Chains of Eurasia and northern Africa and epicenters of East African
Fault zones. Page
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(iii) MID ATLANTIC BELT: representing the earthquakes located along the mid-
Atlantic Ridge-and its offshoots.

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUICKES HAZADOUS

Earthquakes and their hazards are determined on the basis of the magnitude of
seismic intensity as determined by Richter scale but are decided in the basis of
quantum of damages done by a specific earthquake to human lives and property.
(i) LANDSLIDES:-Weaker landmasses and tectonically sensitive land margins cause
landslides and debris falls, which damage settlements and transport systems on
the lower slope segments.
(ii) DAMAGE TO LIFE AND PROPERTY:-Structures such as buildings, roads, rails,
factories, dams, bridges suffer a huge damage thus causing a heavy loss of human
life and property both. The vibrations of earthquakes last longer and the
amplitudes of seismic waves are greater artificially in filled and leveled
depressions, swamp deposits etc. than in the structures of consolidated materials
and bedrocks.
Two major earthquakes of Bihar-Nepal border in 1934 and 1988 explain the
impact of earthquake disasters on human structures and human lives. The damage
caused by the Bihar earthquake of 15 January 1934, measuring 8.4 on Richter
scale, include 10,700 human deaths, landslides and slumping in an area of 250 km
length and 60 km width, ruptures and faults in the ground surface etc.
(iii) DAMAGES TO GOVERNMENT INFRASTRUCTURE:-Cities and towns are worst Page
affected due to large concentration of human population, commercial complexes | 73
and residential areas. Due to collapse of large buildings there is greater loss of life
and property. Due to collapse of buildings ground water pipes are bent and
damaged thus water supply is disrupted, electric and telephone poles are
uprooted and there is total disruption of power and communication. Other side
effects are collapsed sewer system causing epidemics, roadblocks etc.
(iv) FIRE HAZARD:-Earthquakes strongly shake the buildings and thus strong
oscillations cause severe fires in houses, mines and factories because of
overturning of cooking gas cylinders, contact of live electric wires, churning of
blast furnaces, displacement of other electric and fire related appliances.
(v) LANDMASS DEFORMATION:-Severe earth tremors and resultant, vibrations
caused by severe earthquakes result in the deformation of ground surface because
of crusts and troughs in the ground surface and faulting activity.
(vi) FLASH FLOODS:-Strong seismic events result in the damages of dams and
cause severe flash floods. Severe floods are also caused because of blocking of
water flow of rivers due to rock blocks and debris produced by severe tremors on
the hill slopes facing the river valleys.
(vii) TSUNAMIS:-The seismic waves, caused by the earthquakes traveling through
seawater, generate high sea waves and cause great loss of life and property. Since
the pacific Ocean is girdled by the earthquakes and volcanoes tsunamis are more
common in the pacific with a minimum frequency of 2 tsunamis per year.

Q) Describe some of the safety measure that should be adopted during an Page
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earthquake.
Ans) The safety measures that should be adopted during an earthquake are as
under:
 We should try to remain calm and to reassure others to derive an action plan.
 We should watch for the falling of plaster, stone, light fixtures, and heavy
objects on shelves and try to save ourselves.
 Watch for high book case, shelves and other cabinets which might slide or
topple to seek a safe place or for hiding ourselves.
 Stay away from glass, windows, mirrors and chimneys.
 Switch off the lighting system, gas stoves, or gas cylinder and never try to lit fire
or burn a match stick.
 Hide under the table, desk or bed in a corner away from the window with your
head covered by your hands.
 Keep with yourself a torch and first aid box and some necessary medicines.
 Check and see that sewage lines are intact before using/flushing of toilets.
 Do not eat or drink anything from open container, especially near shattered
glass.
 Call, 100, 101 only if you have a life threatening risk.
 Respond to request for help from civil, defense, fire services, police, army,
home guards and local people.
 Do not crowd in damaged areas unless help has been requested, cooperate Page
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with public safety officers.
 Do not spread rumours. These often do great harm following a disaster.

5. LANDSLIDES
A:-Landslides are mass movements of rocks, debris or earth, down mountain
slopes or riverbanks. Such movements may occur gradually, but sudden sliding can
also occur without warning. They often take place in conjunction with
earthquakes, floods and volcanic eruptions. At times, prolonged rainfall causing
heavy landslides block the flow of rivers for quite some time, which on bursting
can cause havoc to human settlements downstream.

The hilly terrains of India, particularly in the Himalayas and the Western
Ghats, are most vulnerable to landslides. The Himalayan mountain belt comprises
of tectonically unstable younger geological formations and often the slides are
huge, and in most cases, the overburden along with the underlying lithology is
displaced during sliding, such as in the Malpa landslide of 1998 when an entire
village was buried by a huge landslide. In contrast, the Western Ghats and Nilgiri
Hills are geologically stable but have uplifted plateau margins influenced by neo-
tectonic activity and the slides are usually confined to the over burden without
affecting the bedrock beneath. The slides are generally in the nature of debris
flows occurring mainly during monsoons, but the effects are felt more acutely due
to higher density of population in the region.
Measures to control landslides include micro-zonation so as to regulate Page
settlements in hazard prone areas, non-interference with the natural water | 76
channels, and construction of retaining walls against steep slopes and
strengthening of weak areas with grouting. In India, landslide studies are
conducted by a number of institutions, research and academic. However, there is a
need for better coordination among these institutions and also the user agencies.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q:-What is ENVIRONMENT?

A:-“Environment is a word which describe in aggregate, all the external forces,

influences and conditions which affect the life, nature, behavior and growth,
development & maturation of living organism.”

Q:-What is ENVIRONMENTEDUCATION?

A:-Environmental education (EE) refers to organized efforts to teach about how

natural environments function and,. Particularly, how human beings can manage
their behavior and ecosystems in order to live sustainably. The term is often used
to imply education within the school system, from primary to post-secondary.

Q: - DEFINITION OF ENVIRONMENT.
A: - (Environment means to encircle or to surrounding). The term ‘environment’
has been taken from the French word “Enviorner” which means surroundings. It
comprises of following our components:- Page
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i) Atmosphere ii) Hydrosphere iii) Lithosphere iv) Biosphere

Q: - OBJECTIVES OF ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION.

 Participation.
 Knowledge.
 Values.
 Skills.
 Awareness.
Q: - ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRDATION.

A:-Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through

depletion of resources such as air, water, soil etc, the destruction of ecosystem
and the extinction of flora and fauna. It is defined as any change or destruction to
the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. This degradation of
environment is caused by a number of factors including over-increasing
population, urbanization, industrialization, economic growth, unscientific use of
resources etc.
Q: - CAUSES ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRDATION.

Causes of environmental degradation

 Growing population.
 Urbanization.
 Changing life styles.
 Industrialization. Page
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Q: - AIR POLLUTION.

A: - Air or atmospheric pollution is the addition of materials or chemical into

atmosphere in such concentration that they begin to exert adverse effects on
human beings, other desirable species, human assets and resources.
Q: - SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION.

A:-Various sources of air pollution are fossil fuels, industries, agricultural activities,
wars, natural causes arid emissions from vehicles.

(i) Burning Fossil Fuels

(ii) Emissions from Automobiles
(iii) Industries
(iv) Agricultural Activities
(v) Wars
(vi) Natural Causes
Q: - WATER POLLUTION.

A:-Water pollution is defined as an addition of foreign substance(inorganic,

organic, biological or radiological) to water, or a change in its physical property
that constitutes a health hazard or otherwise makes it less fit or unfit for use.

Q: - NOISE POLLUTION.
A persistent often excessive and disturbing level of the noise considered as a
harmful factor in a given environment, is called noise pollution. It adversely affects
out physiological and mental health. Page
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Q: - DEFORESTATION.

A:- Deforestation is the process of felling trees indiscriminately resulting in nude or

seminude surface of the hill hitherto covered by thick forests. Deforestation means
clearing of forests to claim land for use by man.
Q: - HUMAN ENVIRONMENT.

A:-The human environment on the other side includes all those areas that have
been totally been altered by man’s activities like agriculture, mining,
industrialization, housing, urbanization etc.

Q: - ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS.

A:-Environmental ethics deal with issues pertaining our fundamental rights,

fundamental rights of the coming generations as well as the rights or other living
creatures with respect to using the environment wealth. In the realm of
environment ethics, man plays the main role.

Q: - WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY?

A:-The concept of biodiversity first appeared in 1980. It is, in fact the shortened
form of two words- ‘biological’ and ‘diversity’. Biodiversity is a collective term that
encompasses that variety of all living organisms the plants, animals, and microbes
on the earth. It includes diversity within species, between species, and the
ecosystems”. Page
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Q: - WHAT IS CONSERVATION?

A:-Conservation means the management of man’s use of the biosphere in such a

way that maximum benefit accrues from it to the present generation while
maintaining its potential to meet the requirements of the future. In short, it is the
technique of deriving maximum advantage from the biosphere without in any way
degrading it or in other words it is the scientific management, preservation and
restoration of biodiversity. The field of ecology connected with conservation of
biodiversity is called conservation ecology.

Q: - WHAT IS SOIL CONSERVATION?

A:-Soil conservation is a set of management strategies for prevention of soil being

enroded from the Earth’s surface or becoming chemically altered by overuse,
acidification, salinization or other chemical soil contamination. It is a component of
environmental social science.

Q: - CHIPKO MOVEMENT?

A:-The Chipko movement or Chipko Andolan (literally “to stick” in Handi) is a

social-ecological movement that practiced the Gandhian methods of Satyagraha
and non-violent resistance, through the act of hugging trees to protect them from
falling. The modern Chipko movement started in the early 1970s in the Garhwal
Himalayas of Uttarakhand, with growing awareness towards rapid deforestation.
The landmark event in the struggle took place on March 26, 1974, when a group of Page
| 81
peasant women in Reni Village, Hemwalghati, in Chamoli district,

Q: - DEFINE HAZARD?

A:-Hazard: Hazard is a situation that poses a level of threat to life, health, property
or environment. A hazard becomes a disaster when it hits an area affecting the
normal life.
Q: - DEFINE DISASTER?

A:-Disaster: A disaster is a serious disruption of a functioning of a community or a

society involving widespread human material economic or environmental losses
and impacts which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to
cope using its own resources.
Q: - DEFINE FLOODS?

A;-Floods are defined as a relatively high flow of water discharged from river and
stream network, which sets the riverbank margins to overflow and lead to the
inundation of low land areas surrounding the riverbed. It is essentially a physical
phenomenon. Floods arise from abnormally heavy rains, dam failures, snow melts,
river blockages. Flood disasters rank second only to droughts in the total number
of people affected worldwide.
 Page
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CLASSES IN THE STATE OF JAMMU & KASHMIR”
 NEW B.ED SYLLABUS OF KASHMIR UNIVERSITY
Pag
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1ST SEMESTER 100% SYL COVERAGE

COURSE TITLE: FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

COURSE CODE: BED15101

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990671 3963
 FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION
1ST SEMESTER

UNITS DESCRIPTION Pag

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i) Nature & Meaning of Education
ii) Aims of Education – individual and social.
UNIT-I
iii) Nature and Meaning of Philosophy
EDUCATION AND PHILOSOPHY
iv) Relation between Philosophy & Education

Philosophies:
i) Naturalism
ii) Idealism
UNIT-II
iii) Pragmatism
MAJOR EDU-NAL PHILOSOPHIES
These Educational Philosophies shall be discussed with special
& EDU-NALTHINKERS
reference to Aims,
Curriculum, Methods, Role of Teacher & Concept of Discipline.
Thinkers:
i) Mahatama Ghandhi: Basic Education
ii) Swami Vivekananda : Man making Education
iii) Froebel: The play way method
iv) Montessori: The Didactic Apparatus

i) Education & Democracy - Basic Principles of Democracy

UNIT-III
EDUCATION & THE SOCIAL
FRAME OF REFERENCE
UNIT-IV
CULTURE & SOCIAL CHANGE
- Education for Democracy
ii) Education & Socialism Meaning, Importance & Role of
Education in achieving the goals of Socialism.
iii) Education & Secularism – Meaning of Secularism
Role of Education in multi religious society like India.
i) Concept & Characteristics of Culture
ii) Relationship between Culture & Education with special
reference to
conservative and creativity roles
iii) Concept of social change
iv) Factors of social change
v) Roles of Education Vis-à-vis social change

“Kindly note that any mistake in the contents of this notice is due to my imperfection as a human
being as only Allah Subhanahu Wa-Ta'ala is perfect in all affairs”.
 UNIT-1 PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Q: - MEANING & NATURE OF EDUCATION. Pag

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MEANING OF EDUCATION

Education can be defined as the strongest instrument for the achievement of the
ideas of life, and civilized attempt to bring about the balanced and proper
development of human life personality. Education is a process of learning and
development. The child learns how to walk, how to talk, how to switch, how to eat,
how to live, and how to love through education. It is an acquisition and
accumulation of knowledge, construction and reconstruction of experiences for
living life. Education is a process of all round growth and development –physical,
metal, Special, emotional, moral and spiritual. Education is thus enlightenment and
empowerment of total behaviour. It develops the co native and effective aspects of
the learness behavior.
(i) According to Plato. “Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the
right moment”.
(ii)According to Aristotle. “Education is the creation of sound mind in a sound
body”.
(iii) According to Pestalozzi. “Education is the nature, progressive and harmonious
development of mans innate powers”.
(iv) According to Froebel. “Education is enfoldment of what is already enfolded in
the germ”.
(v) According to Shankaracharya, “Education is realization to self”.
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(vi) According to Vivekananda. “Education is the manifestation of the perfection
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already in ma.”
(vii) According to Gandhi, “Education I mean all sound drawing out the best in child
and man body mind and soul”.

NATURE OF EDUCATION

Education is dynamic process; it is life long process it is now believed that every
individual is born with latest talents. The role of education consists the
development of these talents. The development of different aspects of human
personality should take place in a balanced form. It must be all-round, wholesome
and integrated. In other words man must be developed intellectually, physically,
socially, spiritually and ethically. Education starts from birth to death. Man is
learning one thing or the other thing at every moment. The sequences of learning
through the medium of experience goes on up to death.
(i) Life long process: - Education is life long process, it cannot be kept confined to a
few years of schooling span of the educations is an wide as that of life itself.
Education runs parallel to life.
(ii)Multiple agencies of Education: - No specific institute can be said to be role of
agency of education wherever we go we find educational environment there. Every
agency is the agency of education in fact the whole world is the agency of
education.
(iii)Tri-polar Process: - Education is the tri-polar process. The three poles are:-
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a. The pupil who receives education.
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b. The teacher who imparts education.
c. The social environment.
(iv)Three strategies of education: - In education is got through three strategies i.e.
formal, informal and non formal. Only one of them is not enough by itself. The
three strategies are not contradictory to each other but they are complementary to
each other. The lack in one of them is complementary by the other two.
(v)Education is broader than schooling: - Schooling is confined to a period for
which a child remains on the roils of an institution. But education is a lifelong
process. It starts when the child is born and continues up to the last moment of
deaths.
(vi) Education is not to be confused with literacy: - Literacy is one of the means
there by people can be education. A person can be education even without being
literate.
(vii)Education is not confused with information: - Education is broader than
information. Information is static but education is dynamic.

Q: - AIMS OF EDUCATION-INDIVIDUAL & SOCIAL

 AIMS OF EDUCATION

Education needs in the same way as the plant needs sunlight, and human beings
need water, air, food etc. The teaching system of teacher staggers without aim. Pag
Aims are essential to direct out efforts. The educator must have an aim of e | 6
education. The method and the device of teaching depend on the aims. We seek to
achieve to have an aim is to act with meaning. By aim of education we mean those
aims which stimulate education. Education is a purposeful and ethical activity.
Hence it is unthinkable without aims. There is a long list of aims of education. The
most important aims of education are as follows:

INDIVIDUAL AIM

Individual aim of education means that education should aim at the development
of individual. The supports of this view say that only a wall developed individual can
serve the society well. They say that maximum opportunities should be made
available to each individual for realizing his moral intellectual and spiritual
possibilities unhampered by the society. The aims of education are served in the
following grounds: -
Support of biological science: - The biological science says that every individual is
different from every other individual. Every individual has certain characteristics.
Hence education should aim at development of the individual abilities of each
child.
Support of Naturalist: -Naturalists like Roussu and Pestalozzi etc say that education
should aim at the development of the individuality of the child. They believe that
child’s nature is good and any interference with it is harmful. So education should
Pag
be according to natures which will male an individual what he ought to be.
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Support of Psychologist: - Modern psychologists place great emphasis on individual
difference. The entire individual differs from one another in respect of their
interests, abilities, attitudes and personality. So they say the education should
develop each child conformity with his special abilities. So they support individual
aim of education.
Support of progressive visits: - Progressive visits say that world has progressed
because of the efforts of great individuals. Great educationists, philosophers,
scientists, inventors and social formers have made great contribution for the
progress of the world. The progressive visits say that the education is to develop
the abilities of man and women. This will produce the leaders in various walks of
life make the world progressive.
Support of democrats: - Democrats say that the state should provide all the
facilities for all individuals to develop in any direction they think useful to
themselves. They say that education should be so designed that ‘J’ helps to develop
the individuality of the child.
CRITICISM INDIVIDUAL AIM
(i) Individual aim of education supports individuals. It may produce like Hitler and
Mussolini and society will have to face harmful consequences.
(ii) The supports of individual aim of education ignore the fact that man is social
animal. Reymont rightly says that an isolated individual is a pigment of imagination.
Man’s personality can be realized through social interaction. Hence individual aim
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of education is harmful for individual himself.
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(iii) The aim of education ignores the role that the society plays in the development
and education of the individual.
(iv) If the individual aim of education is accepted, an individual will face difficulties
in making adjustment with his fellow brothers.
(v) Individual aim of education is not practically possible. It is not possible at any
stage to fix different types of curriculum for each student.

SOCIAL AIM

Social aim of educations means that education should aim at the good of the
society and the individuals should be so trained they contribute to that good to the
society. The supporters of the social aim of education say that society is more
important than the individual. Man is a social animal. He cannot live apart from
society. So while planning the process of education the needs of the society should
be kept in vies.
It is also said that the state is supreme. The individual lives for the state. He
must be trained to sacrifice his own self and his own interests for the interest of
the state. So education is to the organized in such a way that the society whole
heartedly. The supporters of social aim of education say that education should
begin about social efficiency qualities which will benefit the society. Therefore
education should be given from social point of view. Social aim of education is
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stressed on the following grounds.
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(i) Man is basically an animal social environment make him human.
(ii) Man’s existence depends upon society. He can’t live by himself.
(iii) Man can’t have peace and security without social organization.

CRITICISM SOCIAL AIM

(i) It is un-psychological individual are asked to sacrifices their own interests for the
welfare of the state. So their natural development is blocked.
(ii) Social aim of education reduces man to non entity. Man is considered of low
importance.
(iii) Social aim opposes individual freedom. A man is asked to subordinate his
interests to the interests of others.
(iv) This aim will develop narrow nationalism. It develops the attitude “My country
is right or wrong”. It is dangerous for the international understanding.

Q: - SYNTHESIS BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIAL AIM OF EDUCATION

Individual and social aim of education seems to be contradictory. Each of them
goes to extremes one seeks to exalt the individual and the other seeks to exalt the
society. Both emphasize one sided approach if we believe in it, we separate the
individual from the society and then society from the individual. The two i.e.
individual and society bear the part and whole relationship one is the part and the
Pag
other is the whole. It is the parts which make the whole and it is the whole which
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includes the parts. Neither the individual nor the society will exist without the
10
other. The individual cannot develop in a social vacuumed and society cannot come
into being without individuals. So the proper approaches are that of synthesis and
compromise. We should combine the two together while formulating educational
policies and programmes. We should keep into view perfection of the individual
and the good community. More ever has rightly said that socialization and
individualization are the two sides of the same process. We should know that there
is basically no conflict between self realization and social service. Rather they are
complementary so by combining the two aims of education we will be in a position
to serve two purposes i.e. producing good individual and making good society.

MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY

Man is curious by nature. He is very regret to know new things. Philosophy finds its
origin in curiosity. The curiosity or love for knowledge impels man to search and
reach after truth. The word philosophy is desired from the two Greek words ‘Philos’
or phillo’ and ‘Sofia ‘Philos’means ‘love’ and ‘Sophia means ‘wisdom’. Thus the
literary meaning of philosophy is ‘Love of Wisdom. Philosophy is an eternal quest
after truth. Every thinking man is a philosopher. From time Memorial man has
started thinking and has been conducting research after truth to unfold the
mysteries of creation, its region, life, death, goal of life etc.
Pag
DEFINITIONS OF PHILOSOPHY
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(i) According to Raymit, “Philosophy is the increasing effort to deserve (discern) 11
the general truth that lies behind the particular facts and to deserve the reality that
lies behind appearances.
(ii) According to Fiebate, “Philosophy is the science of all knowledge’s.
(iii) According to Plato, “philosophy aims at the knowledge of eternal or the
essential nature of thins”.
(iv) According to Comte, “Philosophy is the science of all sciences.
(v) According to Wundt, “Philosophy is the unification of all knowledge obtained by
special sciences in a consistent whole.”

NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY

The nature of philosophical to understand the nature of philosophy one must

understand the attitude, activity, conclusions, problems and results peculiar to it.
Philosophical problems are the general problems of philosophy are the
examination and synthesis of the pastucates and conclusions of different sciences.
Philosophical attitude is reflective, curous, tolerant, guided by experiences and
reasoning, and a persistent effort to reach the truth though never in hurry to arrive
at final conclusions. philosophical methods include indection, dedication, analysis,
synthesis and dylectical methods. Nature of philosophy is quite reflective; its
attitude begins in wonder or doubt.

Q:-RELATION BETWEEN EDUCATION & PHILOSOPHY Pag

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There is a good relationship between education and philosophy. Philosophy and
12
education are two sides of same coin. Whole philosophy is the contemplative side.
One has existence between two is shown as under.
(i) The chief task of philosophy is to determine who constitute a life with living. But
the chief task of education is to make life worth living and philosophy tells the goals
and essentials of good life. Education tells the means of achieve the goals and learn
the essentials of good life. Therefore the relationship between philosophy and
education is very close.
(ii) Philosophy is the theory, while education is the practice. A sound theory can
help in sound practice. Philosophy tells us where to go education enables us to go
on the path.
(iii) Philosophy gives us the idea; education translates these ideas into practice.
According to Dewey “Education is a laboratory in which these ideas are tasted.”
(iv) Philosophy deals with abstract, education deal with concrete.
(v) Philosophy deals with ends, education deals with the means to achieve those
ends.
(vi) Philosophy answers thousands of questions pertaining the whole field of
education. If the child is to be educated, how is he to be education by which he is
to be educated? What should be the curriculum?
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(vii) Great philosophers have been great educators, Gandhi in India; confusions in
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China and Dewey in America have been great teachers as well as great
13
philosophers.

From the above discussion it is clear that philosophers are linked with
education and its influence is in all areas. In the absence of philosophical
foundations education becomes irrelevant and meaningless.

Q:-SIGNIFICANCE/OBJECTIVES/PURPOSES OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

The study of educational philosophy fulfills certain defined purposes. The values of
its study have special significance for the teachers and other concerned with
education. It is explained below.
(i) Educational philosophy gives a sense of meaning to the teachers for his work. It
enables him to have a good professional experience.
(ii) The study of educational philosophy enables teachers to develop a critical
attitude towards life. There are many issues of education freedom verses authority,
nationalism verses internationalism. Individual aim verses social aim of education.
Teacher’s role in education. Education philosophy helps a teacher to handle such
problems intelligently.
(iii) The purpose of education philosophy is to help the teachers and administrators
to know the aim of education. Aims of education are not fixed haphazardly they are
determined on the basis of individual or social needs. These should be intelligently
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fixed and determined.
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(iv) What type of curriculum is to be introduced in the school? The answers of this
14
problem are also given by educational philosophy. Different schools of philosophy
viz. idealism, pragmatism, naturalism etc favor different types of curriculum. So the
teacher has kept all these things in view will selecting the curriculum.
(v) Methods of teaching are many as given by different philosophers. The teachers
have to decide which method is proper one to use. Here educational philosophers
will help him to use a proper method of teaching in the classroom. Different
schools of philosophy have given different methods e.g. educational philosophy will
help him to choose the proper one.
(vi) What type of discipline should be expected in a school should it be military
types of discipline or freedom enough of it is to be given to the child? Here also
educational philosophy helps the teacher. It tells him how to maintain discipline in
the classroom and the school. Thus the value of educational philosophy is
numerous and manifold for any educational practitioner.

UNIT-1I MAJOR EDU-NAL PHILOSOPHIES & EDU-NAL THINKERS

Q:-NATURALISIM & ITS CHARACTERISTICS

Naturalism is a type of philosophy according to which nature is the ultimate reality
it. It believes that nature along contains the moral and only final answer to all
philosophical problem. Everything is governed by nature; there is nothing beyond
Pag
nature behind nature and other than nature.
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Naturalists believe that natural world is the real world. We must not go beyond
15
nature. There are three forms of naturalism.
(i) Physical naturalism
(ii) Mechanical naturalism
(iii) Biological naturalism

CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURALISM

The following are the characteristic of naturalism.

(i) Nature is along entire reality “Return to nature and back the chains of society”
are its slogans.
(ii) Laws of nature are unchangeable and the entire universe is governed by them.
(iii) Science reveals the mysterious of nature hence only that knowledge is true that
is derived from science and through scientific methods.
(iv) Material world is the real world. All things have originated from matter and all
are ultimately to be reduced to that matter is made of atoms empty space and
motion.
(v) Experience imagination, thinking, reasoning etc are all processes and mental
activity which is the functional of brain.
(vi) Naturalism emphatically denies super naturalism. Naturalists do not have any
faith in divine spirit, soul, God or Religion. The state that they are all illusions and
mislead human mind. They do not believe in spiritualism.
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(vii) Senses are the gateways of knowledge. All matter is within the keep of human
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senses. The final truth be known through senses.
16
AIMS OF NATURALISM

Some of the aims of education as given by naturalists are stated below.

(i) Self Expression: - Under the naturalistic school of philosophy the aim of
education is self expression or self realization.
(ii) Perfection of human machine: - Naturalistic school of philosophy suggests
that aim of education should efficiency and perfection of the human machine.
(iii) To struggle successfully: - Darwin maintains that education must train the
individual to struggle successfully for his own survival.
(iv) To secure adjustment: - Lemark and his followers believe that the aim of
education is to enable the individual to adjust himself physically and mentally to his
environment and to the changing circumstances in life.
(v) To achieve social progress: - Bernard Shaw told that education should
accelerate the face of evaluation and thus achieve social progress much earlier
than other wise.
(vi) To develop individuality: - Naturalistic school of philosophy emphasized to
develop individuality.
 CURRICULUM OF NATURALISM

Naturalists believe that the following subjects should be included in the curriculum.
(i) Science which deals with nature: - The naturalist’s emphasis that the subjects
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like physics, Chemistry, Zoology, Botany etc. These sciences help in understanding
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nature.
17
(ii) Mathematics and language: - Mathematics and languages should be included,
because they are considered tools for understanding the science subjects.
(iii) History and social studies: - Naturalists lay emphasis on the past experience of
the race. So history and social studies should be included in the curriculum and
experiences. We cannot afford to ignore books which are the medium of
instructions.
(iv) Under emphasis on physical education: - Naturalists play little emphasis on
physical education and its importance.
(v) Unrestricted freedom to the child: - Naturalism gives unrestricted freedom to
the child. Absolute freedom is impracticable. Extreme freedom to the child is
dangerous.

METHODS OF NATURALISM

Naturalism has revolutionized our entire thinking regarding methods of instruction.

Instead of sticking to old dogmatic methods naturalism emphasized more dynamic
and more progressive methods in teaching different subjects. Some of the methods
that deserve mention are:
1. Methods of direct experiences:-Direct experiences with nature, things and men
is the keynote of instructions according to naturalists. Some of the methods of
direct experiences emphasized by naturalists are as under:-
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i) Learning by doing and self-experience.
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ii) Education through senses.
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iii) Observation and Experimentation.
iv) Direct Method.
v) Direct study of natural phenomena.
vi) Heuristic method.
vii) Excursions.
viii) Practical exercises.
ix) Self-Government.
2. Play-Way Method:-Naturalists advocate play-way as another important method
of imparting education. Play is the greatest attraction of the child. It is play which
helps the child to express himself fully, to be creative and to acquire confidence for
manipulating objects and learning skills.
3. Freedom in Education: - Naturalists were not in favour of keeping the child
under control. They want an ideal environment of freedom for the development of
the growing child.
4. Education according to nature of the child: - Naturalists are of the view that
education should be planned according to nature of the child i.e., according to his
abilities, interests, aptitudes and needs.
5. Co-Education:- Naturalists advocate co-education. They believe that it is
unnatural to separate sexes. Segregation of sexes develops unnatural attitude of
sexes towards each other. Co-education will develop right type of family and
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community life.
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ROLE OF TEACHER OF NATURALISM 19

Under Naturalism the teacher does not occupy as high and respected position as he
does under the idealistic tradition. Naturalistic consider nature as only supreme
teacher in whose close contact the child develops normally and naturally.
Role of teacher under naturalistic system of education can be summarized as
under:-

1. Teacher as an observer:- In the Naturalistic scheme the teacher plays the role of
an observe his job is to facilitate the process of Childs growing as well as
learning.
2. Teacher as protector: - The role of teacher is to protect the child from
repressions and mental disorders of all kinds.
3. Teacher as stage setter: - Ross says that the teacher is only a setter of the stage,
a supplier of materials and opportunities, provider of an ideal environment a
creator of condition under which natural development takes place.

The teacher is only a means to assist Childs full and face development.

NATURALISM & DISCIPLINE

So far as discipline is concerned Naturalism gives full freedom to the child.
Therefore, no external discipline is required. Naturalism believes in discipline by
natural consequences, Spencer observes “when a child falls or runs its head against
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the table, it suffers pain, the remembrance of which tends to make it more careful
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and by repetition of such experiences, it is disciplined into proper guidance of its
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movement”. In the same breath Spencer warns that his principle should not be
applied during infancy. He says, “A three ear old child playing with an open razor
cannot be allowed to learn this discipline for the consequences may be too
serious”.
In Short, unrestricted freedom is given to the individual so that the harmonious
development will take place.

Q: - IDEALISM & ITS CHARACTERISTICS.

Idealism is very old philosophical thought. It has exercised a great and potent
influence on man and his mind. It seeks to explain man and universe in terms of
spirit or mind. It shifts the emphasis from the scientific facts of life to the spiritual
aspect of human experiences. The following are the chief tents or aspirations of
idealism.
(i) According to idealism mind or spirit constitutes. The real world, the reality is
mental or spiritual and not physical.
(ii) Ideas area final. The world of ideas is more important than the world of spiritual
beyond his body.
(iii) Man is a spiritual being. He is not perishable body. There is undying spiritual
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beyond his body.
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(iv) The ultimate values of life are truth, beauty and goodness which man has to
21
realize in his life.
(v) Idealism attaches great importance to the knowledge which is gained through
mental activities.
(vi) According to idealism there is another world beyond this world which is more
real, beautiful and eternal. The main supporters of this school of philosophy are
Plato, Socrates, Barkeley, Hegel, Kant etc. In India we can maintain, Kapolei,
Shankara, Dayanadi, Gandhi and Tagore as the supporters of idealism.

AIMS OF IDEALISM

(i) Self realization: - According to idealism the most exaltation of personality of self
realization in other words, the aim of education is to enable the individual to attain
his highest self. According to Vivekananda, education is the manifestation of the
divine potentially already existing in man. The divine is man must be unfolded and
must be brought to the conscious level by education.
(ii) Development of morality: - Development of morality is another aim of
education. Moral sense is to be developed in the child so that he can distinguish
between right and wrong. He should follow right and reject wrong.
(iii) Physical well being of the individual: - It is another aim of education. Ross says
that without physical fitness self realization is not possible.
(iv) Simple living and high thinking: - Idealism believes in simple living it is against
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luxuries life or fashionable life. It says that fashionable living takes us now here.
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Similarly idealists say that we should aim at high thinking.
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(v) Harmonious development: - Education must aim at harmonious development
of the individual. It means that all aspects of personality of the individual should be
developed. So idealism believes in full and complete development of personality.
(vi) Universal education: - Education for all and not for select few is the aim of
education. Idealism believes in the brotherhood of man. The brotherhood can be
promoted only through education.
(vii) Idealism believes in values we have inherited values from the parents and
grandparents. There values are to be nourished and passed on to the next
generation.

CURRICULUM OF IDEALISM

The individual idealism put forth the following views about the curriculum.
(i) Curriculum should reflect the experience of the human race as a whole. The
experience of man is twofold i.e. the experience with the physical environment and
experience with this fellow man. So, far as the first type of experience is concerned
science should be kept in the curriculum. So far as the second type of experience is
concerned humanities are to be kept in curriculum.
(ii) Curriculum should impart inherent values to enable the student to attain the
highest good. According to “Plato”, the spiritual values are truth, beauty and
goodness. These three values determine three types of human activities i.e.
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intellectual, aesthetic and moral. Each type of activity is represented by certain
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subjects and these subjects from the curriculum. Intellectual activities are
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represented by language, literature, science, mathematics, history and geography.
Aesthetic activities are represented by art and printing. Moral activities are
represented by religion, ethics and metaphysics.
(iii) ‘Ross’ has suggested two types of activities i.e. physical activities and spiritual
activities. So far as physical activities are concerned health and physical fitness of
the body must receive due attention in the curriculum. So subjects like gymnastics
and athletes are to be included in the curriculum. So far as spiritual activities are
concerned subjects like morality, religion and ethics should be included in the
curriculum.
According to the idealist human experience is three fold corresponding to
three aspects of mind i.e. knowing, feeling and willing. According the three streams
of curriculum should be positive sciences, fine arts and practical. In short the
curriculum of idealist includes all those subjects which help in the all round
development of individual.

METHODS OF IDEALISM

Idealism as a philosophy exercised more influence on the aims of education and on

its general philosophy rather than on methods. It speaks of the general nature of
teaching methods; it does not emphasize any particular method of teaching.
Idealism has shown its indifference in the field of methods. Different idealists have
adopted different methods, some of which are as under heads:-
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1. Question method.
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2. Conversational method.
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3. Inductive and deductive method.
4. Simple to complex.
5. Concrete to abstract.
6. Play way method.
7. Exercise and Practice.
8. Lecture, debate and discussion methods.
9. Story telling method and dramatics.
10. Education through correspondence.
ROLE OF TEACHER OF IDEALISM
Idealism gives a great and significant role to teacher to play in the educative
process. A teacher is considered as Guru, he stand next to God. He is considered a
man who has achieved self realization. He is a friend, philosopher and a guide for
the students. He is to be an active participant. He is not to be a passive spectator.
He occupies a key position in the whole educative process. His guidance is needed
at every step.
A teacher guides the student to words his utmost possible perfection.
According to Frobel, the school is a garden, the child a tender plant and the teacher
as a careful gardener. The plant will of course grow and achieve its proper form
without the help of the gardener. Yet it does not mean that the gardener will be a
silent spectator. He has a role to play. He is to say that the plant grows to its fullest
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possible extent. Similarly the child grows according to the laws of nature but the
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teacher helps him to attain the maximum level which may not be possible without
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his help. The idealist teacher believes that it is not enough to pass on the objectives
information to the student. He thinks that his function is to guide the student in
such a way as to bring him on the path of spiritual growth. ‘Batter’ has
mentioned the good qualities of an idealist teacher some of the good qualities
should know his subject fully well.
(i) Teacher should know his subject.
(ii) Teacher should try to comment respect by virtue of his character, knowledge,
teaching effectiveness etc.
(iii) Teacher should have aptitude, competence and skill required in the profession.
(iv) Teacher should also be a well wisher and friend to his students.
(v) Teacher should be able to motivate the students to learn and crate interest in
the subject of study.
(vi) The teacher who really teaches should always be learning at the same time.
(vii) Teacher should be a supporter of ideas of social progress and human values of
civilization.
(viii) Teacher should have full faith in the democrate principles of the life and
practices them in class room situations.
(ix) Teacher should always give his students the opportunities for expression and
growth.

DISCIPLINE OF IDEALISM
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Discipline is the means whereby children’s are trained in order good conduct and e |
habit of getting the best out of themselves. Attaining salvation is one of the aims of 26
idealist education. This aim should be able to guide us about its concept discipline.
Idealists believe that there can be no spiritual development of the child without
discipline. This leads to inner discipline.
 Idealism advocates for submitting oneself to the rigour of natural and social
laws.
 The goals of self-realization cannot be achieved without adequate restraint
and discipline emanating from self-control.
Teacher should be an ideal person who can only develop sense of discipline

Q: - PRAGMATISM & ITS CHARACTERISTICS.

The term pragmatism has been taken from the Greek word “Pragma” which means
action, practice or practical. Pragmatism is peculiarly American attitude towards
philosophy of life. The following are the main assertions of pragmatism.
(i) Action first theory afterwards: - Pragmatism says that theory is secondary to
action. For a certain idea to become meaningful. It must be put into practice so
action comes first and theory afterwards.
(ii) No absolute values: - Pragmatism does not believe in absolute values. Nothing
is absolute fixed for ever. Truth, beauty and goodness are all relative terms. There
is no one single truths rather there are many truths.
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(iii) Values are crated: - Man crated his own values in the course of activity. He
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is the crater and discover of his own values. Our truths are manmade products
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beauty lies in eyes of perceiver.
(iv) Usefulness as the creation of truth: - Pragmatism believes that whatever is
useful is true and whatever is true is useful. Truth is tested by the way it works
pragmatism believes in practical and utilitarian philosophy.
(v) Believe in change: - According to pragmatism this words is changeable. Nothing
is good for ever. What was good for yesterday may not be good for today and what
is good for today may not be good for tomorrow.

AIMS OF PRAGMATISM

(i) No fixed value: - Pragmatism does not believe in fixed or eternal values. It does
not except any readymade scheme of values as an arm of education.
(ii) Creation of new values: - The most general aim of pragmatism is just the
creation of new values. Values as created by process of successful experimentation.
(iii) Making a student socially fit: - Another aim of education according to
pragmatism is to make a student socially fit so that he can willingly participate in
social setting. He should be able to make new responses to now situations. He
should develop in himself the qualities of a good citizen. He should know what his
duties are in short he must have a good civic sense.
(iv) Cultivation a creative mind: - Once more aim of education is to cultivate a
creative mind in the child. It is such mind they will reconstruct a society in which
human wants will be fully satisfied through co-operative activities.
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(v) All round development of personality: - Pragmatism believes in all round
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development of personally of the child. The child is to be developed socially,
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morality and intellectually.
(vi) Utilitarian aim: - Pragmatism believes in utilitarian aim. According to
pragmatism education is to be viewed from utility point of view. This means
education should have functional value. It should help children to fulfill their
biological and social value.

CURRICULUM OF PRAGMATISM

Pragmatism is in favour of a flexible dynamic and integrated curriculum which helps

in the development and growth of the child into a fuller and richer personality only
such a curriculum would meet the needs of a changing and developing society. The
following are principles of curriculum construction according to pragmatism.
(i) Utility: - Utility is the first criteria for curriculum construction. Only those
subjects should be included in the curriculum which has got some utility and
usefulness in life.
(ii) Knowledge: - Knowledge is the second criteria for curriculum construction those
subjects should be included in the curriculum which impart knowledge to the child
for his present and future life. The examples of such subjects are language, history,
geography, physical training, science etc.
(iii) Skill: - According to pragmatism only those subjects should be included in the
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curriculum which give some skill to the child. It recommends agriculture for boys
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and domestic science for girls.
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(iv) Vocation/occupation: - According to pragmatism vocational or technical
education should be given to the child so that such education helps in future life.
Besides it will help the child to realize that classroom is not isolated from life and
there is integration between school and society.
(v) Childs nature interests: - The curriculum is to be constructed according to the
development stage of the child.
(vi) Principle of integration: - The curriculum is to be prepared according to the
principle of integration. The curriculum should not be divided into independent
subjects. There should be no water tight compartments. Teaching of isolated
subjects will create narrow and improper concepts in the child. So teaching of
various subjects should be closely inter linked with one other.
(vii) Principle of experience: - Pragmatism places great stress on experience or
practice gained through active participation of the child in the situation. It does not
play any emphasis on cramming or rate memory. Therefore curriculum is to be
prepared keeping in view this principle.

METHODS OF PRAGMATISM
Pragmatism and Methods of Teaching:- Since pragmatism emphasizes the theory
underlying successful practice, it makes significant contribution to the method of
education rather than its aims. Pragmatists detest all traditional methods,
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readymade knowledge, the notion of authority, bookish and passive learning.
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Traditional methods of teaching should not be dogmatically accepted. In the view
30
of pragmatists that method is most preferable which is based on the childs interest
and is able to solve the problem of the child. Child is the centre of the educational
system. The whole emphasis of pragmatism in methods of teaching is on child, not
on the books, the teacher, or the subject. The following should be the principles or
essentials of teaching method:-
1. Principle of action or learning by doing.
2. Principle of establishing relation with the life of the child.
3. Principle of integration.
After considering these principles, the project method was introduced.
Project Method: - implies all the principles and fulfils all the conditions of a good
learning process. The method was enunciated by Kilpatrick, a follower of Dewey.
The project is carried in social environment. It teaches the students co-operation,
mutual help and sympathy. Thus it helps the children to become socially efficient
citizens.
Experimental Method:-Another significant contribution of pragmatism is
“Experimental Method”. According to this method, knowledge is acquired after
experimentation.

ROLE OF TEACHER OF PRAGMATISM

Pragmatism gives an important place to the teacher. The teacher is not a dictator
but a leader of good activities. He has to be active, alert and resourceful. He should
not over shadow the personality of child. The chief function of a teacher is to
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suggest problems to his pupil and to stimulate them to find for themselves
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solutions which will work. His emphasis is not on the knowledge as arranged and
31
systematized in the books. He wants the children to do one experiment and to pass
on to the next as it arises from the previous one.

The pragmatism teacher believes in doing according to his doing is more

important than knowing. He wants his students to think and act for themselves, to
do rather than to know, to originate rather than to repeat. The teacher puts the
child himself in the position of discoverer an experimenter so that the child
creators and develops values for himself. The teacher should use fresh and new
methods of teaching in the light of real life situations. He should apply his
knowledge to conditions of life. The methods should be based on utility and they
should fulfill the demands of society.
The teacher must be a practical man. His teaching should not be based on lecturing
and repeating only. He should create a problem solving attitude in learning by
doing or learning through experience.
In short pragmatist’s teacher works with active learners rather than passive
recipients. He has to be active and alert. He has to arrange situations according so
that children also remain active.

DISCIPLINE OF PRAGMATISM
Pragmatism advocates social discipline based on a child’s interests and activities. It
condemns conformed and strict discipline. Such a type of discipline can produce
socially efficient individuals pragmatism would like to give a lot of freedom to
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children. Pragmatists don’t believe in old.
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Work while you work and play while your play. They advocate a discipline that can
32
be maintained through play as work. They believe that work can become play if it is
rooted in the interest of the child. John Dewey believes that discipline is associated
with interest. If the activities are based on the interests, specific needs, capabilities
and performances of children there will be no problem of indiscipline.

Q: -M.K.GANDHI: BASIC EDUCATION.

Gandhi’s thoughts on education form the dynamic side of his general philosophy.
His philosophy of education is based on biology, sociology, psychology and
philosophy. Educational aims, curriculum, methodology, plan organization and
financial aspect of education were directed by his philosophy of life.
For Mahatma Gandhi education means an all round development of the child and
man. In the words of Gandhiji, “By education I mean an all round drawing out of
the best in child and man-body, mind and spirit.” In fact, Gandhi’s concept of
education stands for the balanced and harmonious development of all the aspects
of human personality-physical, intellectual, social, spiritual etc.- to enable the
individual to achieve the ultimate aim. i.e, Truth.

GANDHIJIS AIMS OF EDUCATION

Gandhijis concept of education has two fold aims before it: Immediate and
Ultimate.
Immediate Aims of Education: - Certain immediate aims of Gandhijis concept of
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education are concerned with our day-to-day life.
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Immediate aims of education according to Gandhiji are as under heads:-
33
1. Bread and Butter Aim(Vocational Aim).
2. Culture Aim.
3. Character Aim.
4. Perfect Development Aim.
Ultimate Aim of Education: - Self-realization or Summum Bonum is the ultimate
aim of life as well as of education. Spiritual freedom provides knowledge of God
and self-realization. Hence education should provide spiritual freedom. According
to Gandhiji, “Development of the moral character development of the whole-all
were directed towards the realization of the ultimate reality-the merger of the
finite being into the infinite.”
CURRICULUM OF BASIC EDUCATION
Gandhi is against the prevalent curriculum. He wants to cover have the whole
curriculum. He wants that curriculum should be related to the environment of
child. He says it is uneducative to teach the history of London to students
neglecting the history of our country. He says curriculum should be the same for
both boys and girls up to 6th classes. In the later stages girls should be allowed to
take domestic science instead of general science and craft. In short the following
subjects are to be included in the curriculum, craft, modern tongue, mathematics,
social studies, general science, drawing and music, physical training English is not to
be included in the curriculum.
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METHODS OF BASIC EDUCATION e|
1. Education through craft:-Gandhiji emphasized that education should be given
34
through the medium of some craft or production work. It is around this craft
that all other subjects in the school will be taught. He regarded craft not only as
a source of recreation but also a source of character formation. By means of
craft-centered education he wanted to give manual training to children.
2. Emphasis on activity method and learning by self-experience:- Gandhiji
emphasized activity method in the field of teaching .He asserted that learning by
doing and learning by self-experience is very effective.
3. Correlation method:- Gandhiji advocated that method of correlation. Education
of different subjects should be in the form of correlated knowledge and not in
the form of separate subjects. Teaching of craft will be the central point and all
subjects should be related to craft. There should be correlation with craft and
with environment, and coordination with subjects.
4. Lecture and questioning method:- Gandhiji accepted the use of lecture method
as well as of questioning method.
5. Mother-tounge as medium of instruction:-Ganghiji wanted that all education
must be given through the medium of mother-tounge.
 ROLE OF TEACHER OF BASIC EDUCATION

Gandhi gives a great place to a teacher. The teacher has to develop the character of
students. He has to help students in making articles from the raw material. So he
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should be a characterized man himself. He should have a good knowledge of the
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craft.
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DISCIPLINE OF BASIC EDUCATION

Gandhi was a great disciplinarian. He wanted to maintain discipline. But he was

against of using rod or any other negative method. He was in favour of self
discipline. The child discipline Gandhi’s concept about discipline is based on
psychological principles.

FEATURES OF BASIC EDUCATION

The following are the silent features of basic education

1. Universal: - Basic education is universal. It is meant for all boys and girls of 7-14
age groups.
2. Free and compulsory: - It is free no fine is to be charged from the students. It is
also compulsory.
3. Medium of instruction: - Mother tongue is to be the medium of instruction.
4. No English: - English has no place in basic education.
5. Craft centered: - Craft is given a very important place. Craft can vary from
locality to locality.
6. Self supporting: - Basic education is self supporting children make article and sell
them in the market. They will earn money from this money they can meet the
expense of the school.
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7. Correlated teaching: - Every subject of the school is to be taught by giving the
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examples of the craft. So there is correlated teaching.
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8. Seven years matriculation: - In basic education a person can pass metric
examination only in seven years. Thus he can save three years.

Q: -SWAMI VIVEKANANDA: MAN MAKING EDUCATION

According to Vivekananda, “education is the manifestation of the perfection

already present in man”. God has given certain inherent (dormant) power to man,
education manifests and develops these powers. The task of education is to see
that the child develops in a proper way. According to Vivekananda book learning is
to education at all.
Basic Principles of Educational Philosophy
1:- Philosophy of life :- (Education)
Swami Vivekananda was a true Vedanist. He regards the ‘Vedas’ as perfectly
impersonal and eternal. His philosophy of life is very much connected with his
philosophy of education. His basic principles of educational philosophy are as
under:
a) Knoweldge resides within the individual: - Swami Vivekananda held’s that
knowledge is inherent in man, something inside him and not born out of external
environment. He believes that true knowledge does not come to the individual
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form outside but man’s soul within him is the source of all knowledge.
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b) Self- Education: - Swami Vivekananda believes that the child learns through self-
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education. Like ‘Froebel’. Swami Vivekananda believes or thinks that the child
develops his own nature as the plant does their own. He (child) teaches himself by
his own power of perfection and thought.
C) Education according to needs of children: - Vivekananda advises as to regard
every soul as the soul of ‘God’ and every child as God. So the teacher has only to
serve children. Hence the education and teaching should be adjusted according to
the need of children.
D) Education For All: - Swami Vivekananda advocates for universal education. He
holds that education is the birth right of every human being. It is a biological, social
and spiritual necessity.
e) National system of education: - Vivekananda was a staunch advocate of national
system of education. He wanted to recognize education on national basis and he
desired that education in the country should be wholly national in spirit.
f) Women Education: - Swami Vivekananda emphasis on women education and
he started centers for such education of women. He wanted to give women an
education which may form character and may increase the strength of mind and
may enable them to stand on their own facts.
g) Religious education: - Vivekananda himself was a saint who won unparalleled
fame in India and abroad. In his own words, “Religion is the innermost core
educational mind. I would not mean my own or nay one else opinion about
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religion”.
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AIMS OF EDUCATION 38
(i) Physical development aim: - It is an important aim in education according to
Vivekananda people must know how to make the body strong. He said that it is
more important for a young man to play foot ball than to read Gita.
(ii) Mental development aim: - According to Vivekananda knowledge lies hidden in
our mind. Hence the aim of education is to uncover, the knowledge that his hidden
there.
(iii) Moral, spiritual and character development: - Education should aim at
development of character, morality and spirituality. We must have character
making education.
(iv) Vocational aim: - Education must have the educational aim. Vivekananda says
that youth must be given training in agriculture and industry.
(v) Promotion of universal brother hood: - Education must promote the spirit of
universal brotherhood. Education must teach the people that soul is same as all.
(vi) Synthesis between spiritual and materialism: - According to Vivekananda
spiritual and material world is one. He therefore synthesized spiritual and material
values. Education should help the man to achieve this kind of synthesis.

CURRICULUM OF EDUCATION
In their curriculum there should be precision of science as well as religion.
Vivekananda recommend teaching of language i.e. common language, regional
language and Sanskrit. They recommended teaching of physical and vocational
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education. He recommended teaching of subjects like Geography, Economics.
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Home science, mathematics and psychology.
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METHODS OF EDUCATION

Vivekananda recommended the following methods of teaching.

(i) Methods of concentrations: - He recommended method of concentration for
attaining knowledge of concentration is the key of the treasure of knowledge.
Though this method man can discover new things.
(ii) Discussion and contemplation: - He laid emphasis on discussion and
contemplation as methods of education. The students can remove the difficulties
by discussing them with his teachers.
(iii) Guidance and counseling: - For keeping the students on the right path he has
recommended the method of guidance and counseling.
(iv) Freedom in education: - Vivekananda said that education should be given in a
atmosphere of freedom. No kind of pressure should be put on the child.

ROLE OF EDUCATION

Vivekananda gives a place of great importance to the teacher. The teacher is a

friend, philosopher and guide for the student. He has to help a student to go
forward. His task is to see that there are no obstacles in the child’s path. He should
act as a gardener for his plants, protect them and nourishes them. Similarly, the
teacher has to protect the child and protect the child. He should encourage the
child to use his body, sense organs and brain. The teacher should be a man of very
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high character. He should have love for his students. He should teach them
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sympathetically.
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Q: -FROEBEL: THE PLAY WAY METHOD.
Meaning of the play way method: - According to Frobel, “education is a
development from which man’s life broadens until it has related itself to nature,
until it enters sympathetically into all activities of society, until it participates in the
achievements of the race and aspirations of humanity”. Frobel says, education is
the constant progressive adjustment of an individual to the world around him. It is
a process of drawing out and not a process of pouring in.
Principles of Frobel’s education
(i) Education from within: - The power of man must be natured within him and not
from artificial substitutes. Thus faith can be cultivated not by fine words about love
but one’s own act of loving knowledge can be got not by talking about it but by our
own investigation.
(ii) Education through play: - Frobel stressed the educational value of play.
According to him, play is the purest and spiritual activity of man at his stage. It give
joy, freedom, contentment and peace.

AIMS OF EDUCATION
Frobel gave the following aims of education: -
(i) Harmonious development: - The aim of education should be the harmonious
development of man’s abilities such as physical, mental and spiritual.
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(ii) Education: - Frobel believes that by the will of God everything develops trough
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higher and higher stages. The aim of education should be to help in this evolution
41
so that it helps ongoing.
(iii) Expression of inner tendencies: - Every child has certain innate tendencies; the
aim of education is the expression of innate tendencies of the child.
(iv) Development of value: - The aim of education is the development of values.
Education should teach child the values like truth, justice and honesty,
responsibility and initiative. The child are not known to them but practicing them.
(v) Unity with God: - Education should help the students to have unity with God. It
should help him to live a holy and pure life.
(vi) Citizenship: - Education aim at making child a good leader and producing in him
the leadership qualities, so that he can serve the community.
(vii) Self activity: - The aim of education is to enable the child to remain busy with
various activities. These activities should be suggested by others but by his own
self. Self activity should arise out of his interests.
(viii) Social participation: - Frobel emphasized the social aspect of education. The
child is to be prepared for the society. The child comes from society he is a part of
the society and he has to adjust himself in the society. Therefore education should
prepare him to adjust himself in the society.
 CURRICULUM OF EDUCATION

The recommend the following subjects in the curriculum.

Pag
1. Religion:-Religion gives the idea of unity and of God. Education is incomplete
without religion. Religion is the basis of all education.
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2. Natural sciences and Mathematics: - Natural sciences and Mathematics enable
42
the child to realize his individuality and provide him a religious uplift and spiritual
insight into the evolution of life.
3. Language: - Languages should be included in the curriculum, as they give the
understanding of diverse social phenomena.
4. Manual work and Arts:-Manual work helps in the development of skill, creative
power and exercise of the music. It is most valuable means for the expression of
ideas and formation of character.

METHODS OF TEACHING
1. Self-activity: - According to Froebel, real development of the child is possible
only though self-activity. It arises out of one’s own interests and is sustained by
one’s own power. Self –activity is promoted through songs, movements and
construction. Thus Froebel suggested that education should be based on “learning
by doing”.
2. Learning by playing: - Froebel made ‘play’ the foundation of his system of
education. It is through play activities that the child discloses his real self and
clearly indicates his future life and interests. Play is the chief activity of the
childhood which Froebel considered as the richest phase of child development.

3. Freedom in Education:-In the words of Froebel self-activity can be developed Pag

only in an atmosphere of freedom. Freedom will bring out the natural and rational e |
development of the natural and inner faculties of the child. Freedom does not 43
imply freedom to do whatever the child likes. It is a controlled freedom where the
child keeps in view the freedom of others.

ROLE OF TEACHER

Frobel attaches great value to the teacher. If the activities are properly directed by
the teacher. The child can be stimulated to achieve certain ends. Similarly the play
activities and other activities should be organized and controlled by teacher only
then there activities have educative value.

FROEBELS DISCIPLINE

Frobel was against the expressionistic discipline. He held that good education in
possible only when the children have complete freedom for self-activity. Hence
freedom of child is essential for true education. Discipline is of protective and co-
operative type. There is no place for rebukes or punishment.
According to Froebel, “In good education, in genuine education, in true training,
necessity should call forth freedom…all prescriptions should be adapted to the
pupils nature and needs and secure his co-operation…to an unavoidable eternal
necessity and that therefore all despotism is punished.”

Q: -MONTESSORI: THE DIDACTIC APPARANTS Pag

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MONTESSORI’S CONCEPT OF EDUCATION 44
In the words of Montessori, “By education must be understood activate help given
to the normal expansion of the life of the child.” Education should promote the
normal growth and development of the child. According to Montessori, education
means development from within. Various abilities, interests and potentialities
should be fully developed. To make inner outer is the main function of education.

Contribution of Montessori towards theory and practice of education

Freedom: - According to Montessori the child should get complete freedom of the
play activities thinking etc. There should be no fixed time table. Nobody should
interfere in the activities of the child. The child should be allowed to work
according to his will.
Respect for the individuality: - According to her the individuality of every child
should be respected. Nothing should be done which hurts his feelings. All the work
done by him should be respected.
Auto education: - According to her, the child is capable to educating himself. He
takes great pleasure in his self development. She emphasizes the self education or
auto – education. Constant interference of the teacher is strictly prohibited by
Montessori. The child should acquire education out of his interests and efforts.
Principle of sense training: - Education must aim at training of the sense organs. So
Pag
that the sense organs become the real source of knowledge. If senses are properly
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trained the process of education should continue for the whole life.
45
Education according to psychology of the child: - Montessori said that education
should be according to psychology of the child i.e. according to his needs, interests,
attitudes and potentialities. Instincts of children should be channelized and
directed to educationally significant purposes.
Principles of muscular training: - Montessori also emphasized the training of the
muscles. She said that children should be given opportunity and knowledge for the
proper uses of his muscles. Motor efficiency helps in the total development of
child.

MONTESSORI’S AIM OF EDUCATION

Montessori maintains that education should aim at the prefect development of the
individuality of the child through self-education in an atmosphere of freedom and
spontaneity. In such an atmosphere, personality of the child is formed and
developed .Education does not aim at imposing something upon the child. It should
aim at drawing out the innate potentialities. It should promote development from
within.

MONTESSORI’S METHODS
There is “Didactic Apparatus” which brings about the intellectual development of
the children. Children have to look after arrangement and cleanliness of things.
They themselves do everything. They dust the rooms and the furniture, wash the
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clothes, lay their tables and handle the crockery and glassware when serving at a
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table. There are three types of exercises for children in Montessori School. They
46
are- Daily life exercise, Exercises for sensory training and Didactic exercises.

ROLE OF TEACHER

In the Montessori system, teacher has to play a special role. He is to observe, guide,
direct and help the students. Students should be given freedom of movement and
action. Teacher must be a good observer. He should know when to intervene and
when to keep silent. He should provide an environment to the child which facilities
his learning. He should help when his help is sought by the students. If he helps un-
necessarily, the purpose of self-education is marred.
Teacher should have a good knowledge of psychology. He should understand the
individual differences which are present in children. He shold be able to understand
the suitability of a child for a particular work. He should tactfully handle the
problem children. He should respect the individualities of children. He should have
implicit faith in children and possess sympathetic attitude. He should be perfect in
his subject.

CONCEPT OF DISCIPLINE
Montessori system has no place for collective discipline. Discipline must be self-
discipline. Montessori concept of discipline is that of self-control and self-directed
activity. Discipline cannot be imposed from outside. It is not obtained through
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repressions or commands. It arises from the cultivation of sense of responsibility in
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an atmosphere of complete freedom. To secure good discipline, method and
47
content of instructions should be geared to the needs of children, their interests
should be kindled, and education should be child-centered. In the words of
Montessori, creative discipline is the most valuable measure for real education.

UNIT-1II EDUCATION & SOCIAL FRAME OF REFERENCE

Q: -EDUCATION AND DEMOCRACY.

Democracy has been derived from the two Greek words i.e. “demos” and “Krait”.
Demos’ means the ‘people’ and Krait’ means the ‘power’. So democracy means
power of people. Democracy is that form of government in which people posses
the right to share in the exercise of the sovereign power. It is the people’s
government in which the person selected by the people runs the affairs of the
state. According to Lincoln, democracy is the government of the people, for the
people and by the people.

PRINCIPLES OF DEMOCRACY
The following are the basic principles of democracy
(i) Respect for the dignity of the person: - Democracy believes in the dignity of all
human beings. It aims at the highest development of the individual. Each individual
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occupies a dignified position irrespective of caste and creed.
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(ii) Freedom: - Democracy is based on freedom. Every individual is given freedom
48
of thought, expression, belief, faith worship and movement.
(iii) Equality of opportunity: - Democracy provides equality of opportunity of all.
No one is deprived of opportunity and no one is given more opportunity then
everybody can develop according to his/her ability.
(iv) Group living: - Democracy believes in group living. It encourages forming of
various groups and associations.
(v) Faith in tolerance: - In democracy man has to tolerate views of other. We
should welcome and encourage all honest difference of opinion.
(vi) Faith in peaceful method: - Democracy believes in the methods of peace. It
wants to solve all problems of peaceful methods.
(vii) Faith in change: - Change is the law of nature and life. Change means progress.
The ultimate concern of democracy is to prepare people for changes. This change is
not enforced from above. It is based on the attitudinal aspect of the citizens who
welcome change, accept change and do not resist change.
(viii) Good citizenship: - Essential condition for democracy. Good citizenship
takes rights and duties hand in hand.

FEATURES OF DEMOCRATIC EDUCATION

1. Universal and compulsory education
2. Free education
3. Child centered education
Pag
4. Community centered education
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5. Provision of adult education
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6. Students self govt.
7. Cultural basis of education
8. Education for leisure national integration and international understanding.
9. Education for worthy citizenship.

DEMOCRACY & AIM OF EDUCATION

The most important aim of education is the development of democratic citizen ship
to achieve it. We have to develop clear thinking in the child. So that he is in a
position to know what is true and what false hood is, what is fact and what is
propaganda and what is good and what is bad. He must know art of living with the
community. We have to develop a sense of patriotism in them. We have to make
him broad minded. Our education must rain persons who will be able to assume
the responsibility of leadership in various walls of life.

DEMOCRACY & CURRICULUM

To achieve the democratic curriculum. The curriculum at all stages of education

should be broad based. It should include all the activities that the child has to do
from morning to evening varied. It should not be rigid. It should fulfill the needs of
community.
If democratic aims are to be achieved, the curriculum at every level needs to be
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drastically changed .The following principles should be considered in this
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connection:-
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1. Broad-based curriculum.
2. Variety and Flexibility.
3. Principle of local requirements.
4. Social outlook.
5. Provision for vocational needs.
6. Integrated curriculum.

DEMOCRACY & METHODS OF TEACHING

The methods of teaching should be time with the demands of democratic living.
Those methods should be used which allow the participation of all the students in
class room teaching and learning. Montessori Method, project method, Dalton
method, Discussion method which are based on democratic trends.

DEMOCRACY & DISCIPLINE

Democracy believes in self discipline. So in our schools we should inculcate in the

students the spirit of self discipline. There is no need of external control. It is
basedon love, sympathy and cooperation. Discipline in democratic education is
based on the conviction of doing the right thing in the right manner and at the right
moment.

DEMOCRACY & TEACHER Pag

In the democratic system the teacher’s role is that of a friend, guide, and
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supervisor. He is not to be a dictator. He should have a full knowledge of the child.
51
He should cooperate with the child and try to solve his problems. The teacher
should be a firm believer in democracy. He should be have a democratic attitude.
He must have constructive relations with the society and must support the way of
life on democratic lines. He is to practice what he preaches and exhibit utmost self-
discipline himself. He should put various democratic principles in actual practice.

DEMOCRACY & SOCIAL ADMINISTATION

The school administration should be flexible. Teacher should be given the share in
the policy making of the school. They should be given freedom in preparing
curriculum and selecting the methods of teaching. There should be caudal relations
between the students and teachers and administration in the school there should
be cooperative atmosphere.

Q: -EDUCATION AND SOCIALISM.

MEANING OF SOCIALISM
Socialism denotes political as well as economic theory of organization. It advocates
state ownership and control of the means of production, distribution and
exchange. It attempts to abolish the capitalist system. It aims at freedom from
exploitation, oppression and disparity. As socialism is opposed to capitalism, it
denounces the accumulation of wealth by few and thinks in terms of a society
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where everyone will be free to use his talents for individual and social good. It has
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faith in society devoid of class distinctions. In short, socialism believes in
52
establishing a welfare state. It encourages co-operation, fellow-feeling. Group
living, social good, social progress, social welfare, peaceful and universal
brotherhood. Individual interests are regarded as secondary to social good.

DEFINITIONS OF SOCIALISM

According to Jai Parkash Narayan:- “Socialim is a society in which all are workers of
a classless society. It is a society in which human labour is not a subject to
exploitation with interest of private property, in which all wealth is truly national or
common wealth in which there are no unearned incomes and no large income
disparities, in which human life and progress are planned and where all live for all.”
According to Ramsy Macdonald, “Socialism means the organization of material
economic forces of society and their control by the human forces.”
According to M.K.Gandhi, “Socalism is a beautiful word and so far as I am aware, in
socialism the members of the society are equal-none high, none low, this is
socialism. In it the prince and the peasant, the wealthy and the poor, the employer
and the employees are on the same level.”

IMPORTANCE & ROLE OF EDUCATION OF SOCIALISM

(i) Linking education to productivity: - Education should be linked to productivity.
Education should teach the individual how to increase productivity by making uses
of new technology. Basic knowledge about science should be given to all children
Pag
work experiences should be introduced in all the schools so that children
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understand the significance of manner labour.
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(ii) Linking education to social and national integration: - Socialism cannot be
promoted in a country which is divided on a number of factors like caste religion,
regional language etc. These tendencies are present in India. Therefore education
has to fight those tendencies. For this purpose we should open common school
system as suggested by Kothari Commission. This type of school will create a
feeling of brotherhood among the children. NSS Programs should be introduced in
all educational institutions. There should be common curriculum in all the schools
throughout the country. These things will create social and national integration.
(iii) Tuition free education: - Education should be made tuition free. No fees should
be charged from students.
(iv) Free textbooks and scholarships: - Those students who are poor should be
given free text books. They shall also be given scholarships so that they do not
leave education because of poverty.
(v) Providing transport facilities: - Free transport facilities should be given to those
children who have to walk more than half a kilometer for the school.
(vi) Education for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes: - Scheduled caste and
scheduled tribe form a great position of over population. They have no motivation
to study special efforts should be made to enroll them in schools.
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(vii) Free admission policy: - There should be free admission policy. Nobody should
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be debarred from admission in a school.
54
EDUCATION FOR SOCIALISM

Socialism cannot be brought about by legislation or force or coercion. It has to

grow silently in the hearts of people and the greatest binding force that can
quicken it is the force of education. The following are some of the ways and means
of imparting education for socialism (socialistic pattern of society):-
1. Redefining the aims of education: - In order to impart education for socialism
(socialistic pattern of society) the aims of education should be redefined and re-
evaluated in the light of the above listed seven principles. Aims of education may
be given as under heads:-
i) Universal education.
ii) Productive efficiency.
iii) Spiritual, moral and cultural advancement.
iv) Development of democratic values.
v) Best development of personality.
vi) Betterment of society.
2. Redesigning the curriculum: - The curriculum should be redesigned. Emphasis
should be placed on the following items:- i) Study of science and technology ii)
Study of crafts like agriculture, wood-work, card-board work, metal work,
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gardening and leather-work etc. iii) Social studies with emphasis on social and
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moral values. Iv) Training in industries v) Knowledge of socialistic trends of various
55
countries.
3. Methods of teaching:-Dynmic and progressive methods of teaching like Problem
Method, Heuristic Method, Project Method, Discussion Method, and Experimental
Method etc. should be used. Besides these methods, these techniques may be
used:- i) Educational trips, ii) Visits to industries, iii) Extension lectures by experts,
iv) Practical work in the farm and workshop, v) Organizing programmes for adult
education.
4. Role of the Teacher: - The teacher works as a pivot of any educational system.
The success or failure of education depends on the teacher. The teacher should
play a pivotal role in achieving the objectives of socialism. He should work with
dedication and spirit of self-sacrifice. He can produce national heroes by his love for
the country, passion for work and devotion of duty.

Q: -ROLE OF EDUCATION IN ACHIEVING THE GOALS OF SOCALISM.

Universal Education: - For the socialistic pattern of society, there should be

education for all the people so that they may particulate in the political social and
economic life of the community
Productive efficiency: - In socialistic pattern of society education should aim at
productive and vocational efficiency. More theoretical education has no place in
socialistic pattern of society. Economic strength is the basis of fundamental of a
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nation. Indian education commission has suggested work experience and
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secondary education for achieving this purpose.
56
Spiritual and Moral Education: - Education should also aim at spiritual and moral
development. Socialism will be truly established only whenever social, moral values
are transferred through education.
Development of democratic values:- The socialistic society represents the highest
democracy. Hence education should aim at the development of democratic values
i.e respect for individuality and co-operative living etc.
Aims of education: - In order to impact education for socialistic pattern of society
the aims of education should be redefined of reevaluated.
Method of teaching: - Socialistic pattern education will suggest of progressive
methods of teaching like problem method, heuristic method , project method and
exptl. Method etc.
Educational porgramme for socialistic pattern of society:- Educational programme
will suggest common school system. Navodayals, universalisation of primary
education formal and Non formal programme for secondary. Education of women
education for all levels of education. It will also suggest the education for all
citizens will be the aim of education.

Q: -EDUCATION AND SECULARISM.

 MEANING OF SECULARISM

The word secularism is first used in the 19th century by the “George 1947 Jacob
Holy Dake” He derived it from Latin often word “Seclum which means the present
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age of generation. According to Chambers Dictionary Secularism is the belief that
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the state morals and education etc should be independent of religion.
57
Secularism as understood in Western Europe, and in terms of the American
experience, means that the state and the church coexist in the same society
without having to do anything with each other.
Indian conception of Secularism requires that there shall be no state religion and
the state shall treat all religious equally. In the words of Mahatma Gandhi, “My
veneration for other faiths is the same as for my own faith” “We believe in Sarva-
dharma-samanatva-having equal regard for all faiths and creeds.”

CHARACTERISTICS OF A SECULAR STATE

According to Prof. Donald E. Smith, the secular state is “ a state which guarantees
individual and corporate freedom of religion, deals with the individual as a citizen
irrespective of his religion, is not constitutionally connected to a particular religion,
nor does it seek either to promote or interfere with religion.” Important
characteristics of a secular state are as under:-
1) A secular state functions in a way independent of religion.
2) A secular state treats all religions on equal footing, neither interfering with nor
promoting religion.
3) A secular state permits individual and collective freedom of religions.
4) A secular state views all individuals as citizens with equal rights and not as
members of particular religious groups.
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5) A secular state is not against religion, but may restrict religious freedom or
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regular religious practices in public interest-of harmony, peace, morality and
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health.

NEED OR IMPORTANCE OF SECULAR-BASED EDUCATION

Secular-based education is needed because of the following reasons:-

1. Development of moral outlook.
2. Development of wider attitude.
3. Development of pluralistic outlook.
4. Development of democratic qualities.
5. Cultural development.
6. Development of scientific spirit.
7. Balance between spiritual and material.
8. Basis of humanitarianism.

EDUCATIONAL EFFORTS FOR PROMOTION OF SECULARISM

Our educational system today promotes secular attitudes and values through its
broad-based aims, curricula, enlightened teachers and appropriate activities, all
emphasizing open-mindedness, progressivism, rationality, freedom from bigotry
and superstition, and equal respect for all religious. Thus our educational system is
trying to create a social climate in the country in which secular values are sought to
be promoted effectively and enthusiastically.
Pag
Q: -SIGNIFICANCE OF SECULARISM IN MULTI RELIGION SOCIETY.
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59
Secularism can help multi religion society in which different groups communities
live together to flourish side by side.
A secular state functions in a way independent of religion. A secular state
treats all the religions on equal footing neither interfering with nor promoting
religion. A secular state permits individual and collective freedom of religions. A
secular state view all individuals as citizen with equal right and not as member of a
particular religions group. A secular state is not against religion but may restrict
religions freedom or regular religious practices in public interest peace or morality.
Ever since India got freedom in 197. The word secular has been used very often by
the national leaders. So secularism is an attitude of accepting all religions rather
then rejecting any of then.
M.K Gandhi put forth his view, the soul of religion is one but it is enclosed in a
multitude of forms Wiseman will ignore the out word crust and see that some soul
living under a variety of crusts.
Disintegration is becoming a trend of life. There is disintegration in multi religious
society because of different beliefs, customs, traditions, and values of life. So need
of hour is formation of secularism in this type of society.
 Q: -ROLE OF EDUCATION IN MULTI-RELIGIOUS SOCIETY LIKE INDIA.

India is a secular country. This means that it has no state religion. It constitution
guarantee equality of consideration to all religious and freedom to all citizens to
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propagate and enjoy their religions. Therefore our country do not give any religions
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education in Govt. or Govt. aid schools. The country only inculcate moral values
60
independent of religious.
Education secular based education is the need for multi religious society like
our India this type of education inculcates in student humanity, truth fullness,
tolerance, honesty, spirit of service. Secular based education is required to make a
man dynamic self sacrifice. It helps the man in developing qualities like equality,
liberty and co-operative living. Secular based education help to improve material
needs for life without rejecting spiritual values. It stands for peace good will and
understanding. It helps in fast the brotherhood of man and the unity of the whole
world. Betterment of the world depends upon secular based education efforts for
promotion of secularism in multi religions society.
Education Aims: - Our educational aims and objectives are secular and they seek to
develop our nation as a rational democratic and progressive state. The well being
of the citizens of the secular country is the goals towards which all educational
emerges are directed.
Organization of Educational Institution:- The organization of most of most of our
educational institutions is based on secular principles. In all Govt. institution or
Govt aided institutions, it is necessary to observe secular democratic and rational
criteria for appointments, promotions and admissions etc.
Curriculum: - Our educational curriculum at all levelly special emphasis on the
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promotion of secular values. All co-curricular activities aim at promotion harmony
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and co-operation among different groups and respect for each others. Culture
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among the students equal important is giving to different faiths while imparting
moral, education.
Secularism stands for scientific rationalism the spirit of secularism with emphasis
on enquiry experimentation, proof and critical outlook, permits the teaching of
other subjects also.
Teachers; - The teachers in secularist society are expected to treat their pupils in an
impartial manner. They have to forget criticism, communalism class consideration
with dealing with students and colleges. Equal respect has to be given to all
students and to all religious groups. An effort is made by every conscientious
(conscious) or to behave in a truly democratic and fair manner.
Our education system is thus trying to create a social climate in the country in
which secular values are bought to be promoted with spastically and effectively.
Curriculum: - Our educational curriculum at all levels lay special emphasis on the
promotion of secular values. Lesson in the text books are free from religious pre
judice while the good values and ideas are presented in appropriate forms. All co-
curricular activities aims at promoting harmony and co-operation among different
groups and respect for each other culture among the students. It is not permitted
in the course of any instructional or co-curricular activity to fraise any particular
religion. It is an usual practice in all schools colleges and universities to celebrate
festivals and birth anniversaries. But it should not promote any particular religion.
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Secularism stands for scientific rationalism. It stresses logical linking and
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rejects super states and irrational thinking. Realizing this our education today puts
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much emphasis on scientific teaching.

UNIT-1V CULTURE & SOCIAL CHANGE

Q: -CONCEPT OF CULTURE & ITS CHARACTERISTICS.

The word culture is derived from the Latin Word ‘cultra’ which means to cultivate
or cultivation the mind. However it is not an easy task to define culture and it is
something complex. The term ‘culture’ has been used in many ways. Different
writers have defined culture in different ways. Some of the definitions are given
below: -
DEFINITIONS OF CULTURE
1. According to E.B. Taylor “culture is that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities acquired by
man as a member of society”.
2. According to H.Rug’s, “culture means the total life of people that goes on with
these groups, what the people in a given society do think, feel, believe desire,
fear”.
3. According Robert Bierstadt’s, “culture is the complex whole that consists of
everything we ‘think’ and ‘do’ and ‘have’ as members of society”.
4. According to M.K. Gandhi, “culture is the foundation, the primary thing. It
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should show itself in the smallest detail of your conduct ad personal behavior”.
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5. According to Ottawa’s “culture of a society means the total way of life of a
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society”.
From the above definitions it is clear that culture is an important competent of the
heritage of any nation. It also involves the cultivation of appreciation of ideas,
values, art and recreational practice.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
Following are the characteristics of culture.
Learned quality: - Culture is learned quality, it is a social inheritance not biological
inheritances. It means culture is not acquired biologically but is learned from the
society.
Transmative quality: - Culture is transmitted quality means it is transmitted from
one person to another person or one generation to another generation.
Social quality: - Culture is social means it is not individual heritage of man, because
man cannot create or generate culture while existing apart from the group.
Idealistic quality: - Culture is idealist means culture is based on some ideals. In
other words, ideals are the real foundations of culture. Each generation acquires it
from predecessors and each member has to follow those ideal.
Adoptive quality: - Culture has the characteristic of adaptation. Each culture tries
to adopt the qualities outside its own environment. The contact of two or more
culture takes place and this interaction lends the adoptive quality of culture.
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Manifestation quality: - Culture is manifestation of man’s mind in varying moods
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of nature and environment, and in the changing course of history. Culture of
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civilized societies has its own momentum of progress. Members of such society
cannot remain aloof from the diving currents of culture.
Dynamic quality: - Culture is a dynamic quality means culture is a changing quality.
No nation has/has constant culture. Every generation add something new and
modifies something of old.
Integrative quality: - Sometimes different parts of culture or aspects of culture join
hands to form an integrative culture.

DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE

In fact culture means a way of life. There are number of factors or components
which makes the culture of a society. The various components of culture are: -
(i) Group behavior patterns: - Culture includes the group behavior patterns such
as, Folkways, Mores, Customs, Traditions, laws, stereo-types, legends, fusion, myth
etc.
(ii) Literature: - Literature includes drams, poetry, novels, prose and stories.
(iii) Art: - Art is also a component of culture. It includes music, dance, sculpture,
paintings, photography and architecture.
(iv) Religions: - Religions involves worship, rituals, sacrifice, and collective prayers.
(v) Ethics: - Ethical and noble actions and reverence for man’s personality.
(vi) Educational and recreational institutions: - Educational and recreational
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institutions are, library, museum, school, cinema halls, theaters, clubs etc. There
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are also social, economic, political, factors of a culture. Bruins law says culture has
65
two types innate and derived.
Innate are those element of culture that are related to the fundamental
wants of human beings. The derived elements are those which are illustrated by
play and sports, racial and religious experience etc.

Q: -RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EDUCATION& CULTURE.

There is a close relationship between culture and education. Every person born into
a particular culture which provides him with definite patterns of behavior and
values which guide his conduct in different walks of life, thus culture plays an
important part in man’s life.
Culture has profound implications for education. The social living is influenced
by education and education itself is governed by social life. The total patterns of
society’s life determine education and education moulds the total patterns of
society’s life. Education produces a cultured man and it also nourished and natured
by the cultured man.

FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION TOWARDS CULTURE

1. Conservation of culture.
2. Continuity of culture.
3. Transmission of culture.
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4. New culture patterns.
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5. Promotion of culture.
66
6. Adjustment to cultural patterns.
1. Helpful in refining personality.
2. Helpful in socializing the individual.
3. Helpful in making social adjustments.
4. Helpful in understanding and imporving society.
5. Helpful in survival of the nation.

INFLUENCE OF CULTURE ON EDUCATION

Culture determines the contents of education. It gives direction to individual

learning. Whatever is taught in the school or whatever is learnt in the school,
whatever is consciously or unconsciously derived from culture. It is clear from the
points which are discussed below.
Aims of education: - Culture determines the aim of education in a society, as is the
aim of education in a society.
Curriculum: - Culture determines the curriculum. The needs of the society are
realized through curriculum. For instance we are teaching science and mathematics
from class 1st. It is the demand of modern culture.
Discipline: - Culture has influence the concept of discipline we are opposed to
authoritarianism we believe in democracy. It has left the impact on the schools. In
schools the idea of discipline has undergone change instead of maintaining
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discipline through expression we want self discipline.
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Text book: - Text books are written according to cultural values. These text books
67
are valued which promote culture. These text books are banned which opposes the
cultural values.

INFLUENCE OF EDUCATION ON CULTURE

(i) Conservation of culture: - Education conserves the culture of society. It

determines the best in the culture of relations the same conservation of culture is
the most important job of education.
(ii) Transmission of culture: -Transmission of culture means passing of culture from
one generation to another generation without transmission of culture society
cannot grow.
(iii) Reconstruction of culture: - Education helps in reconstructions of culture.
Education has not only to draw upon the old culture but also to reconstruct new
experience. It has to prepuce innovation.

Q: -CONCEPT OF SOCIAL CHANGE.

Change is the law of life, and changes in a society are always taken place. In early
times the changes where so slow that the people do not perceive them, but
nowadays these changes are very rapid and drastic. This changing process brings
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changes in the social culture. This process may be rapid in some societies and slow
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in the other.
68
However different educationists have given different ideas about the meaning of
social change. Some of the definitions are given below.

DEFINITIONS OF SOCIAL CHANGE

(a) View of Gillian and Gillen, “social changes are variations from the accepted
modes of life, weather due to alternations in geographical conditions, in culture
equipment, composition of the population or ideologies and weather brought
about by diffusion or invention within the group.
(b) View of Davis, “by social change is meant for only such alternations as occur in
social organization that is structure and function of society”.
(c) View of Jones, “social change is a term used to describe variations in or
modifications of any aspect of social processes, social patterns, social interaction or
social organization”.
(d) View of Fairchild, “social change means variation of modification in any aspect
of social processes, patterns or forms”.
In the light of the above definitions, social change can be best defined as a new
fashion or mode, either modifying or replacing the old in the life of people or in the
operation of a society.
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Q: -FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE. 69
In fact change in one element of society causes change in another society. Each
factor of social structure is linked with other and this interaction is called social
change.
There are a number of factors which are responsible for social change. Some of the
main factors are discussed below.
1. Environmental factor: - The environmental factors are responsible for social
change. The environmental factors like hot or cold climate, flood, and earth quake
etc influences social change.
2. Cultural factor: - Culture is a process of change. Any change in cultural order
causes the change in social order. Max Weber regards cultural factor as the main
reason for social change. He says, changes took place along with cultural changes.
3. Economical factors: - Economic factors play a great role in social change. If
economic condition of a country is stable it can make much progress than those
countries whose economic condition is unstable. Max was of the opinion that
economic condition of life are the determining force of social change.
4. Physiological factors: - By nature man wants change. He desires to have new
inventions and new experience. So the behavior of person causes social change.
5. Technological factor: - These factors have changed the conditions of the world
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with the inventions of scientific techniques like machines, press, radio, aeroplane,
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telephone, have changed every field and are regarded as significant factors in social
70
change.
6. Population factor: - Population of a country is also one of the factor of social
change. Because the tremendous explosion of population people migrate from one
place to another place that is one society to another and effects the social
structure.
7. War factor: - War is also a factor of social change. When a war occur the whole
structure of a society, changed and the living of the people changed.
8. Miscellaneous factor: - The rise of new thoughts also accounts for social change.
Most social revolutions are because of new way of thought. In this way the social
change takes place.

Q: -RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EDUCATION & SOCIAL CHANGE

Social change can be flourished in that type of society which is educated. There is a
great relationship between education and social change. The relationship is not one
sided. It is two sided education effects social change and social change effects
education. Let me explain this relationship below:
1. Education as a basis of social change: - Social change can flourish in that type of
society which is educated. Educated society is the fertile society where social
change can takes place only educated people can understand the significance and
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implications of social change. Just as we cannot construct a house on the sandy soil,
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similarly we cannot bring social change in an illiterate society.
71
2. Education as a means of brining social change: - Social change can be brought
by many means. It can be brought by force by using force people can be compelled
to bring social change is temporary. Social change can be also brought by passing of
laws when the law are passed people have to except the laws. But most of the
people are ignorant about law they do not understand the significance of laws.
Therefore this method too will not work successfully. Education is therefore the
best method for brining social change. Education has characteristics which makes it
very suitable. These characteristics which make it very suitable area as under: -
(a) Education is based on non violence. There is no force or compulsion.
(b) It motivates a person to change his attitude. It creates willingness in him. It does
not compel him to bring change.
(c) Education affects the total personality of a man.
(d) It effects is lifelong.
3. Education as a result of social change: - Social change also affects education
within social change is brought it in a society it leaves its impact on education. Let
me give the example of India at the time of coming of British when the British come
to India, they brought many changes in the society. The common man found
himself handicapped because of look of education so the people where compelled
to receive education so that they could live an honorable life in the society. They
sent their children to schools and colleges. The government on its part opened
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great number of schools and colleges. In this way social change affects education.
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72
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q:-DEFINE EDUCATION.

A: - The term 'education’ is derived from the Latin word, educare which means, to
bring up', 'to lead out,' & 'to develop'. In the simplest sense, therefore, education
refers to the process of bringing up, leading out, & developing individuals as
mature, adult members of society.
Q:-WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?

A:-The term ‘philosophy has been derived from two Greek words-‘philos’ and
‘Sophia’. ‘Philos means love and ‘Sophia’ means wisdom. Thus etymologically
speaking, philosophy is love of wisdom.
Q: PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION.

A:-In the words of Ross’ “philosophy and education are like the two sides of the
same coin; the one is implied by the other: the former is the contemplative side of
life, while the latter is the active side.”
 Q:-EXPLAIN THE TERM NATURALISM?

A: - Naturalism is a type of philosophy according to which nature is the ultimate

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reality. It believes that nature alone contains the normal and only final answer to
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all philosophical problems. Everything is governed by nature. There is nothing
73
beyond the nature, behind nature and other than nature. Thus naturalism means
belief in nature and return to nature.

Q:-DEFINE THE NATURALISM IN EDUCATION.

A:-Naturalism is the inevitable reaction in education when education had been

practically killed by the oppressive weight of tradition, stern discipline, rules of the
school, dry curriculum, the formal behaviour of the teacher etc. Thus naturalism in
education came on the scene as a reaction against formation, sophistication and
pedantry into which the humanistic movement had degenerated with undue
emphasis on the study of books and linguistic forms.
Q:-WHAT IS EXISTENTIALISM?

A:-Existentialism is a modern philosophy which represents a revolt against many

outlooks and methods of traditional Western philosophy. It is a revolt against the
impersonal nature of the modern industrial or technological age, against scientism
and positivism, and against the mass movement's of our time. It can be concluded
that existentialism is “essentially the philosophy of man and its attempt to reaffirm
and Regan the lost status of man in this advanced technological and mechanized
society.”
 Q: - EXISTENTIALISM IN EDUCATION.

A:-Existentialists want to educate the whole man. They want full development of
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personality. They do not like an educational system for one sided development.
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According to existentialism, one of the important aims of education is the making
74
(becoming) of a human person as one who lives and makes decisions about what
he will do and be.

Q:-WHAT IS IDEALISM?

A:-Idealism has been the dominant philosophical theory through the ancient
period. Even in modern times, idealism has certain attractions which appeal to the
human mind and thereby exercise a great influence on human thinking. Idealism
asserts that reality consists of ideas, thoughts, minds or selves rather than of
material objects and forces. Reality is found in the mind of man and not in the
physical, material and external world. It is spiritual in nature. Idealism, therefore,
believes in the supernatural reality. To idealists, ideas are external and unchanging.
Man has got the power to discover these values.

Q: - WHAT IS PRAGMATISM?

A:-Pragmatism is an attitude, a method and a philosophy that uses the practical

conquences of ideas and beliefs as a standard for determining their value and
truth. Pragmatism is based on the philosophy of change and experimentation.
 Q: -PRAGMATISM IN EDUCATION.

A:-For pragmatism, education is not the dynamic side of philosophy. Education is a

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laboratory in which philosophers dictums become concrete and are tested. It
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considers philosophy as the formulation of ideas underlying a sound educational
75
practice. Philosophy of education is not an application of ready-made ideas.
According to pragmatism philosophy is the product of educational practice, rather
than education being the outcome of philosophy. In the words of John Dewey,
"philosophy is the theory of education in its most general phase."

Q: - ROLE OF TEACHER ACCORDING TO GANDHI.

A: - Gandhiji asserted that only right type of teachers can help in achieving
objectives of education. He should posse’s knowledge, skill, enthusiasm, patriotism,
strong character and special training. He should be friend, philosopher and guide.
He should be inspired with the social attitudes and ideals of Ahimsa and Truth. He
should be well equipped and fully alive to the objectives of life and education. He
must possess the virtues himself. He should be able to establish a heart to heart
contact with the students. He has to fashion the hearts of the students rather than
their brains.

Q:-WHO IS THE FOUNDER OF SHANTINIKETAN.

A:-The greatest contribution of Tagore in the field of education is 'Vishwabharti'
Mr. Devendra Nath Tagore, father of Sh. Rabindra Bolpur of Bengal. It was named
as Shantiniketan. In 1901 Tagore set up a school there. It was here that Rabindra
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Tagore gave a practical Shape to his educational ideas. In 1921 it developed into a
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Vishwabharti and international university. It stands for a synthesis between nature
76
and spirit, the East and the West. It is a symbol of his passionate faith in the
brotherhood of the nations.

Q:- ROLE OF TEACHER ACCORDING TO TAGORE.

A:-Tagore assigns an important place to teacher. The teacher is a Guru. He is to

guide and stimulate the students. He is to keep them on the right track. He should
have the ability to understand the child I.e., his emotions, instincts, sentiments,
interests and potentialities. He should have sympathetic attitude.
Tagore remarked," A teacher can never truly teach unless he is still learning
himself. A lamp can never light another lamp unless it continues to burn its own
flame. “A teacher should not stop his growth by stiffening the minds of the
students with dead matter. He should continue learning. He should have receptive
and learning attitude.
Q:-" MAN MAKING EDUCATION" IS ADVOCATED BY SWAMI VIVEKANANDA. EXPLAIN.

A:-Swami Vivekananda was a social reformer, a world teacher, a great

educationalist and a practical Saint of modern India who wanted to revive ancient
wisdom. He had deep faith in Vedanta and laid emphasis on self-knowledge, self -
reliance, courage, concentration, Brahmacharya, women education and practiced
brotherhood of man, realization of God, renunciation and righteousness. He
synthesized spiritual and material values and advocated a national system of
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education.
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Q: - WHO IS THE FOUNDER OF BASIC EDUCATION. 77
A: - The Wardha scheme of Education, popularly known as ‘Basic education’
occupies a unique place in the field of elementary education in India. This scheme
was the first attempt to develop an indigenous scheme of education in British India
by Mahatma Gandhi, the father of our nation. As a nationalist leader he fully
realised that the British system of education could not serve the socio-economic
need of the country. At Round Table Conference in London (1931) he pointed out
the ineffectiveness of the system of primary education in India and the alarming
low percentage of literacy among Indian people. He held the policy of the British
Government responsible for this painful situation in the field of mass education.
Gandhiji said “I am convinced that the present system of education is not only
wasteful but positively harmful.” It was in this context the concept of Basic
Education emerged in the mind of Gandhiji. In this unit we will discuss the historical
background, the Wardha scheme of education, its fundamental features,
curriculum and merits and demerits of this system of education.

Q:-JOHN DEWY IS KNOWN FOR “LEARNING BY DOING”.

A:-In the words of Johan Dewey, “Education is the development of all those
capacities in the individual which will enable him to control his environment and
fulfill his possibilities.” The definition implies that education has two important
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sides the psychological side and the sociological side. The psychological side is the
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base of education. It includes the study of the child’s i.e. his instincts and innate
78
powers. The sociological side is equally important and emphasizes the needs of the
social educations in which the child is to live and grow for the society to which he
belongs. According to Dewey, “All education proceeds by participation of the
individual in social consciousness of the race”.

Q:- PLAY WAY METHOD BY FROEBEL.

A:-According to Frobel, “education is a development from which man’s life

broadens until it has related itself to nature, until it enters sympathetically into all
activities of society, until it participates in the achievements of the race and
aspirations of humanity”. Frobel says, education is the constant progressive
adjustment of an individual to the world around him. It is a process of drawing out
and not a process of pouring in.

Q: - ROLE OF TEACHER ACCORDING TO FROBEL.

A: - Frobel attaches great value to the teacher. If the activities are properly directed
by the teacher. The child can be stimulated to achieve certain ends. Similarly the

Q: - DIDACTIC APPARATUS BY MONTESSORI.

play activities and other activities should be organized and controlled by teacher
only then there activities have educative value.

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A: - In the words, “by education must be understood active help given to the
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manual expansion of the life of the child”. Education should promote normal
79
growth and development of the child. According to Montessori, “Education means
development from within various abilities, interests and potentialities should be
fully developed.
Montessori believes that education should aim at the perfect development of
the individuality of the child through self education in an atmosphere of freedom.
In such an atmosphere, personality of the child is formed and developed. Education
should aim at drawing out the innate powers and potentialities. It should promote
development from within.
Q:-WHAT IS DEMOCRACY?

A:- The word Democracy has been derived from two Greek words “Demos” and
“Kratos” which means “Power” and “Public” respectively. Hence etymologically
democracy means “Power of the people” as a whole. According to Seeley,
“Democracy is a govt. in which everyone has to share.”
Q:-DEFINE THE TERM SOCIALISM.

A: - The word “Socialism” originated during the 19th century. It was in 1833 when
the word “Socialism” came first in use in an English journal, later, Robert Owen
used this word “ Socialism” in his speeches and letters with Owen Fourer & Simen
where the few socialists. “Socialism” is primarily a theory of possible social
organization. In its strictly scientific aspect, it is proposed explanation of social
development.
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Q:-WHAT IS SECULARISM”. e|
80
A: - “Secularism” in our country pre-supposes a democratic system .Similarly
democracy in a multi-regiligious and multi-cultural society like India can grow only
in a secular frame work.
The term “Secularism “has been derived from the Latin word “Secolum”which
means “Orge”or “Generation” \.This term was coined by Geogrge-Jacob-holydake
in the mid 19th centuary. He used the term “Secularism “in the context of a system
having social and ethical base.
Q: - IS INDIA A SECULAR NATION?

A: - India is a secular state, which means that there is no official religion in India.
The great Indian leaders like Gandhi and Nehru did not accept this ideology of
official religion. They declared India as a secular state, which is the common Home
of the Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Parsis and all other citizens. The result of
this secularism is that in India all posts are open to members of all communities.
Muslims, though a 31 percent minority, have been Presidents of Indian Republic.
Dr. Zakir Hussain was one such president and Sri Fakhruddin AH Ahmad was
another.

Q: - CONCEPT OF CULTURE.
A:-The word culture is derived from the latin word ‘cultura’ which means to till, to
cultivate. This means that the culture is to be cultivated and it can grow itself.
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Q:-GIVE ONE DEFINITION OF CULTURE.
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81
A:- According to E.B. Taylor “culture is that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities acquired by
man as a member of society”.

Q: - DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE.

A: -
(i) Group behavior patterns
(ii) Literature
(iv) Religions
(v) Ethics
(vi) Educational and recreational institutions

Q:-DEFINE SOCIAL CHANGE.

A: - Change is the law of life, and changes in a society are always taken place. In
early times the changes where so slow that the people do not perceive them, but
nowadays these changes are very rapid and drastic. This changing process brings
changes in the social culture. This process may be rapid in some societies and slow
in the other.
(FARASH PRINT POINT-9906713963)
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“A LEADING PROVIDER OF INSTANT NOTICES FOR ALL HGHER & LOWER e|
CLASSES IN THE STATE OF JAMMU & KASHMIR” 82
 NEW B.ED SYLLABUS OF KASHMIR UNIVERSITY
Page
|1

1ST SEMESTER 100% SYL COVERAGE

COURSE TITLE: INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

COURSE CODE: BED15104

FARASH PRINT POINT

9906713 963
 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
1ST SEMESTER

UNITS DESCRIPTION Page

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i) Meaning, significance and scope.

UNIT-I ii) Levels of intervention: Preventive, remedial and
EXCEPTIONALITY compensating.
iii) Special education: Meaning, significance and scope.

i) Physically challenged: Visually and Hearing

UNIT-II impaired.
CATEGORIES OF SPECIAL ii) Mentally Retarded
EDUCATION
iii) Gifted
(With special reference to causes, characteristics and
educational measures)

UNIT-III i) Historical background of inclusive education.

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION ii) Principles of inclusion and necessary resources.
iii) Inclusion, integration and mainstreaming.

UNIT-IV i) Integrated education for disabled children(IEDC,

NATIONAL INTIVITIES 1974)
ii) Rehabilitation Council of India (1992)
iii) Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA 2000)
iv) National Curriculum Framework (NCF, 2005)

“Kindly note that any mistake in the contents of this notice is due to my imperfection as a human
being as only Allah Subhanahu Wa-Ta'ala is perfect in all affairs”.
 LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Page
UNIT-1 EXCEPTIONALITY |3

Q: - MEANING OF EXCEPTIONALITY.
A: - Exceptionality is a term used by the Department of Education to identify
patterns of strengths and needs common to groups of students. These strengths
and needs may be: cognitive, emotional, behavioural, medical, social, and physical.
Students with exceptionality may access a range of school based services depending
on degree of severity.
In its linguistic sense, it is the quality or attribute of being exceptional. In other
words, one is labeled as exceptional in one or the other field or trait of one’s
personality on account of the possession of some exceptionality, i.e. uniqueness or
being different from others in possession of that trait or quality. As we Know that,
the uniqueness is the fundamental characteristic of every creation of God and in
this sense, all children we have at our home and the school must be quite unique,
specific, special and therefore exceptional in themselves. Therefore, exceptionality
is essentially a relative attribute. One is always unique, different, special and
exceptional in his relation to others. Exceptionality, in this sense, stands for a
generic term pointing out towards the existence of wide individual differences
among the children in one or the other aspects of their personality. The term has a
quite broader meaning and concept. However, in its practical application in the field
of education, psychology and sociology, the term carries a somewhat limited and
specific meaning. Here, we confine ourselves to its use in relation to the concept of Page
normal arid normality, i.e. the things or attributes of one’s personality which are | 4
quite far away from the normal are often taken as ones exceptionality in that
attribute. In this way, the concept of exceptionality is very much associated with the
concept of normal and normality. It is therefore imperative to us for being
acquainted first with the use of these terms.
At some time or other, practically all school teachers will have exceptional
children in their classrooms. These children can become contributing members of
the community. In a democratic country like ours every child has the right to
education-the right to receive help in learning to the limits of his capacity, weather
that capacity be small or great. It is consistent with a democratic philosophy that all
children be given equal opportunity to learn whether they are exceptional or
normal.
The term ‘exceptional’ means different things to different people. Some use it
when referring to the particularly bright children or the child with unusual talents,
others use it when they refer to any typicl or deviant child. According to Telford and
Sawrey (1972), “To be exceptional is to be rare or unusual.”

Q: - NATURE OF EXCEPTIONALITY.
A:-An analysis of the various definitions given by various thinkers revels the
following facts about the nature of exceptionality:
Exceptionality refers to uniqueness. The uniqueness of the exceptional child Page
may be noticed in one or more of the following dimensions-vision, hearing, | 5
movement, perceptual-motor, communication, social-emotional and intelligence.
Thus, the blind, deaf, orthopedically handicapped, learning disabled, speech
handicapped, emotionally disturbed, socially disadvantaged, mentally retarded,
slow learner and gifted are exceptional.
Exceptionality is related, in part, to the amount and quality of previous experiences
received in the home.
The uniqueness of the exceptional child may be in the negative direction (as in
case of handicapped children) or in the positive direction (as in case of gifted
children).
Exceptionality is more quantitative than qualitative. A qualitative conception
of exceptionality conceives of such children as constituting separate and, in many
ways, distinct categories or classes of individuals.
Exceptionality has variable meanings in different social contexts. Social
influences are undoubtedly responsible for some of the components of the
patterning’s of traits characterizing the various categories of exceptional people.

Q: - SIGNIFICANCE & SCOPE OF EXCEPTIONALITY.

A: - Exceptional children are those children who deviate from the normal children to
such an extent that they cannot benefit from the traditional education system or
the regular education process. They require special education to maximize their Page
potentialities. They require specially trained teachers, special aids and equipments | 6
and special teaching-learning strategies. This is possible only in special schools or if
there is a modification in the regular education classes and if regular schools are
adaptive to the needs and abilities of exceptional children.
Exceptional children have unique needs. For instance the blind needs
education through Braille, orientation about the immediate environment and
mobility training. The deaf child needs training in speech reading, lip reading, etc. it
is special education which can meet the unique needs of exceptional children.
Before the development of special education exceptional children particularly
the severely affected children, were rejected by the parents and the community.
They were considered as burden for the society. They were left at the temple gates
or in a corner of a village. But today educators have established the fact that given
proper education and training exceptional children can become self-dependent and
assets for the society, not a burden for it. They can contribute significantly for social
welfare and international peace process.
Education is a human right issue. Every child, whether he is disabled or non-
disabled has right to education in an appropriate setting. Special education should
be provided to disabled children either in inclusive setting of regular schools or in
the segregated setting of special schools so that they can acquire the knowledge,
competencies and skills which are essential to live as competent and contributing.

Page
Q: - DESCRIBE THE LEVELS OF INTERVENTION. |7

A:- Special Education as Intervention:-Special education is, first of all, purposeful

intervention designed to prevent, eliminate, and/or overcome the obstacles that
might keep an individual with disabilities from learning and from full and active
participation in school and society. There are three basic types of intervention:
preventive, remedial, and compensatory.
PREVENTIVE INTERVENTION
Preventive intervention is designed to keep potential or minor problems from
becoming a disability. Preventive intervention includes actions that stop an event
from happening and those that reduce a problem or condition that has already been
identified. Prevention can occur at three levels (Simeonsson, 1994):
Primary prevention is designed to reduce the number of new cases (incidence) of a
problem; it consists of efforts to eliminate or counteract risk factors so that a
disability is never acquired. Primary prevention efforts are aimed at all relevant
persons. For example, in a school wide program to prevent behavior disorders,
school- and classroom-wide systems of positive behavior support would be
provided for all students, staff, and settings (Sugai & Horner, 2005).
Secondary prevention is aimed at reducing the number existing cases (prevalence)
of an already identified problem or condition or eliminating the effects of existing
risk factors; it is aimed at individuals exposed to or displaying specific risk factors. To
continue the example of a schoolwide program to prevent behavior disorders,
specialized interventions would be aimed only at those students exhibiting early Page
|8
signs of troubled behavior.
Tertiary prevention is intended to minimize the impact of a specific condition, to
prevent the effects of a disability from worsening; it is aimed at individuals with a
disability. For example, intensive interventions would be aimed at students
identified with emotional and behavioral disorders.
Preventive efforts are most promising when they begin as early as possible—
even before birth, in many cases. In later chapters, we explore some of the
promising new methods for preventing and minimizing the effects of disabilities.
Unfortunately, primary and secondary prevention programs have only just begun to
affect the incidence, prevalence, and severity of disabilities in this country. And it is
likely that we will be well into the 21st century before we achieve a significant
reduction in the incidence of disabilities. In the meantime, we must rely on remedial
and compensatory efforts to help individuals with disabilities achieve fuller and
more independent lives.
REMEDIAL INTERVENTION
Remediation attempts to eliminate specific effects of a disability. In fact, the word
remediation is primarily an educational term; the word rehabilitation is used more
often by social service agencies. Both have a common purpose: to teach the person
with disabilities skills for independent and successful functioning. In school, those
skills may be academic (reading, writing, computing), social (getting along with
others; following instructions, schedules, and other daily routines), personal (eating,
dressing, using the toilet without assistance), and/or vocational (career and job skills Page
to prepare secondary students for the world of work). The underlying assumption of | 9
remedial intervention is that a person with disabilities needs special instruction to
succeed in typical settings.
COMPENSATION INTERVENTION

Compensatory interventions involve teaching special skills or the use of devices that
enable successful functioning. This third type of intervention involves teaching a
substitute (i.e., compensatory) skill that enables a person to perform a task in spite
of the disability. For example, although remedial instruction might help a child with
cerebral palsy learn to use her hands in the same way that others do for some tasks,
a head stick and a template placed over a computer keyboard may compensate for
her limited fine-motor control and enable her to type instead of write lessons by
hand. Compensatory interventions are designed to give the person with a disability
an asset that nondisabled individuals do not need—whether it be a device such as a
head stick or special training such as mobility instruction for a child without vision.

Q: - MEANING OF SPECIAL EDUCATION.

A: - Special education in its simple meaning stands for a type of education that is
quite specific and special in nature. Thus through its name, it is capable of
reminding us that it has somewhat different from the education meant for the
general population of students. As a result, the term special education may refer to
a distinctive type of education, specifically or specially designed for meeting the
needs of exceptional or special children. It would be worthwhile for us to take into Page
consideration the view points of some well known thinkers and educationists in this | 10
field to understand the meaning, nature and purpose of the term special education.
Let’s begin with certain important definitions as proposed by them.
DEFINITIONS OF SPECIAL EDUCATION

Kirk and Gallagher (1986): “When youngsters in the same class room are
remarkably different, it is difficult for the teacher to help them reach their
educational potential with out some kind of assistance. The help that the schools
devide for children who differ significantly from the norm is called special
education”
Heward (2000) “Special education is a profession with its own history, cultural
practices, tools and research base, focused on the learning needs of exceptional
children and adults. But at the level, where exceptional children most meaningfully
and frequently contact it, special education is an individually planned, specialized,
intensive, goal directed instruction. When practiced most effectively and ethically
special education is also characterised by the use of research based teaching
method, the application of which is guided by direct and frequent measures of
students performance”
Ysseldyke and Algozzine (1990): “Special education is the instruction designed for
students with special learning needs. Some of these students have difficulty in
learning in the regular classrooms; they need special education to function in
school. Others generally do well in regular classroom; they need special education
to help them master additional skills to reach their full potential in short. Special Page
education is evidence of society’s willingness to recognize and respond to the | 11
individual needs of students and time limits of regular school nonprogrammers to
accommodate these needs”.
SIGNIFICANCE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION

A:-It is true that the backward children and the talented children need special
education facilities for their development. So educationists feel the significance of
special education for them.
i) Special classes are necessary for backward children because they require specific
teaching methods.
ii) Special teaching facilities are required to meet the personal and social needs of
exceptional children. So additional facilities enable the children to realize their
potentialities and to minimize the handicaps arising from their anomalies. Here
superior children are provided with the opportunity to work according to their
talent. In an average class, a bright child feels the handicap. With little endeavour
he comes out exceptional. He can stand and keep a position in the class with
minimum effort. Of course, accelerated promotions call for many drawbacks.
iii) Exceptional data reveal that social maladjustment is found to be rampant with
bright children in regular schools. The talented children stay idle in the class due to
the light load of work. So they engage themselves in mischivious pranks and
unapproved behavior.
iv) In the special classes, the bright children get a chance for proper stimulation; but Page
it becomes a problem for teaching experts to provide proper stimulation to both the | 12
talented and average students in an average class.
vi) In a special class of gifted children, every student feels that he is not superior
alone, but there are some other brighter ones. This thought helps a great deal in
developing confidence. Again, special classes also provide opportunities for
developing leadership in special branches.
vi) Selective placement is entailed through special education. T involves the
complete assessment of children as well as their social environment by
professionally qualified experts from different fields.
vii) Special education requires many auxiliary services. For example, the
orthopedically handicapped require physical therapy, occupational therapy and
periodic physical examination. Some exceptional children need to be kept under
constant medical supervision. Periodic examination may be necessary for blind
children and the children who are partially blind and hard-of-hearing. Occupational
and physical therapy with psychiatric and psychological services are also necessary
for some exceptional children.

NATURE & SCOPE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION

The foregoing definits of special education help us to draw following conclusions
about the nature and characteristics of special education.
 By its nomenclature as well as definitions, special education is always meant for Page
| 13
meeting the special needs and requirements of the exceptional children.
 It is diagnostic in nature in the sense that it calls upon the necessity of diagnosing
and identifying the nature and degree of the deviations of the children from their
normal peers and consequently labelling and classifying them into one or the
other type of exceptionality for providing special care and education.
 It is inventory in nature in the sense that it always aims to provide a purposeful
intervention for preventing, eliminating for overcoming the problems lying on the
path of the child on account of his exceptionality in the field of learning and
adjustment.
 Special education is developmental in nature, meaning thereby that it follows a
child from womb to tomb. A mother should be given an adequate guidance
through the special education services for nourishing and nurturing her special
child right from the pre-natal period.
 Special education is quite specific and quite specialized in nature. So it needs
special teachers, special students, special methods, aids and special learning
environment for making the special students to learn.
 Special education is highly indidualised in the sense that it takes care of the
exceptionality, specialty or disability of an indidual child and helps to developed
his potentiality to the maximum.
 Special education is highly mobile in the sense that it reaches or moves towards
the child instead of expecting from the child to move for receiving it.
 Special education is continuous in the sense that it is provided to the child from Page
the very beginning till the end or at least up to the time it is needed for the | 14
welfare, progress and adjustment of the child.
 Special education is intensive in nature that all-round total efforts are done at a
quite intensive level for addressing the individualist specific needs of the
exceptional children.
 Special education is goal directed in the sense that it always carries purposeful
instructions and well thought, planned learning experiences to the children to
help them in the realization of their needs and attaining maximum adjustment
and progress as much as possible.
 Special education is research oriented and experimental in character. What we
practice in special education is always supported through active research and
experimentation.
 Special education is quite technical and enriched into the sense that it demands
and makes use of specialized techniques, methods, materials, aids and
equipments for providing needed special education to the exceptional children
besides taking care of their needs and adjustment.
A mere of the above cited nature and characteristics of special education may lead
us to agree that special education is quite vast in its objectives, methodology and
scope, It stands to serve the varying needs of the exceptional children at all their
levels of spain and all places of their availability. Such wide thinking about the
concept of special education may then, persuade us to adopt a functional definition
in the following words for use of this text: Page
| 15
Special education is that specially planned and organized education that is
imparted in a special way to all types of exceptional children irrespective of their of
the nature of their exceptionality in proper tune with their well diagnosed special
needs for helping them to develop their potentiality and adjust as well as progress
in the life as effectively as possible.
ELEMENTS OF SPECIAL EDUCATION

Executive children need special education services comprising of three elements:

 Trained professional personal including teacher educator's consultants,
physiotherapists, psychotherapists, psychologists, counselors etc.
 Special curricular content suiting different areas of exceptionally-giftedness
mental retardation, deafness, dumbness, (speech retardation), orthopedic
handicap, social and emotional maladjustment.
 Facilities including special building features, special equipment, special extra
literary materials and special crafts according to interests, aptitude and other
potentialities of exceptional children.

OBJECTIVES OF SPECIAL EDUCATION

 To provide better instructional arrangement and procedures for evaluating and

meeting the instructional needs of exceptional children.
 To help the gifted children in making the best use of their potentialities and
achieving the maximum so as to be an asset to human social benefits.
 To help the backward children in achieving the maximum level of effectiveness Page
| 16
and making adequate adjustment both for individual and resource development.
 To know the problems of delinquent children and to develop them in solving
their problems, for making adequate achievements and adjustment.
 To help the physically handicapped children in making the best use of their
potentialities and developing normal attitude towards their deformity.
 To help the mentally handicapped children in providing suitable education,
keeping in view their mental deficiency.

IMPORTANCE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION

Insight to Parents and Teachers: Special education provides insight to parents and
teachers of the gifted and the handicapped which help in the process of adjustment
of these children in the society.
Correct Solution: Special education aims at developing confidence and
competencies in handicapped children to earn their livelihood independently. If
they are trained properly, they can become assets for the society.
Solution of Problems: Special education will solve many problems of the
institutions, which they face because of their disabilities.
Active Participation: Special educational arrangements will create in the
handicapped desire to participate in the activities with non-handicapped children. It
will develop self-reliance and self-sufficiency in them and socialize their behaviour. Page
| 17
Realistic Concept: Special education develops a realistic concept in handicapped
children through this service the children will appraise their abilities, aptitudes,
interests and personality qualities. The children get the chance to understand
themselves in a better way. In order to compensate their disabilities, they excel in
some other fields and get recognition, which helps them as well as the society, in
terms of adjustment.
Suitable Placement: As disabled children are handicapped in various ways, they
may not fit in all jobs. Special education helps the pupils in getting a good start in
the vocation, which is both, suitable to them in the light of their disability.
Individual Differences: Special education is needed for exceptional children because
they differ with regard to their interests, motivation and aims of life, Special
education should be provided with modified curriculum, special instructional
strategies and use of special aids.

UNIT-II CATEGORIES OF SPECIAL EDUCATION

Q: - VISUALLY IMPAIRED CHILDREN.

A:-Blindness is regarded as the most severe and traumatic physical handicap. Since
more impressions are conveyed to the brain through the eyes, the visual anomalies
may influence the life of the individual in physical, mental, social, vocational and
educational aspects. In our society, the visually handicapped have always been the
favoured group as compared to those with other types of handicaps. Priority was Page
given to this group for making social and educational provision. Since special rights | 18
and privileges are being provided to them, they attract more public concern than
any other categories.
The definition of vision impairment by the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) says a visually impaired person’s eyesight cannot be corrected to a
“normal level”.
 It may be said that visual impairment is the functional limitation of the eye or
eyes or the vision system. This leads to (1-5) –
 Loss of visual acuity and inability of the person to see objects as clearly as a
healthy person
 Loss of visual field meaning inability of an individual to see as wide an area as the
average person without moving the eyes or turning the head.
 Photophobia – inability to look at light
 Diplopia – double vision
 Visual distortion or distortion of images
 Visual perceptual difficulties or difficulties of perception
 Or any combination of the above features
Low visual acuity
The CDC and the World Health Organization suggest that low visual acuity means
vision between 20/70 and 20/400 with the best possible correction, or a visual field
of 20 degrees or less. Page
| 19
Blindness
Blindness is defined as a visual acuity worse than 20/400 with the best possible
correction, or a visual field of 10 degrees or less.
Legal blindness in the US means visual acuity of 20/200 or worse with the best
possible correction, or a visual field of 20 degrees or less. (1)
Measuring visual acuity
 Visual acuity is measured by use of a Snellen’s chart.
 The chart consists of random letters and numbers of various sizes set at a
distance of 6 feet.
 The best possible vision if 6/6. Visual field is the width of the vision without
moving or turning the head. It is measured in degrees.

CAUSES OF VISUALLY IMPAIRED

A: -Visual impairment can happen to children or adults. In the United States,

millions of persons have partial or complete loss of vision. It is important to have
regular eye examinations to detect early stages of vision loss. The October 15, 2003,
issue of JAMA includes an article about the causes of visual impairment.
SYSTEMIC CONDITIONS
 Diabetes
 Hypertension (high blood pressure)
 Cerebrovascular (brain blood vessel) disease or stroke
 Atherosclerotic disease (cholesterol deposits in blood vessels, including those of Page
| 20
the eye)
 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)Ñusually due to infection
with cytomegalovirus, a virus that affects the eye
 Vitamin A deficiency
 Infections involving the eyes
Some eye infections, including those caused by parasites, are more common in
developing countries. Infections in a pregnant woman can affect the fetus. This type
of vision loss, present from birth, is called congenital blindness.
SPECIFIC EYE CONDITIONS
Macular degeneration—deterioration of the central part of the retina
Cataracts—clouding of the lens of the eye
Glaucoma—damage to the nerve connecting the eye to the brain caused by
increased pressure inside the eye
Eye injuries
Tumors involving the eye or surrounding structures in the head and neck
PREVENTION
Schedule regular eye examinations to detect inadequate vision correction, find
cataracts, test for glaucoma, and evaluate general eye health.
Stop smoking. Smoking has been linked to development of cataracts and macular
degeneration in addition to all the other health problems smoking causes.
Treat chronic diseases, especially diabetes. Good control of blood sugar levels will Page
help reduce your chances of developing diabetic retinopathy, the eye problem | 21
caused by diabetes. Regular screening eye examinations for persons with diabetes
may help to detect diabetic retinopathy sooner. This may limit eye damage by
making earlier treatment possible.
Protect your eyes from sunlight and other ultraviolet (UV) light exposure (such as
tanning beds). Wearing UV-protective sunglasses and a wide-brimmed hat helps to
limit UV exposure to the eyes.
Wear protective eyewear when working with tools or during recreational activities.
Eye injuries are a common cause of vision loss for individuals in the United States.

CHARACTERISTICS OF VISUALLY IMPAIRED

A:-The visually handicapped children have many problems like behavior problems,
problems of learning, problems of their placement in society or problems of social
adjustment. Some problems are discussed below:-
i) Poor Intelligence: - Research analysis reveals that visually impaired children have
a poor I.Q. Since they have impairments in the exploration of their environment,
they have impairments also in concept formation resulting in their poor
performance in intelligence tests. Some intelligence tests are measured by degrees
of information, knowledge or experience. But for blind children, this pattern of
scoring is reduced to a very low level.
ii) Academic Retardation: - These children have poor academic achievements even Page
if they use large types or Braille. They are noted to be retarded by at least one to | 22
two years and are found to be underachievers. Visual impairment is the main factor
for slower acquisition of information by observation. These children have a slower
reading rate and lack concreteness in instructional procedures.
iii) Slower Speech Development:-Totally blind children cannot learn the art of
speech by imitation. They can only learn through what they hear and from
occasional touch observation. Progress in speech development is not significant in
comparison with normal children due to the above reason. Through research it has
been discovered that acquisition of words may get hampered by blindness also.
iv) Personality Disorder: - we know that personality development includes both
hereditary and environmental factors. It is a psychophysical organization of the
individual modified by his life experiences. For congenitally blind children, life
experiences go in their own ways which are totally different from normal children.
These differences affect their personality as a whole. Due to his handicap, he is
more likely to experience nervous strain and the feeling of insecurity and frustration
are common with them.
v) Problems in social Adjustment: - Normally these children are looked down on
and ridiculed by normal children every now and then. They face both personal and
social adjustment problems. Because of this, they feel inferior and ultimately this
leads to maladjustment. There is a controversy among psychologists regarding the
adjustment problems of these children. Some research workers feel that the blind
children are maladjusted in school, but others refute it completely. Page
| 23

A:-Total blindness is easy to recognize. Basically it is detected in the child by the

time he is a year old or even earlier. These children have to be educated through
channels other than vision. A child who is born blind depends upon hearing and
touch for his knowledge while a child who becomes blind after birth may however
retain his visual imagery and correlate what he hears or touches with it. The
education of blind children is certainly tedious.
Some educational provisions are being discussed below:-
i) Residential School:-Residential schools are very much essential for blind children.
The school assists the children through the use of special methods and aids. Braille
classes are very conductive for them. A blind child learns to adjust with the world in
which he has to live as an adult. Braille classes supply only supplementary assistance
as is necessary to enable the blind child to participate in regular classroom
instruction. Besides this the primary aim of this kind of education is social
adjustment.
ii) Special Equipment: - For blind children, the medium of education should be
different. Since these children require education through touch and hearing, special
attention should be given to practice on the regular typewriter. It permits written
communication. For teaching geography, relief maps and globes are to be used
schools arrange excursions and study tours to acquaint children with their
surroundings. The children must be provided with opportunities to visit museums Page
and specially prepared educational models must be given to them for additional | 24
experience.
iii) Physical Education: - Blind children are very much restricted so far as physical
activities are concerned. But special attention must be paid towards gymnastics;
corrective posture works such as sports, running, swimming, rowing, wrestling and
all kinds of outdoor activities. Various types of handicrafts are also included in
physical education. Priority should be given to household arts for girls.
iv) Workshops:-For vocational training and employment, sheltered workshops for
the blind are certainly conductive. Previously, the vocational emphasis of these
workshops was almost exclusively on things like brooms, rugs and brushes. But
presently, the workshops are attached to various industrial, concerns. In india, one
workshop of this kind has been set up at Worli and reports say that this one imparts
good vocational training and provides employment to the blind.
The above remedial measures for partially sighted and blind children can only
be possible if educators, authorities and parents cooperate with each other.

Q: - HEARING IMPAIRED CHILDREN.

A: - The term "Hearing Impaired" is a technically accurate description of someone
who is hard of hearing or who has no hearing ... however, many Deaf, hard of
hearing and late deafened people prefer not to be called impaired. They don't want
to be primarily defined by their lack of (or poor) hearing.
While it's true that their hearing is not perfect, that doesn't make them impaired as Page
people. Most would prefer to be called deaf, hard of hearing or deaf when the need | 25
arises to refer to their hearing status, but not as a primary way to identify them as
people (where their hearing status is not significant).
Hearing is the main sensory pathway through which speech and verbal
communication develop. If a child hears imperfectly, he is likely to speak incorrectly.
Again, hearing also influences learning and other aspects of maturation. Early
detection of hearing and other aspects of maturation. Early detection of hearing
impairment is important for the child’s over-all development. If there is a defect in
hearing mechanism there is also a problem in perception. Hearing impairment
reduces our knowledge of the world around us. Again, it is also adversely affects the
child’s performance in learning.

Q: - TYPES OF “HEARING IMPAIRED.

A:-Hearing loss can be caused by many different causes, some of which can be
successfully treated with medicine or surgery, depending on the disease process.
Three Types of Hearing Loss
Conductive hearing loss:-when hearing loss is due to problems with the ear canal,
ear drum, or middle ear and its little bones (the malleus, incus, and stapes).
Sensor neural hearing loss:-when hearing loss is due to problems of the inner ear,
also known as nerve-related hearing loss.
Mixed hearing loss:-refers to a combination of conductive and sensor neural Page
hearing loss. This means that there may be damage in the outer or middle ear and | 26
in the inner ear (cochlea) or auditory nerve.

CAUSESOF HEARING IMPAIRED

A:-Hearing impairment is usually linked with the defects and deficiencies associated
with our organs helpful in hearing sensation and its perception. Both hereditary as
well as environmental factors may be responsible for making one hearing impaired
and thereby the main causes underlying this impairment may be cited as below.
i) The child may inherit the genes and chromosomes related with hearing
impairment from his parents at the time of conception.
ii) In some cases, the causes of hearing impairments are purely psychological. The
child may unconsciously learn hearing loss as an escape from the unpleasant and
intolerable situations of his life.
iii) In some cases, the sound pollution and its adverse effects may become the
germinating as well precipitating cause of the impairment.
iv) There is never an end to the incidents and accidents in one’s life causing physical
injury to the sensory and perceptual organs of the hearing system resulting into
hearing impairment.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HEARING IMPAIRED CHILDREN

A:-The hearing impaired children invite certain limitations. The nature and severity
of these limitations depend upon the type and degree of the hearing impairment. Page
Naturally these limitations cause certain changes in behavior. The following are | 27
some important characteristics of the hearing impaired:-
i) Socially Handicapped:-Hearing impaired children are not well adjusted in the
society. They find it very difficult to adjust with the environment. They develop
certain personality disorders and slow temperantrums, withdrawal or
submissiveness etc. communication difficulties are rampant with them. They, often,
fail to understand what other people say.
ii) Problems in Personal and Social Development: - The problems regarding
personal and social development are very much pertinent for hearing impaired
children. Language becomes a barrier for them for communicating with other
children. This affects the socialization process and plays a vital role in the personal
and social development of children. The most significant aspect of these children is
their increased dependence on others which leads to a sense of inferiority.
iii) Personality Problems: - Certain studies reveal that these children face some
personality problems. Partial hearing difficulty may create more confrontation and
personality problems than in the case of totally deaf children, because a partially
deaf child gets more frustrated as he tries to reach the level of the normal’s and a
totally deaf child seems reconciled to his fate.
iv) Psychological Characteristics: - Hearing impaired children have some
behavioural problem. Children develop a sense of inferiority since they find
themselves helpless in adapting to circumstances that require verbal Page
communication. The child always compares himself/herself with his/her. He/she | 28
observes that attitude of the society towards him/her is not normal, but either
overprotective or rejective. She feels that he/she is different from a normal child.
This feeling hampers growth and development of the personality.
V) Abnormal emotional behavior: - Very often, young hearing impaired children
show abnormal emotional behavior. This may throw tantrums to attract attention
to himself or his needs. Lack of comprehension may invite tension and resistance.
He is frequently obstinate and has a tendency to taste. He gets irritated when he
cannot make himself understood.

Q: - EDUCATIONAL MEASURES OF HEARING IMPAIREMENT

A: - Hearing loss or deafness does not affect a person’s intellectual capacity or

ability to learn. However, children who are hard of hearing or deaf generally require
some form of special education services in order to receive an adequate education.
Such services may include:
 Regular speech, language, and auditory training from a specialist;
 Amplification systems;
 Services of an interpreter for those students who use sign language;
 Favorable seating in the class to facilitate lip reading;
 Captioned films/videos;
 Assistance of a notetaker, who takes notes for the student with a hearing loss, so
that the student can fully attend to instruction; Page
| 29
 Instruction for the teacher and peers in alternate communication methods, such
as sign language; and counseling.
Children who are hard of hearing will find it much more difficult than children
who have normal hearing to learn vocabulary, grammar, word order, idiomatic
expressions, and other aspects of verbal communication. For children who are deaf
or have severe hearing losses, early, consistent, and conscious use of visible
communication modes (such as sign language, finger spelling, and Cued Speech)
and/or amplification and aural/oral training can help reduce this language delay.
By age four or five, most children who are deaf are enrolled in school on a full-
day basis and do special work on communication and language development.
Parents work with school personnel to develop an individualized education program
(IEP) that details the child’s special needs and the services and supports that will be
provided to meet those needs. IDEA requires that the IEP team address the
communication needs of a child who is deaf or hard of hearing.
It is important for teachers and audiologists to work together to teach the
child to use his or her residual hearing to the maximum extent possible, even if the
preferred means of communication is manual. Since the great majority of deaf
children (over 90%) are born to hearing parents, programs should provide
instruction for parents on implications of deafness within the family.
 People with hearing loss use oral or manual means of communication or a
combination of the two. Oral communication includes speech, lip reading, and the
use of residual hearing. Manual communication involves signs and finger spelling. Page
Total Communication, as a method of instruction, is a combination of the oral | 30
method plus signing and finger spelling.

Q: - MENTALLY RETAEDED & ITS DEFINITIONS.

A: - Mentally Retarded children are those who deviate from the normal children in
the negative side mentally, physically or emotionally. They have Sub-normal mental
development. They possess limited intelligence and social inadequacy. It is generally
believed that children who possess I.Q below 70 are mentally handicapped or
mentally retarded children. But there are some psychologists and educationists who
hold that backward children can also be called mentally handicapped children.
DEFINITIONS
1. According to the definition given by William Hazlitt, “Mental retardation is the
stage of worst mental set-up in which the mentally retarded person thinks and
behaves most irrationally and most absurdly.”
2. According to the view-point of Johnson Smith, “Mental retardation is that
backward state of mind, in which the mentally retarded person keeps himself
behind others by unnecessary and slow thinking, because his mental powers are
benumbed and he cannot undertake quick mental work or quick mental thinking.”

CAUSES OF MENTAL RETARDATION.

A:-
1. Factors operative at the time of conception: There can be some factors Page
operative, at the time of conception, which can become the cause of mental | 31
retardation of the child. In such a case mental retardation may be cause by some
defective genes in the chromosomes of one or both parents at the time of
fertilization.
2. Factors operative inside the womb of the mother: When the child is in the womb
of the mother for a period of about nine months, the improper and deficient intra-
uterine environment may cause mental retardation. Abnormal emotional and
undesirable mental conditions of the mother during pregnancy, her severe illness,
chronic infections and the deficiencies with respect to the food which a human
embryo receives from the blood stream of the mother are some of the factors
which may produce mental deficiency or retardation in the child, who is yet to see
the light of the outside world.
3. Factors operative at the time of delivery: It is possible that, at the time of
delivery, due to too short or too long labour or due to the wrong use of mechanical
instruments, the child may receive head injuries. Such injuries often cause mental
retardation.
4. Post natal factors: Post natal factors are the factors operative from birth to
death. In addition to the cause mentioned above, mental deficiency or mental
retardation may be caused by the following post natal factors: -
(i) Head injuries due to accidents.
(ii) Food deficiency and malnutrition in early childhood.
(iii) Infections and chronic diseases in early childhood. Page
| 32
(iv) Emotional mal adjustment and mental conflicts at any stage of life, especially
at childhood stage.
(v) Socio-cultural emotional deprivation.
(vi) Disturbed environment, such as family quarrels, dru,nkard parents etc.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RETARDED CHILDRENDEGRADATION

A: - Classification on the basis of physical and physiological characteristics.

Mentally retarded children have been categorized as under according to their
physical and physiological specializations:-
Brain damaged child: This is an organic retardation which occurs due to damage of
the brain or because of some other sickness.
Mongoloid: - These children can be recognized by their physical attributes.
Although friendly, modest and jolly they do often manifest obstinate behaviour too.
Cretin Child: - This too is a condition of retardation. It occurs due to a disturbance in
thyroid gland. It can be cured at the primary stages. The certain children are also
jollying modest and friendly.
Phenylketonuria (PKU):- This is found very rarely. It happens due to metabolic
disturbances. A poisonous matter enters into the brain through the blood
circulation and destroys the brain cells.
Microcephaly and Hydrocephly:- The cerebrospinal fluid stops and the brain is
either enlarged or remains small.
Ceberal Palsy: - This is also a sort of brain damage. Some muscle activities become Page
| 33
uncontrolled and such children’s muscular adjustment becomes defective.

Q: - EDUCATION FOR MENTALLY RETARDED CHILDREN.

A: - The mentally retarded, as emphasized earlier are not all alike. After segregation
from the normal individuals they can be properly grouped into distinct categories.
The most accepted classification based on the I.Q.as well as adaptive behavior
criteria enumerates the four levels of retardation i.e mild, moderate, severe and
profound.
1) Social grounds: - In order to make mentally retarded children the useful and the
self-sufficient citizens of the society education should be imparted to them.
2) Democratic grounds: - our beloved Country India is a democratic country and
Justice demands that a democratic government has to look to the needs of each
Section of the Population.
3) Humanitarian grounds: - on humanitarian grounds education must be given to
unfortunate mentally retarded children in order to make their life worth - living.
Recommendations of Review Committee (1990)
For the moderately mentally retarded, special curricula should be developed
and standardized-not merely for the purpose of basic education in 3 Rs but for
training in self-care skills like motor integration, perceptual and motor skills,
language, communication and conceptual skills. It should be clearly understood that
for the mentally handicapped, academic achievements are relationally unimportant
in comparison to social adaptation and vocational training. Page
| 34
Vocational schools for the mentally retarded adults are not so many for their
benefit, jobs in sheltered workshops, forms and industries should be provided, as
they are not capable of receiving open employment. The idea is that after receiving
training they can work on sub- contract basis.

Q: - GIFTED CHILDREN.
A:-Gifted children are the back bone of the nation. Potential leaders of different
walks of life belong to this group. The future of the nation depends upon the type of
education provided to this group. If proper educational agreements are made for
them, they will in future prove to be boons to the society. So it is the sacred duty of
educational institutions to ensure their harmonious development.
In the words at witty, “gifted children are those children whose performance in a
worthwhile human Endeavour is consistently remarkable and those who are
academically superior.
It must be noted that gifted children are superior not only in intelligence but also in
physical, emotional, social, and academic and other intellectual characteristics of
children their age.
Some thinkers like Lucita confines it to intellectual pursuits, "the gifted are
those children whose intellectual powers are at such a high ideational level in both
productive and evaluative thinking that it can be reasonably assumed, they could be

CHARACTERISTICS OF GIFTED CHILDREN

for those problem solvers, innovators and evaluators of the culture, if adequate
educational experience are provided to them".

Page
| 35
A: - Their characteristics can be divided into two parts i.e., positive and negative.
1. Positive characteristics
Physical characteristics: Terman and his associates found in an intensive longitude
study that gifted children were physically well developed. They were not undersized
but maintained good health. They had sharp sense organs, they learnt sitting,
standing, walking, crawling, cutting the teeth and taking at an age than the normal
children.
Intellectual characteristics: Terman and his associate found that they had got
superior intelligence. When their superiority was not recognized they assume
boastful attitude. They have better ability to organize, analyse, memorise, imagine,
reason, judge, and to reproduce things accurately than the normal children of their
age.
Social characteristics: As gifted children had better ability to organise, analyse,
memorise, imagine, reason, think, judge and to adjust; they become active
participants in the process of growing emotionally stable. They had some negative
emotional characteristics too.
Emotional characteristics: These children proved to be more popular in the group
because they were humorous, cheerful, liberal, generous, kind, honest etc. They
have friends who were older than them but they played with those of equal level.
They were often interested in activities at home, school and societies and loved to
be assigned tasks, which they carry out with a sense of responsibilities.
School Characteristics: They were generally high achievers in schools; they learnt Page
counting, reading and language very easily. They were able to write their names | 36
before they are admitted to school.
Character and Personality Characteristics: According to Terman, in character and
personality majority of gifted children showed superiority and they were well
adjusts.
II. Negative Characteristics
They were restless, inattentive and disturbing. They were indifferent to class work
when not interest. They were outspokenly critical before themselves and others.
They showed egoistic and jealous behavior. They were careless in handwriting and
poor in spelling.

IDENTIFICATION OF GIFTED CHILDREN

A:-The Following techniques can be devised to identify gifted children:

1) Identify characteristics to locate the gifted children.
2) Opinions and reports of parents, friends, and teachers: we observe them in
various Settings and take into consideration the opinions and reports of parents,
friends and teaches.
3) Achievement tests: standardized achievement Tests ale valuable instruments for
identifying the gifted child with superior academic ability.
4) Attitude tests: we also depend upon aptitude tests in identifying the gifted; the
gifted excel in art, drama, music and other non-academic areas.
5) Intelligent tests: Gifted children can also be identified by intelligence or mental Page
| 37
tests. Gifted children score high in intelligence or mental tests.

Q: - EDUCATION PROGRAMMES FOR GIFTED CHILDREN.

1. Identifying the gifted:-Gifted child is a valuable property of the state. It is

necessary to Identify or pick out such children with the help of opinions of the
parents, friends and teachers, intelligence tests, aptitude tests and achievement
tests.
2) Segregation of classes:-there should be separate classes for the gifted children so
that education may be given according to their mental level and they may be saved
from the idea that the work is not according to their interests, aptitudes and
abilities.
3) Rapid promotion: - Gifted children should be given rapid promotions.
4) Individual Attention: - individual attention should be paid to them so that they
may feel psychological security.
5) Diversification of Courses: - Diversified courses should be there so that they take
subjects according to their interests, needs, abilities and aptitudes.
6) Ample home task: - of Sufficient difficultly should be given to them so that their
idle time may be fully utilized in educational and constructive activity.
7) To help the weak students:- the gifted children should be asked to help the weak
students in the Subjects in which they are very brilliant . In this way, they will get
social recognition. They will develop socially. Page
| 38
8) Library facilities: - Gifted children should be given special library facilities. They
should be encouraged to make intelligent use of library. It will help them to know
new things and acquire knowledge.
9) Hostel facilities: - If the home atmosphere of the gifted children is not good,
then, they must be given free hostel facilities.

UNIT-1II INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Inclusive Education ―Children, who learn together, learn to live together‖.

Q: - MEANING OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION.

A:- Inclusive education is the process of bringing exceptional children of whatever
conditions into the general classroom for their education having access to the same
curriculum, and being accepted by all regardless of gender, ethnicity or special
needs. It involves being physically in the same place as other students and social
acceptance and belonging’.
Inclusive education means that all students in a school, regardless of their
strengths or weaknesses in any area, become part of the school community. They
are included in the feeling of belonging among other students, teachers, and
support staff. The federal Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and its
1997 amendments make it clear that schools have a duty to educate children with
disabilities in general education classrooms.
 It emphasis on equality of access and opportunity for all students to learn and to Page
| 39
make progress.
 It offers high quality education to all, to promote, to foster and fulfill the
potential of every student and to prepare students for adult life after school.
 Respect for difference and diversity is at the heart of inclusive education.
Thus, inclusive education is the practice of providing a child with disabilities with
his or her education within the general education classroom with the supports and
accommodations needed for that student. Inclusive Education means that all
students in a school regardless of their strengths and weakness in any area become
part of the mainstream education.
NEED FOR INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
A:-
Promotion of Human Rights
 All children have the right to learn together.
 Children should not be devalued or discriminated against by being excluded or
sent away because of their disability or learning difficulty.
 There are no legitimate reasons to separate children for their education. Children
belong together - with advantages and benefits for everyone. They do not need
to be protected from each other.
Good Education
 Research shows children do better, academically and socially in integrated
settings.
 There is no teaching or care in a special school, which cannot take place in an Page
| 40
ordinary school.
 Given commitment and support, inclusive education is a more efficient use of
educational resources.
Good Social Sense
 Segregation teaches children to be fearful, ignorant and breeds prejudice.
 All children need an education that will help them develop relationships and
prepare them for life in the mainstream.
 Only inclusion has the potential to reduce fear and build friendship, respect and
understanding
Thus, it can be concluded that Inclusive Education is the gateway to build
relationships where difference is welcomed and respected. A society which accepts
the right to study in a mainstream school as a human right moves in the direction of
delivering good education with good social sense.

Q: - HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION.

A:-The first special school for people with disabilities in India was a school for the
blind, which was opened in 1869 by Jane Leupot, with support of the Church
Missionary Society. Fourteen years later, in 1883, a school for the deaf was opened
in Bombay. 1887 marked the year Christian missionaries opened a school for the
blind in Amritsar. During the 1800s, all of the special schools for people with
disabilities accommodated people with physical disabilities; it was not until 1918
that the first school for people with intellectual disabilities was established. All of Page
these schools exemplify the type of special education services offered during the | 41
1800s and 1900s, specialized and segregated. By 1900, special schools were
springing up throughout the country. Until the 1970s, these schools were the
primary method of service delivery for children with disabilities. Most were for
children who were blind or visually impaired, and the majority was funded by non-
governmental organizations or private funders.
The first half of the 20th century in India was spent by the Indian people
fighting for independence. The political figurehead and leader of the Satyagraha
movement, Mohandas Gandhi attempted to reverse British influence over Indian
education by introducing what he named “basic education”. Gandhi’s idea of
education catered to marginalized populations because it focused on handicrafts,
which favored the lower castes and people with disabilities, many of whom were
used to working with their hands and hadn’t previously done much academic work.
Gandhi introduced this plan in 1937. Although his plan influenced governmental
policy for over 30 years, it ultimately failed. 1909 marks the first piece of attempted
legislation regarding inclusion and education in India. Gopal Krishna Gokhale,
“Professor of English literature, mathematics, and political economy, served, for
example, on the Poona Municipal Council, the Bombay Legislative Council, and
finally, the Imperial Legislative Council, “ introduced a bill under the Indian council
act of 1909 to make primary education compulsory.” This bill, if it passed, would
have provided funding for compulsory education for all. However, it was voted
down. The policies and actions by the government of India regarding inclusive Page
special education in the 1940s contradicted each other entirely. The Sargent Report | 42
by the Central Advisory Board of Education in 1944 suggested children with
disabilities should be entirely mainstreamed.
India gained independence from Britain in the 1947, and inclusive education is
written into India’s constitution as a fundamental right for all citizens. It is important
to differentiate between constitutional rights and state policies and their legal
implications. Rights are listed in the constitution; they are absolute and completely
enforceable.

Q: - PRINCIPLES OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION.

A:-The well-researched and accessible pedagogy, Seven Principles for inclusive
Education, is the underpinning for all of Tanenbaums curricula and teacher training
programs (training in the Seven Principles is a core piece of all our teacher training
programs). The Seven Principles can be applied to any classroom or lesson plan to
increase equality and decrease exclusion.
i) Teaching all students:-Educators should take several different approaches to
teaching the same material so that information becomes more interesting and
tangible to a greater number of students.
ii) Exploring Multiple Identities:-Students who are pround of themselves and
excited by the world around them will be more compassionate and understanding
people; the same is true for educators. Page
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iii) Preventing Prejudice: - Educators should take a proactive approach to
debunking preconceived stereotypes and preventing them from escalating into
prejudices and negative biases.
vi) Promoting Social Justice: - Students are good judges of what is fair, especially
when they are affirmatively challenged to consider issues of social justice. Educators
should talk to them about issues of social justice and injustice n terms of fair verses
unfair, respectful verses disrespectful.
v) Choosing Appropriate Materials: - Inclusive classrooms use books and materials
that reflect accurate images of diverse peoples and challenge stereotypes.
vii) Teaching and Learning about Cultures and Religions:-Educators should create
curiosity and expand students’ horizons by teaching about others in a positive
manner. Students should have the opportunity to learn from their peers as well as
other cultures.
viii) Adapting and Integrating Lessons Appropriately:-Educators should be flexible
when using and adapting lessons in our curricula, as well as in prescribed curricula
in general. Many of the most teachable moments are unplanned and unscripted.

Q: - NECESSARY RESOURCES OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION.

A:-Inclusion is the need of the hour. India, with its vast population of exceptional
/disabled children scattered throughout its land cannot achieve its target- “a
compulsory education for all children up to 14 years of age” without getting stacked Page
to the policy of inclusion. Inclusion has been severely criticized. If planned and | 44
executed properly, it can prove a most potential instrument for serving the interests
of all types of students, whether exceptional or non-exceptional providing least
restricted environment and maximum cost effective education within their reach
and at their door step. The following suggestions in this regard may prove fruitful.
i) Inclusive in the form of full inclusion model should be accepted as a broad based
policy for the education of all the children without discrimination of any kind, both
in the government schools and aided non-governmental schools.
ii) Special schools which take care of a few well-known types of disabled children
may be continued for the time being. However, the government, the NGOs and
charitable minds working in such ventures, should focus on providing incentives to
the schools, who needs support for making inclusion as a success.
iii) Top priority should be given for the pre-service and in service education of the
classroom and subject teachers, and other school personnel associated with the
students for equipping them with the necessary knowledge, skills, attitude for
working in an inclusion set-up.
xi) Essential support services like services of the special education teachers, experts,
resource room facilities, aids and equipment, the environmental modifications as
per needs of the disabled children, guidance and counseling facilities, should be well
available to the teachers and students working in inclusive set-up .A district or block
wise pool of the needed resources may be maintained for providing such assistance
to the schools. Page
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v) Since, there lies too much diversity and the inclusive class set-up presents a
heterogeneous grouping, the emphasis should now be on designing suitable
individualized curriculum and instruction instead of some common instructional
goals as often targeted in a normal non-inclusive set-up.
In this way, if we try to plan and implement the policy of inclusion with utmost
sincerity and determination, then it can prove a quite fruitful and viable policy for
achieving the national targets of “education for all” and ‘equal educational
opportunities” besides serving the interests of all types of children within the
limited means and resources of the country.

Q: - INTEGRATION IN EDUCATION.
A:-Integration is a concept emerged as a philosophy in antitheses of segregation. It
called halt to the system of providing education to the children in segregating
settings of special schools and advocated to make provision for their education in
the regular schools. In this way, historically, when disabled children were primarily
educated in separate special schools, integration was the term carried for describing
their successful placement into regular schools.
In this way, instead of subjecting the disabled students to a sort of segregation
by putting them in separate special schools for their education, their integration
(association) with the non-disabled population of their peers was targeted to
achieve through this new philosophy of integration. It can thus be safely called a
proper step in putting the disabled/exceptional children into the mainstream, i.e the Page
place and opportunities of getting education and training with the population of the | 46
non-disabled peers in the regular schools.
At the level of education the integration of a disabled child into a regular
classroom situation means a concurrent education with a class of non-disabled
children. In such a set up there are greater opportunities for the handicapped child
to mix with his non-disabled counterparts in games, sports and other activities. The
aim of integration education is to assimilate a disabled child into a group of the non-
disabled and providing opportunities to make him/her as independent as possible.

Q: - MAINSTREAMING IN EDUCATION.
A: - Mainstreaming, in the context of education, is the practice of educating
students with special needs in regular classes during specific time periods based on
their skills. This means regular education classes are combined with special
education classes. Schools that practice mainstreaming believe that students with
special needs who cannot function in a regular classroom to a certain extent belong
to the special education environment.
Access to a special education classroom, often called a ‘self-contained
classroom or resource room’, is valuable to the student with a disability. Students
have the ability to work one-on-one with special education teachers, addressing any
need for remediation during the school day. Many researchers, educators and
parents have advocated the importance of these classrooms amongst political
environments that favour their elimination. Page
| 47
Proponents of both philosophy of educational inclusion assert that educating
children with disabilities alongside their non-disabled peers fosters understanding
and tolerance, better preparing students of all abilities to function in the world
beyond school. Children with special needs may face social stigma as a result of
being mainstreamed, but also may help them socially develop.
It isADVANTAGES
believed thatOFeducating children with disabilities alongside their non-
MAINSTREMING
disabled peers, facilities access to the general curriculum for children with
disabilities. Studies show that students with disabilities who are mainstreamed have
higher academic achievement, higher self-esteem and better social skills.

DISADVANTAGES OF MAINSTREMING

Although mainstreaming in education has been shown to provide benefits, there

are also disadvantages to the system.
i) Tradeoff with non-disabled student’s academic education.
ii) Harm to academic education of students with disabilities.
iii) Social issues.

UNIT-1V NATIONAL INITIATIVES

Q: - INTEGRATED EDUCATION FOR DISABLED CHILDREN (IEDC-1974).

A:-This is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme and was launched in 1974 by the then
Department of Social Welfare. The Scheme has however been transferred to the Page
Department of Education since 1982. Under the scheme, handicapped children are | 48
sought to be integrated in the normal school system. Hindered per cent assistance is
provided to the States/UTs for education of the children suffering from certain mild
handicaps in common schools with the help of necessary aids, incentives and
specially trained teachers.
The following types of disabled children are covered under this scheme:-
i) Children with loco motor handicaps (O.H).
ii) Mildly and moderately hearing impaired.
iii) Partially sighted children.
iv) Mentally handicapped-educable group (IQ 50-70).
v) Children with multiple handicaps (blind and orthopedic, hearing impaired and
orthopedic, educable mentally retarded and orthopedic, visual impaired and mild
hearing handicap).
vi) Children with learning disabilities.
The handicapped children are provided the following allowances and facilities under
scheme.
i) Books and stationery allowance of Rs. 400 per annum.
ii) Uniform allowance of Rs. 50 per annum.
iii) Transport allowance of Rs. 50 per month (if a disabled child admitted under the
scheme resides in a hostel of the school within the school premises, no
transportation chargers would be admissible). Page
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iv) Reader allowance of Rs. 50 per month in case of blind children after class V.
V) Escort allowance for severely handicapped children with lower extremity
disabilities @ Rs. 75 per month.
vi) Actual cost of equipment subject to a maximum of Rs. 2,000 per student for a
period of five years.

Q: - REHABILITATION COUNCIL OF INDIA (1992).

A: - The Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) is the apex government body, set up
under an Act of Parliament, to regulate training programmes and courses targeted
at disabled, disadvantaged, and special education requirement communities. It is
the only statutory council in India that is required to maintain the Central
Rehabilitation Register which mainly documents details of all qualified professionals
who operate and deliver training and educational programmes for the targeted
communities. In the year 2000, the Rehabilitation Council of India (Amendment)
Act, 2000, was introduced and notified consequently by the government of India.
The amendment brought definitions and discussions provided within the earlier
Rehabilitation Council of India Act, 1992, under the ambit of a larger act, namely,
Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full
Participation) Act, 1995.
REHABILITATION COUNCIL ACT OF INDIA ACT 1992
ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS
CHAPTER I - PRELIMINARY
SECTION Page
| 50
i) Short title and commencement.
ii) Definition.
iii) Rehabilitation Professional.
CHAPTER II - REHABILITATION COUNCIL OF INDIA
i) Constitution and incorporation of Rehabilitation Council of India.
ii) Term of office of Chairperson and Members.
iii) Disqualification.
vi) Vacation of office by members.
v) Executive Committee and other Committees.
vi) Member Secretary and Employees of Council.
vii) Vacancies in the Council not to invalidate date acts, etc.
viii) Dissolution of Rehabilitation Council and transfer of right.
CHAPTER III - FUNCTIONS OF THE COUNCIL
i)Recognition of qualifications granted by University etc. in Indian for Rehabilitation
Professionals.
ii) Recognition of qualification by Institutions outside India.
iii) Rights of persons possessing qualifications included in the schedule to be
enrolled.
iv) Power to require information as to courses of study and examination.
v) Inspectors at examinations.
vi) Visitors examination.
vii) Withdrawal of recognition. Page
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viii) Minimum standards of education.
xi) Registration in Register.
xii) Privileges of persons who are registered on Register.
x) Professional conduct and removal of names from Register.
xi) Appeal against order of removal from Register.
THE SCHEDULETHE REHABILITATION COUNCIL OF INDIA ACT 1992
No. 34 of 1992(1st September, 1992)
An Act to provide for the constitution of Rehabilitation Council of India for
regulating the training of rehabilitation professionals and the maintenance of a
Central Rehabilitation Register and for Matters connected therewith or incidental
thereto.
Q: - OBJECTIVES OF REHABILITION COUNCIL OF INDIA (1992).

A:-
1) To regulate the training policies and programmes in the field of rehabilitation of
persons with disabilities.
2) To bring about standardization of training courses for professionals dealing with
persons with disabilities.
3) To prescribe minimum standards of education and training of various categories
of professionals/personnel dealing with people with disabilities.
4) To regulate these standards in all training institutions uniformly throughout the Page
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country.
5) To recognize institutions/ organizations / universities running masters
degree/bachelors degree/ P.G.Diploma/Diploma/ Certificate courses in the field of
rehabilitation of persons with disabilities.
6)To recognize degree/diploma/certificate awarded by foreign
universities/institutions on reciprocal basis.
7) To promote research in Rehabilitation and Special Education.
8) To collect information on a regular basis on education and training in the field of
rehabilitation of people with disabilities from institutions in India and abroad.
9)To maintain central rehabilitation register for registration of
professionals/personnel.
10) To Recognize Vocational rehabilitation Centers as manpower development
centers.

Q: - SARVA SHIKSHA ABHIYAN (SSA 2000).

A: - The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is the newest effort of the Government of India
to universalize elementary education in a mission mode. Literally meaning
Education for All Campaign, the SSA aims to provide useful quality education to all
children in the age group 6- 14 years by the year 2010. The SSA is expected to cover
the entire country with a focus on educational needs of girls, SC and St and other
children in difficult circumstances. The SSA will thus address the needs of 19.4 crore
children in 12.3 lakh habitations. Page
| 53
The SSA does not envisage any separate structures but would only try to bring
convergence of all efforts. An attempt will be made to have functional
decentralization right up to the school level and to ensure community participation
through the Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRIs) and the Tribal Councils in Scheduled
areas, including the Gram Sabha (the Village Council). States would be encouraged
to enlarge the accountability framework by involving the NGOs, teachers, activists
and women's organizations and groups, among others. Under the SSA, District
Elementary Educational Plans will be prepared based on community based
habitation plans to ensure, community ownership, Merent accountability and
transparency. Education of girls especially those belonging to the scheduled castes
and the scheduled tribes, will be one of the principal concerns of the SSA. There will
be greater focus on the educational participation of children from the SC/ST groups,
religious and linguistic minorities, other disadvantaged groups and children with
special needs.

Q: - FEATURES OF SSA.
A:-
i)Programme with a clear time frame for universal elementary education.
ii) Aresponse to the demand for quality basic education all over the country.
iii) An opportunity for promoting social justice through basic education.
iv) A expression of political will for universal elementary education across the
country. Page
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v) A partnership between the central, state and the local government.
vi) An opportunity for states to develop their own vision of elementary education.
Aims /Objectives of Sarva Shiksha abhiyan: - The Sarva Shiksha abhiyan is to
provide useful & relevant elementary education for all children in the 6-14 age
group by 2010.There is another goal to bridge social, religion & the gender gap with
the active participation of the community in the management school.
 SSA realizes the importance of early childhood care & education & looks at the 0-
14 age as a continuum.
 All children in school, Education guarantee centre, Alterative School, Back to
school camp by 2003.
 All children complete five years of primary schooling by 2007.
 All children complete eight years of elementary school by 2010.
 Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on
education for life.
 Bridge all gender & social category gaps at primary stuge by 2007 & at
elementary level by 2010.
 Universal retention by 2010.
Main Characteristics of SSA:-
�A Programme with a clear time frame for universal elementary Education.
�Thrust on quality & making education relevant.
�A main streaming Gender approach
� Focus on the educational participation of children from the SC/ST, religious & Page
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linguistic minorities, etc.
�An opportunity for promoting social justice through basic education.
�A partnership between the Central, State & Local Govt.
� An effort at effectively involving a Panchayti Raj Institution, School Management
committees, Village & Urban Slum level committees, Parents-Teachers associations,
Mother structures in the management of Elementary Schools.
�An opportunity for states to develop their own vision of Elementary Education.
� Community ownership of school based interventions through effective
decentralization.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan as a Framework and As a Programme: -
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) has two aspects:-
� It provides a wide convergent framework for implementation of Elementary
Education schemes.
�(II) It is also-Teacher associations, Tribal Autonomous councils & other grass-root
level a programme with budget provision for strengthening vital elementary vital
areas to achieve universalisation of Elementary Education. While all investments in
the Elementary Education sector from the State and the Central Plans will reflect as
part of the SSA framework, they will all merge into the SSA programme within the
next few years. As a programme, it reflect the additional resource provision for UEE

Q: - NATIONAL CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK (NFC-2005).

A:-National Curriculum Framework (NFC-2005) seeks to provide a framework within Page
which teachers and schools can choose and plan experiences that they think | 56
children should have. In order to realize educational objectives, the curriculum
should be conceptualized as a structure that articulates required experiences.
Chapter-1
i) Strengthening a national system of education in a pluralistic society.
ii) Reducing the curriculum load based on insights provided in “Learning without
Burden”.
iii) Systemic changes in tune with curricular reforms.
iv) Curricular practices based on the values enshrined in the constitution, such as
social, justice, equality, and secularism.
v) Ensuring quality education for all children.
Chapter-2
i) Reorientation of our perception of learners and learning.
ii) Creating an inclusive environmental classroom for all students.
iii) Learner engagement for construction of knowledge and fostering of creativity.
iv) Active learning through the experimental mode.
v) Local knowledge and childrens experiences are essential components of text
books and pedagogic practices.
Chapter -3
i) Language skill-speech and listening, reading and writing-cut across school subjects
and disciplines. Their foundational role in childrens construction of knowledge right
from elementary classes through senior secondary classes needs to be recognized. Page
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ii) A renewed effort should be made to implement the three-language formula,
emphasizing the recognition of childrens home languages or mother tongues as the
best medium of instruction.
iii) English needs to find its place along with other Indian languages.
iv) Awareness of environmental concerns must permeate the entire school
curriculum.
Chapter -4
i) Availability of minimum infrastructure and material facilities, and support for
planning a flexible daily schedule, are critical for improved teacher performance.
ii) A school culture that nurtures children’s identities as “learners” enhances the
potential and interests of each child.
iii) Participation of community members in sharing knowledge and experience in a
subject area helps in forging a partnership between school and community.
iv) Decentralized planning of school calendar and daily schedule and autonomy for
teacher professionalism practices are basic to creating a learning environment.
Chapter-5
i) Quality concern, a key feature of systemic reform, implies the system’s capacity to
reform itself by enhancing its ability to remedy its own weaknesses and to develop
new capabilities.
ii) A broad framework for planning up words, beginning with schools for identifying
focus areas and subsequent consolidation at the cluster and block levels, could form
a decentralized planning strategy at the district level. Page
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iii) Meaningful academic planning has to be done in a participatory manner by
headmasters and teachers.
iv) Monitoring quality must be seen as a process of sustaining interaction with
individual schools in terms of teaching-learning processes.
v) Certrality of language proficiency in teacher education and an integrated model
of teacher education for strengthening professionalization of teachers assume
significance.
vi) In-service education needs to become a catalyst for change in school practices.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q:-What is Exceptionality?

A:-Exceptionality refers to the quality or characteristic of an individual for being

exceptional, unique or different from others. The models or approaches like
statistical model, medical or biological model and behavioural or social model may
be used for understanding the concept of exceptionality.
Q:-Definition of Exceptionality?

A: - Exceptionality is defined as to have exceptional character or quality. It is further

defined as having much more than average intelligence, ability, or skill. The term

Q:-Nature of Exceptionality?
refers to deviating widely from a norm of physical or mental ability, used especially
of children below normal in intelligence.

Page
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A:-Exceptionality refers to uniqueness. The uniqueness of the exceptional child may
be noticed in one or more of the following dimensions-vision, hearing, movement,
perceptual-motor, communication, social-emotional and intelligence. Thus, the
blind, deaf, orthopedically handicapped, learning disabled, speech handicapped,
emotionally disturbed, socially disadvantaged, mentally retarded, slow learner and
gifted are exceptional.
Q:-Significance of Exceptionality?

A:-Exceptional children have unique needs. For instance the blind needs education
through Braille, orientation about the immediate environment and mobility
training. The deaf child needs training in speech reading, lip reading, etc. it is special
education which can meet the unique needs of exceptional children.
Q:-Who are exceptional children?

A:-Exceptional children are those children who deviate from the normal children to
such an extent that they cannot benefit from the traditional education system or
the regular education process. They require special education to maximize their
potentialities. Special education is a profession with its own history, cultural
practices, tools and research base, focused on the learning needs of exceptional
children and adults. But at the level, where exceptional children most meaningfully

Q:-Levels of Intervention?
and frequently contact it, special education is an individually planned, specialized,
intensive, goal directed instruction.

Page
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A:-Special Education is an intervention designed to eliminate or, at least reduce, the
obstacles that might keep a child from full and active participation in school and
society. There are three levels of intervention efforts such as:-
i) Prentive Efforts.
ii) Remedial Programmes.
iii) Compensatory Efforts.
Q:-Special Education.

A: - Special education is organized outside the ordinary school. It requires efforts

over and above the regular school programme. Special education isolates the
disabled from the normal children. Special education can be provided wholly as well
partially. When it is provided wholly it is provided in social in special schools and
when it is provided appreciably, it is integrated with general education; only a few
classes are arranged separately. The special education for the handicapped was
more favored in old concepts but the new approach is to provide them integrated
education as far as possible.
Q:-Why is Special Education Important?

A: - Special education is important in order to cater for children with special needs.
It is also said that the number of children with special needs is on the rise and this is
why special education programs are being integrated into many schools.
Q:-Definition of Mental Retardation.
A: - "Mental retardation" means significantly sub average general intellectual
functioning, existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested Page
during the developmental period that adversely affects a child’s educational | 61
performance.

Q:-What is Mental Retardation.

A: - Mental retardation or intellectual disability, (MR/ID), exists in children whose
brains do not develop properly or function within the normal range. There are four
levels of retardation: mild, moderate, severe, and profound. Sometimes, MR/ID may
be classified as other or unspecified. Mental retardation involves both a low IQ and
problems adjusting to everyday life.
Q:-Causes of Mental Retardation.

A:-Mental retardation can be caused by any condition which impairs development

of the brain before birth, during birth or in the childhood years. Several hundred
causes have been discovered, but in about one-third of the people affected, the
cause remains unknown. The three major known causes of mental retardation are
Down syndrome, fetal alcohol syndrome and fragile X.
The causes can be categorized as follows:
 Problems during pregnancy
 Problems at · Problems after birth.
 Poverty and cultural deprivation,
Q:-Who is a Handicapped Child?
A: - A individual who is affected with a physical impairment that, in any way, limits
or inhibits his participation in normal activities may be referred to as physically
handicapped. Page
| 62
Q:-What is Hearing Impairment.

A: - The term "Hearing Impaired" is a technically accurate description of someone

who is hard of hearing or who has no hearing ... however, many Deaf, hard of
hearing and late deafened people prefer not to be called impaired. They don't want
to be primarily defined by their lack of (or poor) hearing.
Q:-What is Visual Impairment.

A: - Visual impairment can happen to children or adults. In the United States,

millions of persons have partial or complete loss of vision. It is important to have
regular eye examinations to detect early stages of vision loss. The October 15, 2003,
issue of JAMA includes an article about the causes of visual impairment.
Q:-Problems of Visually Impaired Children.

A:-The visually handicapped children have many problems like behavior problems,
problems of learning, problems of their placement in society or problems of social
adjustment.
Q:-Who are Gifted Children?

A:-The gifted children are the wealth of any civilization or society. The gifted child is
both an asset and a responsibility. He is an asset of incalculable value to society. His
potentialities for good are difficult to overestimate. The gifted child is the one who
exhibits superiority in general intelligence or the one who is in possession of special

Q:-Characteristics of Gifted Children.

abilities of a high order in the fields which are not necessary associated with a high
intelligence quotient.

Page
| 63
A:-Following are the characteristics of gifted or talented children:
1. The gifted child is essentially an exceptional child.
2. In comparasion to children of his own group, he is superior in some ability or
group of abilities.
3. In most cases, the gifted child invariably exhibits superior performance only in the
area or areas of his giftedness.
4. A gifted child need not necessarily possess a very high intelligence quotient (I.Q).
Q:-What is Inclusive Education?

A:- Inclusive education is the process of bringing exceptional children of whatever

conditions into the general classroom for their education having access to the same
curriculum, and being accepted by all regardless of gender, ethnicity or special
needs. It involves being physically in the same place as other students and social
acceptance and belonging’.
Q:-Need for Inclusive Education.

A:- Inclusive Education is the gateway to build relationships where difference is

welcomed and respected. A society which accepts the right to study in a
mainstream school as a human right moves in the direction of delivering good
education with good social sense.
Q:-Principles of Inclusive Education.
A:-1) Teaching all students: - Educators should take several different approaches to
teaching the same material so that information becomes more interesting and
tangible to a greater number of students. Page
| 64
2) Exploring Multiple Identities: - Students who are proud of themselves and
excited by the world around them will be more compassionate and understanding
people; the same is true for education.
3) Preventing Prejudice: - Educators should take a proactive approach to debunking
preconceived stereotypes and preventing them from escalating into prejudices and
negative biases.
Q:-What is Integration in Education?

A:-Integration is a concept emerged as a philosophy in antithesis of segregation. It

called halt to the system of providing education to the children in segregating
settings of special schools and advocated to make provision for their education in
the regular schools. In this way, historically, when disabled children were primarily
educated in separate special schools, integration was the term carried for describing
their successful placement into regular schools.
Q:-What is Mainstreaming?

A:-Mainstreaming, in the context of education, is the practice of educating students

with special needs in regular classes during specific time periods based on their
skills. This means regular education classes are combined with special education
classes. Schools that practice mainstreaming believe that students with special
needs who cannot function in a regular classroom to a certain extent belong to the
special education environment.

Page
Q:-Advantages of Mainstreaming.
| 65
A:-It is believed that educating children with disabilities alongside their non-disabled
peers, facilities access to the general curriculum for children with disabilities.
Studies show that students with disabilities who are mainstreamed have higher
academic achievement, higher self-esteem and better social skills.
Q:-What is IEDC?

A: - Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) has been replaced with a revised scheme
of Inclusive Education for the Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS). The proposed
new scheme would enable all students with disabilities completing eight years of
elementary schooling an opportunity to complete four years of secondary schooling
(classes IX-XII), in an inclusive and enabling environment. The IEDSS will also support
the training programmes for general school teachers to meet the needs of children
with disabilities. The revised scheme will form part of RMSA as and when comes
into force. It is also proposed to make all schools disabled friendly.
Q:-What is RCI?

A: - The Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) is the apex government body, set up
under an Act of Parliament, to regulate training programmes and courses targeted
at disabled, disadvantaged, and special education requirement communities. It is
the only statutory council in India that is required to maintain the Central
Rehabilitation Register which mainly documents details of all qualified professionals
who operate and deliver training and educational programmes for the targeted
communities. In the year 2000, the Rehabilitation Council of India (Amendment)
Act, 2000, was introduced and notified consequently by the government of India. Page
The amendment brought definitions and discussions provided within the earlier | 66
Rehabilitation Council of India Act, 1992, under the ambit of a larger act, namely,
Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full
Participation) Act, 1995.
Q:-What is ‘Saeva Shiksha Abhiyan’ (SSA).

A: - ‘Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan’ (SSA) is a programme for universalisation of Elementary

Education covering the entire country. It was started in 2001. The programme aims
to provide useful & relevant free & compulsory elementary Education for all
children in the age group 6 to 14 yr under RTE Act.2009. It is an initiative to
universalize and improve quality of education The programme has time bound
objectives on one hand SSA is a programme with its own targets, norms & process,
on the other hand it is an umbrella programme covering other programmes like
DPEP, Lok Jumbish & the operational black board etc.
Q:-What is ‘Saeva Shiksha Abhiyan’ (SSA).

A: - National Curriculum Framework (NCF-2005) seeks to provide a framework

within which teachers and schools can choose and plan experiences that they think
children should have. In order to realize educational objectives, the curriculum
should be conceptualized as a structure that articulates required experiences.
Page
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 NEW B.ED SYLLABUS OF KASHMIR UNIVERSITY
Page
|1

1ST SEMESTER 100% SYL COVERAGE

COURSE TITLE: LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT

COURSE CODE: BED15102

FARASH PRINT POINT

990671 3963
 LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT
1ST SEMESTER

Page
UNITS DESCRIPTION |2

i) Nature, Meaning and Scope of Psychology

UNIT-I
ii) Nature & Meaning of Educational Psychology
PSYCHOLOGY & EDU-NAL PSYCHOLOGY
iii) Functions Educational Psychology

i) Physical, Social, Emotional & Cognitive development patterns.

ii) Stage - specific Characteristics of Infancy & Childhood
UNIT-II
iii) Characteristics & Problems of Adolescents.
UNDERSTING LEARNER
iv) Guidance & Counseling for adolescents.

i) Concept of learning & its nature

ii) Factors of influencing learning – Personal & Environmental
UNIT-III iii) Motivation – Nature, Types:
LEARNING AND MOTIVATION - Techniques of enhancing learner’s motivation
iv) S-R Theory of Learning (Thorndike)
v) Operant Conditioning theory of learning (Skinner)
vi) Constructivism- Vygotsky
Intelligence
UNIT-IV i) Nature & Meaning
INTELLIGENCE AND PERSONALITY ii) Measurement of Intelligence – Concept of I.Q, Verbal and Non-
verbal (One
test from each category to be discussed)
iii) Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner)
iv) Structure of intellect (Guilford)
Personality
i) Nature & Meaning
ii) Determinants of Personality – biological & socio-culture
determinants
iii) Trait-theory of Personality (Allport)
iv) Psycho analytic theory of Personality (Freud)
Educational Implications of the above mentioned theories.
“Kindly note that any mistake in the contents of this notice is due to my imperfection as a human being as only Allah Subhanahu Wa-Ta'ala is
perfect in all affairs”.
 UNIT-1 PSYCHOLOGY & EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY

Q: - MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGY.
Page
|3
The term "psychology" is derived from two Greek words – psyche (soul) and logos
(science or study). Thus, literally it means study or science of soul. But now it is no
more considered as science of soul. It has moved away from this focus and
established itself as a scientific discipline which deals with the various processes
and behaviour of organism.
DEFINITIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Some of the well know definitions of psychology are as under:

i) Definition by Woodworth: Psychology deals with the activities of the individual
in relation to his environment.
ii) Skinner’s definition: Psychology is the science of behaviour and experience.
iii) Munn’s definition: Psychology today concerns itself with the scientific
investigation of behaviour.
iv) Definition by Garrison and others : Psychology is concerned with observable
human behaviour.
NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY

If we analyse the definitions of Psychology given above, we shall come to the

following conclusions:
1. Psychology is regarded as a science.
2. It is a positive science.
3. It is a branch of natural science. It is a science of behaviour and not of matter. It
cannot be a pure science like mathematics and chemistry.
4. It studies memory, imagination, thinking, learning, intelligence and other sensory Page
|4
experiences.
SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY

The scope of psychology constantly extends to include a wide range of phenomena

of scientific interest. The interest of the investigators ranges from interest in
astrology, graphology to parapsychology. The psychological studies range from
investigations of individuals to studies of groups, organizations and nations.
Psychology studies all sorts of individuals, from mentally retarded to genius, from
mentally ill to people who are self-actualizing. The spectrum of phenomena of
interest to psychologists include everything from egotism to altruism, from truancy,
delinquency, criminality, psychopath to spiritualism, from peace to violence,
terrorism and war, from behavior of plants to that of animals and human beings,
and what not? It is not surprising that modern psychology has been some times
commented to be a psychotic octopus that stretches and catches everything that
comes across it by it’s in numerous ever lengthening limbs.

BRIEF HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology had its formal beginning when Wilhelm Won’t established his
psychological laboratory in Leipzig Germany in 1879. But in real sense, interest in
psychology as a discipline dates back to the work of Plato, Aristotle and other
philosophers.
Psychology – The Science of Soul Page
|5
The Greek Philosophers conceived psychology as a science of soul, as early as 400
B.C. In fact, the term psychology literally means the science of soul. Etymologically,
it is composed of two Greek words “Psyche” and Logos means soul and science
respectively. Goeckel named it as psychologia. Soul is a being which dwells on the
body and with the end of life it leaves the body. Soul is a metaphysical idea. It can
neither be perceived on imagined nor its nature and function can be studied by
scientific methods of observation, experiment etc. Therefore, definition of
psychology as the science of soul has been discarded by the modern psychologists.
Psychology – The Science of Mind
Some regard psychology as the science of mind. Historically the French
philosophers like Descartes (1596-1650) and the Britisher philosophers like Locke
considered psychology as the science of mind.
The definition of psychology as the science of mind is not acceptable at present.
Mind is an ambiguous a concept as the soul. It is not at all possible to carry on
scientific observation and experimentation on mind. This definition also does not
include the overt behaviour of man and animal which are also important subject
matter of psychology. Therefore, the definition of psychology as the science of
mind has been discarded.
Psychology – The Science of Consciousness
Psychology has also been defined as the science of consciousness. Historically such
a definition has been propounded by the Leipzing school of psychologists led by
Withelm Wundt (1832-1920). But the definition of psychology as the science of Page
consciousness is not acceptable. That is because mental life does not consist only of | 6
consciousness. There are unconscious and subconscious mental processes which
influence our behaviour in various ways without our knowledge.
Psychology – The Science of Experience
Titchner (1867 – 1927), the leader of the structuralists defines psychology as the
science of conscious experience which is dependent upon the experiencing person.
To give an example the physicit and the psychologist may be investigating about
sound. But whole the former investigates the phenomena as such, the latter is
interested as to how it is perceived by the observer.
Psychology – Study of Behaviour
Watson (1878-1958), an American brought about a revolution in psychology called
behaviourism. He argued that psychology is to be regarded as a science and as a
science it is to limit itself to the study and analysis of publicly observable events
such as the behaviour of the subject rather than subjective matters like his private
mental states. He defined psychology as “the science of behaviour.”

Q: - MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY.

Educational Psychology is comprised of two words “education” and “psychology”.

Psychology is a science of behaviour and experience, and education is the
modification of behaviour. Modern education aims at the harmonious
development of the personality of the child. It is the task of the schools and the
teachers to create such situations where the personality can be developed freely Page
and fully. This is the modern meaning of education. But this modern meaning of | 7
education is dependent on the knowledge of psychology. Thus educational
psychology is the psychology applied to educational problems.

DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

According to Trow’s, “ Educational Psychology is the study of the psychological

aspects of educational situations.
According to Skinners, “Educational psychology is that branch of science which
deals with teaching and learning. According to him, teaching and learning are the
most important problems, areas or fields of educational psychology.
In the words of Crow & Crow, “Educational psychology describes and explains the
learning experiences of an individual from birth through old age.
In the light of above definitions or views we can say that educational psychology
deals with the learner, the educand, the child or the individual in relation to
educational environment or situations.
NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
It is an applied science. It is the application of psychology principles to the field of
education.
1. It is a composite discipline i.e. Education and Psychology.
2. It is a positive science. It is a science of behavior of the learner and the learning
process in learning situation.
3. It is growing and developing science due to constant research. Page
|8
4. It employs scientific method and adopts scientific approach to study the
behavior of an individual in educational environment.
5. It is an educational science. It is a science of education, which studies the
behavior learner in educational situations.
6. It is not exact science, because human behavior cannot be controlled like
material substances. It is more variable and less reliable.

FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

The knowledge of educational psychology is very helpful in making the teaching

learning process interesting, inspirational and effective. The job of the teacher is to
bring out the hidden gem like potentialities and talents in pupils and to make all
possible efforts to ensure that the lender pupils do not waste their innocent similes
in unattractive and uncongenial environment. Thus the teacher needs to
understand the basic principles of educational psychology, so that an optimum
development of his pupils takes place. The functions and importance of educational
psychology in teaching learning process are tabulated as under:-
Human psychology or structure of body:- A child is a mind with body. Mind and
body act and react upon each other. Body is the part of the personality of the child.
Before educating the child, it is necessary to have the knowledge of his physical
structure. Educational psychology helps the teacher to know the structure of the
body of an individual.
Heredity and environment:- A child is a product of heredity and environment, for Page
the proper education of the child, it is very essential for the teachers and parents to | 9
have knowledge of educational psychology, which in turn helps them to know the
heredity and environment of the child.
Individual difference:- No two persons are exactly alike on the planet. Each child
has his separate entity. Children always differ in their levels of intelligence, attitude
like and dislikes and in other potentialities. Different minds are to be trained by the
teacher. There are gifted, backward, retarded, talented and handicapped children.
All of them should not be treated in the same manner. Knowledge of educational
psychology helps the teacher to cater to individual difference of children and must
respect his individuality.
Farming the curriculum:- Psychological principles are used in formulating
curriculum for different stages. Needs of the students, their motives and values,
their developmental characteristics, learning pattern, needs of society are to be
incorporated in the curriculum. It is the educational psychology, which helps the
teacher and curriculum makers to keep in the mind, age, level and stages of the
learner.
Improvement in teachings methods:- Educational psychology has brought a
revelation in modern educational methods. Teachings has become more scientific
and easier and goal directed. It is the contribution of educational psychology that
teachers make use of various types of audio-vedio aids in classroom teachings.
Educational psychology helps the teacher to introduce several methods for
effective teachings-learning process-activity centered method, discussion method, Page
| 10
ply-way method, project method etc.
Measurement and learning outcome:- Educational psychology helps the teacher to
assess the learning outcome of the students. The teacher can use psychological
tests and techniques for understanding interests, abilities, attitudes, achievements,
and other aspects of the personality of the pupils.
Improvement of discipline:- “Spare the rod spoil the child”, was slogan of
traditional teachers who tackled the problems of discipline by dint of corporal
punishment. Now teachers who have the knowledge of educational psychology
realize the use of corporal punishment as inhuman. It is the educational
psychology, which helps the teacher to tackle the problem of indiscipline and
become more cooperative and change the attitude from dictators to democrat.

UNIT-1I UNDERSTING LEARNER

STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION
The helpless baby of today who is adult of tomorrow, has to cross various stages in
the process of his development. This also involves the development of his physical,
intellectual, social and character side of the personality. There are certain periods
in the process of development, where certain characteristic features of behaviour
stand out more prominently than other periods of life; they are termed as a
“stage”. The behaviour of an infant is different from that of an adolescent. It is
therefore desirable that for proper understanding of individuals we may divide Page
| 11
their life into various stages.
MEANING OF GROWTH
Growth is defined as a creative indicative increase in body dimensions height and
weight. Thus any increase in size, height, length and weight, which can be
measured, is called growth.
MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT
Development is broader term than growth. It can be defined as an energetic and
expanding of capacities of the individual to provide greater facility in functioning of
human body.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT

Growth Development
1. Growth can be measured. Development cannot be measured.
2. Growth can be weighed. Development cannot be weighed.
3. Growth is visible. Development is invisible.
4. Growth has definite stage. Development is life long process.
5. Growth shows increase in legs, arms, Development is the concern of the
hair and other parts of the body. whole human organisation.

PRINCIPLES OR CHARACTERISTICS OF GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT

There are various principles regarding the developmental stages. Some of them
are:
1) Growth and development are products of interaction of heredity and Page
| 12
environment.
2) Growth and development are progressive and continuous.
3) They mainly depend upon the strength and nature of chromosomes.
4) It is an individual process and all individuals develop in their own way.
5) Growth and development does not take place in parts, but takes place as a
whole.
6) Growth and development follow definite pattern of direction.

FACTORS INFLUENCING GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT

Factors responsible for the growth and development of an individual can be

distinguished into external factors and internal factors.
1) External factors:
External factors can be studied under two headings:
a) Pre-natal environment:
It refers to that external environment to which the child is subjected before the
birth. The baby’s pre-natal environment is the womb of the mother. Factors
influencing growth and development associated with pre natal environment are:
1. Physical and mental health of the mother.
2. Diet taken by the mother.
3. Normal or abnormal delivery.
b) Post-natal environment:
It refers to that external environment to which the child is subjected after the birth. Page
Factors influencing growth and development associated with post natal | 13
environment are:
1. Food.
2. Fresh air and sunlight.
3. Physical exercises and activities etc.
2. Internal factors:
Internal factors responsible for the development of the child are:
 Hereditary and biological factors:
Hereditary plays an important role in the growth and development of the
individual. Som e of the hereditary factors are:
Physique, intelligence, sex difference, nervous system, endocrine glands.
 Emotionality:
Stabilization of the emotions of the individual is very much required for the
healthy development.
 Socialization:
Healthy social life results in the healthy development of the individual and vice
versa.

STAGES OF GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT

Growth and developmental stages of the child has been divided into different
stages: following are the major:
1) Infancy (birth-5years) Page
| 14
2) Childhood (5- 12 years)
3) Adolescence period (12- 19 years)

1.INFANCY PERIOD.

Infancy period:
Infancy period starts from birth and ends when the child reaches the age of five
years. It shows the following developments:
Physical development:
 Size and weight: it is the period of rapid growth in size and weight. The average
length of a new born child is 19 inches and average weight is 7 pounds. At 2
years of age his weight becomes about 25 pounds and length 33 inches. At 5
years, the child is five times of his weight than at birth.
 Changes in proportion: different parts of the body like head and trunk begin to
take proportionate size.
 Bone and muscles: bones and muscles of the child begin to develop rapidly.
 Teeth: the first tooth appears in a child at the age of 6 months. By the time of
one year old 4 teeth appears. Approximately 16 teeth develops at the end of
period.
 Nervous system: the brain grows rapidly. There is rapid improvement in the
functions and structure of sensory organs.
Intellectual development: Page
| 15
 Development of language: the child at the birth can only cry. By the first year he
may speak few words like ma, pa etc. at the age of two years, he learns to speak
very short sentences. At the five years he speaks long sentences.
 Interests: in infancy the child is interested in only those things which are in
connection with immediate needs such as hunger etc.
 Curious question: curiosity in the child develops and wants to know almost
about everything.
 Sensory development: the child experiences many types sensations like
hardness, pleasure, pain, sensation of sound and mind.
 Concepts, percepts and thoughts: development of concepts, percepts and
thoughts begins at this stage.
Social development:
 Self centred: the child is very self centred during the infancy stage.
 Dependence: the child is fully dependent on parents for psychological needs.
 Social play: at three years, child shows more desire to play with other children.
DEVELOPMENT TASKS OF INFANCY
1. Learning to sit, crawl, stand and walk.
2. Learning to take solid food.
3. Learning to talk/
4. Learning to control the elimination of body wastes.
5. Learning to sex differences and sexual modesty.
6. Achieving psychology stability. Page
| 16
7. Framing simple concepts of social and physical reality .
8. Learning to relate oneself emotionally to parents, siblings and other people.

Q: - EDU-NAL IMPLICATIONS OR SIGNIFICANCE OF INFANCY PERIOD.

Since infancy occupies very important place in the life of the child, education for
this stage of the child should be of specified and psychological nature.
1) Parents are first teachers of the child. It is they, who lay the foundation of
education of the child. Therefore, they should pay special attention to physical,
intellectual, emotional and social development of children and to take care of their
education.
2) A sound mind houses in a sound body. Therefore, physical education should
form an essential part of education of the infants. Children should be suitably fed
and given nourishing food. They should be protected from sudden weather
changes and various diseases as they are highly susceptible to diseases such as cold
etc.
3) Efforts should be made to use the mother tounge as the medium of instruction
for the education of the child at this stage because mother tounge is easily
understand by the child. Power of reasoning and thinking should be developed so
that be developed so that they may keep themselves away from bad deeds. The
instinct of curiosity should be developed.
4) Social qualities should be developed in the child through education. In order to Page
develop the social qualities, the children should be divided into various groups and | 17
made to play and work together.
5) Music should form an essential part of the scheme of education for this stage of
the child. Music is able to reform and improve the beastly tendencies of the child
and hence the music should be included in education.
6) Play is the life of the child. For the education of the child at this stage, the
guardians and the teachers should make arrangement for scientific and good toys
and proper environment. Systems of education through play-way methods occupy
very important place in the field of education of the children. The teachers, who
use these methods, should be of generous nature and ready to help children.

2. CHILDHOOD PERIOD.

Childhood period:
The childhood period starts at the age of 5 and ends at 12 years of age. Following
developments are observed during this period:
A. Physical development:
 Height and weight:
The child at the age of 12 is about 56 inches in height and 85 pounds in weight.
 Bodily proportions:
 Bodily proportions changes considerably and alter the overall appearance of the
child. Arms, legs and trunk increase in length and the period of thinness begins.
 Growth and coordination of muscles: Page
| 18
There is rapid and greater muscular growth during the period.
 Teeth:
The teeth starts falling and the permanent teeth starts growing.
 Nervous system:
During this period of growth of nervous system proceeds at a relatively slow
rate.
 Sense organs and motor organs:
During this period the sense organs and the motor organs of the child assume
complete development.
 Sex difference:
A girl is taller on an average by half an inch and weighs more on an average by 3
pounds than a boy.
B. Intellectual development:
 Language development:
Vocabulary of the child at the age of 12 is sufficiently rich. He can speak sentences
fully well.
 Curios questions:
The question put by the child in this period are more definite than he used to put
during his infancy.
  Development of power of thinking:
During this period power of observation, reasoning, remembering, recalling,
attention and abstract thinking develops. Page
| 19
 Development of interests:
During this period interest of the child expands. He likes books about travel,
biography, science, adventure, fairy tales crime, mystery etc.
C. Social development:
 Play in groups:
At 6 or 7, the child tends to play in small groups. He seeks playmates and spends
most of his time with them.
 Adjustment:
The child learns to adjust himself in a group. He learns cooperate with others.
 Leadership;
Sometimes the child may assume the leadership of the gang or group as well.
 Group loyalties:
Group loyalties grow and the child gets opportunities to obey and command:

DEVELOPMENT TASKS FOR CHILDHOODD

1. Learning physical skill is necessary for ordinary games.

2. Building wholesome attitude towards oneself as a growing organism.
3. Learning to get along with age mate.
4. Learning to an appropriate masculine or feminine sex role.
5. Developing fundamental skill in reading, writing and calculating.
6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday life.
7. Developing somewhat of conscience, morality and scale of value. Page
| 20
8. Achieving personal independence.
9. Developing attitudes towards, social group and institutions.

3.ADOLESCENCE PERIOD.

Adolescence
The term adolescence comes from the word ‘adolescere’ which means ‘to grow’ or
‘to grow to maturity’. It begins at the age of 12 years and ends at the age of 18
years. Following developments are observed during that period:
A. Physical development:
 Increase in height and weight:
Adolescent’s height increases rapidly. His weight also increases also increases in
bones and muscles. Development is found more in the girls than in the boys.
 Changes in bodily proportions:
Different parts of the body grow at different rates. Arms and legs grow longer.
Hands and feet grow bigger while as shoulders broaden.
 Change in voice:
There is a distinct change in the voice among the two sexes. The voice of the boy
deepens and becomes harsher. The girl’s voice acquires shrillness and becomes
sweet.
There is also development of primary secondary sex characters.
B. Mental development:
 Development of intelligence: Page
| 21
Intelligence reaches its climax during this period. Intellectual powers like thinking,
abstract reasoning, and concentration are almost developed up to the end of this
period.
 There is Increase in span of attention during this period.
 Memory also develops and it tends to function more logically.
 There is development of imagination. Adolescents take more interest in the
abstract centred activities like poetry, painting, music etc.
 Widening of interest:
The adolescent’s interests include recreational interests, social interests, personal
interests and religious interests.
C. Social development during adolescence:
 Social consciousness:
At this stage, the individual becomes social. They want to be praised by their
parents and elders.
 Group loyalty:
Adolescent boys and girls form their groups and discuss their problems freely. They
become loyal to their groups.
 Social service:
In adolescent stage, ideas of social service are formed. Social service in public
gatherings, fair and festivals become a passion for the adolescent.
ADULTHOOD Page
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Certain experiences tend to occur in adulthood, including:
1) Marriage
2) Parenthood
3) The empty nest
4) The midlife crisis
5) Menopause (for women)
6) Aging
Not all adults go through all these experiences, and the timing of particular
experiences can vary greatly from person to person. However, average ages for
major life events do exist.
Social clocks indicate the typical life events, behaviors, and issues for a particular
age. Each culture and historical period has a specific social clock. A middle-class
white woman living in contemporary U.S. culture may be “off time” for
motherhood if she had her first child at age fifteen. In another cultural context or
another historical period, however, motherhood at age fifteen may have been “on
time.”
A midlife crisis is a time of doubt and anxiety in middle adulthood. Research
suggests, however, that midlife crises don’t automatically happen when people
reach middle age.
The empty nest refers to the time in parents’ lives when their children have grown
up and left home. Parents who have other roles in addition to parenting usually
find this period less difficult. Page
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Menopause is the gradual, permanent cessation of menstruation and usually
begins between ages forty-five and fifty-five. Though many women suffer
uncomfortable physical symptoms during menopause, such as hot flashes,
emotional reactions to menopause are far from universal: many women have
strong emotional reactions, while just as many others may not. Though men don’t
experience menopause, they do experience a gradual decline in testosterone
production and sperm count as they age.
Aging
Researchers now know quite a bit about the process of growing old. Some abilities
and functions decline:
1) As people age, they usually lose neurons in the brain, but this loss rarely causes
problems such as dementia, which is a condition characterized by several
significant psychological deficits.
2) Vision and hearing tend to decline as people grow older.
3) Some aspects of memory decrease in old age. This results from a decline in the
speed of mental processing. Decrease in memory capacity is normal and is not
necessarily related to dementia.
Other abilities and functions stay the same or even improve as people age:
Crystallized intelligence, which is intelligence based on a life span of knowledge
and skills, remains constant or increases.
Physical exercise and mental stimulation can form new connections between Page
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neurons in the brains of older adults.
Most people’s overall sense of well-being increases as they get older.

OLD AGE

The image of old age is changing in certain ways. Now there are people who have
crossed seventy years of age or so and are quite active, energetic, and creative.
They are competent and are therefore, valued by society in many walks of life. In
particular, we have aged people in politics, literature, business, art and science. The
myth of old age as an incapacitating and therefore, frightening phase of life is
changing.
Of course, the experience of old age also depends on the socio-economic
conditions, availability of health care, attitude of people, expectations of society
and the available support system. Work is most important during early adult years,
then family becomes most important and beyond that health becomes the most
important issue in the person’s life. Clearly, successful ageing for much of our adult
life focuses on how effective we are at work, how loving our relationships are in
our family, how good our friendships are, how healthy we are, and how cognitively
fit we are.
In old age feeling of loss of energy, and dwindling of health and financial assets,
lead to insecurity and dependency. The elderly tend to look towards others to lean
on and to care for them. It is important to give the elderly a sense of security and Page
belonging, a feeling that people care for them (especially in the time of crisis), and | 25
to remember that we all have to grow old one day.
DEATH
Although death is more likely to occur in late adulthood, death can come at any
point in development. The deaths, especially of children and younger adults, are
often perceived to be more tragic than those of others. In children and younger
adults, death is more likely to occur because of accidents but in older adults it is
more likely to occur because of chronic disease. The death of a spouse is usually
seen as the most difficult loss. Those left behind after the death of their partner
suffer deep grief, cope with loneliness, depression, financial loss and are also at risk
of much health related problems.

Q: - PROBLEMS OF ADOLESCENCE.
Problems regarding competition: - The adolescent finds great computation in
every walk of life. He sometimes think that he cannot cope with a particular
problem or he cannot even pass the examination, because academic courses seem
challenging to him. In many cases the parents of the adolescent are over ambition.
They pressurize him to come up to their expectations. He is not in a position to pull
on. Therefore he develops confusion and withdraws from the situation.
Problem regarding occupational adjustment:- The greatest problem, which
bothers the mind of adolescent, is uncertainly for future vocation. There is another
black side picture when adolescents see number of educated youth unemployed. It Page
hunts the mind of adolescent; the mind of adolescent agitates against the social | 26
order and becomes rebellious. Moreover the courses of study taking by adolescent
are without future planning. After finishing the study, they find themselves
incapable of taking any in independent means of livelihood.
Problem regarding finance:- Our country is a poor country, poverty gives birth the
financial problem or problem of money. The problem of money is a great problem.
We can say it is a root cause of so many problems or evils. There are so many
activities of adolescents, which involve money. Adolescents are sensitive and feel
ashamed of begging money from their parents and adults. Parents are conservative
in providing money for extra activities to their adolescents. Thus when the need is
not fulfilled, the adolescent is doing such activities pick- pocketing, thefting and
other dangerous activities.
Problem of emotional disturbance:- In this period emotions reach its apex and are
also characterized by high degree of instability. The adolescent has no control over
emotions. His emotions go to extreme. Under the influence of emotion. He may
cross the boundaries of decency. Emotional disturbances bring certain deviation in
the develops depression, anxiety, suicidal thoughts or attempts delinquent
activities self abusive behavior, use of alcoholic drinks and drugs etc.
Problems concerning sex:- maturity of sex creates a great problem for the
adolescent. The adolescent has no previous experience of the phenomena, which
he know undergoes in the form of nocturnal emission ( in case of boys ) or Page
menstruation ( in case of girls ). Though these phenomena are normal, yet the | 27
adolescents take them a problem, because of their sudden occurrences. The
phenomena give rise many fears, worries, anxieties and complexes in the mind of
the adolescent. The adolescent not gets right kind of information.
Problem of adjustment and freedom in schools and homes:- Most of the students
faces problem of adjustment and rigid discipline in school and homes. Teachers in
schools are very rigid and conservative and do not change their attitude. Attitude.
They pressurize adolescent students for completing syllabus, which is highly
overloaded. These adolescent students feel boring and they want to get rid from
this rigid environment. Moreover, adolescent wants freedom to attend social
function but parents do not permit them to move outside the home.

Q: - DESCRIBE THE NEEDS OF AN ADLOSENT.

Adolescent is the most crucial period in the life of human being. It is the period
when the surge of life reaches at its peak. Adolescents experience various
difficulties and problems arising out of certain basic needs. Following are tabulated
certain pressing needs of adolescents.
Sex needs: - the most important development of the adolescent is meaning of the
sex glands. The sexual instinct takes a strong ------and develops into
heterosexuality. Thus the needs is to channelize the sex desire of an adolescent
youth in a right track by providing varieties of programs like creative co-curricular
activities sex education. Page
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Need of security:- The adolescent is on the boundary line of childhood. The
individual of this stage feels insecure. He feels all alone and isolated. He has the
carving for security. Thus he needs security, guidance, protection and to be treated
sympathetically and with love.
Needs of self-recognition:- Adolescent is a period of self recognition and they
become self-conscious. He desires that he/she should be the centre of attraction
for the opposite sex and recognized by the peer group and elders. He wants that
he/she should be praised for work he does. This enhances his prestige and
contribution to the development of self-concept.
Need for status:- Although adolescent is a stage of transition and period of rapid
change. The behavior and style of adolescent are not accepted by the society
easily. If their need for status is not met satisfactorily in the family or in the school
and it may be develop confusion, ambiguity and disappointment. Thus their status
in the society burst be understand by parents and teachers and accordingly
opportunity should be provided for participating in all decision making programs in
home, school and community.
Vocational need:- The strong desire of adolescent is to achieve self-sufficiency and
make him/her-self quite independent like an adult member of the society. The
prefer to earn and follow a suitable vocation. Thus during this period, proper---------
----should be taken while educating them. They must be informed about the
selection of various vocation.
Need to establish personal identity:- Adolescent must often struggle in identifying Page
themselves. They often put such questions to themselves like who and I ? what am | 29
I ? what are my strengthens and weaknesses? Thus the need of hour is that the
adolescents should be given the opportunity of developing full identity, otherwise
he may develop confusion. Therefore the parents, teachers and adults must be
develop identity and proper concept among their adolescents.
Need of express:- It includes the need to be able to express his ideas, thoughts,
feeling and other consulted matter concerning them. Thus opportunities should be
given in adolescents to express their inner thing with confidence and without
hesitation.

Q: - GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING FOR ADOLESCENTS.

Adolescent have unique age, specific characteristics needs and problems that
needs to be rationalized and tackled properly for their adequate adjustment and
proper growth and development of their potentialities. The entire programme for
guidance and counseling has been recommended by secondary commission ( 1952-
1953 ) for secondary education which. Covers the (9th -12th ) classing of schooling.
This commission suggested that guidance workers must be in the school
(secondary) for handling different problems of these adolescent boys and girls
pertaining to education vocation and personal.
Educational guidance:- Educational guidance is mainly concerned to educational
development of the student. Educational guidance includes the following.
1. To locate or identify the interests of the adolescent regarding the selection of Page
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the subject.
2. To help the students with regard to choice of the subject
3. To help the backward or slow learner adolescent regarding their improvement in
studies and provide special method of education for them practice, drill, audio-
visual, aids, education trips etc.
4. To help the gifted students for their extra talent hunt co-curricular activities,
social activities, cultural activities etc.
5. To help the student for studying the books in library for broadening the mental
horizon.
6. To help the adolescent to secure information regarding the possibility and
desirability of further education.
7. To help the adolescents for selection of textbooks and reference books.
8. To give special guidance for preparation for examination.
Vocational guidance/Career guidance.
1. To help the students to know themselves especially their vocational assests and
liabilities and to make their best use.
2. To help the students to know the world work-information about various
vocation or jobs skills, requirements for admission etc.
3. To give guidance to students to make a right choice of the vocation.
4. To provide suitable guidance and counseling to the adolescent to get suitable
jobs in their chosen field.
Personal guidance/ psychological guidance:- Page
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To help the students to solve the problem pertaining to physical growth
and society by developing them healthy ideas and building a healthy philosophy of
life.
Psychological or personal guidance at this stage will be compromise of
appropriate lectures on physical and sex education, engaging the adolescent in
various co-curricular activities. To provide the normal and religious guidance to the
adolescent. In short, proper guidance counseling arrangement and programs
should be established in the school so that adolescent may combat with these
problems arising in this crucial period and these adolescent boys and girls will be
able to make healthy adjustment in the future life.

UNIT-1II LEARNING & MOTIVATION

Q: - CONCEPT OF LEARNING & ITS NATURE.

MEANING OF LEARNNG

Learning is the central theme of educational psychology. Learning is the

modification of behaviour and acquisition of new habits. Various definitions given
by the psychologists are:
According to Skinner;
“Learning is both acquisition and retention”
According to Gates; Page
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“Learning is the modification of behaviour through experience and training”
According to Smith;
“Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the strengthening or weakening of
old behaviour as a result of experience”
According to Thorndike;
“Learning is a mechanical and blind process devoid of intelligent or conscious
determination. It is a process of establishing a simple connection between sensory
stimuli and the appropriate responses and doesn’t involve meditation by any ideas,
reasoning or thinking.......learning therefore is a trial and error process.”
According to Hilgard;
“Learning is the process by which an activity originates or is changed through
reacting to an encountered situation, provided that the characteristics of the
changed activity can’t be explained on the basis of native responses, tendencies,
maturation or temporary status of organism like fatigue or effect of drugs”
According to Crow and Crow;
“Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes”

NATURE OF LEARNNG

1) Learning is universal and continuous.

 2) Learning is active and creative.
3) Learning is purposeful.
4) Learning is possible on cognitive, affective and connative sides. Page
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CHERICTERISTICS OF LEARNNG

CHARACTERISTICS OR FEATURES OF LEARNING

The process of learning has certain distinctive characteristics.
1. Learning is a fundamental process of life.
2. It is a continuous process it effects all modes of behaviour.
3. Learning is change in response or behaviour, may be favorable or unfavorable.
4. It is a process of change not a product in the form of changed behaviour.
5. Learning takes place when an organism reacts in a situation.
6. Learning is universal.
7. Learning is total reaction of the individual to the total situation.
8. Learning is transferable.
9. Learning is a process and not a product.
10. The process of learning is determined by conscious as well as unconscious
Q: - FACTORS OF INFLUENCING LEARNING.
The factors of learning are also called determination of learning and the knowledge
about these factors make learning very efficient, effective, fruitful and successful.
There is individual difference in the acquisition of knowledge. It only shows that
learning is governed by certain factors. If the factors are favorable for the
individual, he learns efficiently but if the factors are unfavorable for the individual
he does not learn so efficiently and teaching-learning process will be unsuccessful.
The process of learning is influenced by two main factors which are given following. Page
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Personal factor is also called psychological factor. It refers to the activity of the
organism in interaction with its environment. On personal side there are some
conditions which are basic to a learning situation. Brief discussion of some of them
are given below.
Maturation: - It is a biological phenomena which takes place within the individual.
It refers to any instance of development that occurs in the absence of specific
practice. According to ‘Skinner’ “those changes that are closely interrelated and
interdependent. Learning and maturation bridges the gap between dependence
and self-reliance. Maturation refers to the growth and differentiation of the body.
It is the full development of all inner abilities and this happens as a results of
growth in age. Learning takes place only if the stages for that type of learning have
been achieved through the process of maturation. Maturation puts a limit to
learning. It assists in the process of learning.
Motivation: - Motivation is the heart of any learning. In teaching- learning system
motivation has the central place. It makes an individual to search for various ways
in order to reach the selective goal. It is an internal force that energizes and
accelerates a response or behavior of an individual. Motivation of the children is
needed in the classroom instruction. Without motivation, the teaching-learning
process is unsuccessful. Therefore, it is motivation which helps in arousing,
sustaining and regulating internal energies, of the children towards learning
process. In short, anything that moves an individual to action may be describes as
motivation. Page
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Intelligence;- In classroom situation intelligence plays an important role. Classroom
is always heterogeneous. Each individual is possessed with certain abilities like
intelligence. There are gifted, slow-learner > backward, normal etc. gifted or
intelligence understand quickly and easily then than the normal and backward
children. Teachers should not treat them in a same manner. Teaching- learning
process is successful only when the teacher is able to go to the according to mental
levels of the child i.e. intelligence.
Interest:- It refers preferences of a person, among things, person and activities in
his environment. It is a driving force that helps children in acquisition of learning
experiences and color and fashions their personality traits. Best learning takes
place when teacher is successful is arousing the interests of the students. Interests
is the essential element in all- effective learning.
Attention: Attention is defined as concentration or focusing of consciousness upon
one subject or on idea. It is concerned with though, feeling and action alike. The
attention of the students must be acquired by the teacher for fruitful and efficient
learning.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Environmental factors lie outside the individual environment plays an important
role in the teaching – learning process. In environmental factors we include the
environment which prevails in the home, School and Locality. Brief descriptions of Page
| 36
some of the important environmental factors are given below.
School/ Classroom:- The school plays most important role in molding the
personality of the child. It natures many values and attitudes of society. The school
should be established or situated far- reaching from the disturbances and other
pollution. For the effective teaching-learning process, the environment of the
school should be conductive, congenial and favorable for the child. The climate of
the school should be balanced. The classroom situation of the school must be ideal
for learning. The classroom need to be standard size and grips the attention of the
student to more learning. The classroom should be proper ventilated and airy these
classroom must be white washed and decorated by the different aids charts-charts
maps etc. the seating arrangements of the classroom should must be comfortable.
The lighting facilities should be available. The efficient and effective learning is
possible only if the conditions of the classroom are attractive and provides
motivational appeal and grips the attention and sustain the interest of the students
towards learning.
Methods of teaching: - The methods of teaching have a great role in teaching
learning process. It has its own importance in teaching. The methods tell the
teachers as how to proceed with teaching. If the teacher is not able to use
appropriate method in the classroom, the teaching leaning will become
handicapped and it hampered the learners learning. The efficiency of the teaching
method depends upon the ability of the learner, stage practice, length of material,
interest, intelligence etc. there are so many psychological methods which the Page
teacher can use for interesting, living, healthy and successful learning situation. For | 37
example learning by doing method, play-way method, projective method,
assignment method etc.
Study habit:- Habit means the repeated activity. The proper and positive study
habits enhance the learning. The teachers should provide suitable environment so
that student develops the study habit.
Library facilities:- Library is the heart of school. Adequate library facilities help in
effective learning. It should be well equipped with good books. It should have all
facilities available like lighting seating arrangement book arrangement etc. studying
in library, widen the mental horizon, deepen the comprehension, develop the
power of thinking and reasoning among the students.
Home/ Family:- Home/Family is the first social institution where child learns the
first lesson about surrounding. The environment at home matters much more than
any other factor. If the child is born in educated family his learning at school gets
greatly facilitated because he has already made acquaintance with the
fundamentals of formal education at home. If the child is born in unlettered or
uneducated family his learning at school does not go smooth. Moreover economic
condition at home effects in child’s learning. Economically well off parents fulfils
the needs and requirements the teaching-learning process.
 Q: - MOTIVATION-NATURE & TS TYPES.
MEANING OF MOTIVATION
Page
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Etymologically, the English word Motivation is derived from the Latin term
‘Motivus’ which means ‘a moving cause’. This suggests the activating properties of
the process involved in motivation. Thus, motivation is a driving force that compels
one to act towards some goal. It is related to intentions, desires, goals and needs
that determine behavior.
Definition
Motivation is defined as an internal state or condition (also called as a need, desire,
or want) that activates or energizes behavior giving it direction (Kleinginna and
Kleinginna, 1981). It contributes to the arousal, direction, and persistence of
behavior.
Geen (1994) refers to motivation as one that determines the initiation, direction,
intensity and persistence of human behavior. Motivation refers to the dynamics of
behavior, the way in which actions are initiated, sustained, directed, and
terminated Petri (2003).
NATURE OF MOTIVATION
Motivation is arousing interests in learning.
It is sustaining interest in learning
It is directing behavior.
It initiates and energizes activity to learning.
It leads to self-actualization in learning.
It stimulates learning activity.
It is directed to a selective goal. Page
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It provides the energy and accelerates behavior of the learner.
It releases the tension and helps in satisfying the needs of the learner.
It is the internal condition or factors of learning.
It enables the organism to respond readily.
Motivation is an indispensable technique for learning. Desirable changes in
learner’s behavior are only possible when a learner is properly motivated. No
learning is possible without motivation. Therefore the motivation is classified into
two kinds. These are tabulated as under:-
TYPES OF MOTIVATION

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
It is also called natural motivation. This type of motivation id directly linked with
the natural instincts, urges and impulses of the organism intrinsic motivation is
created by personal factor i.e. liking, interest, curiosity etc. The individual, who is
intrinsically or naturally motivated, persons an act because he finds interests within
the activity. He is engaged in learning something because he derives pleasure
within the learning of that thing. The activity carries its own reward and the
individual takes the learning of that thing. The activities carries its reward and the
individual takes genuine interest in performing the activity due to some outside
motives and goals. The example of intrinsic motivation is that, when a student tries
to solve a mathematical problem and derives pleasure in the task of solving it or
tries to read poetry and the reading, itself gives him pleasure. Another example is
that, the student who studies the construction of model of dams diligently, the Page
making of a model of dam is his intrinsic motivation. In these cases the sources of | 40
pleasure lies within the activities. He solves the problem or reads the poetry or
makes the model of dam for its own sake. Such type of motivation has real values
in the learning task as it creates spontaneous attention and interest and sustains it
throughout. In this type of motivation an individual is himself ready to work.

EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

This type of motivation is also called artificial motivation. It is created by

environment factors i.e. reward, reinforcement, praise, incentives etc. in this type
of motivation source of pleasure does not lie within the task but we make a person
to work by giving some rewards, reinforcement, praise etc. therefore this kind of
motivation has no functional relationship to the task. The individual does or learns
not for the own sake but as a means of obtaining desired goal, or getting some
external reward. Motivation is probably a function of interactive situation where
reward to a particular action acts as an incentives. Some of the common forms of
extrinsic motivation are:
Purposive goals (b) Knowledge of results (c) Punishment and reward (d) Praise and
blame (e) Rivalry
In comparison to extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation as a source of
spontaneous inspiration and stimulation brings better results in the teaching –
learning process. Therefore, it always better to make use of intrinsic motivation Page
whenever it is possible. But incase, when it is not appropriate to make use of | 41
intrinsic motivation, the use of extrinsic motivation should not be suspended.
Depending upon the learning situation and the nature of the task, the choice for
providing appropriate motivation should not be made by the teacher so that the
learner may take profound interest in the learning activity. Thus it is the joint effort
of the pushing and pulling forces that make a person motivated.

Q: - TECHNIQUES OF ENHENSING LEARNERS MOTIVATION.

Motivation occupies a central place in the teaching – learning process. Every

teacher faces a number of behavioral problems of motivating his student. Students
in the classroom learning require constant motivation from the teacher so that
maximum use of their talents may be made for their welfare and progress of the
society. For the explanation of these problems, the teacher has to turn to
psychology of motivation. There are no hard and fast rules to enhance learner’s
motivation. Psychologists have developed some common techniques which may be
used by classroom teacher to motivate children on their work. The teacher should
not strictly adhere to one technique of motivation but he should make use of
various approaches in his teaching, keeping into consideration the individual
difference among the students. Following are the important techniques of
motivation in the classroom teaching – learning situation for the guidance of the
teacher.
Child – centered approach:- It is the child who has to learn. The teacher only helps Page
him to learn. But what child has to learn, should be judged according to the ability, | 42
interest, capacity and previous experience of the child. Child should be taken as a
centre. The learning material or experience should always be assigned according to
the needs, interest and abilities of the child.
Use teaching aids:- Teaching aids are the essential tool in the hands of the teacher.
We have been using chalk and blackboard. They are, no doubt, very essential tools.
The continuous use of it has made them monotonous and distasteful. Children
want new variety. Variety is a spice of life and it catches the attention of the
learners. Today, there are verities of teaching aids invented by science and
technology for the use of educational setting. Thus in order to motivate students,
the teacher should make use of new varieties of techniques like audio-visual aids.
The use of audio – visual aids grip the attention and develops curiosity among the
students towards the learning.
Changing methods of teaching:- Psychology has given different methods. For
example, learning by doing method, play – way method recreational method,
project method etc, are all psychological methods. For the successful teaching the
teacher must have knowledge of psychology and its methods. The teacher should
not be slavish to a particular method of teaching. The teacher can prefer one
method to another for effective teaching. Thus the teacher can motivate the
students by using different beneficial methods for effective and fruitful teaching –
learning process.
Using maxims of teaching:- The teacher should arouse the curiosity of the students Page
in the new lesson. Once the curiosity is aroused, children will feel interested and | 43
motivated. Before presenting the new lesson, the teacher can develop motivation
among the students by the following maxims or principles of teaching.
Proceed from simple and deal with the complex.
Proceed from concrete and deal with the abstract.
Proceed from easy and deal with the difficult.
Proceed from known and deal with the unknown.
Proceed form part and deal with the whole.
Rewards and punishment:- Rewards and punishment are the powerful incentives.
Punishment as a negative motive is based on fear of failure, fear of losing prestige,
fear of insult etc. As for as possible, the use of punishment as a motivating agent
should be avoided as it kills initiative, leadership, resourcefulness and the spirit of
free thanking etc. on the other hand, rewards create interest and motivation in the
student, as it has positive motive and favorable by associating a pleasant feeling.
For developing the motivation among the students, rewards should be read.
Rewards and praise like prizes, honors, certificates, medals etc. have psychological
values and develop in the student creative abilities, sprit of emulation, self-
confidence and self-respect and other democratic feelings.
Coming down to the level of the students: - In teaching – learning process, the
classroom is always heterogeneous in nature. There are gifted, talented, backward,
retarded and handicapped children. Teacher has to be trained different minds. A Page
good teacher is he who comes down to the level of the students and then starts | 44
teaching. He has himself to become a child and then look at things as through the
children’s eyes. Teaching from this point of view will be highly motivating for the
child. The gap between the student’s level and the teacher level is abridged and
path to learning becomes smooth.

Q: - S.R THEORY OF LEARNING (THORNDIKE).

The theory of ‘Trial and Error’ is known as ‘S-R Theory’ Or ‘ Bond Theory’ or
‘Connectionism’. This theory is associated with the name of famous American
psychologist ‘E.L. Thorndike’ ( 1874 – 1949). He expressed his ideas in his famous
book called “ Animal Intelligence”, which was published in 1911. He performed a
number of experiments on animals to prove that learning is mostly a matter of trial
and error. For example, the young one of hen (chicken) tries a number of trials to
peak a grain from the earth. The chicken makes a number of errors, but finally it
learns to peak. This is a principle of trial and error. This theory says that placed in a
new situation, the individual makes a number of random trials. Thus learning does
not take place all of sudden. An individual learns through the process of trial and
error. Those, which are unsuccessful tries (errors), are ‘stamped out’ or eliminated
and the successful trials are “stamped” of fixed up.
 Thorndike propounded his theory on the basis of experiments conducted on
cats, chickens, dogs, rats etc. He placed them under different learning situation and
studied them carefully. But most of the experiments were undertaken on cats. Page
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Following is the experimental evidence of trial and error theory conducted on cat.
Thorndike placed a hungry cat in a puzzle box that was to be opened by
pushing a knob or a latch. He put some dish of food outside the box. The smell of
the food worked as a strong motive for the hungry cat to come out of the box. The
cat in the puzzle box made several trials and committed errors but by chance the
paws of the cat put on the latch and door was opened. The cat come out and cats
the food.
Thorndike repeated the experiment on the cat for a number of times. He
found that as the number of repetitions increased, the errors decreased by the cat
and learning increased. Thorndike opined that cat learned to open the door of the
maze on the basis of trial and error principle. This type of learning is mechanical
and is no ideation on it. In spite –of this, there is much of learning thought trial and
error method in animals and children.
EXPERIMENTS
Drive: - In this experiment, drive was hunger and was intensified with the sight of
the food.
Goal: - To get the food by getting out of the box.
Block: - The cat was confined in the box with closed door.
Random movements: - The cat, persistently, tried to get out of the box.
Chance success: - As a result of this striving and random movement the cat by
chance, succeeded in opening the door.
Selection of proper movements: - Gradually the cat selected the proper way of Page
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manipulating the latch out of its random movements.
Fixation: - At last, the cat learned the proper way of opening the door by
eliminating all the incorrect responses and fixing the only right response and was
able to open the door without any error.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION

Thorndike’s theory of trial and error learning and its laws of learning have been a
significant contribution to the field of learning. It has been made learning
purposeful and goal directed and it has been given an impetus to drill and practice
and highlighted the psychological importance of rewards and practice in the field of
learning.
The theory of trial and error gained currency in the field of education in the
beginning of 20th century. But latter on, it was found that this theory is more
appropriate for the study of child learning rather than adult learning. It can be used
for beginners. There are certain school subjects like languages, fundamental rules
of mathematics, music, dancing, and swimming and manual skill. In these subjects
trial and error in needed. This theory is important in the classroom for slow
learners because they need lot of drill and practice in their learning. This theory has
given importance to motivation on learning. It prepares the child for action. But
this theory does not give importance to understanding and grasping because more
drill can be used only for animal and little children. Cramming and rote memory is
over – emphasized in this theory. Page
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Q: - OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY OF LEARNING (SKINNER).

Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a

method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior.
Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a
consequence for that behavior.
Operant conditioning was coined by behaviorist B.F. Skinner, As a behaviorist,
Skinner believed that internal thoughts and motivations could not be used to
explain behavior. Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external,
observable causes of human behavior.
Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon
the environment to generate consequences" (1953). In other words, Skinner's
theory explained how we acquire the range of learned behaviors we exhibit each
and every day.

COMPONENTS OF OPERANT CONDITIOING

Some key concepts in operant conditioning:
Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows.
There are two kinds of reinforcers:
1. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after
the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or
behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct Page
| 48
reward.
2. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes
after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by
the removal of something considered unpleasant.
In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.
Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or
outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of
punishment:
1) Positive punishment sometimes referred to as punishment by application,
involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to
weaken the response it follows.
2) Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when an
favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.
In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases.
Schedules of Reinforcement
There are two types of reinforcement schedules - continuous, and
partial/intermittent (four subtypes of partial schedules)
a) Fixed Ratio (FR) - reinforcement given after every N th responses, where N is the
size of the ratio (i.e., a certain number of responses have to occur before getting
reinforcement). Page
| 49
b) Variable Ratio (VR) - the variable ration schedule is the same as the FR except
that the ratio varies, and is not stable like the FR schedule. Reinforcement is
given after every N th response, but N is an average.
c) Fixed Interval (FI) - a designated amount of time must pass, and then a certain
response must be made in order to get reinforcement.
d) Variable Interval (VI) - same as FI but now the time interval varies.
Skinner also identified two types of reinforcers
1) primary reinforcer - stimulus that naturally strengthens any response that
precedes it (e.g., food, water, sex) without the need for any learning on the part of
the organism. These reinforcers are naturally reinforcing.
2) secondary/conditioned reinforcer - a previously neutral stimulus that acquires
the ability to strengthen responses because the stimulus has been paired with a
primary reinforcer. For example, an organism may become conditioned to the
sound of food dispenser, which occurs after the operant response is made. Thus,
the sound of the food dispenser becomes reinforcing. Notice the similarity to
Classical Conditioning, with the exception that the behavior is voluntary and occurs
before the presentation of a reinforcer.
APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT CONDITIOING

a) In the Classroom
Skinner thought that our education system was ineffective. He suggested that one
teacher in a classroom could not teach many students adequately when each child
learns at a different rate. He proposed using teaching machines (what we now call Page
computers) that would allow each student to move at their own pace. The teaching | 50
machine would provide self-paced learning that gave immediate feedback,
immediate reinforcement, identification of problem areas, etc., that a teacher
could not possibly provide.
b) In the Workplace
To help reduce the frequency of employee tardiness, the researchers implemented
a game-like system for all employees that arrived on time. When an employee
arrived on time, they were allowed to draw a card. Over the course of a 5-day
workweek, the employee would have a full hand for poker. At the end of the week,
the best hand won $20. This simple method reduced employee tardiness
significantly and demonstrated the effectiveness of operant conditioning on
humans.
EDUCATION IMPLICATION

Theory of operant conditioning has revolutionized the field training and learning.
But putting forward the following practical ideas and implications.
1) In learning and training process, environment must be designed so as to create
the minimum frustration and maximum satisfaction in a learner to provide him
with proper reinforcement for the desired training or learning.
2) The principle of operant conditioning may be successfully applied in behavior
modification. For example good habit can be developed among the children.
3) The schools can use the principle of operant conditioning to eliminate the Page
elements of fear by using positive reinforcement. The theory advocated the | 51
avoidance of punishment for unlearning the undesirable behavior and for shaping
the desired behavior.
4) Motivation should be developed through reinforces like praise, grades, medals
etc.
5) In its most effective application, the theory of operant conditioning has
contributed a lot to the development of teaching machines and programmed
learning. The learner is given rapid feedback concerning the accuracy of his learning
and the learner is able to learn at his own pace.
6) The learning objectives should be arranged in order to simple to complex.
7) Importance of drill and repetition stressed by this theory.
8) The teacher should plan his work in advance, specify the terminal behavior and
survey all the conditions of school environment that can provide reinforcement to
the students. It may involve students in teaching-learning so that student’s interest
may be maintained in learning activities.

Q: - MEANING AND NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE.

MEANING OF INTELLIGENCE
The word intelligence was derived from a translation of dia-noesis, a term used by
Aristotle to describe abstract qualities.
Definitions given by various psychologists: Page
| 52
1. The Oxford Dictionary explains intelligence as the power of perceiving, learning,
understanding, and knowing.
2. Alfred Binet was one of the first psychologists who worked on intelligence. He
defined intelligence as the ability to judge well, understand well, and reason
well.
3. Freeman classified the definition of intelligence into three categories:
a. Ability to carry out abstract thinking.
b. Ability to learn.
c. Ability to adjust or adapt to the environment.
4. Thorndike classified intelligence into the following types:
a) Concrete intelligence: it is the ability to grasp a situation and reacts
efficiently to it.
b) Abstract intelligence: any ability to deal with the abstracts as in maths,
philosophy etc.
c) Social intelligence: ability of securing social adjustment.

NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE

There is no agreement as regards to the exact definition and nature of

intelligence. From definitions, the nature and characteristics are following.
1. Intelligence is an innate, natural and inborn. It is God given and is not acquired.
2. It varies from person to person or individual to individual. It means that different
people have endowed different capabilities with regard to intelligence. Even Page
| 53
research has showed that and identical twin differs from their intelligence.
3. It helps an individual to face and solve the complicated and difficult problems
and situations. It is proportionally related to complicated situations.
4. There is no difference in intelligence due to difference in sex.
5. Intelligence is influenced to great extent by heredity, but it has an impact on
environment, training and education.
6. There is close relationship between intelligence and knowledge. Knowledge is a
means to expose one’s intelligence. Therefore with the help of intelligence we can
acquire knowledge.
7. Development of intelligence stops at the end of the adolescence.
8. It does not increase. Whatever it is from the birth of the child it remains same
but with maturity it ripens.
9. It helps an individual in the adaptation or adjustment to new circumstances.
10. The socio-economic set up has an impact on intelligence.
11. It has been proved by the statistical data that maximum people or children are
of average intelligence and rest of the children deviates.

Q: - CONCEPT OF I. Q.
In 1912, William Stern, a German psychologist, devised the concept of Intelligence
Quotient (IQ). IQ refers to mental age divided by chronological age, and multiplied
by 100. Page
| 54
IQ = (MA/CA) * 100
The number 100 is used as a multiplier to avoid the decimal point. When the MA
equals the CA, the IQ equals 100. If MA is more than the CA, IQ is more than 100. IQ
becomes less than 100 when the MA is less than the CA. For example, a 10-year-old
child with a mental age of 12 would have an IQ of 120 (12/10 100), whereas the
same child with an MA of 7 would have an IQ of 70 (7/10 100). The average IQ in
the population is 100, irrespective of age.

Q: - VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL TEST OF INTELLIGENCE.

VERBAL TEST OF INTELLIGENCE

Verbal tests of intelligence are those tests where reading and writing is involved.
Here the tested makes a use of language in which instructions are given in written,
oral or both. It is also called paper and pencil test. This type of test is given to those
person who have ability to read and write (literates). The test can be given
individually or groups. The test content is loaded with verbal instructions. It
contains varieties of items, which are given below.
(a) Vocabulary: - Here the subject has to provide the meaning of words or phrases
like what is the difference between house and mouse.
(b) Memory: - This ability deals with immediate and long term memory of the Page
subject and judged by asking cognitive type item which include recall and | 55
recognition. For example, the subject is asked to tell the full name of teachers who
lad taught him in different subjects and in different grades.
(c) Comprehension: - In this item, the subject’s practical judgment and common
sense is judged. For example, why are soaps made of detergents? Or why are shoes
made of leather?
(d) Information test: - Here the subject’s knowledge about things around him is
gauged and judged viz. Where Bagdad situated or what is is the population of
India?
(e) Reasoning test: - This covers subject’s knowledge regarding arithmetic
reasoning, analogies, analysis, synthesis, inductive-deductive and common sense
questions etc. For example, how many pencils can you buy for 20 rupees if one
pencil costs one rupee. Or complete the series like 2, 4, 7, 11, 16……………45 etc.
(f) Digit forward and backward: - Here the subject is asked to repeat the digit
forward and backward presented to him, for example, 3 to 9.
(g) Similarities and dissimilarities: - In this item, the subject is asked to
demonstrate his ability of similarities and dissimilarities between two or more
concepts or objects or what ways the two things are alike. For example orange and
banana, house and tree.
Verbal test of intelligence is divided into following categories:
1. Verbal individual test: - The test involved the use of language and administrated
to one individual at a time. An example of such test is Standford Binet Scale, Page
| 56
Terman and Merril Scale.
2. Verbal group test: - Group tests are administrated to a group of people. Group
tests had their birth in America in World War 1 when the recruitment in Army was
calculated and was called Army Alpha test (for literates). For example, Jalota’s test
of general mental ability is group verbal test.

NON-VERBAL TEST OF INTELLIGENCE

Non-verbal test is also a kind of paper-pencil test. In this test the individual is asked
to draw something rather than to say or write something. Non-verbal test do not
require any language, reading and writing. Therefore this test is also called non-
language test or visual test. The items of non-verbal tests are in the form of
pictures, numbers and diagrams. With the help of non-verbal tests, illiterates can
be tested. Performance test is one of the examples of non-verbal test. The non-
verbal contains the following items.
(a) Block design: - The number blocks of different of colours are given and
individual has to arranged blocks as per the design given to him on a separate
cared. These designs increase in the level of difficulty from very simple to complex.
For example Koh’s Block designs test.
(b) To fit the blocks in the holes: - Test material of such types provides numerous
blocks and a board in which there are holes corresponding to these blocks. The
subject has fit the blocks in these holes in the board. Example is Goddard Form Page
| 57
Board Test.
(c) Tracing a maze: - Test material consists of a series of maze of increasing
difficulty, each printed on a separate sheet. The subject is required to trace with
pencil, the path from entrance and exit. Example is Proteus Maze Test.
(d) Picture arrangement or picture completion: - In picture arrangement test, the
task is to arrange in a series the given pictures where as in picture completion, the
subject is required to complete the pictures with the help of given cut pieces and of
the pictures. Examples, Healy’s Pictorial Completion Test.
Non-verbal test is divided into two categories.
1. Non-verbal individual test: - This type of test is administered one person at a
time. In short illiterate individual is tested with the help of non-verbal individual
test.
2. Non-verbal group intelligence test: - The non-verbal group test of intelligence
was developed in the World-II in U.S.A for testing the intelligence of those soldiers
who where illiterates and was called Army Beta Test. This test is administrated
groups i.e. more than one person. It is meant for illiterates.
Performance test: - A performance test is one in which the subject has to perform
something or to manipulate some concrete material without much use of the
language ability. There are some categories of people and children who cannot be
tested with the help of verbal tests of intelligence. Performance tests are similar to
non-verbal tests of intelligence. Performance tests are useful for the following
categories of children and people. Page
| 58
1. Deaf and dumb: - Those children or people who cannot hear or speak, can be
tested with the help of performance tests.
2. Illiterates: - Illiterates people and children who cannot write or whose language
development is deficient may be tested with the help of performance test of
intelligence.
3. Shy and withdrawn children: - Children who are shy or fear for face to face
interaction with the tester may be tested.
4. Educationally deficient: - Children who are educationally deficient take interest
in concrete material and its manipulation can be tested.
5. Foreigners or foreign children: - Children of foreign countries who do not
understand the language may be tested by performance tests.
Some of the famous tests, which are performance tests, are:
I. Kho,s Block Design Test.
II. Alexander’s Pass Along Test.
III. Pattern Drawing Test.
IV. Immediate Memory test.
V. Picture Construction Test.
V.Bhatia Battery Test.

Q: - THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELIGENCES (HOWARD GARDNER).

Psychologists have proposed several theories of intelligence. Some of them are;
1) Binet’s theory of intelligence
Binet’s theory of intelligence was rather simple as it arose from his interest in Page
differentiating more intelligent from less intelligent individuals. He, therefore, | 59
conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities which can be
used for solving any or every problem in an individual’s environment. His theory of
intelligence is called Uni or one factor theory of intelligence.
2) Charles Spearman’s theory of intelligence
In 1927, Charles Spearman proposed a two-factor theory of intelligence. He
showed that intelligence consisted of a general factor (g-factor) and some specific
factors (s-factors). The g-factor includes mental operations which are primary and
common to all performances. In addition to the g-factor, he said that there are also
many specific abilities.
3) Louis Thurstone’s theory of intelligence:
According to Thurstone intelligence consists of seven primary abilities, each of
which is relatively independent of the others. These primary abilities are:
(i) Verbal Comprehension (grasping meaning of words, concepts, and ideas),
(ii) Numerical Abilities (speed and accuracy in numerical and computational skills),
(iii) Spatial Relations (visualising patterns and forms),
(iv) Perceptual Speed (speed in perceiving details),
(v) Word Fluency (using words fluently and flexibly),
(vi) Memory (accuracy in recalling information), and
 (vii) Inductive Reasoning (deriving general rules from presented facts).
4) Gardner’s Eight Types of Intelligence
In the 1980s and 1990s, psychologist Howard Gardner proposed the idea of not one Page
kind of intelligence but eight, which are relatively independent of one another. | 60
These eight types of intelligence are:
i. Linguistic: spoken and written language skills
ii. Logical–mathematical: number skills
iii. Musical: performance or composition skills
iv. Spatial: ability to evaluate and analyze the visual world
v. Bodily-kinesthetic: dance or athletic abilities
vi. Interpersonal: skill in understanding and relating to others
vii. Intrapersonal: skill in understanding the self
viii. Nature: skill in understanding the natural world
5) Stern berg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
In the 1980s and 1990s, Robert Sternberg proposed a triarchic theory of
intelligence that distinguishes among three aspects of intelligence:
1. Componential intelligence: the ability assessed by intelligence tests
2. Experiential intelligence: the ability to adapt to new situations and produce new
ideas
3. Contextual intelligence: the ability to function effectively in daily situations.
6) Jagannath Prasad (J.P.) Das theory of intelligence
Definition of Intelligence
“…Intelligence is the sum total of all cognitive processes. It entails planning, coding
of information and attention, as well as arousal (personal communication, 2004).”
The Planning, Attention-Arousal, Simultaneous and Successive (PASS) model of Page
processing, advocated by J.P Das divides intelligence into four interrelated | 61
cognitive processes:
1. Planning: This is the ability to make decisions about how to solve problems and
perform actions.
2. Attention-Arousal: This involves the ability to selectively attend to stimuli while
ignoring other distractions.
3. Processing: This involves the ability to integrate separate stimuli into a cohesive,
interrelated whole.
4. Successive Processing: This involves the ability to integrate stimuli into a
sequential order. An example of this process is the sequencing of letters and words
in reading and writing.

Q: - STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT (GUILFORD).

Structure of intellect was developed by Dr. J.P Guilford in 1966 at the University of
California (U.S.A). Guilford’s model provides a novel idea about the intelligence. He
suggested that mind is composed of at least three dimensions, instead of
unidimentional model of intellect. The model is three way classification of
intellectual abilities namely operation (the act of thinking or way of processing the
information), content (the term in which we think or the type of information
involved) and products (the ideas we came up with i.e. the result or fruits of
thinking). Every intellectual ability in the structure is characterized in terms of the
type of operation, the content and sort of product, which results. According to Page
Guilford, each dimension of intellect is sufficiently distinct which may be detect by | 62
factor-analysis. Therefore intelligence activities can be understood by the kind of
‘Mental Operation’ performed, the type of content on which the operation is
performed and resulting products. The following are the dimensions of intellect.
A. Operation: - It means capability of the individual which is to be applied. The kind
of classification on the basis of operation gives five major groups of intellectual
abilities.
1. Cognition: - It refers to discovering and recognizing information. It also includes
understanding and knowing about things. It is the most important fundamental
operation in learning process.
2. Memory: - It means retaining and recalling the content of thought.
3. Divergent thinking: - In this process of thinking, we think in different directions,
searching and seeking varieties. It is closely related with creativity. It means ability
to give more than one solution to a single problem.
4. Convergent thinking: - This type of operation leads to a single correct answer. It
means producing a single best solution to a problem.
5. Evaluation: - It means making judgments in evaluation, we reach conclusions and
decisions as to accuracy, goodness, and suitability of what we know what we
remember and what we produce in productive thinking.
B. Content: - It means areas of information within which the operations are
performed. The content can be developed into the following four types.
1. Figural: - It is a concrete material perceived through the senses- visual and Page
| 63
auditory.
2. Symbolic: - It is composed of letters, digits, numbers, symbols and signs.
3. Semantic: - It is the form of verbal meanings or ideas for which no examples are
necessary.
4. Behavioural: - It refers to the social intelligence or knowledge and understanding
of others and ourselves.
C .Products: - When operations and content interact, they give rise to product.
There are six types of products.
1.Units: - It is information about singles. Comprehending visual, auditory and
symbolic units plus knowledge of the meaning of words. For example, cow is a unit,
tree is a unit.
2. Classes: - The number of units is known as classes. The groups of unit of
information related to each other on the basis of some common characteristics
involving a higher order concept. Some people have the capacity of developing
units and other have the capacity of developing classes, for example, bird is a class
of units, men women people is a class.
3. Relation: - It is the ability to perceive relationship between two groups. Relations
involve associational ability. It is the ability to discover relations in conceptual
material. We make absolute and interpersonal relations.
4. Systems: - Systems are an ordering or classification of relations. It is an organized
pattern in which we bring units, classes and relations together.
5. Transformation: - Transformation are changes, revisions or modification of any Page
| 64
product. It is change in information.
6. Implication: - It is the highest thinking process. Each thing has its own
implication. It is the ability to apply one information to the other field. For example,
classical conditioning or reinforcement theory can be applied in the other fields like
education.
In `1966, Guilford has developed the structure of intellect which involves
three dimensions i.e. operation, content and products. As result, operation may be
sub-divided into five specific factors, content into four and product into six. In this
way, there are 5*4*6 = 120 factors operating in one’s intelligence. But latter on
Guilford’s model of intellect has been raised by his associates and scholars and they
added one more element in the content. Thus the classification included
5*5*6=150 cells in the model. Again this model has been revised and added one
more element in the operation and therefore the model consists of 6*5*6= 180
cells. The interaction of these parameters thus results 180 different elements or
factors in one’s intelligence. According Guilford, at least one factor from each
category of three parameters has to be present in any specific intellectual activity
or mental task. Guilford uses the code in describing each factor and that code
shows all the three dimensions. That is why Guilford’s theory is also known as
unified theory of intelligence. The model that Guilford has proposed is not final
word that he gives. His model has generated much research and work is still going
on.

Page
Q: - MEANING AND NATURE OF PERSONALITY. | 65

MEANING OF PERSONALITY

The term personality has been derived from the Latin word ‘persona’ which means
a mask or a cover. It was a practice with the Roman actors to come on the stage
with the mask on. They would not show their face to the audience. In this sense,
personality implies a cover for the real person behind it and it refers to the external
appearance. But nowadays this meaning of personality is considered too narrow.
Today the word personality is used in a very wide sense. Personality is a very
inclusive concept covering each and every trait that a person possesses. Personality
is what we are – a collection of many traits and attributes, the sum total of which
constitutes an unique person unlike anyone else. In fact personality refers to a
model of the whole man.
Personality is not a concrete thing that can easily be observed or defined. It is a
construct. So by its very nature it cannot be defined in exact terms. Everyone
defines it the way he understands it. However, in order to enables us to have an
idea of what personality is, let us mention the views of a few psychologists.
1. According to R.B. Cattel;
Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person would do in a given
situation.
2. According to Eyesenck; Page
| 66
Personality is more or less stable and enduring organisation of a person’s character,
temperament, intellect and physique.

NATURE OF PERSONALITY

1. Personality is dynamic: Personality is dynamic. It does not remain static.

Personality goes on changing and evolving with time and experience because of
interaction with the environment. The changes do not represent the appearance of
new traits. The changes, in fact, represent the fluctuation in the intensity of traits
already present. The changes are not radical. Radical changes are generally
indicative of mental illness.
2. Personality is organized: Personality is made up of a very great number of traits
put in an organized way. The traits are not added to one another loosely. Each trait
has a relationship with the whole system of personality. The distinction between
the normal and abnormal personality is to be found in the degree of organization
that exists. A normal healthy personality is organized. Abnormal personality is
disorganized.
3. Personality is within the individual: Personality lies within the individual and not
outside of him. Whatever constitutes personality is in the individual. Nobody can
part with his personality.
4. Personality is unique: Personality has a quality of uniqueness. No one’s
personality is quite like another’s.

Page
Q: - DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY. | 67

Personality is the total configuration of individual characteristics and modes of

behavior that shape one’s adjustment to his environment. There are several factors
within the individual and outside of him influence and shape his personality. These
factors can be classified into a following two categories.
BIOLOGICAL/ PERSONAL FACTORS

These factors mainly lie within the individual. They include all the internal factors
like physique, nervous system, glands, intelligence, emotions etc. The biological
factors influence personalities are:
Endocrine gland/ductless glands: - Ductless glands send their secretion directly to
the blood without ducts. Their secretions are called hormones. These hormones
are responsible for many changes in the personality of an individual. Some of the
important glands and their influence on the development of our personality are
given below.
Pancreas: - Pancreas sends insulin to the blood. The amount of sugar in the blood
depends upon the amount of insulin in it. When the deficiency of insulin i.e. sugar
is in the body, the mental powers are weakened and the personality of the
individual seems less balanced. His mood is changed, temperament becomes
initiated and fear increases.
(ii) Thyroid gland: - This gland is situated at the sides of the breathing tube and has
very important function in the development of physical structure as well as mental
development. The secretion gives by this gland is called thyroxin. If it is absent Page
since the very birth, the intellect of the child does not improve. He becomes | 68
imbecile. Its destruction causes a disease known as myxoedema. This disease
creates laziness, memory becomes weak, and muscles become slackened. An
excessive activity of this gland results in tensions, irritation, worry and instability in
individual’s personality. If there is less secretion of this gland, the child’s physical
growth will be effected or he may remain dwarf.
(iii) Adrenal gland : - The secretion of this gland is called ‘Ad rein’ or ‘Adrenaline’. It
has an important influence upon the development of personality. Its excess creates
the sexual traits in men and women. Its access in women is responsible for the
absence of the rounded contours and feminine voice. The female can get male
symptoms. The excess of adrenaline causes rapid heart-beat high B.P and
postponement of the activity of the intestines. An entire absence of this glands
results the disease called Addison’s disease. In this disease one feels weakness and
lethargy in the body, power of resisting is lessened, interest in sex activity
disappears, metabolism becomes slow, skin becomes black, behavior becomes
irritable.
Gonads: - The secretion of the gonads i.e. sex glands is an important factor
influencing personality. It secretes sex hormones. It is very helpful in the increase
of sex interest. Due to secretion of this gland, males have the masculine traits and
females have feminine qualities. For the normal development of the personality, it
is necessary that there should be smooth secretion of this gland. Thus changes are
observed in the individual’s personality according to their sex. Page
| 69
(vi) Pituitary gland: - The hormones secreted by this gland control other glands and
is called master gland. It controls the blood pressure and the metabolism of water
in the physical activities. In this period of the physical growth, the bones and
muscles becomes strong due to the activity of this gland. In its accesses the height
can go even up to 7-9 feet. The deficiency of this gland results midget person.
(v) Physique: - Another biological factor affecting personality is physical structure.
Height, weight, physical defects, health and strengths etc influences the
development of personality of an individual.
SOCIO-CULTURAL/ENVIRONMENT FACTORS

The environment of different individuals is very much different from one another.
The environment factors are associated with the forces of environment lying
outside the individual. Environment influences begin since the time of the
conception of the child in the womb of the mother. Mother’s mental, physical and
emotional conditions influence the development of the fetus in the womb. The
external environment starts from the time of the birth of the child. Most of our
behavior is learned and learning is controlled almost by the environmental factors
lying in one’s society and cultural set-up. Therefore personality develops and
blossoms in socio- cultural environment. There are different agencies responsible
for molding and shaping the personality of the individual carried out by the socio-
cultural environment. These agencies are explained given below.
1. Home / family: - Home is the first primary institution that the personality traits Page
of the child. The early periods are the most crucial in the child’s development of | 70
personality. The influence of family is important not only during childhood but
during all the stages of development. Therefore the development of the child’s
personality upon the conditions prevailing in the home and the parent child
relationship existing there. The child finds a healthy and congenial atmosphere at
home; he has all chances for the development of personality in the right direction.
On the other hand poor and uncongenial atmosphere develops him to mal-
adjustment personality. Below are given some important constituents of home and
family environment which influence the development of personality.
(a) Parents love and sympathy leads to good personality and the child becomes
submissive.
(b) In the absence of affection and sympathy, the child becomes aggressive and
turns criminal.
(c) In the excessive love and sympathy or over protection, the child becomes
dependent upon the parents and develops behavioral problem like shyness, fear
etc.
(d) The birth order of the child in the family affects the personality of the child.
With the arrival of new baby, the first child becomes self-sufficient, tyrant and
develops jealousy when he is being neglected by the parents.
(e) Broken home develops the mal-adjustment and anxiety in the children.
(f) Family good morale develops the better adjustment.
(g) Economic factor influences the development of personality, poverty of parents Page
and lack of money to fulfill the legitimate needs of children leads directly to certain | 71
kind of frustrations.
(ii) School: - School is another agency; which is responsible for the development of
personality of the child. The personality characteristics of teachers, headmaster,
classmates, the teaching- methods, curriculum, opportunities for co-curricular
activities, the values and ideals, discipline main faired by the institution and the
general atmosphere of the classroom and school all influence the development of
the child’s personality. Therefore good schools developing the child socially,
emotionally, educationally and mentally and develops in him a broader outlook.
Society and Culture: - Society is the web of social relationships. The inter-personal
relations influence and mould the personality of the individual. Every society is
characterized by its cultural heritage which is transmitted from one generation to
another in the form of social heredity. Culture refers in total life activities of a
society. The material and non-material aspect of culture, taboo and mores
influences the personality of the child. Neighborhood, social groups, social
institutions, religious institutions, cinema, radio, press, clubs etc. all casts a sizable
influence on personality development of the child. An individual tries to adopt the
code of conduct prescribed by his society and fashion himself according to the
cultural pattern of that society. Thus the growth and development of the
personality of an individual is nothing but a cooperative enterprise successfully run
by the forces of the heredity and environment.
It is not a concrete thing that can easily be observed and defined. In psychology, Page
it is treated as construct- the idea of concept which cannot be defined precisely | 72
and there are different view-points almost personality, few are as under: -
Super Ego: - Works on the moral principle.
Psychological view: - According to this view, it is sum total of physical, mental,
emotional, social and temprame make up of the individual.
Alports’s view: - Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of
these psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to the
environment.
In short, it dreams a beautiful of an individual’s totality. It is the sum total of
one’s way of behaving towards oneself and others as well. Thus, it is the total
configuration of individual characteristics and modes of behavior that shapes and
adjustment to his environment.

Q: - TRAIT THEORY OF PERSONALITY (ALLPORT).

Gardon W. Allport (1897-1967), was one of the most outstanding psychologists,

who have surveyed human personality. He was the first personality theorist who
adopted trait approach in providing a theory of personality. According to him trait
is more than characteristics way of behaving. It is an actual force, motive or
disposition within an individual that initiates and guides a particular form of
behavior. He has conceived that traits have a real and vital existence. Traits are
consistent modes of behavior which are similar to habits but are more generalized.
It means that habit do not determine trait but traits determine on development of Page
| 73
a new habit. For example,
Habit Trait
Brushing teeth Combing
hairWashing hands Cleanliness
Wearing clean clothes Cleaning
nails
Allport has propounded his theory of personality, which emphasizes the trait as a
unit. Traits produce consistency in behavior. Therefore Allport classified all human
traits into following categories.
Individual trait or personal disposition: - An individual trait is one which is specific
to a given individual. These traits are unique and peculiar to an individual. For
example, the love your mother had for you when you were a child was expressed in
her individual way. An individual trait is determined by observation of behavior and
autobiography. The individual trait can sub-divided into following three categories:
(ii) Cardinal trait: - A trait which is outstanding, all pervasive and dominant in the
individual’s life is called cardinal trait. It is displayed by a person who has but one
over-riding goal in life. It is a powerful dominating behavioral disposition that
seems to provide the pivotal point in person’s entire life. For example, if a person
organizes his life around competitiveness, we might say that competitiveness is a
cardinal trait. Allport says that only a very small number of people have cardinal
traits.
(ii) Central trait: - Central traits are less pervasive than cardinal traits but are quite Page
generalized dispositions. These traits are frequently employed for identifying and | 74
describing one’s personality. These are major characteristics of personality. For
example honesty, kindness, punctuality neatness etc.
(iii) Secondary trait: - Those traits of an individual’s personality which play a quite
or to say quite insignificant role in the identification and description of one’s
personality. It is displayed in a very specific situation. These traits are relatively
weak and inconsistent determinants of one’s life-style. For example in some
situation and under certain conditions a generous person may behave in a miserly
way, but it is not a consistent feature of his behavior.
(iv) Common trait: - Common traits are those traits which are found in most
individuals to some degree. These traits are shared with several individuals. These
traits can be measured by personality test.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

Following are some educational implications of Allport’s trait theory of personality.

The teacher should understand the child in terms of personality traits and factors.
He should recognize the child’s weakness and help him to develop and promote
those characteristics which are his assets.
 After identifying and recognizes the positive and negative traits possessed by an
individual, the teachers must design such type of educational programme which
should be strengthened the positive traits and minimizes the negative traits. Page
| 75
This theory may help the teachers in creating and developing leadership qualities in
children. This theory helps the teachers to develop the sense of true patriotism
among the students.
This theory recognized the importance of motivation in learning and personality
development.
Teachers should assign homework to the students while keeping in view the
individual differences.

Q: - PSYCHO ANALYTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY (FREUD).

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), a Viennese physician, was the chrel exponent of

psycho-analysis school of psychology a theory of personality, a method of therapy
and a technique of research. The approach he adopted for understanding human
behavior and personality is known as the psycho-analytical approach. His theory of
psychoanalysis is dynamic and is based on the assumption that personality and
personality development are determined by conflicts and events that are largely
unconscious in nature and which can be understood only by its in depth study. The
basic and important ideas and concepts of this theory are discussed as under:
Structure of personality of psychic structure: - Sigmund Freud named the clashing
forces of personality psychic structures. He believed that human personality or
psychic structure is made up of three major systems. These are id, Ego and super
ego. These are the dynamic aspect of the personality. These are explained as
under. Page
| 76
T-data: - T-data consist of scores on standardized objective tests, such as Cattell’s
16PF test.
Cattell believed that one could not obtained a complete picture of personality
without using all of these data sources. Cattell’s trait theory of personality tries
to describe and predict the behavior of individuals on the basis of their personality
traits (the fundamental of building block of personality).
Note: Educational implications are same as the educational implications of
Allpoart’s theory. (See educational implications of Allport’s theory)
Id: - The Id present at birth. It is the centre of both life and death .It represents
psychological drives and is unconscious. It is possesses no sense of values. Its main
function is the discharge of psychic energy that comes from libido which when
pent-up produces tension through the personality system. It operates on animal
level and works on the pleasure principle.
Ego: - The ego begins to develop during the first year of life. It is partly conscious.
The ego stands for reason and good sense for rational ways with frustration. It gets
its energy from the Id. It curbs the appetites of the Id and makes plans for the id
and work on the reality principle.
Super Ego: - It develops through the early childhood. It is the higher part
personality and is fully conscious. The super ego functions according to moral
principle. It monitors the intentions of the ego and hands out judgments of right
and wrong, throughout life. It floods the ego with feelings of guilt and shame when
the verdict is negative. It is an ideal-self and represents moral conscience. Freud is Page
of the opinion that if there is balance between Id and super ego, there will be a | 77
balanced personality.
Levels of consciousness or Topographical aspect of personality:-According to
Freud human mind is like an iceberg. Only the tip of an iceberg rises above the
surface of the water, while the greater mass of it darkens the deep. According to
Freud people only aware of small number of ideas, impulses that dwelled within
their minds. He believed that the greater mass of mind- our deepest images,
thoughts; fears and urges remained beneath the surface of conscious awareness,
where little light illumined them.
Conscious: - It is the upper most level of mind. It is present movement of
awareness. It is the aware part of lie mind.
Pre-conscious: - It contains of experience that is presently out of or awareness but
that can bring easily into the conscious part of our mind by simply focusing on
them.
Un-conscious: - It is the deepest layer of mind. The part of mental functioning that
is out of our awareness and to which we cannot gain accesses and recalled. It is
store house of several unsatisfied desires and urges.
Psycho-sexual Development: - Freud was a first psychologist who placed great
importance on instincts:
Eros: - The basic instinct to preserve and perpetuate life called life instinct.
Thanatos: - The death instinct, as the ultimate cause of all human activity.

Page
| 78

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q:-What is psychology?

A: - The word psychology comes from the two Greek words ‘Psyche’ meaning soul’
and ‘logos’ meaning science or study. Thus psychology means “science of soul”. The
nature science of soul could not be defined and the term ‘Soul’ was rejected. The
psychology was called “Science of mind” “Science of consciousness” these concepts
were also rejected. The soul, mind and consciousness are invisible, mysterious,
abstract, and metaphysical and philosophical ideas.

Q:-Define educational psychology.

A: - Educational psychology implies the application of principles and practices of

psychology to the various dimensions of education with a view to modify of
correcting the behavior of the learner in an educational environment so that he
amicably adjusts himself with the society with maximum of satisfaction and
security.
Q:-List four objectivities of educational psychology.

A: - The four key goals of psychology are:

1. To Describe
2. To Explain
3. To Predict Page
| 79
4. To Change
Q:-Write an explanatory note on observation method?

A: - Observation is also called objective watching or careful watching somebody. It

is an old method created through philosophical thinking and scientific attitudes. It
is commonly employed in the field of child-study, psychology and education. It
came into being as a method of study. When psychology assumed its importance as
a study of human behavior and experience.
Q:-What are the main problems of adolescence period?

A: - Adolescent is the most crucial period in the life of human being. It is the period
when the surge of life reaches at its peak. We know that adolescence is a period of
transition from childhood to adulthood. Any period of transition is likely to be
associated with a number of problems. The problems of adolescence may be
summarized in the following manner:
1. Sex Problems.
2. Emotional Problems.
3. Social Problem.
4. Educational Problem.
5. Problem of leisure.

Q:-List five major needs of adolescents.

A: - In the adolescence period, the young adolescents have some basic needs which
must be given due importance regarding their fulfillment. The basic needs of
adolescents are divided into two groups – (a) Physiological needs and (b) Page
| 80
Psychological needs.
Physiological needs:
1. Need for activity.
2. Need for sexual satisfaction.
Psychological needs:
1. Need for freedom.
2. Need for social life.
3. The security need.
4. The adventure need.
Need for self dependence or need for a vocation -

Q:-What is the moral development of childhood period?

A: - According to Kohlberg's theory, moral development proceeds in a linear, step-

wise fashion; i.e., moral development proceeds gradually from one stage to the
next, in a predictable, ordered sequence. Although Kohlberg recognized each child
progressed through these stages at different rates, and acknowledged that some
youth may never reach the highest stages, his theory does not account for
regression back to former, previously mastered stages as do some other
developmental theorists.
 Q:-What are different stages of development?

A: - Everyone who take birth has to pass various stages of growth and
development. Each stage covers a number of years of the child’s life and possesses Page
some special characteristics. The psychologists are not unanimous regarding | 81
various, stages of development but majority of them is in favor of following stages.
(1) Infancy stage (2) Childhood (3) Adolescence (4) Adulthood
Q:-Define guidance?

A: - Guidance is as old as civilization. In the primitive society, elders in the family

offered guidance to the young and to persons in distress. Even today, in India,
guidance, whether in educational, vocational or personal matters, is sought from
family elders. Guidance - unorganized and informal - in all places and at all levels
has been a vital aspect of the educational process.
Q:-Give the meaning of self-concept.

A: - The term self-concept is a general term used to refer to how someone thinks
about, evaluates or perceives themselves. To be aware of oneself is to have a
concept of oneself.
Baumeister (1999) provides the following self concept definition: "the
individual's belief about himself or herself, including the person's attributes and
who and what the self is".
Q:-What is behavior.

A: - There are several ways to define behavior, but one of the ways behavior can be
defined is the way an animal or human reacts to a particular situation (or
stimulus). Behavior Modification then is the systematic approach to changing
behavior.
Q:-What is learning.
Page
| 82
A: - Learning is the process by which an individual acquires knowledge, attitudes
and skills that are necessary to meet the demands of life. While touching a burning
candle, a child gets burnt and he withdraws the fingers.
Q:-What do you mean by negative reinforcement?

A: - Negative reinforcement occurs when a certain stimulus (usually an aversive

stimulus) is removed after a particular behavior is exhibited. The likelihood of the
particular behavior occurring again in the future is increased because of
removing/avoiding the negative consequence.
Q:-What is Motivation?

A: - Motivation is very heart of learning. It is dynamic and purposive. It is a positive

process. The activity or behavior in life cannot be ensured satisfactorily in the
absence of an adequate environment if it is not properly charged with motivation.
Q:-Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

A: - the primary difference between the two types of motivation is that extrinsic
motivation arises from outside of the individual while intrinsic motivation arises
from within. Researchers have also found that the two type of motivation can differ
in how effective they are at driving behavior.
Q:-Define the term intelligence.
A: - intelligence has been treated as a “construct”. It means that, we are not
able to define it precisely and concisely. Various definitions have been
advanced by psychologists and no two psychologists agree on a single Page
| 83
definition of intelligence.
Q:-What is abstract intelligence?

A: - Ability to understand and deal with verbal and numerical symbols.

Q: - How can intelligence measured?

A: - Measurement of intelligence did not start all of a sudden. Man has always been
interested in measuring the abilities of their fellow men. Primitive men largely
employed crude method of measuring intelligence by means of physical strength
and solving puzzles.
Q:-What is I.Q?

A: - Put simply: intelligence is mental horsepower. If you have more horsepower

you can do more, faster. If you have less horsepower you can probably do as much,
but it will take more time and energy. An IQ is a quick way to reference this.
When you take an IQ test, you are compared to people who have taken the
test before. Prior to the release of the test, the writers of the IQ test had several
hundred, sometimes more than a thousand, people assessed. These people create
the bell-shaped curve we see above and the scores to which Mr. Humperdinck will
be compared.
Q: - What is Verbal Intelligence?
A: - Verbal intelligence is the ability to analyze information and solve problems
using language-based reasoning.
Q:-Name one verbal test of intelligence.
Page
| 84
A: - Verbal group test: - Group tests are administrated to a group of people. Group
tests had their birth in America in World War 1 when the recruitment in Army was
calculated and was called Army Alpha test (for literates). For example, Jalota’s test
of general mental ability is group verbal test.
Q:-Name three dimensions of intellect given by Guilford.

A: - Guilford’s model provides a novel idea about the intelligence. He suggested

that mind is composed of at least three dimensions, instead of unidimentional
model of intellect. The model is three way classification of intellectual abilities
namely operation (the act of thinking or way of processing the information),
content (the term in which we think or the type of information involved) and
products (the ideas we came up with i.e. the result or fruits of thinking).
Q:-Define personality.

A: - The term personality has been derived from the Latin word ‘persona’ which
means a mask or a cover. It was a practice with the Roman actors to come on the
stage with the mask on. They would not show their face to the audience. In this
sense, personality implies a cover for the real person behind it and it refers to the
external appearance.

Q: - What are the biological factors of personality?

A: - 1. Biological factors/personal factors : - These factors mainly lie within the
individual. They include all the internal factors like physique, nervous system,
glands, intelligence, emotions etc. The biological factors influence personality are: Page
| 85
Endocrine gland/ductless glands.
Pancreas.
(ii) Thyroid gland.
(iii) Adrenal gland.
Gonads.
(vi) Pituitary gland.
(v) Physique.
Q:-Write most suitable definition of personality.

A: - According to G.W. All port, personality is the dynamic organization within the
individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment
to the environment.
Q:-Define source trait.

A: - Source Traits are the underlying basic factors of an individual’s personalities.

Cattell examined every possible (over 18,000) possible vocabulary words which
indicated Surface Traits, i.e. some aspect of personality.
Q:-Give the meaning of Ego.

A: - The ego is the second component of personality to develop, usually around the
ages of two or three years old. The ego is responsible for sorting out what is real. It
helps us make sense of our thoughts and the world around us. It is the component
of our personality we are aware of the most. This is because the ego is the part that
controls our consciousness.
Q: - Define super Ego.
Page
| 86
A: - According to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality, the superego is the
component of personality composed of our internalized ideals that we have
acquired from our parents and from society. The superego works to suppress the
urges of the id and tries to make the ego behave morally, rather than realistically.
Q: - Describe the Introspection method.

A: - Introspection method is one of the oldest methods to collect data about the
conscious experiences of the subject. It is a process of self – examination where
one perceives, analyses and reports one’s own feelings.

(FARASH PRINT POINT-9906713963)

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CLASSES IN THE STATE OF JAMMU & KASHMIR”
 NEW B.ED SYLLABUS OF KASHMIR UNIVERSITY
Page
|1

100% SYL COVERAGE

1ST SEMESTER

COURSE TITLE: POPULATION & GENDER EDUCATION

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9906713 963
 POPULATION & GENDER EDUCATION
1ST SEMESTER

Page
UNITS DESCRIPTION |2

i) Concept, meaning and objectives.

UNIT-I
POPULATION EDUCATION
&POPULATION DYNAMICS
ii) Need and Importance
iii) Distribution & density
iv) Population composition – Age, Sex, Rural/Urban.
v) Factors affecting Population growth – fertility,
mortality & migration

i) Scope of population education in school

UNIT-II ii) Methods & approaches: Inquiry approaches,
POPULATION EDUCATION IN observation, self study,
SCHOOLS discussions assignments.
iii) Use of Mass Media – Newspapers, Radio, TV, & A-V
aids.

i) Concept , need and scope of gender studies

UNIT-III ii) Gender studies as an academic discipline
GENDER STUDIES iii) Gender, economy and work participation
iv) Gender, globalization and education

UNIT-IV i) Women education: need, importance and problems

ISSUES OF INDIAN WOMEN
ii) Co-education- its educational implications
iii) Education of girl child in India: present status and
challenges ahead
iv) Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyaliya
v) Girls education in SSA and RMSA

“Kindly note that any mistake in the contents of this notice is due to my imperfection as a human being as
only Allah Subhanahu Wa-Ta'ala is perfect in all affairs”.
 LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

UNIT-1 POPULATION EDUCATION & POPULATION Page

DYNAMICS
|3

Q: -CONCEPT & MEANING OF POPULATION.

EDUCATION.
CONCEPT & MEANING OF POPULATION EDUCATION

Population Education in lay man's language is the education about population

matters i.e. fertility, mortality, migration, etc. But population education is an
educational process. It is a desired to help people to understand the nature, the
causes and consequences of population growth.
According to Brobson, “population is exploration of knowledge towards
population awareness, family living and reproduction”.
According to NCERT, population education deals with population growth as a
phenomenon to be understood for taking decisions about family size and national
population policies.
Population education should not be misunderstood as sex education, family
planning, family welfare project, family life education. But population education is
an educational programme which studies the population situation in the family, in
the community, in the nation and in the world. It is a relationship between
population change and quality of life at the micro and macro-level.

NATURE OF POPULATION EDUCATION

1. Population education is a programme of creating awareness among students and
the public about the various causes and harmful consequences of rapid growth of
population. Page
|4
2. It explains the very changes, characteristics and nature of at least two essential
components of population that is fertility and mortality rates.
3. It exposes learners to multi-disciplinary fields like geography, biology, sociology,
history, economics etc.
4. It deals with population growth as a phenomenon to be understood for taking
decisions about family size and the national population policies.
5. It explains how environment is damaged by excessive growth of population.
6. The quantitative and qualitative aspects of human living are exhibited clearly in
the light of population growth.

OBJECTIVES OF POPULATION EDUCATION

1. Some of the basic objectives of population education are:

2. To develop basic understanding about the various aspects of population.
3. To develop basic understanding about the norms of small family size and its
benefits.
4. To understand various government policies regarding population planning
programmes.
5. To develop better standards of life.
6. To control over the negative aspects population explosion.
7. To develop basic understanding of population dynamics including growth rate
and structure of population among the people.
8. To ensure the balance between the production and consumption of resources. Page
|5

NEED OF POPULATION EDUCATION

The following points explain the need of population education.

1. TO CREATE INTELLIGENCE CITIZENSHIP:-Today people globally wish to seek
knowledge about population dynamics and how it is increasingly necessary for
human race.
2. TO UNDERSTAND VARIOUS CRISES:-There are increasing signs of global environmental
crisis, reduction of food grain production, green house effect etc. besides poor
educational facilities, scarcity of jobs, inadequate medical care and hygiene are
serious problems which can be tackled through population education.
3. KNOW THE DANGERS OF OVER POPULATION:-To find out the genuine solutions for
our fast growing population and negative consequences of population explosion,
we have to develop understanding among masses through enriched programme
of population education.
4. TO ESTABLISH EQUALITY OF SEXES:-Population education if rightly perceived, can go
a long way in establishing equality of sexes by helping women to acquire their
rightful status.
5. BETTER QUALITY LIFE:-Population education provides an opportunity as well as
challenge to see how best through what means we can succeed in creating an
urge in every individual to aspire for a better quality of life. Page
|6

IMPORTANCE OF POPULATION EDUCATION

The importance of population education could be seen by the following points

1) It is useful to learn fertility mechanism
2) It holds key for our future improvement.
3) It is helpful for understanding the importance of family planning.
4) It provides new methodologies of teaching the subject.
5) It has an increasing in every field of life.
6) It motivates people to get conscious of their genuine duties and modify their
behaviour for a prospective life.
7) It is useful to understand and develop a link between population growth and
development.
8) It is useful to understand the gap between the developed and developing
countries and also acquaints about the methods to amend this gap.

Q: -DISTRIBUTION & DENSITY OF POPULATION EDUCATION.

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION EDUCATION

The global population has crossed 6 billion mark and one of the peculiar feature of
human population is the uneven distribution of population, which simply means
that some parts of the globe are thickly populated while as the others support lesser Page
number of populations. Some areas of the globe are densely populated and some | 7
are sparsely populated. This uneven distribution is not the phenomenon of modern
times but this has been the same from times immemorial.
The mankind on the earth’s crust is distributed unevenly from times
immemorial. Nearly one half of the world’s population is contained within 5% of the
total earth’s land area. In contrast 57% of the earth’s land area contains less than
5% of the world population. There are many areas of the world where there are no
human settlements, for example, Siberia in the Asian continent, where there is no
trace of human population.
FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION DISTRIBUTION: - The main factors which affect the

population distribution can be classified into two main groups: -

1) Physical factors
2) Non-physical factors
PHYSICAL FACTORS OR NATURAL FACTORS: - These are the factors which are due to the

nature or which are the components of physical environment. These include:

1) LOCATION: - The geographical location plays a significant role in determining the

regional pattern of population distribution. It is observed that the main

concentration of population throughout the globe is marginal to the continents and
the interiors tend to be sparsely populated. It means that population is attracted by
coasts and to a great extent repelled by sentimentality.
2) RELIEF: - Relief exerts great influence up on the distribution of population in Page

different parts of the world. High and rugged relief restricts human access, | 8
habitation and cultivation. Almost all mountainous regions of the continents are
very sparsely populated. The relief features i.e. mountains plateaus and deserts are
either sparsely populated or there is no population. In contrast to mountains,
plateaus and deserts, plains are usually more advantageous to human population.
3) CLIMATE: - Climate is the most important factor that controls the distribution of

population in the world. Climatic conditions limit the habitable area of the earth.
The population of a region is closely related with the climatic conditions of the
concerned region. The equatorial regions, being hot and humid is supposed to be
very harsh and hostile for dense population growth. Therefore, the equatorial
regions of South-East Asia, Africa and South America are sparsely populated. In the
same way, the cold and frozen regions of Antarctica are not ideal for human
population. In desert regions where high temperature combined with low rainfall
restricts human population to a great extent. It is always intermediate zones that
are the great cradles of population.
4) WATER: - Water is often referred as elixir of life. Water is essentially needed both

for human consumption as well as cultivation. Water is an important resource and it

is used for irrigation and industry. The availability of water varies from place to
place and time to time. Human life cannot survive without the supply of water.
Accordingly, human beings have always preferred to live in those regions where
there are plenty of water resources, but has been so controlled that it does not
devastate. It is a historical fact that all World Civilizations have developed on the Page
banks of rivers like Indus Valley Civilization, Nile Valley Civilization and Hwang Ho | 9
Civilization etc. It has been found that in ancient past, all important cities of the
world were found near river banks.
5) SOILS: - When the soil ids fertile it can yield rich harvest, and attract people to

settle. The fertile alluvial soil of the deltas, of South-East Asia and the Nile have
supported dense population from times immemorial. Depletion of soil resource, on
the other hand proves repulsive, that means it restricts population concentration.
That is why the areas with rocky terrain support a very sparse population. On the
other hand, the plains and coastal areas with rich and fertile alluvial soils support
maximum population on the earth.
6) RESOURCES: - Nature has gifted every nation of the world with some natural

resources. These energy resources e.g. minerals and fuels are not evenly
distributed. In areas which are very rich in mineral wealth, there is growth of
industry which attracts both skilled and unskilled labour from other areas,
consequently the density of population is very high. The availability of Gold in
Australia and Oil in West Asia attracted people all over the world to settle in these
regions.
7) TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION: - Since early ages the means of transport and

communication have been the source of attraction for settlement. People are
generally attracted to those places where means of transport and communication
are fast and cheap.
8) ALTITUDE: - It has been observed that the density of population throughout the Page

world decreases with altitude. High altitude restricts human habitation due to a | 10
drastic reduction of atmospheric pressure and reduction of oxygen level which are
dangerous for the survival of human life.
NON-PHYSICAL FACTORS OR SOCIAL FACTORS: - Besides natural factors, social factors

also play an important role in determining the distribution and density of population
in a particular area or region. The important social factors are: -
1) SOCIO-CULTURAL CONDITIONS: - Social and cultural conditions do influence the

distribution of population throughout the world. The societies where customs,

culture and social restrictions are very rigid, people try to settle down at other
places and thus add to the population of that area. Similarly, people who share the
same cultural heritage of their ancestors and forefathers settle down at one place
and increase the population.
2) ECONOMIC CONDITIONS: - In areas where there are more chances of employment

with good economic returns, the population is always thick. Compared to

agricultural society, an industrial society can support denser population. The
process of urbanization is of great importance in modern times as people tend to
live in urban than rural areas due to high standard of living and better facilities of
life in cities.
3) POLITICAL SETUP: - The people are very sensitive with respect to their political

ideology. People often seek political asylum in other countries as the country of
their origin is not suited for their political activities. For example during Afghan Page
| 11
crises people from Afghanistan migrated to settle in Pakistan.
4) HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: - We are born in a culture and reared and nurtured in a

particular cultural setting. Thus, the people who in the past settled down at one
place, their offspring continue to remain there, adjusting themselves to the
problems and try to solve them rather than leaving the place.
5) DESIRE FOR KNOWLEDGE: - Intelligent and talented people often migrate from the

country of their origin to other countries for seeking knowledge. Once they feel that
the conditions are favorable for them, they settle down there.
6) MIGRATIONS: - Population distribution is also affected by migration of the people.

When there is war, drought, flood or some other natural calamity, people in large
numbers migrate or leave their place of origin and shift to other areas, where
survival conditions are optimum.
DNSITY OF POPULATION EDUCATION
Density of population refers to average number of people living per square
kilometer.
The population of the world can be categorized into three density zones on the
basis of their distribution: -
1) HIGHEST DENSITY ZONES: - Zones with more than 250 persons per square kilometer.

The high density zones of the world are scattered and there are four major
areas of high population concentration listed as under: - Page
| 12
- Western and Central Europe
- North-eastern areas of United States
- South Asia
- South East and South Asia.
2) MODERATE DENSITY ZONES: - Zones with 25 to 250 persons per square kilometer.

The moderate density zones are the regions engaged in extensive agriculture,
pastoral way of living and industrial development. This moderate density zone
comprises of two distinct types of human settlements: -
- The “Old World” of Asia, Africa and Europe
- The “New World” of America and Australia.
3) LOWEST DENSITY ZONES: - Zones with 0 to 25 persons per square kilometers. The

low density regions include 80% of the total land area, which is either too rugged,
hot or cold, wet or dry for the people to settle in large numbers and engage in
productive activities.
The regions with the lowest population density are: -
- The polar ice-caps and the Tundra regions of Eurasia, North America and
Antarctica.
- The deserts of the Sahara and the Kalahari of Africa, the Antarctic desert of Chile,
the Australian desert and the desert areas of South West U.S.A. and central Asia.
- The equatorial rain forests of the Amazon Basin, the Congo Basin and the interior
forest areas of the Indonesian arch.
MEASUREMENT OF DENSITY OF POPULATION: - Density of population in a country is Page
| 13
measured by dividing its total population by total area:
Density of Population Total Population
Total Area
In 2001, India’s total population was 102.70 crore that used to live over an area of
32.80 lakh sq.km.
Density of Population = 102.70 crore
32.80 lakh sq.km.
= 324 per sq. km.
Density of population in India is maximum 904 per sq.km. in West Bengal and
minimum i.e. 13 per sq.km. in Arunachal Pradesh.
Among union a territory, Delhi has the maximum density i.e. 9294 per sq. km.
J&K has the population density of 99 per sq. km.

POPULATION COMPOSITION

Human population is characterized by demographic, social and

economic characters and these characters in total are known as the components of
population. The important components of compositions in any population include
the study of age, sex, literacy, religion, rural, urban, nature etc. Such studies provide
the detailed information regarding the particular community or population and it
reveals the level of economic and social development of the society. Demographers
and population experts conduct surveys for such studies, but most of the required
data for such studies is being bounded to the census source. Page
| 14
AGE
Age has been variously defined but as per the definition of census, age simply
means the number of years, which a person has lived. Every population comprises
of the members of different age. Generally the method of calculated age is in the
form of groups i.e. 0-5, 5-10, 10-15 etc. In every country the average life span is
being calculated and that is known as Longevity. As per the age population may be
grouped into three broad sectors which are.
1) Below 15 years of age (Juveniles sector).
2) Between 15 and 60 years of age (The work force sector).
3) Above 60 years of age (Senile sector).
Besides these broad sectors population in the age group of 0-5 is also being
calculated and this is known as infant sector. The study of age is an important factor
of development as it reveals the strength of the work force in a given society which
happens to be the backbone economy. It is through the stud of age that we can
calculate the dependency ratio which is calculated as
DR = JD + SD/WF * 100
SEX
Human population consists of two main components male and female. The
numerical proportion between the two is known as Sex Ratio. It is defines as the
number of females per one thousand males. In India for the past century males
have been increasingly out numbering female population.
With unfavorable sex ratio the female life expectantly two had been low Page
as compared with the males. The average life expectantly at birth for females in | 15
56.4 against 55.6 for males. Literacy is one of the most significant factors which
influences the longevity of human population in 2001. The female literacy in our
country was 65.38 in total. That is 75.85 among males and 54.16 among females.
Kerala has the highest literacy rate i.e. 90.92% in total. i.e. 94.20% among males and
87.86% among females.
RURAL/URBAN PARAMETERS
Another aspect of population composition is the place of living and we classify the
place of living into two broad categories
1. Rural livings or rural settlements
2. The urban livings are urban settlements.

RURAL SETTLEMENTS

The mode of permanent life on the surface of the earth started with the
establishment of rural settlements. Man being a permanent settlement due to the
invention of agriculture and due to this permanent settings he raised permanent
shelters in the areas where he performed the agrarian activities.
 This is the beginning of the village or the rural life. With the passage of time,
the number, size and structure of rural settlements changed, but even in the
present world most of the global population nearly 2/3rd lives in rural areas. Page
| 16
These rural areas may fall into three different types:
1. Clustered or Compact.
2. Semi clustered or Semi-compact.
3. Dispersed.
Theses rural settlements may be having the pattern like linear pattern,
circular pattern, semi circular pattern or star shaped pattern. In all these rural
settlements of the world the life is differentiated on the basis of demographic,
social and economic parameters. In all these rural areas majority of population are
to belong to primary sector that is hunting, gathering, timbering, fishing, maiming
and growing crops as the main activity. In order words man is directly dependent on
a nature in rural areas. Socially the rural areas are backward as the facilities of like
education, medical facility, sanitation, banking, drinking water, and road
accessibility have not trickled down to majority off the rural areas. Economically
they are backward as the activities which rural populations perform are substance
time.

URBAN POPULATION

The growth and development of rural settlements in size, shape, structure and
number resulted in a diversified economy, a high concentration and a large number
at particular settlement which ultimately lost the rural function and attained a new
nomenclature that is the Urban Settlements. History reveals the fact that urban
settlements came into existence from Mesopotamian civilization and perhaps Page
Summerians were the first urban. After that the number of urban settlements | 17
continued to grow. So much so in the world of today 30% of the global population is
urban and 70% is rural. The urban sector is the agglomeration of towns and cities,
which is the result of industrialization, the cities and towns are the centers of
administration, commerce, industry and education. As towns expand, the pressure
of transport, water supplies, sewage and refuse disposal, grows and creates
problems. The growth of cities which to a large extent is due to in migration is
responsible for problems of housing, water supply, sanitation parks, playgrounds,
schools hospitals and other public services.
The urban areas share some characteristics that is higher number of males, higher
literacy, and higher proportion of people employed in non agricultural occupations.
The following factors are responsible as the main causes of urbanization in any
country of the world.
1. Network of industries in towns and cities.
2. Better standard of life and remunerative livelihood in urban areas.
3. Availability of better social services in cities that is education, health services,
sanitation, transport and communication system etc.
4. Unemployment in rural sector.
5. Insecurity of life and properly in villages.
 FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION GROWTH

Population growth has generally been considered as an increase in population, but

in real sense growth never means an increase only. Growth simply refers or means a Page
change in number. The change may be either positive or negative and in some cases | 18
there may be no change. In first situation when change is negative it means there is
decrease in number and we denote growth as negative. In life second situation
when the change is positive it means an increase in number and denote growth is
positive. While in some cases where there is no change growth is referred as zero
population growth (Z P G ) population growth can be explained with the following
equation.
Pg = Po + ( B_D) + (IM_OM)
Where Pg= Population Growth
B = births
D= deaths
IM = in migration
OM = Out migration
The main factors which affect the population growth in any part of the world are
classified as:
FERTILITY
It is defined in the words of Lewis and Thompson as the actual reproductive
performance of a woman or group of women. It is a biological character generally
associated with mothers. It is different from fecundity in a sense that fecundity
refers to the reproductive capacity of a mother which she can perform from the age
of 14-49 while fertility is actual reproduction which she has been performed in the
reproductive age group. The crude birth rate is one of the measures of fertility. The Page
reproductive age group of a women starts from the age of 14 and it ends at the age | 19
of 49. In the western countries the limit for marriage has been increased up to 28-
29 years. In India the age of marriage for a girl has been fixed at the age of 18 years
and the result is evident that Indian women bear more children as compared to
those of western women. Fertility is closely related with birth rate. Though birth is
a biological process, yet birth rate is influenced by social, economic, religious and
moral considerations.
In the words of Barnard Benjamin, “Fertility measures the rate of which a
population add to itself by births and is normally assessing by relating the number
of births to the size of some section of population such as the number of married
couples of than umbers of woman of child bearing age that is an appropriate
yardstick of potential fertility”
The main factors which affect the fertility process of both the sexes (male and
female) may be as under:
1) BIOLOGICAL FACTORS: - Biological Factors play a vital role in the process of fertility.

Health of the individual is the most important Biological Factor with it are related
the factors like disease and food habits etc.
2) DIRECT FACTORS: - The direct factors which influence and effect fertility include use

of:
I) Oral Pills
II) Loops
III) Condoms Page
| 20
IV) Abortion
V) Infanticide
3) INDIRECT FACTORS: - Indirect factors are influenced by social customs and in turn

affect fertility, indirectly. These factors include

i) Age of marriage
ii) Polygamy
iii) Separation and divorce
iv) Widowhood
v) Abstinence and menstruation
vi) Celibacy
4) OTHER FACTORS: - Some other social factors influence and effect the fertility

a) Food supply
b) Urbanization
c) Role of religion
d) Economic conditions
e) Political system.

MORTALITY
Number of persons dying per thousand in a year is called death rate or mortality
rate. Mortality rate is regarded as an index of the well being of a nation. The
countries which are economically sound and where people enjoy high standards of Page
livings have a lower death rate than the countries which are economically | 21
backward. The advanced countries have succeeded to lower their death rate due to
availability of food supplies, pure drinking water, heath care, better sewage disposal
and clean environment. Mortality rate was used to be very high in the past, because
people were not much conscious and careful about their health, as the medical care
was not readily available. It is believed that Romans were the first people, to collect
data regarding deaths during 3rd century.
FACTORS AFFECTING MORTALITY
Mortality or death is affected by a variety of factors. They may be biological,
physiological, environmental, etc. form the demographic view point, mortality is
related to the age and sex of an individual. There is infant mortality, mortality of
women at the time of delivery, mortality of man due to cancer of the prostate, etc.

MIGRATION OR MOBILITY

Migration means movement of people from one place, country, and town to
another. Migration of human population is an international phenomenon. Human
migrations are as old as mankind. It is a social character achieved by man and it has
been defined as change in residence. It occurs at all levels i.e. International level,
national level and state level. In all the case there is a movement of people. The
place where from people move is known as place of origin and the place where they
settled is known as place of destination. The people moving form place of origin are
known as out migrants or Emigrants and at the place of destination these people Page
are known as Immigrants or Immigrants. In all these cases such a movement effects | 22
the number which means that it affects the growth of population. Migrations are
generally caused either by pull factors or by push factors. West Asia which is a
desert and was very sparsely populated till the discovery of oil in the beginning of
20th century but today it is a thick populated zone of the globe as people in large
numbers from all over the world have migrated to the region because of pull
factors. In India the town like Tatonager, Faridabad, Modinagar have come into
existence because of the large scale migration of people from different corners of
India. The main factors which affect migration are: -
1. Economic factors
2. Geographical factors
3. Social factors
4. Political factors
5. Demographic factors
6. Religious factors
7. Industrialization
 UNIT-1 POPULATION EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS

Q: -SCOPE OF POPULATION EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS.

Page
| 23
A:-Population Education as per UNESCO is defined as “an educational programme
which provided for a study of the population situation in family, community, nation
and the world with the purpose of developing in the students, rational and
responsible attitudes and behavior towards that situation”.
THERE IS A WIDE SCOPE OF POPULATION EDUCATION IN SCHOOLS BECAUSE:

1. Schools are the centre’s of teaching and learning for young generation.
2. Schools have a traditional of being future oriented.
3. Schools promote social change.
4. Schools are engaged in adopting new innovations and changes.
POPULATION EDUCATION INCLUDES THE FOLLOWING AREAS OF STUDY:
(a) Population dynamics and pattern of population growth.
(b) Developing of basic understanding of the process of human reproduction.
(c) Understanding of health problems associated with child bearing.
(d) Appreciation of the relationship between quality of life for a family and its size.
(e) Appreciation of the significance of population characteristics and policies for
socio-economic development.
(f) Familiarity with the population policies and family planning programmes of only
own country.
THE MAIN PROBLEMS OF IMPARTING POPULATION EDUCATIONS IN SCHOOLS ARE:
1. Confusion in concept.
2. Shortage of qualified and trained teachers in population education.
3. Prejudice of parents. Page
| 24
4. Lack of suitable planning.
5. Lack of coordination among various agencies working in the field of family
planning/ welfare and education.
ON SCHOOLS IMPARTING OF POPULATION EDUCATION AIMS TO:
1) To develop among the students a keen insight into the interrelationship between
population change and the process of socio economic development.
2) To create among the students and teachers awareness about the population
situation in the country and the strategies adopted to meet this critical situation.
3) To create an awareness among students that the present population explosion in
our country is the result of speedy birth rate.
4) To develop desirable attitudes and behavior among students and teachers
towards the population issues to determine the quality of life.
5) To help students to realize the socio-economic burden involved in bringing up
large families usually resulted in deterioration in quality of living.
6) To provide Population Education at its right place in the curriculum of the formal
as well as the non formal programme of education.
7) To make curriculum removal a continuous and ongoing process to meet the
emerging challenges that confront society from time to time.
 The following six major areas have been identified for Population Education
concepts in schools which have been borrowed from social science to biological
sciences. They have a wide scope for encompassing most of the concepts related to Page
| 25
the Population Education at the school level. These are: -
a) Population growth (determinants and demographic situation)
b) Population growth and economic development (consequences)
c) Population growth and social development (Consequences)
d) Population, health and nutrition.
e) Population, biological factors and family life.
f) Population programme national and international.
At NCERT New Delhi the Population Education cell has developed a draft syllabus
on Population Education for different stages. Population Education is not to be
treated as a separate subject in the school curriculum but should be integrated with
other curricular subjects.

Q: -METHODS & APPROACHES OF POPULATION EDUCATION.

A:-Method implies an orderly way of doing something. Population Education being a

controversial and value laden area, the best way of dealing it in the classroom is
through the use of appropriate teaching methodologies. Modern teaching learning
assigns an important place to student activity and involvement. It is also called
child-centered or learner-centered approach. There are five main approaches of
population education in school curriculum. These are as follows:-
1) INQUIRY APPROACH: - This approach aims at developing in the learner those skills

and attitudes that will enable them to think critically and in fact, to become
independent problem solver. The term ‘Inquiry Approach’ has been used Page
interchangeably with such terms as ‘Discovery Approach’ ‘Problem Solving’, | 26
‘Interactive Method’, ‘Deductive Method’, etc. Though these approaches are
different, but passes one common point and that is planning of a premium on the
learners thinking. In all these approaches, the learners are activity involved in the
process of investigation and searching a problem, organizing the information,
analyzing, interpreting and concluding the best alternatives.
2) OBSERVATION APPROACH: - Observation means knowing about the things, persons,

places and events lying in our environment with the use of our sense organs. In
observation approach we study the problem horizontally and longitudinally. We go
to the field, share the culture of the people, and try to create more informal
situations in which people will feel and act in an accommodative and flexible
environment and with result come with real facts.
3) SELF-STUDY APPROACH: - This approach is applicable at the secondary stage of

learning. This approach demands essential understanding on the part of the learner.
This approach begins from one’s own self. He has to make a close observation of his
own family, his neighbours, his locality and his relations. Henceforth he can gather
sound information about the quality of life and resources responsible for it. He will
make an in depth study of the income resources available to different sections of
people and their expenditure on their ways of living. It is through this approach one
could realize the merits and demerits of family planning and its immediate and
remote effects on population.
4) DISCUSSION METHODS:-This method can make use of three different forms or Page

patterns of education; formal, non-formal and informal. Discussion can be arranged | 27

in any form. In its arranged form the discussions could be conducted at school level.
Topics pertaining to population education will be thrown for discussion. Discussion
helps students in working what they did not know. At the same time they may
become sure about the correctness of what they know.
5) ASSIGNMENT METHOD: - Assignment means the work that has been allotted to the

pupils or class. It is primarily means for substituting and supple nenting teaching
work. Assignment is an extra work than that of classroom work. Population
education is the subject, which has many components and constitutions. It is not
possible for a teacher to give everything concerning to a topic, in a limited period of
school time. To supplement the topic studied, a teacher gives assignment to the
students.

Q: -USE OF MASS MEDIA IN POPULATION EDUCATION.

NEWSPAPER

Newspaper is the most powerful media device through which we can disseminate
information related to “population education”. It is most economic and easily
accessible to every common man as nit is available everywhere in the country. Its
service is quick and within no time it reaches in the hands of millions of people.
 A newspaper is equipped with information related to latest
development in Population Education through its various columns comprising
editorial, essays comments, letters to the editor, stories, cartoons etc. By the help of Page
this device many aspects of Population Education may be circulated for the benefit | 28
of the people. It can also cover foreign countries in relation to population
education. Newspaper disseminates information about population growth. It can
also include its impact on Indian society. It can cover news about epidemic diseases,
diseases like STD, AIDS, HIV and communicable diseases.
It is a very powerful media which can attract the people to participate in
family welfare programmes.

RADIO

Radio has reached in every nook and corner of society. In every corner of the
country people do have radio. It is most convenient and powerful media through
which knowledge of Population Education can be disseminated not only to school
going children but to masses at large.
RADIO AND POPULATION EDUCATION
a) Radio besides being a mass media of communication can also play a major role in
imparting instructiong regarding the family planning to school children.
b) Radio provides general information about the population explosion in India as
well as in the world.
c) The programmes covering the different aspects and dimensions of population
education, could be listened by the students through radio.
d) It covers the entire world and reaches the isolated rural parts of the population. Page
| 29
e) Radio technology is very cheap and it has low running cost than other media. so
people can posses the knowledge of population easily.
f) Radio broadcast can be used for imparting information about the different
concepts of population education.

TELEVISION

The Television is a combination of sound and picture. it is close to reality. It provides

a realistic feel of events. It can bring industry and field work into the classroom. It
can take the classroom to the distant places. It can motivate the viewer’s I.e create
greater interest in learning. Best talent of teaching available at some places can be
made to reach out to other places through video lectures. Television facilitates
them. Television saves the time and effort of the student and teacher.
TELEVISION AND POPULATION
a) Television is an important instrument for teaching population education and
making population related programmes popular in the masses.
b) Television has superiority over radio broadcast because it is visual as well as
audio teaching aids. It can present the senses showing the effects of overpopulation
on environment and other natural hazards etc. in live and realistic in nature.
c) The concepts of population education are presented in more effective and clear
way by television than radio broadcast.
d) Television can show the population situation in India in world perspective very Page
| 30
clearly and effectively.
e) Discussion on population related topics are held in television.
g) From the television relays, it is possible to compare the different dimensions and
aspects of population growth in India in world perspective very clearly and
effectively.

AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS

Audio- visual aids are those devices that help to make teaching, learning more
interesting, stimulating and more effective. So audio –visual aids are anything by
means of which learning process may be encouraged or carried on through these
aids of learning.
According to Kinder S James, “Audio-visual aids are any device which can be used to
make the learning experience more concrete, more realistic and more dynamic”.
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF AUDIO –VISUAL AIDS
1. PROJECTED AIDS:-Those devices which can help in the projection of things on

screen such as slide, filmstrips, overhead projection.

2. NON-PROJECTED AIDS:-Those which cannot be projected on the screen such as

graphics, charts, maps etc.

ADVANTAGES OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS

1) Audio-visual aids facilitate the acquisition of maximum learning on the part of
students.
2) They help the teacher in creating proper situation and environment for capturing Page
| 31
as well as maintaining the interest and attention of the students.
3) Audio-visual aids are a good motivating force. They match with their inner urges
instincts, basic drives and motivate the students and thus prove a great motivating
force for energizing learners to learn effectively.
4) For different situation they proved valuable substitutes for the real object or
phenomenon for making the learning realistic.
5) They help in adequate retension by leaving behind a permanent mark in the form
of adequate impression.
6) Through the use of these acids much of the time and energy of both students and
of teachers may be solved.
8) Use of audio-visual aids help in cultivating scientific habits of generalization
through actual observation.

UNIT-1II GENDER STUDIES

Q: - CONCEPT OF GENDER STUDIES.

A:-Gender plays a role in almost all sphere of life. It is an important aspect of politics
and economy. It has an impact on everything from working life to intimate relations.
It makes itself felt in war and in love. We read the world through gendered glasses,
and media, institutions, families, social networks and many other arenas construct
gendered distinctions and norms for “proper" gendered behaviours and
appearances. To visit a standard department store in order to find baby clothes or Page
toys for toddlers that are not marked by gender in various kinds of transgenderism | 32
or queen practice's, " proper" gender is often still an underlying norm for what
should be transgressed.
Gender Studies is a transdisciplinary area of study which engages critically with
gender realities, gender relations and gender identities from intersectional
perspectives. To study gender intersectionally means to focus on the ways in which
gender interrelates with other social categorizations such as ethnicity, class,
sexuality identity, nationality, age, disability etc.
Teachers and students of Gender Studies are diverse, but share a belief that
women and men, girls and boys, are much more than just gendered stereotypes and
cultural "dopes" who simply perform a pre-given gender/sex, defined by a hetero
normative two-gender-model . In Gender Studies, we analyze how gender/Sex
interacts with other social distinctions such as ethnicity, class, sexuality identity,
nationality, age, disability etc. We explore how gender, power and norms are
intertwined and cannot be understood independently of social and cultural
contexts. We scrutinize how various kinds of social injustice, for example, class-and
ethnicity-based injustices, often haves strong gendered dimensions. A key focus of
Gender Studies is the question: how to foster change, make space for diversity and
for new kinds of social, cultural and ecological sustainability and equality. Gender
Studies educates agents for change.

Page
Q: - NEED AND SCOPE OF GENDER STUDIES. | 33

A: - The field of gender studies explores the ways that femininity and masculinity
affect an individual's thought process. This is relevant in a variety of realms, such as
social organizations and institutions, interpersonal relationships, and
understandings of identity and sexuality. Gender Studies is a discipline created
originally by activities, and those who study it today see it as their mission to
identify, analyze, and correct social inequities both locally and globally.
Gender Studies explores power as it relates to gender and other forms of
identity, including sexuality, race, class, religion, and nationality. Gender Studies
encompasses interdisciplinary fields, which include exploration of the histories and
experiences of diverse women and men as well as studies of sexualities,
masculinities, feminities, and gender systems in society. It also analyses how gender
plays out in politics, intimate life, culture, the workplace, athletics, technology,
health, science, and in the very production of knowledge itself. College courses
emphasize critical thinking and analysis along with social justice activism. These
courses teach interdisciplinary method's, relate debates in the field to key
intellectual and social movements, explore intersections of feminist studies,
masculinity studies, and queen studies, and assist students with professional
development. Gender Studies emphasis on the relationships between gender and
society. Historically and cross-culturally, and on the changes now occurring in the
roles of women and men, and on women themselves. Gender is then understood as
not a free standing category, but rather one that takes shape through its Page
intersection with other relations of power, including sexuality, race, ethnicity, class, | 34
nationality, and religion. It offers historical, contemporary, and transnational
analysis of how gender and sexual formations arise in different contexts such as
colonialism, nationalism, and globalization. Globalization understands the ways that
gender operates in different national and cultural contexts. Through this
understanding, many graduates get advanced degrees in a profession such as law or
business. Graduates report working in a range of areas including communications
and media, arts and education, business, politics and government, the law, health
and non-profit sector. In addition to its focus on the history and achievements of
women, gender scholarship has inspired research and achievements of women,
gender scholarship has inspired research and curricula that address men’s lives,
masculinity, and the lives of people who identity as Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual or
Transgender.

Q: - GENDER STUDIES AS AN ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE.

A:-Even though Gender Studies is a relatively new phenomenon in higher education,

it is today well established as an interdisciplinary field of study which draws on
knowledge from both the humanities, the social sciences, medicine, and natural
science. The basis for the academic field of Gender Studies was in many countries
laid in the 1970s, when women in Academia protested against the ways in which
academic knowledge production made women invisible and ignored gendered
power relation's in society. Interdisciplinary study environments started to Page
mushroom, among others in many European countries and in North America, where | 35
so-called Women's Studies Center's were set up , gathering critical teachers and
students who wanted to study gender relations, and women, in particular. A
common denominator for the development was strong links to women's
movement's, activism, feminist ideas and practices. the research agenda was
emancipatory, and the aim was to gather well founded scholarly arguments to
further the political work for change in society, science and culture.
The aim of the academic project of Gender Studies was to generate a new field
of knowledge production which could gain impact on science and scholarly
practice's and theories.
Against this background, a critical and innovative approach to existing science
and academic scholarship is one of the characteristics of the subject area.The
relationship between knowledge, power and gender in interaction with other social
divisions such as ethnicity, class, sexuality, nationality, age, dis/ability, etc is
critically scrutinized in gender research.
Since the start in the 1970s, gender research has been inspired by and
embedded in many different and sometimes partly overlapping scholarly traditions,
such as empiricism, Marxism, psychoanalysis, poststruralism, critical studies of
sexualities, body theory, sexual difference feminisms, black feminisms, ecological
feminisms, animal studies, cyborg theory, feminist techno science studies,
materialist feminisms. The field of study has grown and expanded rapidly on a
worldwide basis, and given rise to a diversity of specific national and regional Page
| 36
developments.

Q: - GENDER, ECONOMY AND WORK PARTICIPATION.

A:-1) Even though the proportions of men and women in the labor force have been
converging, the kind of work done by the two sexes remains distinct. According to
the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 1994, women engage in a narrow range of
occupations, with half of working women holding just two types of jobs.
Administrative support work, the first category, draws 27 percent of working
women, most of whom serve as secretaries, typists, or stenographers. From another
angle, 80 percent of all pink-collar jobholders are women.
The second category is service work, performed by 18 percent of employed
women. These jobs include waitressesjng and other food-service work as well
healthcare positions. Both categories of jobs lie at the low end of the pay scale,
offer limited opportunities for advancement, and are subject to supervision-most
often by men.
2) One sound indicator of the global pattern of patriarchy is the extent to which
housework-cleaning, cooking, and caring for children is the province of women.
Global Map 13-2 shows that, in general, members of industrial societies divide
housework more evenly than people in the poor societies of the world do. But in no
nation on earth is housework shared equally.
Although the typical couple shares in discipline the children and managing Page
finances, men routinely perform home repairs and yard work while women seem to | 37
most daily yask of shopping, cooking, and cleaning. On average, twenty-six hours a
week, housework amounts to a 'Second Shift' that woman undertake after returning
from the workplace each day. In general, then, house work adds stress to many
women's lives; those who have help in maintaining the household suffer less, as do
those who choose only the role of fulltime homemaker.
3) In 1993, the median earnings for women working full time were 22,469, while
men working fulltime earned 31, 077. For every dollar earned by men, then, women
earned about 72 cents.
Among full-time workers, 57 percent of work women earned less than 25000
in 1993, compared to 37 percent of comparable men at the upper end of the
income scale, men were five times more likely than women 8.3 percent versus 1.8
percent to earn more than 75000 U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1995.
The most perspective, gender-based income disparity is less pronounced in the
United States than in Japan but greater than it is in most other industrial nations,
including Australia, Canada, Norway, and Sweden. Over time, however, this
disparity has gradually declined in the United States. In 1980, for example, working
women earned only 60 percent as much as working men. This trend toward
comparable earnings has two sources, however: increasing economic opportunities
for women and a recent decline in the earnings of many men.
The most important reason of gender-based income disparity is family Page
responsibilities. Both men and women have children, of course, bot our culture | 38
defines parenting more as a women's responsibility than a man's. Pragnanancy and
raising small children keep many younger women out of the labor force altogether
at a time when their male peer's stand to make significant occupational gains. As a
result, women workers have less job seniority than their male counterpart's.
For all these reasons, then, women earn less than men within all major occupational
categories.

Q: - GENDER, GLOBALIZATION AND EDUCATION.

A: - The issues of gender equality constantly take on new configurations especially

in the economy in the last 15 years. There have significant implications for
education:-
1) PROLIFERATION OF PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND DECLINE IN STANDARDS OF GOVERNMENT
SCHOOLS:-With globalization, the high demand for education, and the changing

nature of the states involvement in school education in the nineties, privatization

has been taking place at a rapid pace in all sectors of education. On the one hand
we have an unregulated private sector in education, where a majority of schools
focus on market values and success rates, and do not have a commitment to the
constitutional values of equality and citizenship or to the ideals of social justice and
collective well-being. On the other hand, the government school system is
responding adversely to privatization. Studies show that government schools are
becoming center's of poor quality education for the poor and marginalized, and are Page
being attended by girls from poor families. Polarisation of schooling is creating | 39
imbalances which are severely gendered, with parents deciding to send their sons to
private schools, whatever their quality, in the hope that this education will afford
some upward economic mobility.
2) NON-FORMALISATION OF EDUCATION: - There has been a growth of the non-formal

sector and a downsizing of the formal sector in the government education system,
without the problem of declining standards in the latter being redressed. Current
government policy is moving towards non-formalizing the formal stream. Efforts to
deal with teacher absenteeism or skewed student-teacher ratio in remote areas or
to provide bridge courses for those outside the system have resulted in the scaling
down of professional and infrastructural requirements of schools. In some states
like Madiya Pradesh there has been a ban on appointment of full time teachers in
primary and secondary education. In the non-formal sector too, poor infrastructure,
and reliance on barely trained para teachers with no service contracts results in
impoverished standards of education.
3) LANGUAGE AS A NEW MARKER OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST GIRLS IN THE CONTEXT OF
EMPLOYMENT:- Globalization is marginalizing girls further in education in relation to

access to English medium education. With globalization, the demands for fluency in
English have increased in the job market. More boys are being sent to private
English schools where possible; whereas girls continue to attend cheaper or free
vernacular schools. In Mumbai, the ratio of boys to girls in English schools is
approximately 3.1, whereas in Pune the ratio of boys to girls in Urdu schools is 1.4. Page
It is clear that language has become a marker of discrimination against girls in the | 40
context of employment, and this new form of discrimination needs to be addressed
seriously.

Q: - GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION.

A:-In education, to, a glimpse of the past sheds light on the present. About a century
ago, leading educators claimed that women's wombs dominated their minds. This
made higher education a burden on women's frail capacities. Dr.Edward Clarke, of
Harvard University’s medical faculty, expressed the dominant sentiment this way:-
"A girl upon whom Nature, for a limited period and for a definite purpose, imposes
so great a physiological task, will not have as much power left for the tasks of
school, as the boy of whom Nature requires less at the corresponding epoch."
Because women were so much weaker, Clarke urged them to study only one-third
as much as young men-and not to study at all during menstruation.
Over the years, the situation gradually improved, but discrimination persisted.
Through the 1960s for example, girls were barred from attending shop classes,
which were reserved for boys. Instead, they were routed to home economics,
considered appropriate for their station in life. Today, women's sports are often
underfunded. As a parenthetical note, whenever I attend high school football
games, I still see an organized group of girls in short, brightly coloured skirts wildly
cheering the boys from the girls as they play their sports.
The situation has so changed from what it used to be, however, that some Page
measures of education make it look as though discrimination may be directed | 41
against males. For example, more women than men are enrolled in U.S. colleges
and universities, and women now earn 54 percent of all bachelors’ degrees, women
also complete their bachelors degree's faster than men.
Probing below the surface, however, reveals that degree's follow gender, thus
reinforcing male-female distinctions. Two extremes at the bachelor’s level highlight
gender tracking. Women earn 89 percent of bachelor’s degree in home economics,
while men earn 86 percent of bachelors degree's in military technologies. Similarly,
men earn 86 percent of bachelors degree's in the masculine field of engineering,
while women are awarded 84 percent of bachelor’s degrees in the feminine field of
health sciences.

Q: - CONCEPT OF EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN.

A: - Gandhi respected traditions of the society, but not at the cost of loss of
individual dignity. He never hesitated to criticize the evils which had gripped the
Indian society, and tried to mobilize public opinion against such evils. He realized
that there were deep-rooted customs hampering the development of women, and
women’s freedom from such shackles was necessary for the emancipation of the
nation. He assumed a pioneering role in attempting to eradicate the social wrongs
committed against the women of the country through ages. When Gandhi emerged
on to the political scenario, social evils like child marriage and dowry system were
rampant. The percentage of women with basic education was as low as two Page
percent. The patriarchal nature of the society confined women to the status of an | 42
inferior sex subordinate to their male counterparts. The purdah system was in full
vogue in Northern India. Unless accompanied by their male guardians, the women
were not permitted to venture out on their own. Only a handful few could avail of
education and attend schools. It was in such a dismal milieu that Gandhi took the
responsibility of shouldering a social crusade that led to a major reorientation of the
common notion of women in the Indian society.

Q: - ROLE OF EDUCATION IN EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN.

A:-Education n is considered as significant instrument in improving the status of

women. The policy makers have realized that apart from the corrective legislation,
lucrative employment, political rights occurs to education for women is a crucial
step in the direction of establishing gender equality. Education is a major
instrument of social change it leads us towards the development including
development in the political, economic, cultural, and other dimensions of human
life. Women’s development should not only be viewed as an issue in social
development. The improvement in the status of women requires a change in the
attitudes and roles of both men and women.
 Education is not only a tool which aims at making human beings
honorable citizens than merely a virtuous and learned person. To leave women
uneducated is to leave one half of the society perfectly paralyzed and weaken the Page
other too. As such if not for any other reason, at least of this scare women should | 43
be educated. Empowered of women encompasses many other aspects in addition
to their economic self- sufficient .it includes inculcation of self confidence, ability to
take decisions about their own lives ,health, equality of opportunities. Women
empowerment is possible only when these basic issues are addressed and people
are educated about it in general on the one hand and on the other hand women
gain access and control over national information, knowledge, resources, challenges
and the ideologies of discrimination and sub- ordination.
Education is a major catalyst of social change .Rural women are very far
behind than urban women in the field of education. As a result, their nutritional
levels are very low, Proper health and medical facilities are not available for them.
Hence they suffer from so many diseases. As the literacy is low, they become the
victims of a number of social evils such as early marriages; dowry etc. education of
women is a critical input for improving nutritional levels, raising the age of marriage,
acceptance of family planning ,improvement in self image and their empowerment.
These factors would help the women to improve their status in the society.
 UNIT-1V ISSUES OF INDIAN WOMEN

Q: - CONCEPT OF WOMEN EDUCATION. Page

| 44
A:-Women are the cradle of civilization. For progress and prosperity of any country,
their contribution is very important. In other words, the secret of overall
development of any country lies in women education. That is why 8th, March is
celebrated every year as the international Women's day. Its objective is to bring in
our notice that man is incomplete in all fields without women. So all efforts and
sources should be used to give education to women.
According to Radha Krishnam Commission, "There cannot be any educated
people without educated women." The education of the women improves her
status in the family, in the society and in the eyes of the community.
According to J.L.Nehru,"Education of a boy is the education of one person, but
education of a girl is the education of the entire family."

NEED FOR WOMEN EDUCATION

In order to explain broadly why there is need for women education the answer lies
in this fact that there are several factors responsible for need of women education
which are as under:-
1) CAPABILITIES:-Women have proved themselves both physically and intellectually
equal to men. So to develop the various capabilities of women, there is need of
their education.
2) SELF RELIANCE: - Women can be self reliant too. So to make women more and

more self-reliant their education is need of time.

3) REMOVAL OF SOCIAL STIGMA:-Women are integral part of our society and a number Page

of evils are present in our society with regard to women. So to remove those social | 45
stigmas we have need of expansion of women education.
4) EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY AND WAGES: - According to Indian constitution, women

should be given equal opportunities in social, religious, political, professional, and

cultural spheres. For this purpose need of women education is arising from every
angle.
5)WOMEN AS A SOURCE OF INSPIRATION:-There have been a number of women

remained source of inspiration like Mother Teresa, Indira Gandhi etc to familiarize
common women with these great women; there is need of women education.

IMPORTANCE OF WOMEN EDUCATION

The following points will highlight the importance of women education:-

1) NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT:-If the nation is to be taken on the path of national

development and economic growth, then it is essential that human resource

development should take place effectively which is only possible through women
education.
2) ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT:-With the women education economic development

comes in a country from various angles because an educational thinker has said that
economy is direct related to education.
3) MODERNIZATION:-When women are properly educated, she cultivates the seeds of

modernization among her off springs who then strengthen the very roots of
modernization process. Page
| 46
4) SOCIAL AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT:-It is because of women education, people

become civilized, society becomes modern and a person becomes well cultured.
That is why women education is said to be the corner stone of social and cultural
development.
From the above discussion, we may say that women education is much important
for overall development of a nation.
Q: - REMEDIAL MEASURES/PROBLEMS FOR WOMEN EDUCATION.

A:-Some of the important measures to be undertaken are as under among women

for education:-
1) Cultivation of proper social attitude, it is necessary to cultivate proper social
attitude among people so that strong public opinion about women education will
get promoted in India.
2) Need Based Curriculum should be framed at the middle, high and senior
secondary school stages and steps should be taken to improve the teaching of
music, fine arts, home science etc.
3) Steps should be taken to establish more and more girl’s schools and colleges.
Separate reading rooms and sanitary conveniences should be provided to girls.
Adequate hostel facilities for girls should also be provided.
4) Efficient women should be appointed in administration in the Education
Department so that they may keen interest for expansion of women education by
inspecting schools and achieving the target of 100% attendance of female students. Page
| 47
5)Since the major population of India are poor and parents are not able to collect
even the minimum possible money to meet the basic necessities of life, the
question of sending their children to schools does not at all arise for them.
Therefore, steps should be taken by the Government to provide free education, free
uniforms, free mid-day meals, scholarships, books, uniforms etc. to the needy
students.
6) RESERVATION:-Sufficient reservation should be given to women in government and

private educational institutions, universities, jobs and in other fields so that a strong
desire may get developed among women for education.
Tour conclude, such remedial measures have to be taken by which we may be able
to increase the literacy rate of Indian women, which may lead the nation to the path
of progress and prosperity.

Q: - CO-EDUCATION-ITS EDUCATIONL IMPLICATIONS.

A:-By co-education we mean education of both boys and girls in the same
institution, in the same class and by the same teacher. Co-education means that
boys and girls shall be taught the same courses, at the same time, in the same place,
by the same faculty, with the same methods and under the same regime. Co-
education is one way to expand women education.
ARGUMENTS FOR CO-EDUCATION
1) TO DIMINISH UNNECESSARY ATTRACTION:-AWE introduced co-education in our

schools and colleges to diminish unnecessary attraction between sexes.

Page
Unnecessary curiosity is satisfied. | 48

2) SEX SUBLIMATION: - is achieved by it. Emotional balance is restored.

3) FOR A FULLER AND RICHER DEVELOPMENT:-Man is a wild animal. Manners exist

because of women. So for fuller and richer development, Co-education is a must.

4) ECONOMICAL:-Co-Education is financially economical also. Instead of opening
separate schools for a handful of women students, they can be safely sent to a boys
school thus resulting in saving a lot of money.
5) BAD HABITS REMOVED:-Co-education will help eradicate many bad habits such as

shyness, timidity etc. on the part of the boys. It will help in adjustment in later life
also.
6) MOTIVATION:-Co-education is one approach to motivate the students in the room.

Many students try to achieve better in order to impress some one of the opposite
sex. Women is a great motivational force as far as males are concerned. if the right
sort of encouragement of understanding is there, the male can bring down the
moon.
CASE AGAINST CO-EDUCATION
1) It is against our culture. The orthodox amongst us scoff at the very idea. They
won't allow us to go ahead with co-education.
2) It has been found out that with the introduction of co-education in schools and
colleges, sex offences are on the increase. At this moment no study can be quoted
to support this. This is being stated simply on the basis of newspaper reports which Page
| 49
are indeed satisfying. This argument drives one nail in the coffin of co-education.
3) In co-education schools and colleges, senior male students exploit junior female
students.
4) It is against ancient values. But still we have adopted this. One who rides two
horses is bounded to fall.
5) It has been found out that co-educational schools produce not always
emotionally stable people. They produce emotional wrecks also who are a great
nuisance to the society.
6) Co-education on the whole is a frustrating experience for many. When there is no
way out to check or meet the demands of this, the result is undue anxiety and
mental illness.

Q: -EDUCATION OF GIRL CHILD IN INDIA: PRESENT STATUS AND CHALLENGES.

A: - India holds a strong determination in educating all children, especially the girl
child. By declaring education as a fundamental right, India ensures constitutional
provisions for providing free and compulsory education to all the children between
6 to 14 years of age. This provision is widely known as the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan.”
Even after declaring education as a fundamental right, there are numerous
hurdles that prohibit a girl child from actually getting education. The biggest hurdle
is the prejudices that families have about girls—like girls are slow learners, they are
not rational; they are to be confined inside the domestic household, and why
bother about educating them. Page
| 50
Only a handful of people have actually realized the importance of educating a
girl. Though not a direct cause, the infamous dowry system is also another barrier in
girl child education. Families often think of a girl as a burden and often want to save
the money for their dowry rather than spending it on her education.
A girl is no less than a boy; if anything, they are all the more diligent,
hardworking and consistent in their effort towards anything. A girl should be
educated in order to ensure a better life for herself. If she is empowered she would
be in a condition to add on the income of the family, and raising the living condition
of her family.
As goes the saying from the Rig Veda, “the home has, verily, its foundation in
the wife.” An educated mother can give better care to her children. Since she is the
first teacher of the child, she is ought to be well versed to inculcate better value
system in the child. An ignorant mother would not understand the idea of proper
hygiene and sanitation leading to lack of proper care of the child—malnourishment
is a living example of this problem.
The government of India has initiated various programs and policies to ensure
that a girl does not miss out any opportunity of getting education. After
independence, the government had set up a National Committee on Women’s
Education in 1958, and it recommended that female education should be at par
with male education. In the year 1964, the Education Commission was set up, which
largely talked about focusing on educating the girl child. The government came up
with ‘New Education Policy’ in the year 1968, which focused on the overall Page
| 51
education at both rural and urban areas.
Mahila Samakhya Program is a program that comes under the New Education
Policy and was formed in the year 1988. This particular program focuses on the
empowerment of the women who belong to the marginalized group.
National Program for Education of Girls at Elementary Level(NPEGEL) was
started in 2003 to ensure access to education to girls who could not benefit from
the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan. Under this scheme model schools have been set up and
it covers 24 states.
Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya Scheme was launched in 2004 in order to provide
primary level education to girls. The scheme was especially designed for the
underprivileged girls in the rural areas.
Even after so many programs and policies of the government, we are still
lagging behind in providing education to the girl child. The problem here is not in
implementation but in the level of commitment of people in general.

Q: - KASTURBA GANDHI BALIKA VIDYALIYA.

A: - The Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) scheme was launched in July 2004
for setting up residential schools at upper primary level, for girls belonging
predominantly to the SC, ST, OBC & minority community. The scheme ran as
separate scheme for two years but was merged with Sarva Siksha Abhiyan w.e.f
April 1, 2007.

Page
SCOPE /COVERAGE OF THE SCHEME
| 52

The scheme was applicable since inception in 2004, in Educationally Backward

Blocks (EBBs) where the rural female literacy is below the national average (46.13%:
Census 2001) and gender gap in literacy is more than the national average (21.59%:
Census 2001). Among these blocks, schools may be set up in areas with:
concentration of tribal population, with low female literacy and/or a large number
of girls out of school, concentration of SC, OBC and minority populations, with low
female literacy and/or a large number of girls out of school, areas with low female
literacy; or areas with a large number of small, scattered habitations that do not
qualify for a school.

OBJECTIVES OF KGBV

Gender disparities still persist in rural areas and among disadvantaged communities.
Looking at enrolment trends, there remain significant gaps in the enrolment of girls
at the elementary level as compared to boys, especially at the upper primary levels.
The objective of KGBV is to ensure access and quality education to the girls of
disadvantaged groups of society by setting up residential schools at upper primary
level.
The components of the scheme will be as follows:-
i)Setting up of residential school's where there are a minimum of 50 girls
predominantly from the SC, ST and minority communities available to study in the
school at the elementary level. The number can be more than 50 depending on the Page
number of eligible girls Three possible models for such school have been identified | 53
and revised financial norms for the same are given Annexure-I (a), (b) & (c).
ii) To provide necessary infrastructure for these schools.
iii) To prepare and procure necessary teaching learning material and aids for the
schools.
iv) To put in place appreciate systems to provide necessary academic support and
for evaluation and monitoring.
v) To provide and prepare the girls and their families to send them to residential
school.
vi) At the primary level the emphasis will be on the slightly older girls who are out of
school and were unable to complete primary schools (10+). However, in difficult
areas (migratory populations, scattered habitations that do not qualify for
primary/upper primary schools) younger girls can also be targeted.
vii) At the upper primary level, emphasis will be on girls, especially, adolescent girls
who are unable to go to regular schools.
METHODOLOGY OF KGBV

Based on the number of girls and the type of residential school to be provided, the
selection of the model of the school to be selected would be done by a State Level
Committee based on the recommendation of the District Committee for the
purpose. The proposal shall be forwarded to the Cell at the National level who shall
appraise them with the help of external agencies/consultant, where necessary.
Finally, the Project Approval Board of SSA will approve these plans. Page
| 54

Q: - GIRLS EDUCATION UNDER SSA.

A: - It was launched in 2001 to universalize & improve the quality of Elementary
Education in India through community ownership of Elementary Education. The SSA
is being implemented in partnership with states to address the needs of children in
age group of 6-14 years. The achievements under SSA up to September 30, 2007,
include constructions of 7, 13,179 additional classrooms, 1, 72,381 drinking water
facilities, construction of 2, and 18,075 toilets. Supply of free textbooks of 6.64
crore children & appointment of 8.10 lakh teacher’s besides opening of 1, 86,985
(till 31.3.07) new schools.

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF SSA

�A Programme with a clear time frame for universal elementary Education.

�Thrust on quality & making education relevant.
�A main streaming Gender approach
� Focus on the educational participation of children from the SC/ST, religious &
linguistic minorities, etc.
�An opportunity for promoting social justice through basic education.
�A partnership between the Central, State & Local Govt.
� An effort at effectively involving a Panchayti Raj Institution, School Management
committees, Village & Urban Slum level committees, Parents-Teachers associations,
Mother-Teacher associations, Tribal Autonomous councils & other grass-root level Page
| 55
structures in the management of Elementary Schools.
�An opportunity for states to develop their own vision of Elementary Education.
� Community ownership of school based interventions through effective
decentralization.

AIMS & OBJECTIVES OF SSA

The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is to provide useful and relevant elementary education
for all children in the 6 to 14 age. There is also another goal to bridge social, regional
and gender gaps, with active participation of the community in the management of
schools.
Useful and relevant education signifies a quest for an education system that is not
alienating and that draws on community solidarity. Its aim is to allow children to
learn about and master their natural environment in a manner that allows the
fullest harnessing of their human potential both spiritually & materially.
This quest must also be a process of value-based learning that allows children an
opportunity to work for each other’s well being rather than no permit mere selfish
pursuits.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan realizes the importance of Early Childhood Care and
Education (ECCE) and looks at the 0-14 age as continuum. All efforts to support Pre
School learning in ICDS centres or special preschool centers in non-ICDS areas will
be made to supplement the efforts being made by the department of Women &
Child Development. Page
| 56
Objectives of SSA: -
� All Children in school, education guarantee centre, Alternate School, ‘Back to
School’ camp by 2004.
�All children must complete 5 yr. of primary schooling by 2007.
�All children must complete 8 yr. of Elementary Schooling by 2010.
� Focus on Elementary Education of satisfactory quality with emphasizes on
education for life.
� Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stage by 2007 and at
Elementary Education level by 2010.
�Universal retention by 2010.

EDUCATION FOR GIRLS

SSA’s commitment to universalize primary education necessarily implies equal &

universal participation of all children regardless of religion, caste, sex etc.
Thus, special attention to certain disadvantaged groups of children would be
imperative if the goal of UEE is to be achieved. Educating girls is commonly
perceived as unnecessary; mainly on account of the role they have been assigned in
running the house & also because they will eventually leave their parental homes
after marriage, where their skills in household Chores will hold them in better step.
Poor retention of girls is attributable to two main factors:-
1. Tendency of parents to withdraw them from school attainment of age (10+) yrs.
as they become capable of fulfilling certain domestic needs. Page
| 57
2. School environment itself, which neither encourages girls nor is able to bring out
the best in them.
Besides, this during the seasons for harvest, marriages festivals etc girls’ attendance
at school suffers a set back as they are kept back at home.
By community mobilization, alternative schooling- ‘EGS & AIE’, special focus groups,
teacher training, and text books, VEC-training, Civil works e.g.
Toilets, Bus facility etc. for Girls, research & upper primary access we can achieve
success in providing girls’ education.
The activities proposed are:-
1. Bicycles will be provided to those girls studying in 6th class & travel more than 2-
3 km. daily due to lack of middle school in their village.
2. Remedial coaching classes will be organized for girls both at primary & upper
primary level for four months.
3. Award to students will be given based on academic results of final examination.
The utmost useful books will be given.
4. Work education facilities will be given to girls. One school has been selected from
each block for such activities. For 5 schools in the distt. Rs. 1.00 lacs @ Rs.20,000/- is
being proposed so that girl’s education may be motivated.
5. Jersies & uniforms will be provided to really needy weaker students.
6. Excursion for Girls – To ensure all- round development of the children & to
develop multidimensional personality a dire need is being felt to organize
educational tours for girls at both primary & upper primary level. It must be Page
organized at least once in a year. It would be a practical experience for what the | 58
students have learnt all the yr. in classrooms.

Q: - GIRLS EDUCATION UNDER RMSA.

A:-Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RSMA) is aimed at expanding and
improving the standards of secondary education — classes VIII to X. The RSMA
would also take secondary education to every corner of the country by ensuring a
secondary school (up to class X) within a radius of 5km for every neighbourhood.
Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) which is the most recent initiative of
Government to achieve the goal of universalisation of secondary education (USE).
The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyaan program set up by the government to bring elementary
education to millions of children has been successful to a large extent, and has thus
created a need for strengthening secondary education infrastructure across the
country. The HRD Ministry has taken note of this, and now plans to implement a
secondary education scheme called Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyaan (RMSA)
during the 11th plan at a total cost of Rs.20,120 crore.

GOALS & OBJECTIVES OF RMSA

 In order to meet the challenge of Universalisation of Secondary Education (USE),
there is a need for a paradigm shift in the conceptual design of secondary
education. Page
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 The guiding principles in this regard are; Universal Access, Equality and Social
Justice, Relevance and Development and Curricular and Structural Aspects.
 Universalisation of Secondary Education gives opportunity, to move towards
equity. The concept of ‘common school’ will be encouraged. If these values are to
be established in the system, all types of schools, including unaided private
schools will also contribute towards Universalisation of Secondary Education
(USE) by ensuring adequate enrolments for the children from under privileged
society and the children Below Poverty Line (BPL) families.

MAIN OBJECTIVES OF RMSA

 To ensure that all secondary schools have physical facilities, staffs and supplies at
least according to the prescribed standards through financial support in case of
Government/ Local Body and Government schools, and appropriate regulatory
mechanism in the case of other schools
 To improve access to secondary schooling to all young persons according to
norms – through proximate location (say, Secondary Schools within 5 kms, and
Higher Secondary Schools within 7-10 kms) / efficient and safe transport
arrangements/residential facilities, depending on local circumstances including
 open schooling. However in hilly and difficult areas, these norms can be relaxed.
Preferably residential schools may be set up in such areas
 To ensure that no child is deprived of secondary education of satisfactory quality Page
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due to gender, socio-economic, disability and other barriers
 To improve quality of secondary education resulting in enhanced intellectual,
social and cultural learning
 To ensure that all students pursuing secondary education receive education of
good quality
 Achievement of the above objectives would also, inter-alia, signify substantial
progress in the direction of the Common School System

GIRLS EDUCATION UNDER RMSA

Education of girls is the primary focus in Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan.

Efforts will be made to mainstream gender concerns under RMSA framework. The
state governments should undertake community mobilization at the
habitation/village/urban slum level especially among SC/ ST and Educationally
Backward Minorities. The participation of Women in the affairs of the school will be
ensured through constitution of School Management Committee.
The distribution of uniforms, scholarships, educational provisions like textbooks and
stationery, will all take into account the gender focus. Every activity under the
programme will be judged in terms of its gender component.
Taking note of the fact that there is a gross shortage of secondary schools the
dropout of girls is extremely high mainly in northern states. The incentives for girls’
education need to be revisited. The measures taken need to be of such nature, Page
force and magnitude that they are able to overcome the obstacles such as poverty, | 61
domestic /sibling responsibilities, girl child labor, low preference to girls education,
preference to marriage over education, etc. Many State Governments have already
started various incentive schemes like Provision of Bicycle, scholarship schemes,
cash incentive schemes etc.
In order to avoid covering distance through walking the State Governments should
also provide Transport Facilities to the girls. These facilities could be provided in the
form of followings,
_ A girl child admitted in IX class in rural areas be given a ladies bicycle/wheelchair
(for disabled student). She may use it while studying in subsequent classes also. The
Government of Jharkhand is already providing this incentive to the Girls.
_ State transport/pass facility may be made available to the girls for going to nearby
secondary/ secondary schools in rural areas.
_ Ensuring safety and security of girl child while commuting to the school.

HOSTEL FACILITIES FOR GIRLS

A programme called ‘Scheme for Strengthening of Boarding and Hostel facilities for
Girl Students of Secondary and Higher Secondary Schools’ was operational during
the Tenth Plan, which envisages recurring grant of Rs.10,000/- per annum per girl
boarder and non-recurring grant per girl boarder @ Rs.3,000/- to the Societies and
NGOs providing boarding and hostel facilities for girls pursuing education at
Secondary and Higher Secondary stages in rural, desert and hilly areas, particularly Page
those predominantly habited by scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and | 62
educationally backward minorities.
The Government of India has recently replaced the earlier scheme with wider
and a more comprehensive Girls’ Hostel Scheme under which one Girls’ Hostel of
capacity 100 would be set up in each of the about 3500 educationally backward
blocks in the country. The location would preferably be within the campus of
Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya, and if that is not possible, within a Government
Secondary School campus. The main objectives of the scheme are to retain girl child
in secondary school and also to ensure that the girl students are not denied the
opportunity to continue their study due to distance, parents’ affordability and other
connected societal factors. The girl students in the age group 14-18 studying in
classes IX to XII and belonging to SC, ST, OBC, Minority communities and BPL
families will form the target group of the scheme. At least 50% of the girls admitted
to the hostels should belong to SC, ST, OBC, Minority communities.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q: - POPULATION EDUCATION?
A: - Population Education in lay man's language is the education about population
matters i.e. fertility, mortality, migration, etc. But population education is an
educational process. It is a desired to help people to understand the nature, the Page
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causes and consequences of population growth.

Q: - DEFINITION OF POPULATION EDUCATION?

A: - In view of Burbson "Population education is an exploration of knowledge and

attitude about population, the family and sex. It includes population awareness,
family living, reproduction education and basic values".

Q: - OBJECTIVES OF POPULATION EDUCATION?

A:-
1. In quick and efficient economic development.
2. Significant reduction in birth rate.
3. Improvement of the quality of life of people.
4. Fall in death rate.

Q: - WHAT IS POPULATION PYRAMID.

A:-A population pyramid also called an age-sex pyramid is a graphical illustration

that shows the distribution of gender wise various age groups in a population. It
helps in understanding about the population of a country.

Q: - WHAT IS DEMOGRAPHY.
A:-Demography refers to the study of quantitative (composition, density,
distribution etc) and qualitative (education quality, diet and nutrition, race, social
class, wealth etc) aspects of human population. Page
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Q: - WHAT IS POPULATION DISTRIBUTION .

A:-The term population distribution refers to the pattern or arrangement of how

people live in a particular area. The distribution of population in the world is
uneven. Some areas are very crowded and some are sparsely populated.
Q: - WHAT IS POPULATION DENSITY.

A:-Population density is the number of people living in a unit area of the earth’s
surface. It is mainly expressed as persons per square kilometer. The average density
of population of the whole world is 45 persons per square kilometer.
Q: - WHAT IS POPULATION CHANGE.

A:-Population change refers to the change in the number of people during a specific
period of time.
Q: - WHAT IS POPULATION EXPLOSION.

A:-Population explosion refers to the spontaneous increase in the size of

population. The causes of population explosion have been the high birth rates and
decreased death rates.

Q: - WHAT IS BIRTH RATE.

A:-The number of live births per thousand persons per year is called as birth rate.

Q: - WHAT IS DEATH RATE.

A:-The number of deaths per thousand people per year is called as death rate.
Q: - WHAT IS NATURAL GROWTH RATE.

A:-The difference between the birth rate & death rate of a country is called the Page
natural growth rate. The population increase in the world is mainly due to rapid | 65
increase in natural growth rate.
Q: - WHAT IS MIGRATION.

A:- Migration is the movement of people across region & territories. Migration can
be internal (within the country) or international (between the countries). Internal
migration does not change the size of the population, but influences the distribution
of population within the nation. International migration has an effect on the
population size of the countries.

Q: - WHAT IS POPULATION COMPOSITION.

A:-Population composition refers to the structure of the population living in a

country. It includes age structure, gender ratio, occupation structure, literacy etc.

Q: - WHAT IS POPULATION PYRAMID.

A:-A population pyramid also called an age-sex pyramid is a graphical illustration

that shows the distribution of gender wise various age groups in a population. It
helps in understanding about the population of a country.
Q: - WHAT IS CENSUS.
A:- A census is a count of the population of a country, concerned with finding out
facts about the population such as their age, sex, jobs they do, type of house and
what language they speak. In India, it is done after every ten years. Page
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Q: - WHAT IS SEX RATIO.

A:-Human population consists of two main components-Male and female. Sex ratio
is defined as the number of females per 1000 males.

Q: - WHAT IS INQUIRY APPROACH.

A: - This approach aims at developing in the learner those skills and attitudes that
will enable them to think critically and in fact, to become independent problem
solver. The term ‘Inquiry Approach’ has been used interchangeably with such terms
as ‘Discovery Approach’ ‘Problem Solving’, ‘Interactive Method’, ‘Deductive
Method’, etc. Though these approaches are different, but passes one common point
and that is planning of a premium on the learners thinking. In all these approaches,
the learners are activity involved in the process of investigation and searching a
problem, organizing the information, analyzing, interpreting and concluding the
best alternatives.
Q: - WHAT IS OBSERVATION APPROACH.

A:-Observation means knowing about the things, persons, places and events lying in
our environment with the use of our sense organs. In observation approach we
study the problem horizontally and longitudinally. We go to the field, share the
culture of the people, and try to create more informal situations in which people
will feel and act in an accommodative and flexible environment and with result
come with real facts. Page
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Q: - WHAT IS SELF-STUDY APPROACH.

A:-This approach is applicable at the secondary stage of learning. This approach

demands essential understanding on the part of the learner. This approach begins
from one’s own self. He has to make a close observation of his own family, his
neighbours, his locality and his relations. Henceforth he can gather a sound
information about the quality of life and resources responsible for it. He will make
an in depth study of the income resources available to different sections of people
and their expenditure on their ways of living. It is through this approach one could
realize the merits and demerits of family planning and its immediate and remote
effects on population.

Q: - WHAT IS DISCUSSION METHODS.

A:-This method can make use of three different forms or patterns of education;
formal, non-formal and informal. Discussion can be arranged in any form. In its
arranged form the discussions could be conducted at school level. Topics pertaining
to population education will be thrown for discussion. Discussion helps students in
working what they did not know. At the same time they may become sure about the
correctness of what they know.

Q: - WHAT IS AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS.

A:-Audio-Visual Aids are those aids which the teacher uses in the classroom in order
to make his teaching meaningful and at the same time making it easy for the
students to learn. For example, charts, maps, models, films, projectors, radio, Page
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television and similar other resources.
Q: - WHAT ARE PROJECTED AIDS.

A:-Projected aids are those that require audio-visual equipment in order to be

presented properly. Some of the aids included in this category are slides, filmstrips,
overhead projector and motion pictures.
Q: - WHAT IS PROJECTORS?

A:-Projectors are those aid equipments that are used to project the projections aid
material like slides, films and graphic aid material on the screen for being visualized
by the learners to gain useful learning experiences.
Q: - WHAT ARE FILMSTRIPS?

A:-A Filmstrip is a series of related still photographs on a single roll of processed

film. Taken together, the separate pictures present some process or product
learning in stages. Most filmstrips are 35 millimeters. The average number of single
pictures on a filmstrip is thirty-five, although the number can vary from ten to one
hundred.
Q: - WHAT ARE SLIDES?

A:-Slides are becoming increasingly popular in teaching. They are relatively

inexpensive to purchase, can be quite easily constructed and stored, and may be
used countless times without deterioration. They possess an attention focusing
power which increases class interest and motivation. They can be projected in a
partially darkened room thus facilitating the class discussion and note taking. They
can be enlarged to any desired size repeatedly shown and held on the screen for Page
any period of time. They are quite flexible in that a variety of printed, typed or | 69
drawn materials can be presented in many different colours or combinations.
Q: - WHAT ARE 3-D AIDS?

A:-There Dimensional Aids are powerful interest arousing devices that possesses the
capacity of bringing into play all the five senses touch, smell, sight, hearing and
taste. Such utilization of as many senses as possible in the instructional process is
going to help in a big way for a classroom teacher.
Q: - WHAT IS THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF TELEVISION?

A:-1) The Television is a combination of sound and picture.It is close to reality.It

provides a realistic feel of events.
2) It can bring industry and field work into the classroom.It can take the classroom
to the distant places.
3) It can motivate the viewer's I.e create greater interest in learning.

Q: - WHAT IS NEWSPAPER?

A:-A newspaper is a publication containing news, information and advertising,

usually printed on low-cost paper called newsprint. It may be general or special
interest, most often published daily or weekly. The Daily Newspaper can be
effective teaching aids. These are full of information about the general economic
and social life of the people of a special region and country. They are Intact, the
minimum text-book for the study of current affairs.
Q: - WHAT IS GENDER?
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A:-Gender is what a society considers proper behaviours and attitudes for its male
and female members. Sex physically distinguishes males and females; gender
defines what is masculine and feminine.
Q: - WHAT IS GENDER STUDIES?

A:-Gender Studies is a transdisciplinary area of study which engages critically with

gender realities, gender relations and gender identities from intersectional
perspectives. To study gender intersectionally means to focus on the ways in which
gender interrelates with other social categorizations such as ethnicity, class,
sexuality identity, nationality, age, disability etc.
Q: - WHAT IS EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN?

A:-Women's empowerment is a global issue and discussions on women's political

rights are at the forefront of many forefront and informal campaigns worldwide.
The concept of women's empowerment appears to be the outcome of several
important critiques and debates generated by the women's moment throughout
the world, and particularly by Third World Feminists. Empowerment in its simplest
for means the manifestation of redistribution of power that challenges patriarchal
ideology and the male dominance. It is both a process and the result of the process.
It is the transformation of the structures or institutions that reinforce and
perpetuates gender discrimination. It is a process that enables women to gain
access to and control of material as well as information resources.
Q: - WHAT IS GENDER STRATIFICATION?
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A:-The term gender stratification refers to unequal access to power, prestige, and
property on the basis of Sex. Each society establishes a structure that, on the basis
of Sex and gender, opens and closes access to the group’s privileges.
Q: - HOW DO SEX AND GENDER DIFFER?

A:-Sex refers to biological distinctions between males and females. Sex consists of
both primary and secondary Sex characteristics. Gender, in contrast, is what a
society considers proper behaviours and attitudes for its male from female
members. Sex physically distinguishes males and females; gender defines what is
masculine and feminine.
Q: - AGENTS OF GENDER SOCIOLOZATION?

A:-Parents, peers, teachers and schools, sports, and the media are agents of
socialization that tend to reinforce stereo types of appropriate gender behaviour.
Q: - NEED OF WOMEN EDUCATION?

A:- In order to explain broadly why there is need for women education the answer
lies in this fact that there are several factors responsible for need of women
education which are as under:-
1) CAPABILITIES:-Women have proved themselves both physically and intellectually

equal to men. So to develop the various capabilities of women, there is need of

their education.
2) SELF RELIANCE: - Women can be self reliant too. So to make women more and

more self-reliant their education is need of time.

3) REMOVAL OF SOCIAL STIGMA:-Women are integral part of our society and a number Page

of evils are present in our society with regard to women. So to remove those social | 72
stigmas we have need of expansion of women education.
4) EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY AND WAGES: - According to Indian constitution, women

should be given equal opportunities in social, religious, political, professional, and

cultural spheres. For this purpose need of women education is arising from every
angle.
5) WOMEN AS A SOURCE OF INSPIRATION:-There have been a number of women

remained source of inspiration like Mother Teresa, Indira Gandhi etc to familiarize
common women with these great women; there is need of women education.
Q: - IMPORTANCE OF WOMEN EDUCATION.

A: - The following points will highlight the importance of women education:-

1) NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT:-If the nation is to be taken on the path of national

development and economic growth, then it is essential that human resource

development should take place effectively which is only possible through women
education.
2) ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT:-With the women education economic development

comes in a country from various angles because an educational thinker has said that
economy is direct related to education.
3) MODERNIZATION:-When women is properly educated, she cultivates the seeds of

modernization among her off springs who then strengthen the very roots of
modernization process. Page
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4) SOCIAL AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT:-It is because of women education, people

becomes civilized, society becomes modern and people becomes well cultured. That
is why women education is said to be the corner stone of social and cultural
development.
Q: - DEFINE CO-EDUCATION.

A: - By co-education we mean education of both boys and girls in the same

institution, in the same class and by the same teacher. Co-education means that
boys and girls shall be taught the same courses, at the same time, in the same place,
by the same faculty, with the same methods and under the same regime.Co-
education is one way to expand women education.
Q: - WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON KGBV.

A: - The Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) scheme was launched in July 2004
for setting up residential schools at upper primary level, for girls belonging
predominantly to the SC, ST, OBC & minority community. The scheme ran as
separate scheme for two years but was merged with Sarva Siksha Abhiyan w.e.f
April 1, 2007.
Q: - OBJECTIVES OF KGBV.

A: - Gender disparities still persist in rural areas and among disadvantaged

communities. Looking at enrolment trends, there remain significant gaps in the
enrolment of girls at the elementary level as compared to boys, especially at the
upper primary levels. The objective of KGBV is to ensure access and quality
education to the girls of disadvantaged groups of society by setting up residential Page
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schools at upper primary level.
Q: - WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON SSA.

A: - It was launched in 2001 to universalize & improve the quality of Elementary

Education in India through community ownership of Elementary Education. The SSA
is being implemented in partnership with states to address the needs of children in
age group of 6-14 years. The achievements under SSA up to September 30, 2007,
include constructions of 7, 13,179 additional classrooms, 1, 72,381 drinking water
facilities, construction of 2, 18,075 toilets. Supply of free textbooks of 6.64 crore
children & appointment of 8.10 lakh teacher’s besides opening of 1, 86,985 (till
31.3.07) new schools.
Q: - WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON RMSA.

A: - Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RSMA) is aimed at expanding and

improving the standards of secondary education — classes VIII to X. The RSMA
would also take secondary education to every corner of the country by ensuring a
secondary school (up to class X) within a radius of 5km for every neighbourhood.
Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) which is the most recent initiative of
Government to achieve the goal of universalisation of secondary education (USE).

Q: - WHAT ARE THE MAIN GOALS OF RMSA.

A:-The goal of RMSA is to make secondary education of good quality available,
accessible and affordable to all young students in the age group 15-16 years
(Classess IX and X). The major target of the scheme is (1) Universal access of Page
Secondary level education to all students in the age group 15-16 years by 2015 by | 75
providing a secondary school within 5 kilometers of any habitation and a higher
secondary school within 7 kilometer of any habitation and (2) Universal retention by
2020.

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