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Revision No. 1 Effectivity date: Reviewed by: Approved by:
10 August 2020 QMR President
Lesson 1: Shipborne Meteorological Instruments

Learning Module 1.1: Basic Concept of Meteorology (10 hours)
Competence, Course Outcomes and Learning Outcomes
Competence:
Plan and conduct a passage and determine position
Course Outcome/s:
1. Interpret information obtained from ship borne meteorological instruments

2. Use appropriate meteorological information and observations in determining expected
weather conditions
Learning Outcomes:
1. Define meteorology, weather & climate.

2. Describe the basic principle of aneroid barometer
3. Read the atmospheric pressure from an aneroid barometer
4. Show barograph recording
5. Compute conversion of a Thermometer reading from one unit to another
6. Obtain dew point
7. Describe the function of a hygrometer
8. Expound the basic principles of wind Sensors
9. Demonstrate readings of wind speed
To view Prelim – Final Lesson in Schoology®, click the link below
https://app.schoology.com/course/2922494112/materials/gp/2989430637
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Overview
Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and
forecasting.
Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events which illuminate and are explained by
the science of meteorology. Those events are bound by the variables that exist in Earth's
atmosphere.
The majority of Earth's observed weather is located in the troposphere
Weather is of vital importance to the mariner. The wind and state of the sea affect dead reckoning
and reduced visibility limits piloting. The state of the atmosphere affects electronic navigation and
radio communication. If the skies are overcast, celestial observations are not available; and under
certain conditions refraction and dip are disturbed. When wind was the primary motive power,
knowledge of the areas of favourable winds was of great importance. Modern vessels are still
affected considerably by wind and sea.
Discussion
The Difference between Weather and Climate
Most weather happens in the part of Earth’s atmosphere that is closest to the ground—called the
troposphere. And, there are many different factors that can change the atmosphere in a certain
area like air pressure, temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction, and lots of other things.
Together, they determine what the weather is like at a given time and location.
the weather isn’t the same all around the world. Weather is different in different parts of the world
and changes over minutes, hours, days, and weeks.
Climate describes what the weather is like over a long period of time in a specific area. Different
regions can have different climates. To describe the climate of a place, we might say what the
temperatures are like during different seasons, how windy it usually is, or how much rain or snow
typically falls.
Though they are closely related, weather and climate aren’t the same thing. Climate is what you
expect. Weather is what actually happens

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Weather is the state of the earth's atmosphere with respect to temperature, humidity, precipitation,
visibility, cloudiness, and other factors. All weather may be traced to the effect of the sun on the
earth. Most changes in weather involve large-scale horizontal motion of air.
Ship borne meteorological instruments

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• Aneroid barometer is the most common pressure measuring instrument, where

“aneroid” means without liquid a typical aneroid barometer utilizes a bellows, made of
thin metal that expands or contracts as the air pressure changes, the movement of the
bellows is communicated to an indicator needle, via lever and spring. Then the indicator
needle rotates on a dial and gives us the readings of atmospheric pressure.
• The long needle (arm) shows the current air pressure the short needle (set) shows the
previous air pressure
• If the pressure has risen, skies will be getting clearer
• If the pressure has fallen, skies will be getting cloudier
Operating sequence of aneroid barometer

• Tap the glass face of instrument lightly to release any sticking of internal
machinery
• Carefully read dial reading, o that there is no error of parallax
• After consideration of altitude correction, latitude correction and index error, find
our barometric reading
Corrections Height above sea level
With the increase in the altitude, the air pressure reduces. Hence, the reading is then adjusted to
an equivalent sea-level pressure for purposes of reporting. Aneroid barometers have a
mechanical adjustment that allows the equivalent sea level pressure to be read directly and
without further adjustment if the instrument is not moved to a different altitude
Index error
The elasticity of the barometer capsule varies depending on temperature. A bimetallic plate is
used for temperature compensation. Once pressure distort an elastic body, it doesn’t completely
return to its original shape even after the pressure is relieved. Due to this characteristics called
hysteresis, because of the changes in vacuum chamber’s elasticity over a period of time, index
error occurs and error is accounted as per its prefix given i.e. + or -. It can be found on
certificate issued after calibration of the barometer.

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Reading the atmospheric pressure from an aneroid barometer

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Barograph
• A barograph is a pressure measurement, where the paper or foil chart (which called a barogram)
is used to record the barometric pressure over time.

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Conversion of a Thermometer reading from one unit to another
Temperature is a measure of heat energy, measured in degrees. Several different temperature

scales are in use.
On the Fahrenheit (F) scale pure water freezes at 32° and boils at 212°.
On the Celsius (C) scale commonly used with the metric system, the freezing point of pure water
is 0° and the boiling point is 100° Absolute zero is considered to be the lowest possible
temperature, at which there is no molecular motion and a body has no heat. For some purposes,
it is convenient to express temperature by a scale at which 0° is absolute zero. This is called
absolute temperature. If Fahrenheit degrees are used, it may be called Rankine (R) temperature;
and if Celsius, Kelvin (K) temperature. The Kelvin scale is more widely used than the Rankine.
Absolute zero is –459.69°F or –273.16°C

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Formulas for converting one unit of temperature to another
ºK = ºC + 273.16 ºC= ºF – 32
ºR = ºF + 459.69 1.8
ºF= ºC x 1.8 + 32
Dew point
Humidity is a measure of the atmosphere’s water vapor content. Relative humidity is the
ratio, stated as a percentage, of the pressure of water vapor present in the atmosphere to
the saturation vapor pressure at the same temperature. As air temperature decreases, the
relative humidity increases. At some point, saturation takes place, and any further cooling
results in condensation of some of the moisture.

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The temperature at which this occurs is called the dew point, and the moisture deposited
upon objects is called dew if it forms in the liquid state, or frost if it forms in the frozen state.
The same process causes moisture to form on the outside of a container of cold liquid, the
liquid cooling the air in the immediate vicinity of the container until it reaches the dew point.
When moisture is deposited on man-made objects, it is usually called sweat. It occurs
whenever the temperature of a surface is lower than the dew point of air in contact with it.
It is of particular concern to the mariner because of its effect upon his instruments, and
possible damage to his ship or its cargo. Lenses of optical instruments may sweat, usually
with such small droplets that the surface has a “frosted” appearance. When this occurs, the
instrument is said to “fog” or “fog up,” and is useless until the moisture is removed. Damage
is often caused by corrosion or direct water damage when pipes sweat and drip, or when the
inside of the shell plates of a vessel sweat. Cargo may sweat if it is cooler than the dew point
of the air. Clouds and fog form from condensation of water on minute particles of dust, salt,
and other material in the air. Each particle forms a nucleus around which a droplet of water
forms. If air is completely free from solid particles on which water vapor may condense, the
extra moisture remains in the vapor state, and the air is said to be supersaturated.
Relative humidity and dew point are measured with a hygrometer. The most common type,
called a psychrometer, consists of two thermometers mounted together on a single strip of
material. One of the thermometers is mounted a little lower than the other, and has its bulb
covered with muslin. When the muslin covering is thoroughly moistened and the
thermometer well ventilated, evaporation cools the bulb of the thermometer, causing it to
indicate a lower reading than the other.
A sling psychrometer is ventilated by whirling the thermometers. The difference between the
dry-bulb and wet bulb temperatures is used to enter psychrometric tables (Table 35 and
Table 36) to find the relative humidity and dew point. If the wet-bulb temperature is above
freezing, reasonably accurate results can be obtained by a psychrometer consisting of dry-
and wet-bulb thermometers mounted so that air can circulate freely around them without
special ventilation. This type of installation is common aboard ship.

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Dew point - the temperature to which unsaturated air must be cooled to become saturated
So long as air remains unsaturated and the amount of water vapor remains constant, the
dew point will also remain constant although the air temperature changes. If air is saturated
its temperature is its dew point
Dew point is sometimes called frost point when the temperature is below freezing. The
measurement of dew point is related to humidity. A higher dew point means there will be
more moisture in the air.

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To know about the dew point is absolutely vital when it comes to knowing where and when
condensation could occur. Calculating the dew point is easy if you know temperature and
humidity:
Example:
The dry-bulb temperature is 65°F, and the wet-bulb temperature is 61°F.

Required: (1) Relative humidity, (2) dew point.
Solution: The difference between readings is 4°. Entering Table 35 with this value, and a dry-
bulb temperature of 65°, the relative humidity is found to be 80 percent. From Table 36 the
dew point is 58°.
Answers: (1) Relative humidity 80 percent, (2) dew point 58°.
By Calculator:
Relative Humidity: 100 – (65°F - 61°F) x 5 = 80 %
Dew Point: 61°F – (100 – 80%) ÷ 5 = 57°F

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The function of a hygrometer
The two thermometer instrument used to measure relative humidity (the amount of water vapor
in the air also called wet and dry bulb
Relative humidity and dew point are measured with hygrometer, the most common type,
called psychrometer. Consist of two thermometers mounted together on a single strip of
material. One of the thermometers is mounted a little lower than the other, and has its bulb
covered with muslin. When the muslin covering is thoroughly moistened and the thermometer
well ventilated. The evaporation cools the bulb of the thermometer. Causing it to indicate a
lower reading than the other
A sling pyschrometer (right) is ventilated by whirling the thermometers. The difference

between the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures is used to enter psychrometer tables to find
the relative humidity and dew point. If the wet-bulb temperature is above freezing.
Reasonably accurate results can be obtained by a pyschrometer consisting of dry and wet-
bulb thermometers mounted so the air can circulate freely around them without special
ventilation

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Wind Speed and Wind Direction Sensors
Wind Speed Sensor
Wind speed, or wind velocity, is a fundamental atmospheric rate. Wind speed is caused by
air moving from high pressure to low pressure. In Many aspects can be affected by wind
speed such as weather forecasting, aircraft, mines, navigation and agriculture, so the
observation of wind speed is necessary. An anemometer or wind meter is a device used for
measuring wind speed, and is a common weather station instrument. The term is derived
from the Greek word anemos, meaning wind, and is used to describe any air speed
measurement instrument used in meteorology or aerodynamics. The first known description
of an anemometer was given by Leon Battista Alberti around 1450
Wind vanes measure wind direction and are often used with anemometers, which measure
wind speed. Campbell Scientific offers a variety of anemometer designs: cup, propeller,
ultrasonic, sonic, and lidar. Most of our wind sensors are modified slightly from the
manufacturers’ stock items so that they may be used with our data loggers in research, air
quality, and general purpose meteorological applications
WIND VANE - A precision instrument used to acquire apparent and true wind direction.
Wind direction describes the direction on a compass from which the wind emanates, for
instance, from the North or from the West.

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Wind speed describes how fast the air is moving past a certain point. This may be an averaged
over a given unit of time, such as miles per hour, or an instantaneous speed, which is reported
as a peak wind speed, wind gust or squall.
ANEMOMETER - A precision instrument used to acquire apparent and true wind speed.
Why are Wind Speed and Direction Important?
Patterns and global climate
Wind speed and direction have numerous impacts on surface water. These parameters affect
rates of evaporation, mixing of surface waters, and the development of seiches and storm
surges. Each of these processes has dramatic effects on water quality and water level.
References
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=re9r0kzQp_M
T1 – Cornish , Maurice M. and Elane E. Ives . (2014) . Reeds maritime meteorology , 3rd ed .
Great Britain : Adlard Coles Nautical.
R1 – Framptom , R .M . (2017) . Meteorology for Seafarers . 5th ed . Glasgow : Brown , Son

& Ferguson , Ltd .

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R2 – IMO . (2017) . STCW including 2010 Manila Amendments STCW Convention and STCW
Code. London: International Maritime Organization .
R4 – Abangan , Emeterio B. Jr. (2013) . Meteorology and oceanography . Mandaue City ,

Cebu : DMC Busa Printers
Checkpoint
Activity 1.1
Identification: Write your answer on space provided before the number.
_______________1. What meteorological instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure?

_______________2. A millibar is a unit of what?
_______________3. Hygrometer is an instrument that measures?
______________ 4. What will be the relative humidity if the air is said to be saturated?
_______________5. It is the standard atmospheric pressure in hectopascal (hPa).
_______________6. What instrument used on board ship that measures wind speed?
Do this
Activity 1.2: Problem Solving
1. A thermometer reads 45°C, what will be the value in Fahrenheit scale?

2. Convert 1018 of millibars to inches.
Solve the relative humidity and dew point using calculator
Given:
The reading of dry-bulb temperature is 70°F, and the wet-bulb temperature is 67°F.
3. Relative humidity
4. Dew point

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Lesson 2: The Atmosphere and its Composition
Learning Module 2.1: The Atmosphere and its Composition

(15 hours)
Competence:
Course Outcome/s:

weather conditions
Learning Outcomes:
1. Define atmosphere & its composition

2. Draw and label a typical vertical temperature profile through the lower 100 km of the
earth's atmosphere
3. Depict the different layers of the atmosphere
4. Describe the importance of the sun as the principal energy source
5. Describe the nature of solar radiation
6. Explain the effect on insolation
7. Expound the effect on insulation of a variation in the length of daylight
8. Describe the water cycle
9. Enumerate the properties of water vapor

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The Atmosphere and its Composition
It Cover around the earth with invisible gas that held by gravitational force.
Dry air is composed of a mixture of gases, within about 10miles of the earth’s surface, which is
the one in which we are interested, the principal one are nitrogen about 78% oxygen 21percent
there are also small quantities of other gases such as argon, carbon dioxide, helium and ozone.
Finally there is variable amount of water vapour in the atmosphere.

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A vertical temperature profile through the lower 100 km of the earth's atmosphere
The vertical distribution of temperature, pressure, density and composition of the atmosphere
constitutes atmospheric structure. These quantities also vary with season and location in latitude
and longitude, as well as from night to day; however under the topic of atmospheric structure, the
focus is on the average variations with height above sea level.
Variation of temperature with height - Under normal conditions atmospheric temperature

decreases with height from the surface up to the Tropopause because the heating element (earth)
has maximum effect at close quarter (lapse rate)

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Variation of pressure with height - Atmospheric pressure at any level is the weight of the air
above that level it follows therefore that the pressure must always decrease with height.
Layers of the atmosphere
Structure of the Earth's Atmosphere

(From the ground out to space)
Troposphere- approximately ground to 10 kilometers (to approx.. 7 miles up)
• The closest layer to the Earth.

• Contains 75% of our atmospheres gases
• Weather clouds and smog occur in the troposphere
Main features of troposphere
The word troposphere derived from Greek word tropo and it means turbulence or mixing. This is
the lower most layer of the atmosphere and is known as troposphere and is the most important
because almost all the weather events. (e.g. fog, clouds, due, frost, hailstorm, storms, cloud-

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thunder, lightning etc.) occur in this layer, thus the troposphere is utmost significance for all life-
forms including man because these are concentrated in the lowermost portion of the atmosphere.
• Most of the weather phenomenon take place in this layer. The troposphere contain almost
all the water vapor and most of the dust
• This layer is subjected to intense mixing due both horizontal and vertical mixing
• Temperature decreases with height at an average rate of 1°c per 167m of height above
sea level. This is called the normal lapse rate
• The troposphere extends up to a height of about 18km at the equator and declines gradually
to a height of 8km at the pole
• The upper limit of the troposphere is called tropopause. The temperature stops decreasing
in it. It may be as slow as -58°c
• All weather changes occur in the troposphere. Since it contains most of the water vapor,
clouds forms in this layer
• The troposphere contains 75% of the atmosphere’s total mass and does not contain ozone
In either space or time the troposphere is not constant. Its temperature can reach -80°c
• The troposphere is 10 miles from the equator and 5-7 miles above the poles
Heating of the troposphere
The atmosphere is transparent to the short-wave radiation from the sun and receives little or
no appreciable heat from this source. The earth however is heated by the sun’s rays and the
surface air layer is warmed by contact with the earth. This warmth is spread upwards by
convection, turbulence and conduction
Stratosphere - approximately 10 km - 45 km up (approx. 7- 30miles)
• The ozone layer is located here

• The jet stream is located here
• Little or no water vapor here
• The vertical limit of the stratosphere to mesosphere is called stratopause.
Mesosphere - approximately 45 km -95 km up (30 - 50 miles up)
• The coldest part of the atmosphere

• This is where meteors start to glow because of reaction to temperature difference
• The vertical limit of the mesosphere to thermosphere is called mesopause.
Thermosphere - approximately 95 km -to 500 km (50 miles and up)
• Warmest layer of the atmosphere.

• Lower layer of thermosphere is called the IONOSPHERE
• The vertical limit of the thermosphere to exosphere is called thermopause.

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Ionosphere
• Ionosphere made of electronically charged particles.

• Reflects radio waves
• In the daytime this layer interferes with
• radio waves since suns energy charges the
• Particles too much and causes problems a lot of static.
• At night it is less charged. This is why it is easier to hear AM radio late at night
Exosphere - approximately 500 kilometers and beyond
• Outer most layer of our atmosphere

• Very few air molecules in this layer No clear boundary between this layer and space
Sun as the principal energy source for atmospheric processes
Fundamental concept 1
Earth receives energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation from the sun. Some of its solar
energy is absorbed by the atmosphere, some is scattered back to space and some is transmitted
through the atmosphere to be absorbed or reflected by earth’s surface. The solar energy reflected
by earth’s surface is absorbed, scattered or transmitted by the atmosphere

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Energy from the sun is transformed into other forms of energy in the earth system. In the
atmosphere these other forms include thermal energy of gas molecules, the kinetic energy of wind,
and the latent heat of evaporation stored in the water vapor
On the human time scales, the energy emitted by the sun is nearly constant, varying only very
slightly due to the solar activity. The amount of solar energy received at a point on earth’s surface
varies due to the earth’s spherical shapes. Its daily rotation about its tilted axis, its annual
revolution around the sun and the slight elliptical shape of earth’s orbit, leading to important cycles
such as day and night and the seasons. In addition, cloud cover and aerosols can reduce the
amount of solar energy that reaches earth’s surface
Solar energy drives many chemical, biological, and physical processes that affect earth’s
atmosphere, these include processes such as photosynthesis, evaporation of liquid water produce
water vapor, formation of smog and the formation and destruction of ozone
Earth also emits energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation, almost all of the energy emitted
comes from the solar energy absorbed by earth’s surface. This terrestrial energy is absorbed by
atmospheric trace gases, such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases in the earth’s
atmosphere. It may be reemitted from the atmosphere, either to space, where it is lost to the earth
system, or back to earth, where it is again absorbed, producing a “Greenhouse effect” this natural
greenhouse effect is necessary for life to exist on the earth.
Heat balance exchange processes in the atmosphere
The temperature is an extraordinary variable in the measurement of weather and its changes. It
is necessary to examine more closely the way in which air is heated and cooled, the physical effect
of its variations in temperature, because most weather phenomena occurs due to the changes in
temperature
In relation, the heat exchange processes in the earth’s atmospheric system, three types which are
recognized by physicists and meteorologists, radiation, convection (horizontal as well vertical) and
conduction

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Radiation- a method of heat transfer through space without the presence of any material
substance or medium, radiation takes place in the form of waves, either or electromagnetic
vibrations. All radiations of whatever wavelength travel through air and space with a speed of light.
Can be transmitted; when portions of radiation pass through certain kinds of matter
Conduction- when two bodies of unequal temperature are in contact with one another, energy in
the form of heat passes from warmer to the colder body until they both attain the same
temperature. Conduction is therefore the processes by which heat is transferred from one molecule
to neighboring molecules without the transfer of portion of the matter itself
Convection-It involves the transfer of heat by means of mass motion of the medium in which
heat is transferred. It is possible only in fluids and gasses because they alone have internal mass
motions. Moving masses carry with them heat acquired by conduction in their previous positions.
Since the atmosphere is a medium in which mass motions are easily started, it is the only chief
ways in which heat is transferred there.
The nature of solar radiation (SCATTERING, REFLECTION AND ABSORPTION)
Solar radiation entering the earth’s atmosphere is absorbed and scattered by atmospheric gases,
aerosols, clouds and the earth’s surface. The absorbed radiation is added directly to the heat
budget, whereas the scattered radiation is partly returned to space and partly continues its path
through the earth-atmosphere system where it is subject to further scattering and absorption.
Scattering causes changes in direction and intensity of radiation.

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Absorption causes molecules in the atmosphere to absorb energy at various wavelengths. The
net result of absorption is that energy is attenuated or lost. Ozone, carbon dioxide and water vapor
are the three main atmospheric constituents that absorb radiation
The fraction of the incident solar radiation that is reflected and backscattered to space is called the
“albedo”. We might speak of the albedo of the entire earth or of individual surfaces with reference
either to monochromatic radiation or to the total incident solar radiation.
The spectrum of the solar radiation at the earth’s surface has several components. Direct radiation
comes straight from the sun, diffuse radiation is scattered from the sky and from the surroundings.
Additional radiation reflected from the surroundings (ground or sea) depends on the local albedo
Light colored surfaces have a higher albedo than dark colored surfaces. Albedo is the proportion
of light reflected from a surface. Albedo is largely determined by the color of the reflecting surface

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Albedo is the term used to describe the portion of light radiation incident on the earth’s surface
which is reflected, not transmitted or absorbed by materials on the earth’s surface
Albedo is a ratio of scattered to incident electromagnetic radiation power, most commonly light. It
is a unit less measure of a surface or body's reflectivity. The word is derived from albus, a Latin
word for "white".
Effect on insulation off a variation in latitude
Figure below shows that the amount of insolation received by the earth’s surface does indeed
vary. At the equator there is a year round gain of insolation and this region gains the most
insolation of all of the locations on the globe. The amount of insolation at the equator also
varies little throughout the year. As you progress north and south of the equator the amount
of insolation received by the earth’s surface varies seasonally and decreases in quantity
towards the poles. The north hemisphere receives its maximum amount of insolation between
march and September, and for the southern hemisphere it is between September and march.
There are times of the year when polar regions receive no insolation at all.

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The principal reason for these patterns is the way in which the earth travels around the sun
each year
Effect on insulation of a variation in the sun’s declination
The total amount of insolation received by the latitudes off the earth does not vary a great
deal
But the curvature of the earth has a vital role to play in determining how much insolation is
received by different places.
Factors affecting the heating effect of solar radiation
The inclination of the solar beam to the earth’s surface this depend on
The latitude of the place
The sun declination, which varies with the season
The daily change in the sun’s altitude

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The declination is zero at the equinoxes (march 22 and September 22) positive during the
northern hemisphere summer and negative during the northern hemisphere winter. The
declination reaches a maximum of 23.27° on june 22 (summer solstice in the northern
hemisphere) and a minimum of -23.27° on December 22 (winter solstice in the northern
hemisphere)
Summer solstice in the Spring equinox in the Winter solstice in the

Northern hemisphere. The Northern Hemisphere and northern hemisphere
declination angle is at Autumn Equinox in the and summer solstice in
maximum and is 23.27°
Southern Hemisphere. The the southern
declination angle is 0° hemisphere. The
declination angle is -
23.27°

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Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere
Summer solstice Summer Winter
December 23°.27’ N Longer day Shorter day
Autumn equinox Autumn Spring
December 0° N- S Day = Night Day = Night
Winter Solstice Winter Summer
December 23°.27’ S Shorter Day Longer Night
Vernal equinox Spring Autumn
December 0° -S- N Day = Night Day = Night
Effect on insulation of a variation in the length of daylight
The curvature of the earth and its tilt also combine to effect the length of day and night in
higher latitudes. In December the maximum overhead sun is over the tropic of Capricorn and
because of this and the earth’s curve day length shortens in northern latitudes and goes to 0

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hours at the North Pole. This means that during this period these areas receive very little
insolation during these short days.
Evaporation drives the water cycle

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Evaporation from the oceans is the primary mechanism supporting the surface-to-atmosphere
portion of the water cycle. After all, the large surface area of the oceans (over 70 percent of the
Earth's surface is covered by the oceans) provides the opportunity for large-scale evaporation to
occur. On a global scale, the amount of water evaporating is about the same as the amount of
water delivered to the Earth as precipitation.
Water vapour in the atmosphere
Water vapor is water in its gaseous state-instead of liquid or solid (ice). Water vapor totally
invisible. If you see a cloud, fog or mist these are the liquid water, not water vapor.
Water vapor is extremely important to the weather and climate. Without it, there would be
no clouds or rain or snow since all of these require water vapor in order to form. All of the
water vapor that evaporates from the surface of the earth eventually returns as precipitation-
rain or snow
States of water vapour
Evaporation
For the water cycle to work, water has to get from the Earth's surface back up into the skies
so it can rain back down and ruin your parade or water your crops or yard. It is the invisible
process of evaporation that changes liquid and frozen water into water-vapor gas, which then
floats up into the skies to become clouds
Condensation is the process by which water vapor in the air is changed into liquid water.
Condensation is crucial to the water cycle because it is responsible for the formation of clouds.
These clouds may produce precipitation, which is the primary route for water to return to the
Earth's surface within the water cycle. Condensation is the opposite of evaporation.
Sublimation is the transition of a substance directly from the solid to the gas state, without
passing through the liquid state
Deposition is the process by which molecules go directly from the gas phase into the solid phase.
Deposition chemistry occurs when molecules settle out of the gas phase and into the solid phase
The change from liquid to vapour state required latent heat of evaporation, the change from solid
to liquid latent heat of fusion
Latent heat of sublimation is released when vapor changes to liquid
• Liquid to vapor (evaporation)

• Vapor to liquid (condensation)
• Vapor to solid (sublimation)

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Latent heat, energy absorbed or released by a substance during a change in its physical state
(phase) that occurs without changing its temperature. The latent heat associated with melting a
solid or freezing a liquid is called the heat of fusion; that associated with vaporizing a liquid or a
solid or condensing a vapour is called the heat of vaporization. The latent heat is normally
expressed as the amount of heat (in units of joules or calories) per mole or unit mass of the
substance undergoing a change of state.
Saturated air is air that holds water vapor at its highest level. Air is composed of moisture or
water vapor, regardless of the amount of pressure and temperature levels. Adding more moisture
to the air at a specific temperature and in an enclosed area causes the air to absorb the
moisture.
Vapor pressure or equilibrium vapor pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a vapor in
thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases (solid or liquid) at a given temperature in
a closed system. The equilibrium vapor pressure is an indication of a liquid's evaporation rate. It
relates to the tendency of particles to escape from the liquid (or a solid). A substance with a high
vapor pressure at normal temperatures is often referred to as volatile.
References
T1 – Cornish , Maurice M. and Elane E. Ives . (2014) . Reeds maritime meteorology , 3rd ed .
Great Britain : Adlard Coles Nautical.

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R1 – Framptom , R .M . (2017) . Meteorology for Seafarers . 5th ed . Glasgow : Brown , Son

& Ferguson , Ltd .
R2 – IMO . (2017) . STCW including 2010 Manila Amendments STCW Convention and STCW
Code. London: International Maritime Organization .
R4 – Abangan , Emeterio B. Jr. (2013) . Meteorology and oceanography . Mandaue City ,

Cebu : DMC Busa Printers
Checkpoint
Activity 2.1: Identification: Write your answer on space provided before the
number.
_______________1. Referred to as a water vapor content in the atmosphere.

_______________2. In what layer of the atmosphere where weather condition mostly occurs?
______________ 3. Is the most abundant among all of the permanent gases that can be found
near the surface of the Earth?
_______________4. A relatively thin shell of air, water vapor, dust and smoke surrounding the
earth?
_______________5. As radiant energy from the sun arrives at the earth, how many percent is
absorbed by the surface of the earth?
_______________6. As the altitude increased, what happened to the atmospheric pressure?
Do this
Activity 2.2: Matching type. Write the letter on the underlined space.
Column A Column B
____ 1. Equinoxes A. The change from liquid to vapor require
____ 2. Conduction B. An event where the duration of time of

days and nights are equal
____ 3. Albedo C. It is an imaginary line on the weather map

that connect the same atmospheric pressure

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_____ 4. Saturation D. Transfer of heat by means of mass motion

of the medium. It is possible only in fluids and
gasses
____ 5. Latent Heat of Vaporization E. It is the state of the atmosphere when it

holds the maximum amount of water vapor
possible at a particular temperature
F. The term used to describe the portion of

light radiation incident on the earth’s surface
which is reflected, not transmitted or
absorbed by materials on the earth’s surface
Lesson 3: Atmospheric or Barometric pressure
Learning Module 3.1: Atmospheric or Barometric pressure

(10 hours)
Competence:
Course Outcome/s:

weather conditions
Learning Outcomes:
1. Define atmospheric pressure

2. Describe the characteristics of atmospheric pressure
3. Apply the conversion to other unit of atmospheric pressure from the reading
4. Elaborate the variation of atmospheric pressure on the atmosphere and at sea level

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5. Describe the average pressure at sea level

6. Define lapse rate
7. Define Isobar
Discussion
Key Concept
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Pressure of the atmosphere our atmosphere comes under the gravitational force of the earth and
although all gases are light they do have weight, the nearer to the earth the greater the amount
of atmosphere pressing down and the greater the weight or atmospheric pressure per square
unit area of earth’s surface.
At sea level the average atmospheric pressure is about 1013.2 hPa. It should be borne in mind
that the atmospheric pressure at any point is a force which acts horizontally in all direction as
well as upwards and downwards
Converting a unit of pressure to another
Converting between atmospheres and millimeters of mercury.
• One atm. equals 760.0 mm Hg, so there will be a multiplication or division based on the
direction of the change.
Example #1: Convert 0.875 atm to mmHg.
Solution: multiply the atm value by 760.0 mmHg / atm.

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Notice that the atm. values - one in the numerator and one in the denominator - cancel, leaving
mmHg.
Answer: 665 mmHg
Atmospheric pressure is expressed in several different systems of units: millimeters (or inches) of
mercury, pounds per square inch (psi), dynes per square centimeter, millibars (mb), standard
atmospheres, or kilopascals.
Standard sea-level pressure, by definition, equals 760 mm (29.92 inches) of mercury, 14.70
pounds per square inch, 1,013.25 × 103 dynes per square centimeter, 1,013.25 millibars,
one standard atmosphere, or 101.325 kilopascals.
Variations about these values are quite small; for example, the highest and lowest sea-level
pressures ever recorded are 32.01 inches (in the middle of Siberia) and 25.90 inches (in a
typhoon in the south pacific). The small variations in pressure that do exist largely determine
the wind and storm patterns of earth.

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Near earth’s surface the pressure decreases with height at a rate of about 3.5 millibars for every
30 meters (100 feet). However, over cold air the decrease in pressure can be much steeper
because its density is greater than warmer air.
Standard Atmospheric Pressure at Sea Level
• 1,013.250 hectopascals (hpa)

• 1,013.250 Millibars (mb)
• 1,013.250 Dynes per square centimeter
• 1,01325 bars
• 1,033.227 gm/cm2
• 1,033.227 cm of H20
• 33.8985 ft of H20
• 1.033227 kg/cm2
• 760 mm of Hg
• 76 cm of Hg
• 29.92126 in. of Hg
• 14.6960 lb/in2
The lapse rate is the rate at which an atmospheric variable, normally temperature in earth’s
atmosphere, fails with altitude, lapse rate arises from the word lapse on the sense of gradual fall
it corresponds to the vertical component of the spatial gradient of temperature.

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A weather map displays various meteorological features across a particular area at a particular
point in time and has various symbols which all have specific meanings. Such maps have been in
use since the mid-19th century and are used for research and weather forecasting purposes.
Maps using isotherms show temperature gradients, which can help locate weather
fronts. Isotach maps, analyzing lines of equal wind speed, on a constant pressure surface of 300
or 250 hPa show where the jet stream is located. Use of constant pressure charts at the 700 and
500 hPa level can indicate tropical cyclone motion.
Two-dimensional streamlines based on wind speeds at various levels show areas

of convergence and divergence in the wind field, which are helpful in determining the location of
features within the wind pattern. A popular type of surface weather map is the surface weather
analysis, which plots isobars to depict areas of high pressure and low pressure. Cloud codes are
translated into symbols and plotted on these maps along with other meteorological data that are
included in synoptic reports sent by professionally trained observers.
Isobars- a line on a weather chart connecting places which have the same barometric pressure
or lines drawn through points on the earth having the same atmospheric pressure

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Weather chart
Assessment 3: Multiple Choice Questions
1. It is the state of the earth’s atmosphere with respect to visibility, temperature,

cloudiness, ETC
A. Weather C. Climate

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B. Environment D. Layers of atmosphere
2. The rate of temperature decrease with height, commonly noticed at troposphere is

called?
A. Lapse rate C. Front
B. Isobar D. Continent
3. On what does the operation of aneroid barometer depend?

A. Column of mercury C. Thin, metal, air tight cell
B. Curved tube containing alcohol D. Expansion of mercury in a closed tube
4. Convert 212°F into °C.

A. 97°C C. 98°C
B. 99°C D. 100°C
5. The temperature to which air must be cooled at constant pressure to reach saturation
is______.
A. humidity C. dew point
B. hygrometer D. relative humidity
6. Among all of the permanent gases that can be found near the surface of the earth, the
most abundant is_______.
A. argon C. nitrogen
B. helium D. oxygen
7. The top of the troposphere is marked by a transition layer called?

A. Stratopause C. Tropopause
B. Stratosphere D. Troposphere limit
8. It is responsible for all motions and transformation of matter and energy on earth and its
atmosphere is _______.
A. the sun C. the weather
B. the rotation of the earth D. the revolution of the earth
9. Ascending and descending air masses with different temperature is part of an important
heat transmitting process in our atmosphere called_______.
A. Radiation C. Convection
B. Conduction D. Barometric inversion
10. The change in the length of the day becomes greater as latitude increases because of
the_______.
A. Increased obliquity of the celestial sphere
B. Decreasing distance relative to the equator

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C. Inclination of the diurnal circle to the equator

D. Changing distance between the earth and the sun
11. It is the state of the atmosphere when it holds the maximum amount of water vapor
possible at a particular temperature?
A. Dew point C. Evaporation
B. Saturation D. Condensation
12. The force per unit area exerted against a surface by the weight of the air above that
surface
A. Geostrophic force C. Gravity
B. Atmospheric Pressure D. Pressure Gradient Force
13. Convert 800 millimeters to millibars?

A. 1066.578 C. 1067.578
B. 1068.578 D. 1069.578
14. The standard atmospheric pressure in inches of mercury is?

A. 29.92 C. 76.0
B. 760.0 D. 1013.2
15. It is a ratio of scattered to incident electromagnetic radiation power, most commonly light.
It is a unit less measure of a surface or body's reflectivity.
A. Albedo C. Insolation
B. Absorption D. Solar radiation
16. As radiant energy from the sun arrives at the earth, how many percent is absorbed by
the atmosphere?
A. 19% C.29%
B. 24% D.52%
17. The process of changing solid state to vapor stated is called?
A. Latent heat of fusion
B. Latent heat of sublimation
C. Latent heat of vaporization
D. Latent heat of accumulation
18. Which of the following is a common unit to measure atmospheric pressure?

A. Feet
B. Knots
C. Inches
D. Degrees
19. It is the Instrument that is used to measure atmospheric pressure?

A. Pychrometer
B. Barograph

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C. Hygrometer
D. Anemometer
20. Hygrometer is an instrument that measures_______.

A. rainfall
B. water density
C. relative humidity
D. absolute humidity
21. What instrument that is used on board that measures wind speed?
A. Barometer
B. Hygrometer
C. Anemometer
D. Pyschrometer
22. Ascending and descending air masses with different temperature is part of an important
heat transmitting process in our atmosphere called_______.
A. Radiation C. Convection
B. Conduction D. Barometric inversion
23. What do the numbers on isobars indicate?

A. Wind
B. Barometer
C. Aneroid barometer
D. Barometric pressure

1 Prelim Met O1

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(Meteorology and Oceanography)

STUDENT LEARNING MODULE

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Lesson 1: Shipborne Meteorological Instruments

Competence, Course Outcomes and Learning Outcomes

Plan and conduct a passage and determine position

1. Interpret information obtained from ship borne meteorological instruments

1. Define meteorology, weather & climate.

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The Difference between Weather and Climate

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Ship borne meteorological instruments

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• Aneroid barometer is the most common pressure measuring instrument, where

Operating sequence of aneroid barometer

Corrections Height above sea level

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Reading the atmospheric pressure from an aneroid barometer

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Conversion of a Thermometer reading from one unit to another

Temperature is a measure of heat energy, measured in degrees. Several different temperature

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