Great Ideas in Science:

Earth as a Planet
Professor Robert Hazen
UNIV 301 – October 25, 2006
Great Idea: Earth, one of the planets
that orbits the Sun, formed 4.5 billion
years ago from a great cloud of dust.
Today: Key Ideas About Earth
1. Earth, one of the planets that orbits the
Sun, formed 4.5 billion years ago from a
great cloud of dust.
2. The surface of our planet changes
constantly; no feature is permanent.
3. The entire earth is still changing, due to
the slow convection of soft, hot rocks
deep within the planet.
4. Earth materials move in cycles; a change
in one cycle affects others.
Clues to the Origin of the Solar System
Solar System = Objects
gravitationally bound to the Sun
 Clue #1: Planetary Orbits
Features of solar system
– All planets orbit in the same direction
– All planets orbit in the same plane
– Most planets rotate in the direction of orbit
Clue #2: Distribution of Mass
• Almost all mass is in the Sun (99.9%)
• Two types of planets
– Terrestrial planets
– Jovian planets
• Other objects
– Moons, asteroids, comets
The Nebular Hypothesis
 The Formation of Earth
The Great
Bombardment
 Differentiation
Differentiation
– Heat from collisions
– Dense material sank to center
– Lighter material rose to surface
Structure
– Core
– Mantle
– Crust
The Formation of the Moon
“Big Splash”

Large object impacted Earth

Parts of mantle blown into orbit
Moon formed from this material
 The Evolution of
Earth’s Atmosphere
Volcanoes released N2, CO2, H2, & H2O

Large impacts blew off most atmosphere

Hydrogen lost by gravitational escape

Living organisms introduced oxygen

Terrestrial (Inner) Planets
• Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
– Rocky and relatively small
– Mercury and Venus too hot for life
– Mars may have had life long ago
• Mars Exploration
– Multiple missions
– Found evidence of water
 Jovian (Outer) Planets
Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, Neptune
– Layered structure
– No solid surface
 Pluto (?)
– Only 0.3% of Earth’s mass
– Three moons
– Captured comet or asteroid?
– Is it a planet?
 Asteroids, Comets,
and Meteors
Asteroids
Small rocky bodies
Orbit sun
Asteroid belt
Comets
Dirty snowballs
Highly elongated orbits
Stardust and Deep Impact missions
Meteors and Meteorites
Meteor showers
Original solar system material
 Volcanoes and Earthquakes-
Evidence of Earth’s Inner Forces
• Volcanoes
– Magma breaks
through surface
• Earthquakes
– Rocks breaks
along fault
– Energy transmitted
as wave
 The Case of the
Disappearing Mountains

Old

Young
 Deep Time

James Hutton at
Jedburgh Scotland
ca.1790
Deep Time
 Plate Tectonics
Great Idea: Earth is constantly changing, due
to the slow convection of soft, hot rocks deep
within the planet.
Plate tectonics – 6 lines of evidence
1. Physiology: Similar shapes of continents
Plate tectonics – 6 lines of evidence
1. Physiology: Shape of continents

2. Seismology: Earth’s inner structure

Plate tectonics – 6 lines of evidence
1. Physiology: Shape of continents
2. Seismology: Earth’s inner structure

3. Geology: Distribution of rocks and fossils

 Plate tectonics – 6 lines of evidence
1. Physiology: Shape of continents
2. Seismology: Earth’s inner structure
3. Geology: Distribution of rocks and fossils

4. Oceanography:
Sea floor topography
Plate tectonics – 6 lines of evidence
1. Physiology: Shape of continents
2. Seismology: Earth’s inner structure
3. Geology: Distribution of rocks and fossils
4. Oceanography: Sea floor topography
<5
5. Volcanology: Ages
of Atlantic volcanoes

95

75

55

125
Plate tectonics – 6 lines of evidence
1. Physiology: Shape of continents
2. Seismology: Earth’s inner structure
3. Geology: Distribution of rocks and fossils
4. Oceanography: Sea floor topography
5. Volcanology: Ages of Atlantic volcanoes

6. Paleomagnetismof
sea floor rocks
New Support for Plate Tectonics
• Measurements of the
distance between
continents

• North America and

Europe are separating
at ~5 cm per year
Earth’s Tectonic Plates
 Plate Boundaries
• Three Main Boundary Types
– Divergent
– Convergent
– Transform
Divergent Boundaries
 Convergent Plate Boundaries
Three Types:
1. Ocean-ocean

2. Continent-continent

3. Ocean-continent
Transform Plate Boundary
Another Look at Volcanoes
and Earthquakes
Volcanoes Occur at:
1. Divergent Plate Boundaries
2. Convergent Plate Boundaries
3. Hotspots
Earthquakes Occur at:
1. Transform Plate Boundaries
 Earth’s Geochemical Cycles
Earth materials move in cycles;
a change in one cycle affects the others.

1. Atoms recycle; they’re used over and over.

Reservoirs (Aluminum can)
Hydrologic cycle
Atmospheric cycle
Rock cycle

2. Energy flows through the system.

 Geochemical Cycles
• Account for all the repositories of that
substance

• Document processes by which the

substance moves from repository to
another

• Gold
 Igneous Rocks
• Igneous Rocks
– Solidify from hot liquid
• Types
– Extrusive rocks solidify
at the surface
– Intrusive rocks solidify
below surface
Sedimentary Rocks

Rocks deposited layer by

layer from weathered
particles (sand, silt, etc.) or
chemicals (i.e., coral).
Metamorphic Rocks
• Rocks formed by
pressure and heat
• Examples
– Slate
– Schist
– Gneiss
– Quartzite
Atmospheric Cycle
• Air mass
– Uniform temperature and
moisture
• Weather
– State of the atmosphere
• Climate
– Long-term average of
weather
 The General Circulation
of the Atmosphere
• Circulation powered by
Sun
– Air heated and rises
– Cools and sinks
• Prevailing winds
– Caused by earth’s
rotation
 Weather
Five variables define
state of atmosphere
– Temperature
– Air pressure
– Humidity
– Cloudiness
– Prevailing winds
 Climate
• Gradual change over long periods
• Influences on climate
– Large bodies of water
– Ocean currents
– Mountain ranges
– Position of tectonic plates
The Water (Hydrologic) Cycle
• The total amount of the Earth’s water is
constant; the same atoms cycle from one
reservoir to another
• Total volume ~ 1.4 billion km3
• Oceans 97.3%
• Lakes and Rivers 0.01%
• Groundwater 0.6%
• Ice Caps & Glaciers 2.1%
• Atmosphere 0.001%
• All life 0.00004%
How does water move among
reservoirs?
 Ocean Currents
• Redistribute heat across planet
 Ice Ages
As the ice caps and
glaciers grow, the
sea level drops.
Two facts about water use

• A human requires about 2 liters of

water per day to survive

• The average American uses about

6,000 liters of water per day
 The Water Table
• The water table will drop when discharge
exceeds recharge (like a bank)
• In the US we “mine” about 100,000,000
gallons of water every day (more than the
recharge)
• Artificial recharge helps
• Urbanization and pollution hurt