Climatology is the study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged

over a period of time, and is a branch of the sciences. Climatology studies the frequency
with which these weather systems occurred in the past. It studies the periodicity of weather
events over years to millennia, as well as changes in long- term average weather patterns, in
relation to atmospheric conditions.
Climatologists, those who practice climatology, study both the nature of climates - local,
regional or global - and the natural or human-induced factors that cause climates to change.
Climatology considers the past and can help predict future climate change.

EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON ARCHITECTURAL FORM

Climate, in particular, produces certain easily observed effects on architectural forms. For
example, the proportion of window area to wall area becomes less as one moves toward the
equator. In warm areas, people shun the glare and heat of the sun, as demonstrated by the
decreasing size of the windows. In the subtropical and tropical zones, more distinctive
changes in architectural form occur to meet the problems caused by excessive heat.
A building is affected by its environment. The climate of the locality and the buildings
around it mold the building, so that, even though social, cultural, and economic aspects are
important, it owes much of its shape to these factors.
CLIMATE
Originated from Greek word : KLIMA
As per Oxford Dictionary : Region with certain conditions of temperature, dryness,
wind, light etc.
Scientific definition : An integration in time of the physical states of the atmospheric
environment, characteristic of a certain geographical location.
WEATHER : Momentary state of the atmospheric environment at a certain location
CLIMATE : Integration in time of weather conditions.
TROPICAL CLIMATES
Where heat is dominant problem
Greater part of the year building serve to keep the residents cool, rather than
warm, where the annual mean temperature is not less than 20° Celsius.
SOLAR RADIATION
Earth receives almost all its energy from the sun in the form of radiation
SUN IS DOMINATING INFULENCE ON CLIMATES
Spectrum of solar radiations extends from 290 to 2300nm
According to human means of precipitation we can distinguish :
a) Ultra- Violet Radiation : 290to 380 nm, producing photochemical effects,
bleaching, sun burn etc.
b) Visible Light: 380nm (Violet) to 700nm (Red)
c) Short Infra Red Radiation: 700 to 2300 nm, radiation heat with some
photochemical effects
Spectral energy distribution varies with altitude due to the filtering effects of
the atmosphere
Shorter wavelengths are absorbed by the atmosphere and re-radiated at
much longer wavelengths e.g. long infra red, upto 10000nm
TILT OF THE EARTH’s AXIS
Earth rotates around its own axis
One rotation = 24 hour day
Axis of rotation ( the line joining North and South Poles) is tilted to the plane of
elliptical orbit, at an angle of 66.5º (i.e. a tilt of 23.5 º from the normal ) and the
direction of this axis is constant .
Max. Intensity ------ Received -------- On plane normal to the direction of
radiation
If axis rectangular to the plane of orbit ------equatorial regions normal to the
direction of solar radiation
Due to tilted position :
area receiving max. intensity moves north and south
between the tropic of cancer (Latitude 23.5°N) and
tropic of Capricorn (Latitude 23.5°S)
Main cause of seasonal changes
On 21st June:
Area along 23.5°N -- Normal to sun rays
sun’s apparent path goes through the
zenith at this altitude
and the longest day’s light is
experienced
Area along 23.5°s – shortest day experienced
min. radiation
On 21st March & 23rd September:
Area along Equator -- Normal to sun rays
sun’s apparent path goes through the
Other areas of earth – Equinox days (Equal day and night)
RADIATION AT EARTH’s SURFACE
This earth sun relationship affects
the amount of radiation received
at a particular point on the earth’s
surface in three ways:
the cosine law , which states the intensity on a tilted surface equals the normal
intensity times the cosine of angle of incidence. Figure shows how the same
amount of radiation is distributed over a large area, therefore less radiation falls
on unit area
atmospheric depletion, i.e. the absorption of radiation by ozone, vapours and dust
particles in the atmosphere (a factor of 0.2 to 0.7). The lower the solar altitiude
angle, the longer the path of radiation through the atmosphere, thus a smaller
part reaches the earth’s surface. Figure indicates the geometrical relationship .
There effect in quantitative terms for points at different height above sea level.
This atmospheric depletion is also affected by the momentary state of the
atmosphere: its purity, vapour, dust, smoke etc content
THE EARTH’s THERMAL BALANCE
Total amount of heat absorbed by earth BALANCED BY corresponding heat
loss
Below figures illustrate distribution of incoming radiation and how the earth
surface releases heat by three processes:
a) by long- wave radiation to cold outer space (some 84 % of this reradiation is
absorbed in the atmosphere, only 16% escapes to space)
b) by evaporation : the earth’s surface is cooled, as liquid water changes into
vapour and mixes with air
c) by convection: air heated by contact with the warm earth surface becomes
lighter and rises to the upper atmosphere, where it dissapates its heat to
space.
WINDS : THERMAL FORCES
Winds are basically convection currents in the atmosphere, tending to even out
the differential heating of various zones.
Pattern of movement modified by ----- Earth’s Rotation
At the max. heating zone (which is somewhere between tropics of Cancer and
Capricorn), air is heated by the hot surface, it expands, its pressure is decreased
and it becomes lighter, it rises vertically and flows off at a high level towards
colder regions
Part of this air, having cooled down at higher level, descends to the surface in
the subtropic regions, from where the cooler, heavier air is drawn in towards
the Equator from both north and south.
The area where the air rises, where these northerly and southerly winds meet
where the tropical front is formed, it is referred to as the inter – tropical
convergence zone (ITCZ)
This area experiences either completely calm conditions or only very light
breezes of irregular directions and is referred to by saliors as ‘doldrums’
TRADE WINDS : THE CORIOLIS FORCE
Atmosphere rotates with earth
As it is light in weight and behaves as fluid, held against the earth’s surface only
by gravity and friction, it has a tendency to lag behind the earth’s rate of
rotation where this rotation is the fastest, i.e. at the ‘ Equator’
There is a ‘ slippage’ at the boundary layer between the earth and its
atmosphere caused by what is known as ‘ Corolis force’
Effect is experienced as a wind blowing in a direction opposite to that of earth’s
rotation
Actual wind is the resultant of thermal forces and the Corolis force : North
Easterly winds north of the equator and South Easterly winds south of the
equator
These are known as North east and South East trade winds, a term originated
by round the world traders in the days of sailing – ships.
CLIMATIC INFORMATION
• Designer’s interest -------- aspects of climate which affect human comfort and
the use of buildings.
• Include:
averages, changes and extremes of temperature
temperature differences between day and night (diurnal range)
humidity
sky conditions
incoming arid outgoing radiation
rainfall and its distribution
air movements
special features, such as trade-winds, thunder-storms, dust-
storms and hurricanes.
• Non Interest of Designer:
Climatic records as gathered at airports and meteorological stations
Publications.

• It is often necessary to supplement such information with unpublished data

obtained directly from meteorological stations.

• Designer’s Task :
To analyse climatic information
Present it in a form that allows him to identify features
that are beneficial or harmful to the future occupants of
his building.
TEMPRATURE
• The temperature of the air is measured in degrees Celsius (°C )
• With a mercury thermometer.
• The dry-bulb or 'true air temperature' is a value taken in the shade, the
thermometer being mounted is a value taken in the shade, the thermometer
being mounted inside a louvred wooden box, known as the 'Stevenson screen' ,
at a height of 1.20 to 1-80 m above the ground.
HUMIDITY
• The humidity of air can be described as absolute humidity (AH)
• Absolute Humidity:: The amount of moisture actually present in unit mass or
unit volume of air, in terms of gram per kilogram (g/kg) or gram per cubic metre
(g/m3).
• The relative humidity (RH) is, a much more useful form of expression, as it gives
a direct indication of evaporation potential.
• The amount of moisture the air can hold (the saturation-point humidity: SH)
depends on its temperature .
• Relative Humidity : Ratio of the actual amount of moisture present, to the
amount of moisture the air could hold at the given temperature expressed as a
percentage:
RH = AH x 100 (%)
SH
VAPOUR PRESSURE
• Vapour Pressure : Expression of atmospheric humidity
• Def: The partial pressure of water vapour present in the air.
• The 'atmospheric pressure' (P) is the sum of the 'partial pressure of dry air' (Pa)
and the 'partial vapour pressure' (Pv):
P = Pa + Pv
• Saturated air ---- when
the vapour pressure (Pv) = the pressure of saturated vapour of the same
temperature (Pvs).
• Relative humidity can also be expressed as :
The ratio of actual vapour pressure to the saturation point vapour pressure
RH = AH x 100 (%) = Pv x 100 (%)
SH Pvs
• Measured in the standard SI pressure unit, the Newton per metre square (N
/M2):
• 1 millibar = 100 N/m2.
PRECIPITATION
• Precipitation is the collective term used for rain, snow, hail, dew and frost, that
is, all forms of water deposited ('precipitated') from the atmosphere.
• It is measured by rain-gauges, i.e. calibrated receptacles
• Expressed in millimetre per a time unit (mm/month, mm/day)
• Values indicating the total precipitation for each month of the year (and as
many years average) would show the patterrn of dry and wet seasons.
• Ever recorded maxima and minima would give an indication of the reliability of
rains or deviations from the average.
• The maximum rainfall for anv 24- hour period is a useful guide
for the predication of flooding and
for the design of surfalce drainage (roofs, paved areas,
gutters and downpipes)
• Maximum hourlv rainfall intensity should be shown
SKY CONDITIONS
• Sky conditions are usually described in terms of presence or absence of clouds.
• On average, two observations are made per day, when the proportion, of sky
covered by cloud is expressed as a percentage (some records give cloud cover in
"tenths’ or even in 'eighths' or 'octets', e.g 50% five-tenths or four -eighth,
would all indicate that half of the sky hemisphere is covered by cloud).
• Few records exist of night time sky condition
• It would be useful for the designer to know the time of day and frequency of
observations.
• A single average figure giving the sky conditions for a typical day of a given
month may conceal significant differences, e.g., between morning and
afternoon conditions, which may affect the designs of roofs, overhangs and
shading devices
• Sky luminance values are needed if day lighting in buildings are to be predicted.
SOLAR RADIATION
• A simple sunshine recorder will register the duration of sunshine, which can be
expressed in number of hours per day, as an average for each month.
• A variety of more sophisticated instruments (solarimeter, heliometer, actino­
meter and pyranometer) are used for the quantitative recording of solar
radiation, but reliable and comparable data is few and far between.
• Much of the available literature gives recorded intensities in Btu/ft²h, in
kcal/mzh or in langleys (cal/cm²) per hour, but the now accepted international
standard (SI) unit is the watt per metre square (W/m²).
• This is the instantaneous intensity, i.e. the incidence of energy in joules per
square metre of the surface per second (W/m² = J/m²s, as W = J/s).
• Total radiation received over a longer period, one day, for instance, will be
expressed in J/m² day or the multiple MJ/m²day will be used (mega joule = 1
million joules)
WIND
• Wind velocity is measured by a cup-type or propeller anemometer, or by a Pitot
tube (similar to the air-speed meters of aero planes)
• Wind direction is measured by a wind vane.
• An anemograph can produce continuous recordings of wind velocity and
directional changes.
• Free wind velocities are normally recorded in open flat country at a height of 10
m.
• Measurements in urban areas are often taken at a height of between 10 and
20 m to avoid obstructions. Velocities near the ground are a good deal lower
than the free wind speed.
• Directions can be grouped into eight or sixteen categories: the four cardinal (N.,
E., S. and W.) and four semi-cardinal compass points (NE., SE., SW. and NW.)
and possibly the eight tertiary compass points (NNE., ENE., ESE., SSE., SS4V.,
WSW., WNW. and NNW.).
• Velocities are measured in metres per second (m/s), but much data can still be
found in obsolete units, such as ft/min, mph or knot (nautical mile per hour).
SPECIAL CHARACTERSTICS
• Most regions experience conditions which are particularly unfavourable, such
as hail and thunder-storms, line or arched squalls, earthquakes, tornadoes,
hurricanes and dust-storms.
• Although such events may be rare, it is important to extract from
meteorological data their frequency, likely duration and nature.
• The designer must classify rare events into those which affect human comfort
and those which may endanger the safety of buildings and the lives of
inhabitants.
• Discomfort-even if it impedes work or sleep-can be accepted if it is rare enough
and lasts only for a few hours.
• Structural safety, on the other hand, must be guaranteed however infrequent
the danger.
VEGETATION
• The picture of climate is incomplete without some notes on the character and
abundance of plant life.
• Although generally regarded as a function of climate, vegetation can in its turn
influence the local or site climate.
• It is an important element in the design of out-door spaces, providing sun-
shading and protection from glare
• This section of the climatic survey may range from a few notes about local
species of plant life to a lengthy compendium of the major native plants and
trees - shape and colour, also their preferred orientation and situation.
• To understand a new and unfamiliar climate one must relate it to a familiar one
then measure and note essential differences.
• This is best done by using the standard graphic presentation first for the climate
of one's own home-town and then for the strange climate being investigated.
• When the two graphs are placed side by side (or superimposed if one is
transparent) similarities and differences become apparent and characteristic
features can be identified.
• Even the comparison of simplified climate graphs can reveal the most important
differences.
THE DESIGNER’s TASK
• If a large site is available, the first task of the designer is to identify the area
most suitable for habitation.
• In all cases, however, he must design the building(s) in such a way as to take
advantage of the favourable and mitigate the adverse characteristics of the site
and its climatic features.
• The opportunity is rarely given to carry out on site observations and
measurements for any length of time.
• The best approach is to start with regional data and assess the likely deviations.
Valuable advice may be obtained from an expert, an experienced observer, who
may be able to predict climatic deviations on the basis of visual inspection of
the site.
• For a large project it is certainly worthwhile to seek expert advice, as many
users of the building may have to endure the consequences of climatic design
decisions for a long time.
• The nature and extent of climatic deviations - also the likely effects of the
intended building - should be assessed early in the design stage, before one is
committed to a certain solution which may later prove to be difficult to rectify.
• It is the purpose of the present section to give an understanding of local factors,
which should enable the reader to make his own assessment of a given site
climate with reasonable accuracy.
LOCAL FACTORS
• The factors governing the climate of a zone have been surveyed in the previous
sections.
• Factors which may cause Local deviations from this are:
Topography, i.e. slope, orientation, exposure, elevation, hills
or valleys, at or near the site.
Ground surface, whether natural or man-made, its reflectance,
permeability and the soil temperature, as
these affect vegetation and this in turn affects
the climate (woods, shrubs, grass, paving,
water, etc.).
Three-dimensional objects, such as trees, or tree-belts, fences,
walls and buildings, as these may influence air
movement, may cast a shadow and may
sub­divide the area into smaller units with
distinguishable climatic features.
A logical method will be to follow the sequence of climatic elements examined in the
previous section and see how each of these may be affected by the above mentioned
factors.
Climate responsive design process
•  Climate Assessment
•  Shading / daylighting studies
•  Thermal comfort analysis
•  Parametric modeling
•  On-site renewable energy systems
•  Life cycle cost assessment
CLIMATIC FACTORS IN URBAN DESIGN
The benefits of designing with nature are not only practical but also aesthetic and
sensory. It would appear most appropriate that we consider managing and
Designing landscapes, buildings and the open spaces between them, in a way that
Emphasizes rather than minimizes seasonal variation. Regional identity in
architectural and urbanistic expression (colour, form, texture, materials, etc.)
should be encouraged.
Topography and climate may play important roles but cultural practices and
attitudes can override these factors so that people in the same environment often
have cultural practices which vary widely.
Climatic Factors in Environmental Design, is intended to address many of the issues
raised above. The major thrust is to relate climate, design and behaviour with the aim
of creating humane, liveable private and public places in cities, urban regions, and the
countryside. Climatic factors have been ignored or swept under the rug for far too
long.
1) The relationship between climate and behaviour at architectural and urban
design scales of concern.
2) Ways of organizing urban space to improve the micro-climate of parts of the
city and on building sites - through modification of built form -
ameliorating human comfort in the process.
THERMAL COMFORT IN ARCHITECTURE
• Why Thermal Comfort?
Most of the time of people now is spent in buildings or urban spaces both indoor
and outdoor climate should be taken into consideration not only in urban
design but also in buildings.
Definite relationship between thermal comfort and climatic design
• What are comfort conditions?
• How buildings could adjust themselves to these conditions?
EXTERNAL CLIATIC FACTORS THAT AFFECT AN INTERIOR DESIGN PROJECT
1)amount of direct sunlight
2)external temperature.
3)humidity and rainfall
4)wind direction.
5)land structure and topography.
CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATES
• Many different systems of climate classification are in use for different purposes.
climatic zones such as tropical, arid, temperature and cool are commonly found for
representing climatic conditions. for the purposes of building design a simple system
based on the nature of the thermal problem in the particular location is often used.
• Cold climates, where the main problem is the lack of heat (under heating), or an
excessive heat dissipation for all or most parts of the year.
• Temperate climates, where there is a seasonal variation between underheating
and overheating, but neither is very severe.
• Hot-dry (arid) climates, where the main problem is overheating, but the air is
dry, so the evaporative cooling mechanism of the body is not restricted. There
is usually a large diurnal (day - night) temperature variation.
• Warm-humid climates, where the overheating is not as great as in hot-dry
areas, but it is aggravated by very high humidities, restricting the evaporation
potential. The diurnal temperature variation is small.
• The general climate (macroclimate) is influenced by the topographty, the
vegetation and the nature of the environment on a regional scale (mesoclimate)
or at a local level within the site itself (microclimate).
 IMPORTANCE OF CLIMATIC DESIGN
Climate has a major effect on building performance and energy consumption. The
process of identifying, understanding and controlling climatic influences at the
building site is perhaps the most critical part of building design. The key objectives
of climatic design include:
• To reduce energy cost of a building
• To use "natural energy" instead of mechanical system and power
• To provide comfortable and healthy environment for people
CLIMATIC ELEMENTS
The main climatic elements, regularly measured by meteorological stations, and
published in summary form are:
• Temperature - dry-bulb temperature.
• Humidity - expressed as relative humidity or absolute humidity, or the web-
bulb temperature or dew-point temperature may be stated, from which the
humidity can be deduced.
• Air movement - both wind speed and direction are indicated.
• Precipitation - the total amount of rain, hail, snow, dew, measured in rain
gauges and expressed in mm per unit time (day, month, year).
• Cloud cover - based on visual observation and expressed as a fraction of the sky
hemisphere (tenths, or 'octas' = eights) covered by clouds.
• Sunshine duration - the period of clear sunshine (when a sharp shadow is cast),
measured by a sunshine recorder which burns a trace on a paper strip,
expressed as hours per day or month.
• Solar radiation - measured by a pyranometer, on an unobstructed horizontal
surface and recorded either as the continuously varying irradiance (W/m2), or
through an electronic integrator as irradiance over the hour or day.
• As the four environmental variables directly affecting thermal comfort are
temperature, humidity, solar radiation and air movement, these are the four
constituents of climate most important for the purposes of building design.
Rainfall data may sometimes be needed, such as for designing drainage systems
and assessing the level of percipitation.
Temperature:
- monthly mean of daily maxima (deg C)
- monthly mean of daily minima (deg C)
- standard deviation of distribution
Humidity:
- early morning relative humidity (in %) 
- early afternoon relative humidity (in %)
Solar radiation:
- monthly mean daily total (in MJ/m2 or Wh/m2)
Wind:
- prevailing wind speed (m/s) and direction
Rainfall:
- monthly total (in mm)
• Factors Affecting Climatic Design
• The local micro-climate and site factors will affect the actual environmental
conditions of the building. The important site-related factors should be considered
when making the climate analysis:
• Topography - elevation, slopes, hills and valleys, ground surface conditions.
• Vegetation - height, mass, silhouette, texture, location, growth patterns.
• Built forms - nearby buildings, surface conditions.
• Major thermal design factors to be studied include: solar heat gain, conduction heat
flow and ventilation heat flow. The design variables in architectural expression that
are important will include:
• Shape - surface-to-volume ratio; orientation; building height.
• Building fabric - materials and construction; thermal insulation; surface qualities;
shading and sun control.
• Fenestration - the size, position and orientation of windows; window glass
materials; external and internal shading devices.
• Ventilation - air-tightness; outdoor fresh air; cross ventilation and natural
ventiation.
SUNSHADE ANALYSIS
1. Solar paths requiring shade
Studying the sunpath diagram for each climatic zone, the shaded areas
represent the periods of overheating, related to undesirable solar gain. In the
lower latitudes there is total overheating, whereas in the higher latitudes
overheating only occurs during the summer months.
2. Sunshade analysis (vertical and horizontal)
The diagrams show the optimum location of vertical sun shading, shielding the
building from low sun angles in the morning and evening, and horizontal sun
shading blocking the high midday sun. Tropical regions need both vertical and
horizontal shading throughout the year. In higher latitudes, horizontal and
vertical shading is only needed during the summer on the south-facing sides of
buildings.
3. Insolation
The sunpath becomes more southerly as we move north, changing from a
'bow-tie' pattern near the equator to a heart-shape pattern in the temperate
zones.
Sun requirements during winter
There are obviously seasonal variations near the equator. Solar heating
becomes more important than in the upper latitutdes. Beginning at the
equator and moving north, the need for solar heating increases while the need
for solar shading dimishes.
WIND ANALYSIS
Wind direction
Desirable and undesirable winds in each the climatic zones depend largely on
local conditions. Any breeze in the lower latitude (tropical and arid climates) is
beneficial for most of the year whereas in higher latitudes most wind is
determental and has to be screened. There is also a small percentage of the
time in a year (spring and/or autumn) when comfortable conditions can be
achieved naturally, without any need for wind screening or additional breezes.
Cross ventilation
Cross ventilation is far more important in the tropics than in temperate zones.
The theoretical strategy for blocking or inducing wind flow into a building is
based on local prevailing wind conditions. Genrally, for the tropical zones as
much ventilation as possible is desired. For the arid zone cross ventilation is
required, but care has to be taken to filter out high-velocity winds. In the
temperate zone, cross ventilation and shielding are both necessary (for
summer and winter, respectively). In the cool region, the building should be
protected from cold, high-veolcity winds, although cross ventilation is still
required.
Annual Average Relative Humidity
The curve on the left represents the annual average relative humidty in the four climatic zones. In the arid zone, the low
level of humidity can be beneficial for evaporative cooling. In the tropical zone the high level of humidity can be very
uncomfortable.