AR 17 34

BUILDING CLIMATOLOGY

Mohammed Shibin N Ar. Mohammed Shibin N , M.arch

Asst. Professor
Assistant Professor, Al Salama Institute of Architecture, Perinthalmanna,
Alsalama Institute of Architecture
Kerala, 679338, India. email: ar.mohammedshibin@gmail.com
MODULE 1
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT

 Factor that determine climate of a space

 Elements of Climates
 Measurements and representation techniques of climatic data
 Global climatic zones – Macro , micro , site , urban climate
 Human body heat balance
 Mechanism of comfort in human system in various climatic
environments
 Concept of effective temperature - its correction and application
 ET/CET nomogram
 Psychrometric chart
 Comfort indices
 Bio climatic chart
MODULE 2
PRINCIPLES OF THERMAL DESIGN

 Basic concepts of heat transfer

 Terminology and units
 K value and U value
 Sol air temperature and solar gain factor
 Heat exchange of buildings
 Transmittance of composite walls
 Thermal gradients
 Periodic heat flow concept
 Time lag and decrement factor
 Thermal characteristics of common building materials and building
components
MODULE 3
MEANS OF THERMAL CONTROL

Structural controls
solar control
 Heat absorbing glasses
 Geometry of solar movement
 Altitude and azimuth angles
 Sunpath diagram/ solar chart
 Horizontal and vertical shadow angles
 Use of shadow angle protractor
 Design of shading devices
Ventilation and air movement
 Functions of ventilation
 Stack effect
 Air flow through buildings
 Air flow around buildings
 Humidity control
MODULE 4
CLIMATE-RESPONSIVE ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

 Architectural design strategies for different climatic zones - Passive

design techniques in built and un-built environment
The climate design process
 Forward analysis
 Plan development
 Element design
 The Mahoney tables
 Activity charts
 Models and analogues – wind tunnel , solarscope, artificial sky
INTRODUCTION

Climate and weather

 Climate is an integration in time of the physical states of

the atmospheric environment characteristic of certain
geographic conditions.

 Weather is the momentary(short) state of the atmospheric

environment at certain location.
Tropical zone
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT
 The tropics are the region of the Earth near to the equator and
between the Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere and
the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemisphere. This region
is also referred to as the tropical zone.
MODULE 1
CLIMATE
FACTOR THATAND HUMAN
DETERMINE COMFORT
CLIMATE(global climatic factors)

1. LATITUDE OR DISTANCE FROM THE EQUATOR

2. SOLAR RADIATION QUALITY
3. SOLAR RADIATION QUANTITY
4. TILT OF EARTH’S AXIS
5. RADIATION AT THE EARTH’S SURFACE
6. THE EARTH’S THERMAL BALANCE
7. WINDS: THERMAL FORCES
8. TRADE-WINDS: THE CORIOLIS FORCE
9. ANNUAL WIND SHIFTS
10. INFLUENCE OF TOPOGRAPHY
 MODULE 1
1) Latitude or distance from the equator
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT
 Temperatures drop the further an area is from the equator due to the curvature of
the earth. In areas closer to the poles, sunlight has a larger area of atmosphere to
pass through and the sun is at a lower angle in the sky. As a result, temperatures are
cooler.

 In addition, the presence of ice and snow nearer the poles causes a higher albedo,
meaning that more solar energy is reflected, also contributing to the cold.
MODULE 1
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT
2) Solar radiation quality

• The earth receives almost all its energy from the sun in the form
of radiation, thus the sun is the dominating influence on climates.
• The spectrum of solar radiation extends from 290 to 2 300 nm
(nanometre = 10–9 m).

According to human means of perception we can distinguish:

• ultra-violet radiation, 290 to 380 nm, producing photo-chemical
effects, bleaching, sunburn, etc.
• visible light, 380 (violet) to 700 nm (red).
• short infra-red radiation, 700 to 2300 nm, radiant heat with some
photochemical effects.
3)MODULE 1
Solar radiation quantity
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT
• The intensity of radiation reaching the upper surface of the
atmosphere is taken as the solar constant: 1 395 W/m2, but it may
actually vary ±2% due to variations in the output of the sun itself
and it varies ±3.5% due to changes in the earth–sun distance.

• The earth moves around the sun in a slightly elliptical orbit. One
revolution is completed in 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46
seconds.
4)MODULE
Tilt of earth’s
1 axis
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT

 Earth rotates around its own axis, each rotation making one 24-hour
day

 The axis of rotation is tilted to the plane at an angle of 23.5º from

the normal

 Maximum intensity is received on a plane normal to the direction of

radiation
• Maximum intensity is received on a plane normal to the direction of radiation.

• If the axis of earth were rectangular to the plane of the orbit, it would always be
the equatorial regions which are normal to the direction of solar radiation. Due
to the tilted position, however, the area receiving the maximum intensity moves
north and south, between the tropic of Cancer (latitude 23.5°N.) and the tropic
of Capricorn (latitude 23.5°S.).

• This is the main cause of seasonal changes

• On 21 June areas along latitude 23.5°N. are normal to the sun's
rays, the sun's apparent path goes through the zenith(point on the
celestial sphere directly above an observer on the Earth) at this
latitude, and the longest daylight period is experienced.
• At the same time latitude 23.5°S. experiences the shortest day and
a radiation minimum.

• On 21 March and 23 September areas along the Equator are

normal to the sun's rays and experience a zenith path of the sun.
For all areas of the earth these are the equinox days (day and
night of equal length).
MODULE
5) 1 at the earth’s surface
Radiation
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT
 The earth‐sun relationship affects the amount of radiations received at a
particular point on the earth’s surface in 3 ways:

1.Atmospheric depletion: Absorption of radiation by ozone, vapours and dust

particles in atmosphere.

2.Duration of sunshine: Length of daylight period.

MODULE 1
3.Cosine Law
CLIMATE ANDofHUMAN
• The same amount COMFORT
solar radiation can be distributed over a
larger area.
• “The intensity on a tilted surface equals the normal intensity
times the cosine of angle of incidence.”
MODULE 1
6) The earth’s thermal balance
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT
• The total amount of heat absorbed by the earth each year is balanced by
corresponding heat loss.

a) by long-wave radiation to cold outer space (some 84% of this reradiation is

absorbed in the atmosphere, only 16% escapes to space)

b) by evaporation: the earth's surface is cooled, as liquid water changes into

vapour and mixes with air

c) by convection: air heated by contact with the warm earth surface becomes
lighter and rises to the upper atmosphere, where it dissipates its heat to space.
MODULE 1
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT

distribution of incoming radiation

MODULE 1
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT

Heat release from the ground and the atmosphere

 MODULE 1

• The area where the air rises, where these northerly and southerly winds meet, wher
the tropical front is formed, is referred to as the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITC
This area experiences either completely calm conditions or only very light breezes of
irregular directions and is referred to by sailors as 'doldrums'.
7)Influence
MODULE 1 of topography
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT
The force, direction and moisture content of air flows are strongly influenced
by topography.

1. The influence of altitude (hill station).

2. The effect of sea to coastal areas.
3. Leeward and Windward side of a hill.
MODULE 1
ELEMENTS
CLIMATE OFCOMFORT
AND HUMAN CLIMATE

• Temperature
• Humidity
• Precipitation
• Sky conditions (presence or absence of clouds)
• Solar radiation
• Wind
• Vegetation
MODULE 1 ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT
1) Temperature

Temperature measurements
The temperature of the air is measured in degrees Celsius (°C), most often with a
mercury thermometer.
Temperature: data

•As a broad description, monthly mean temperatures can be given for each of the 12
months.

•The average is taken between each day's maximum and minimum .then the average
of the 30 days‘ average is found.

•It may be useful to indicate the highest and lowest temperatures ever recorded for
each month, the monthly extreme maxima and minima, to establish the monthly
extreme range of temperatures.
MODULE 1
MERCURY THERMOMETER
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT
MODULE 1
2)Humidity:AND
CLIMATE measurement
HUMAN COMFORT
• The humidity of air can be described as absolute humidity (AH) :
the amount of moisture actually present in unit mass or unit
volume of air.

• Units : gramme per kilogramme (g/kg) or gramme per cubic

metre (g/m3).

 Relative humidity is the ratio of the actual amount of moisture

present, to the amount of moisture the air could hold at the
given temperature – expressed as a percentage:

saturationpoint humidity(SH) :
The amount of moisture the air can hold the depends on its temperature.
MODULE 1
Psychrometer (wet- and dry-bulb hygrometer)
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT
MODULE 1
 CLIMATE
 Humidity is usuallyAND HUMAN
measured COMFORT
with the wet-and-dry-bulb hygrometer. This
consists of two ordinary mercury thermometers mounted side by side.
 The first one measures the air (dry-bulb) temperature (DBT).
 The bulb of the second one is covered with a gauze or wick and is kept wet.
Moisture evaporating gives a cooling effect, thus the reading of the wet-bulb
temperature (WBT) will be less than the DBT.
 Having made the two readings, the corresponding RH can be found from the
psychrometric chart

 As in dry air the evaporation is faster, the cooling is more pronounced and the
difference between the two readings (the 'wet-bulb depression') is greater.
 In case of 100% RH the two readings will be identical, as there is no
evaporation.
 MODULE 1
3)Precipitation
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT
 Precipitation is the collective term used for rain, snow and for all
forms of water deposited ('precipitated') from the atmosphere .

 It is measured by rain-gauges expressed in millimetre per a time

unit (mm/month, mm/day).

 Values indicating the total precipitation for each month of the year
would show the pattern of dry and wet seasons.

 The maximum rainfall for any 24-hour period is a useful guide for
the predication of flooding, and for the design of surface drainage
(roofs, paved areas, gutters and downpipes) the maximum hourly
rainfall intensity (mm/h) should be known.
MODULE 1
CLIMATE
4)Sky AND HUMAN COMFORT
conditions

 Sky conditions are usually described in terms of presence or

absence of clouds.

 It would be useful for the designer to know the time of day and
frequency of observations. A single average figure giving the sky
conditions for a typical day of a given month may conceal significant
differences

 e.g. between morning and afternoon conditions, which may affect

the design of roofs, overhangs and shading devices.
5)MODULE 1
Solar radiation:
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT

Measurement
 A simple sunshine recorder will register the duration of sunshine,
which can be expressed in number of hours per day, as an average
for each month.

 A variety of more sophisticated instruments (solarimeter,

heliometer, actinometer and pyranometer) are used for the
quantitative recording of solar radiation

 Average daily amounts of solar radiation (MJ/m2day) for each

month of the year would give a fair indication of climatic
conditions, including seasonal variations.
MODULE 1
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT

Pyranometer Heliometer
MODULE 1
5) Wind AND HUMAN COMFORT
CLIMATE

 Wind velocity is measured by a anemometer and its direction is

measured by a wind vane.

 An anemograph can produce continuous recordings of wind

velocity and directional changes.

 Free wind velocities are normally recorded in open flat country at a

height of 10 m .

 Measurements in urban areas are often taken at a height of between

10 and 20 m to avoid obstructions.
MODULE 1
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT

wind vane

anemometer
MODULE 1
6) Vegetation
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT
 The picture of climate is incomplete without the character
and abundance of plant life.

 Although generally regarded as a function of climate,

vegetation can in its turn influence the local or site climate.

 It is an important element in the design of out-door spaces,

providing sunshading and protection from glare.

 This section of the climatic survey may range from a few

notes about local species of plant life to a lengthy
compendium of the major native plants and trees – their
shape and colour, also their preferred orientation and
situation.
 Global climatic zones

1. Macro
2. Micro
3. Site
4. Urban climate

 In the built environment we are generally concerned with local climatic systems
in particular:

a) Macro-climate the climate of a larger area such as a region or a country

b) Micro-climate the variations in localised climate around a building
 MACRO-CLIMATE
 Every city, town or village may have its own climate, slightly different
from the climate described for the region – the macroclimate.

 Information published by the nearest meteorological observatory

describes the macroclimate. Such information may be a useful guide
to the climate of the site.

 but it is hardly sufficient in accuracy as conditions can vary

considerably within a short distance from the point of observation.

 The macro climate around a building cannot be affected by any

design changes, however the building design can be developed with
a knowledge of the macro climate in which the building is located.
MICRO CLIMATE

• A local atmospheric where the climate differs from the surrounding area.

• The site of a building may have a many micro climates caused by the presence
of hills valleys, slopes, streams and other buildings.

• The term may refer to areas as small as a few square feet or as large as many
square miles.
 The body's HEAT GAIN

 Heat is continuously produced by the body. Most of the

biochemical processes involved in tissue building, energy
conversion and muscular work are heat producing.

 All energy and material requirements of the body are

supplied From consumption and digestion of food.

 The processes involved in converting food stuff into

living matter and useful form of energy are known as
metabolism .
The body's HEAT LOSS

 The deep body temperature must remain balanced

and constant around 37°C.

 In order to maintain body temperature at this steady

level, all heat must be dissipated to the environment

 If there is some form of heat gain from the

environment (e.g. solar radiation or warm air) that
also must be dissipated.
The body can release heat to its environment by convection, radiation
and evaporation – and to a lesser extent by conduction
 Convection is due to heat transmission from the body
to the air in contact with the skin or clothing which
then rises and is replaced by cooler air.

 The rate of convective heat loss is increased by a faster

rate of air movement.

 Radiant heat loss depends on the temperature of the

body surface and the temperature of opposing
surfaces.
 Evaporation heat loss is governed by the rate of
evaporation, which in turn depends on the humidity of
air (the dryer the air, the faster the evaporation) and on
the amount of moisture available for evaporation.

 Evaporation takes place in the lungs through breathing,

and on the skin as perspiration and sweat.

 Conduction depends on the temperature difference

between the body surface and the object the body is in
direct contact with
The thermal balance of the body can be expressed by an equation.
 As soon as this sum is more than zero, vasomotor
adjustments will take place: blood circulation to the
skin surface is increased, more heat is transported to
the surface and the skin temperature is elevated – all
forms of heat loss processes are accelerated.

 if the sum of the above equation is less than zero, the

blood circulation to the skin is reduced, skin
temperature is lowered and the heat loss processes
are slowed down
Heat loss in various thermal environments
1) Calm, warm air, moderate humidity

In a temperate climate, indoors, when the air temperature is around 18°C,

when the air is calm, i.e. air velocity does not exceed 0.25 m/s, and when
the humidity is between 40 and 60%, a person engaged in sedentary work
will dissipate the heat without any difficulty, in the following ways:

 by radiation 45%

 by convection 30%

 by evaporation 25%
2)Hot air and considerable radiation

 The normal skin temperature is between 31 and 34°C. As the air

temperature approaches skin temperature, convective heat loss gradually
decreases. Vasomotor regulation will increase the skin temperature to the
higher limit (34°C), but when the air temperature reaches this point, there
will be no more convective heat loss.

 As long as the average temperature of surfaces is below skin

temperature, there will be some radiation heat loss, but as the surface
temperature increases, radiation losses are diminished.

 When both the convective and radiant elements in the heat exchange
process are positive, bodily thermal balance may still be maintained by
evaporation up to a limit, provided the air is sufficiently dry to permit a
high evaporation rate.
3)Hot air, radiation and appreciable air movement

 When the air is hot (equal to or above skin temperature) so that the
convection element is positive,

 when the surface temperatures are warm or there is a substantial

radiant heat source, so that the radiant element is also positive,

 when the air is humid (but less than 100% RH) the movement of air will
accelerate evaporation, thus increase heat dissipation(loss), even if its
temperature is higher than that of the skin.
4)Saturated, still air, above body temperature

 Let us assume a situation, where the air temperature and the temperature of
surfaces are above the skin temperature (over 34°C), where there is no appreciable
air movement (less than 0.25% m/s) and the relative humidity is near 100%.
Sweating would be profuse, but there would be no evaporation.

 There will be a convective and radiation heat gain; therefore, however small is the
metabolic heat production, all the elements in the thermal balance equation would be
positive.

 The body temperature would begin to rise, and when the deep body temperature has
increased 2 or (maximum) 3 degC only, heat stroke would occur. This is a circulatory
failure, followed by a rapid increase in deep body temperature.

 When this reaches about 41°C, coma sets in and death is imminent. At about 45°C
deep body temperature, death is unavoidable.

 Such conditions rarely, if ever, occur in nature, but can quite easily be produced
inside buildings of poor design and with bad management.
Subjective variables

The sensation of comfort or discomfort depends primarily on the four climatic

variables discussed in the foregoing. Thermal preferences are however influenced
by a number of subjective or individual factors.

Clothing can be varied at the discretion of the individual. A person wearing a normal
business suit will require a temperature about 9°C lower than a naked body.

Acclimatisation - Exposed to a new set of climatic conditions, the human body will
reach full adjustment in about 30 days and by that time the thermal preferences of the
individual will change. (A person in London may prefer an average room temperature
of 18°C, but after spending a few months in Lagos, may find the same temperature
rather cool and would prefer a temperature around 25°C.)
Age and sex may influence thermal preferences: the metabolism of older people is
slower, therefore they usually prefer higher temperatures. Women also have slightly
slower metabolic rates than men; their preference is on average 1 degC higher than
that of men.

Body shape, i.e. the surface to volume ratio, also has an effect. A thin person has a
much greater body surface than a short, can dissipate more heat and will tolerate and
prefer a higher temperature.
 Food and drink of certain kinds may affect the metabolic rate, which may be a reason
for the difference in diet between tropical and arctic peoples.

Skin colour may influence radiation heat gain. It has been demonstrated that the
lightest skin reflects about three times as much solar radiation as the darkest. Dark
skin contains appreciably more melanin pigment, which prevents the penetration of
damaging ultraviolet rays.

• When the designer wants to assess the effect of climatic conditions on the body's
heat dissipation processes, he is faced with the difficulty of having to handle four
independent variables simultaneously. many experiments have been carried out
in order to devise a single scale which combines the effects of these four factors.
Such scales are collectively referred to as 'thermal indices' or 'comfort scales'.
Psychrometric chart
Humidity: measurement

• The humidity of air can be described as absolute humidity (AH), i.e. the
amount of moisture actually present in unit mass or unit volume of air, in
terms of gramme per kilogramme (g/kg) or gramme per cubic metre (g/m3).

• The relative humidity (RH) is, however, a much more useful form of
expression, as it gives a direct indication of evaporation potential. The
amount of moisture the air can hold (the saturationpoint humidity: SH)
depends on its temperature.

• Relative humidity is the ratio of the actual amount of moisture present, to

the amount of moisture the air could hold at the given temperature –
expressed as a percentage:
• Humidity is usually measured with the wet-and-dry-bulb
hygrometer. This consists of two ordinary mercury thermometers
mounted side by side. The first one measures the air (dry-bulb)
temperature (DBT).

• The bulb of the second one is covered with a gauze or wick and is
kept wet. Moisture evaporating gives a cooling effect, thus the
reading of the wet-bulb temperature (WBT) will be less than the DBT.

• As in dry air the evaporation is faster, the cooling is more

pronounced and the difference between the two readings (the 'wet-
bulb depression') is greater. In case of 100% RH the two readings will
be identical, as there is no evaporation.

• The rate of evaporation, thus the wet-bulb depression, is a function

of the relative humidity. Having made the two readings, the
corresponding RH can be found from the psychrometric chart
Effective temperature (ET)

• scale was produced by Houghton and Yaglou in 1923,

working at the American Society of Heating and
Ventilating Engineers.

• effective temperature - it is the temperature of the

saturated air at which a person would experience same
feeling of comfort as in unsaturated environment.

• Effective temperature includes temperature dbt, humidity

and air velocity.
Comfort Zone NSW coastal and inland conditions. Shaded area: for indoor workers.
U.K. comfort Zone.
Factors affecting Effective temperature (ET)

• Climate and seasonal differences

• Clothing
• Age and sex
• Duration of stay
• Kind of activity
• Desity of occuppants
Corrected effective temperature (CET)

• Whilst the ET scale integrates the effects of three

variables originally of temperature and humidity but a
later form included air movement

• the corrected effective temperature scale also includes

radiation effects. This scale is at present the most widely
used one.
The bioclimatic chart

• Some Australian experiments have shown that under overheated-

conditions, when low metabolic rates (light activity) will already
produce discomfort, the DBT values correlate much better with
subjective judgments than ET values.

• On the basis of this and similar doubts V Olgyay arrived at the idea,
that there is no point in constructing a single-figure index, as each of
the four components are controllable by different means.

• He has constructed a bioclimatic chart on which the comfort zone is

defined in terms of DBT and RH, but subsequently it is shown, by
additional lines, how this comfort zone is pushed up by the presence
of air movements and how it is lowered by radiation..