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Extra-terrestrial Radiation:
The extra-terrestrial radiation refers to the amount of radiation falling on earth, outside its
atmosphere. The extra-terrestrial solar radiation received by the earth is essentially constant.

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• The extraterrestrial flux differs as a result of this variation. The
following Eq.(1.14) can be used to determine the value on any given
day.

• Where, n denotes the day of the year. Since the cosine function
ranges from +1 to -1, the extraterrestrial radiation ƒlux varies by ±3.3%
over a year, according to Eq. (1.14).
Table also shows the percentage
of radiation absorbed up to a
certain wavelength.
The value is used to calculate the
solar flux emitted over a specific
wavelength range.
• The data indicates that the spectral value increases sharply with
wavelength, reaches a limit at 0.48µm, and then decreases
asymptotically to zero.
• Up to a wavelength of 4µm, 99% of the sun’s radiation is captured.
• It will be noted that the maximum value of 2074W/m2 occurs at a
wavelength of 0.48µm
Solar Radiation at the Earth's Surface

While the solar radiation incident on the Earth's atmosphere is relatively constant, the radiation at the
Earth's surface varies widely due to:
• atmospheric effects, including absorption and scattering;
• local variations in the atmosphere, such as water vapour, clouds, and pollution;
• latitude of the location; and
• the season of the year and the time of day.

These changes include variations in the overall power received, the spectral content of the light and the
angle from which light is incident on a surface.
In addition, a key change is that the variability of the solar radiation at a particular location increases
dramatically.

The variability is due to both local effects such as clouds and seasonal variations, as well as other effects
such as the length of the day at a particular latitude.

Desert regions tend to have lower variations due to local atmospheric phenomena such as clouds.
Equatorial regions have low variability between seasons.
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Solar radiation received at the earth’s surface

Since solar radiation is subjected to absorption and scattering processes as it passes

through the earth’s atmosphere, it is attenuated as it reaches the earth’s surface as shown
in Fig.
• Absorption is largely caused by the presence of ozone and water
vapor in the atmosphere, with other gases (such as CO,NO2, CO, O2,
and CH4) and particulate matter playing a minor role.
• Scattering, on the other hand, is caused by both gaseous molecules
and particulate matter in the atmosphere.
• The scattered radiation is redistributed in both directions, some of
which returns to space and some of which reaches the earth’s
surface.
• An atmosphere without clouds and an atmosphere with clouds are
also used to classify the atmosphere at any location on the earth’s
surface. The sky is cloudless everywhere in the former scenario, while
the sky is partially or fully clouded for the latter.
• Both types of atmosphere have similar absorption and scattering
processes. However it is obvious that less attenuation takes place in a
cloudless sky.
• As a result, the highest amount of radiation reaches the earth’s
atmosphere when the sky is clear.
Beam Radiation
 Beam radiation is the solar radiation received from the Sun without having been
scattered by the atmosphere. Diffuse radiation is that received from the Sun after its
direction has been changed by scattering by the atmosphere.


Diffuse radiation :
The radiation reaching earth’s surface after having been scattered from the
direct solar beam by molecules in the atmosphere.

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 The total solar radiation is the sum of the beam (B) and
Global solar radiation diffuse solar (D) radiation on a surface (Eq. 5.1). The
most common measurements of solar radiation are total
radiation on a horizontal surface, often referred to as
global radiation on the surface.
G= B+ D
Ib

Id

Ir

GlobalRadiation  Beam  Diffuse  Reflected

As always, it is generally impossible to determine the variation in time of the beam and
diffuse radiation that would be anticipated at a given location on the earth’s surface to a
reasonable degree of accuracy.
As a result, the manufacturer of solar process equipment must choose from the following
options.
• Take samples at the site where the solar equipment will be installed
over a period of time.
• Use measurements from another site with a climate that is known to
be relatively close to the one being considered.
• Use empirical predictive equations to compare solar radiation values
to other meteorological parameters whose values are known for the
location under consideration.
For example The number of hours of sunshine obtained per day,
precipitation, cloud cover, and other variables.
Solar radiation data
• The majority of radiation data is measured for horizontal surfaces.
Fig.1.16 represents a normal everyday database of global and diffuse
radiation recorded on a clear day.
• On a clear sunny day, a fairly smooth variation is observed, with the
maximum occurring around noon.
On a cloudy day, however, an erratic variation with many
highs and lows can be obtained.
The solar radiation flux is often expressed in Langleys per hour or
per day.

1 langley = 1 cal/cm2 = 41,840 J/m²

The Langley unit is adopted in honor of Samuel Langley, who made

the first estimation of the spectral distribution of the sun.
Solar radiation maps
• A solar designer is interested in location average values.
• The average is normally conducted over a month, and tabulations
showing the hourly deviation in global and diffuse radiation, the
amount obtained each day and the sunshine hours a day are
prepared.
• A general idea of the availability of solar radiation in various areas can
be obtained by the design of solar radiation plots.
• Around 450 langleys are obtained annually by average global radiation
across our country. Peak values are usually measured in April or May,
with areas of Rajasthan and Gujarat recording more than 600
langleys.

• By comparison, during monsoon and winter months, global day-to-

day radiation decreases to around 300-400 langleys.
• The average annual daily diffuse radiation obtained throughout the
nation is approximately 175 langleys.

• The highest values estimated over the entire country are about 300
langleys in Gujarat in July, while the minimum values, between 75 and
100 langleys, are measured over several parts of the country in
November and December as winter sets.
Instruments used for measuring solar radiation
• The amount of solar radiation on the earth surface can be
instrumentally measured, and precise measurements are important for
providing background solar data for solar energy conversion
applications.

• There are two important instruments to measure solar radiation they

are Pyranometer and Pyrheliometer.
 Measurement of solar radiation
Pyranometer • A Pyranometer is an instrument which measures
either global or diffuse radiation over a
hemispherical field of view.

• It is designed to measure the solar radiation flux

density from the hemisphere above within a
wavelength range 0.3 m to 3 µm.

• The term Pyranometer comes from the Greek

words (pyr), which means ‘fire’ and (ano), which
means ‘above, sky’.
• The pyranometer consists mainly of a ’black’
surface which heats up when exposed to solar
irradiance.
• Its temperature increases until the rate of heat gain
from solar radiation is equal to the rate of heat loss
due to convection, conduction and re-radiation.
• The hot junctions of the thermopile are attached to
a black surface, while the cold junctions are
positioned in such a way that they do not absorb
radiation.
• As a result, an emf has been created. The emf, Pyranometer for measuring global radiation
which is usually between 0 and 10 mV, can be read,
documented or integrated over a period of time
and is an indicator of global radiation.
Pyranometer shade ring for measurement of
diffuse radiation
• The pyranometer is also used to measure diffuse
radiation. This is achieved by mounting it at the center
of the semi-circular shading ring.

• The shading ring is adjusted in such a way that its

plane parallels the plane of the everyday movement of
the sun across the sky and shelters the thermopile
element and the two glass domes of the pyranometer
from direct sunlight at all times.

• As a result, the pyranometer measures only the diffuse

radiation obtained from the sky.

• The pyranometer is mounted at the center of the

shading ring.
• The construction of a standard type of shading ring is
used in Fig. ABCD is a rectangular horizontal frame 35 cm
80 cm with long sides in the east-west direction.

• AB and CD sides of the frame are adjusted by two angle

iron arms EF and GH, 70 cm long with slots along their
axis, holding sliders, SS, on which the semi-circular
shading ring R is placed.
• The shading ring is made of aluminium with a width of 50
mm and curved to a radius of 450 mm. The inner surface
of the ring is painted dull black, while the remaining
portion of the shading ring is painted dull white.

• The thick metal plate P with a circular slot is attached to

the bottom of the frame ABCD so that the frame, when
fixed on a masonry base with nuts and bolts, can be
balanced in its correct position by rotating around the
vertical axis. A thick metal plate P on which the
pyranometer is placed is mounted to the top of the frame.
Pyrheliometer
• The Pyrheliometer is an instrument that measures the
beam radiation is shown in Fig.1.19.

• In comparison to the pyranometer, the black absorber

plate (with the hot junction of the thermopile
connected to it) is located at the base of the tube.

• The tube is aligned with the orientation of the sun’s

rays by means of a two-axis tracking system and an
alignment indicator.

• Thus, the black plate absorbs only beam radiation and

a tiny amount of diffuse radiation falling within the
’acceptance angle’ of the tube.
Sun shine recorder • The length of the bright sunlight during the day is
determined by the sunshine recorder shown in Fig.
1.20.

• The sun’s rays are focused by a glass sphere at the

point on a card strip held in a groove in a spherical
bowl fixed concentrically to the sphere.

• When the sun shines brightly, the image created is

powerful enough to burn a spot on the card strip.

• During the day as the sun travels through the sky, the
image moves along the strip.

• On the strip, a burnt trace with a length proportional to

the duration of sunshine is obtained.