Physical

Processes
on Earth
Christine Alonzo
Solar Energy
• The most precise solar energy definition: ENERGY FROM THE SUN
• Solar Energy is energy (light or heat) that comes from the sun.
• Solar energy is rapidly becoming the ultimate energy source because of its
non-polluting character and its inexhaustible supply which are in stark contrast
to such fossil fuel sources as coal, oil, and natural gas.
• Solar Energy Examples:
• What makes your car hot when it is parked in the sun?
• What makes your solar calculator work?
• What makes plants grow?
• What makes the solar panels work on the roof of your school?
Types of
Solar Energy
1. Thermal Energy
• Thermal energy is everywhere.
• Using the sun’s energy to heat things like your house, water, food, etc.
• It lights up our days.
• It heats the earth, our bodies and our homes.
• It dries our clothes. All for free!
Electric Energy
• Electric energy uses the power of the sun to
produce electricity through solar cells, otherwise
known as Photovoltaics (PV).
• Turning light from the sun directly into electricity,
using solar panels.
Nature of Solar Energy
• The sun provides 99.98% of the energy for our planet (the
rest is geothermal).
• The sun is the star that consist of 71% Hydrogen, 27%
Helium and 2% solid matter.
• The energy emitted by the sun is called solar energy or
solar radiation.
• Despite the considerable distance between the sun and the
earth, the amount of solar energy reaching the earth is
substantial.
Definition of Terms
• Solar zenithal angle: The angle formed by the direction of the sun and the
local vertical.
• Radiant energy: The amount of energy that is transferred by radiation. It is
expressed in J (Joule).
• Spectral distribution of the irradiance: The distribution of the irradiance as
a function of the wavelength. Total irradiance, irradiation: The irradiance,
irradiation, integrated over the whole spectrum.
• Extra-terrestrial radiation, irradiance or irradiation: The total radiation,
irradiance and irradiation originating from the sun impinging on a horizontal
surface located at the top of the atmosphere.
Solar Radiation at the Top of the Atmosphere

• Solar radiation is the earth primary natural source of energy and by a long
way.
• Other sources which are all negligible relative to solar radiation are:
• the geothermal heat flux generated by the earth interior
• natural terrestrial radioactivity, and
• cosmic radiation
Solar Radiation at the Top of the Atmosphere

• As a consequence, the solar radiation influences many aspects of the earth,

including:
• weather and climate
• oceans
• life on earth
• agronomy and horticulture
• forestry
• ecology
• oenology
• energy
• architecture and building engineering
• materials weathering
Solar Radiation at the Top of the Atmosphere

• Solar radiation is a key factor controlling the climate of the earth.

• There is a global radiative equilibrium between the earth and extra-terrestrial
space.
• It means that the part of the incoming solar radiation that is absorbed by the
earth and its atmosphere is equal to the outgoing longwave radiation from the
earth and its atmosphere.
Solar Radiation at Ground Level

• As the solar radiation makes its way from the top of the atmosphere
downwards the ground, it is depleted when passing through the atmosphere
due to interactions with the constituents of the atmosphere.
• On average, less than half of extra-terrestrial radiation reaches ground level.
• The description and modelling of the optical processes affecting the solar
radiation within the atmosphere is called radiative transfer.
Solar Radiation at Ground Level

• Absorption is a process present in the atmosphere whereby the energy

absorbed by a constituent at a given wavelength is converted into another
form and is no longer present in the light.
• Absorption may occur at very specific wavelengths, called absorption lines or
may occur over a wide continuum of wavelengths.
Solar Radiation at Ground Level

• Scattering is a physical process associated with light

and its interaction with matter occurring at all
wavelengths.
• Particles and molecules deflect the incident wave and
re-radiate that energy in all directions, thus abstracting
energy from the incident wave.
• The scattering pattern indicates the relative probability
of a photon to be scattered in a given direction; it
depends on the size of the particle or molecule, its
shape and other properties, and on the incident
wavelength.
Solar Radiation at Ground Level

• Whatever the sky conditions, cloud-free or

cloudy, the solar zenithal angle plays a major
role in the radiative transfer as it influences the
optical path of the radiation.
• The smaller the solar zenithal angle, the
smaller the optical path, and the smaller the
extinction of the radiation.
Solar Radiation at Ground Level

• In clear skies, cloud-free skies, aerosols and water vapor are the main
contributors to depletion.
• In such conditions, approximately 20 % to 30 % of the total extra-terrestrial
radiation is lost during its down welling path by scattering and absorption
phenomena by aerosols and molecules.
• This amount differs with wavelength and the spectral distribution of the solar
radiation is modified as the radiation crosses the atmosphere downwards.
• Clouds have a major importance as a whole; they are the major depleting
constituents in the atmosphere.
Solar Radiation at Ground Level

• Only direct radiation is present at the top of the

atmosphere.
• A horizontal surface at ground level receives a depleted
part of this direct radiation.
• It also receives the radiation that has been scattered by the
constituents of the atmosphere and that originates from the
sky vault in all directions, except that of the sun which is
already accounted for.
• This multi-source radiation is called the diffuse radiation.
Solar Radiation at Ground Level

• The global radiation is the sum of the direct and diffuse

radiation.
• If the receiving plane is inclined, it may receive the direct
radiation only partly and the fraction of sky viewed by the
plane must be considered for computing the diffuse part
impinging on the plane.
• The plane may also receive a part of the radiation that is
reflected by the surrounding landscape towards the plane.
The Atmosphere
• An atmosphere is the layers of gases surrounding a planet or other celestial
body.
• Earth’s atmosphere is composed of about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and
one percent other gases.
• These gases are found in layers (troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,
thermosphere, and exosphere) defined by unique features such as
temperature and pressure.
The Atmosphere
• The atmosphere protects life on earth by shielding it from incoming ultraviolet
(UV) radiation, keeping the planet warm through insulation, and preventing
extremes between day and night temperatures.
• The sun heats layers of the atmosphere causing it to convict driving air
movement and weather patterns around the world.
The Atmosphere
• Our atmosphere is a delicate life-giving blanket of air that surrounds the fragile
earth.
• In one way or another, it influences everything we see and hear—it is
intimately connected to our lives.
• Living on the surface of the earth, we have adapted so completely to our
environment of air that we sometimes forget how truly remarkable this
substance is.
• Even though air is tasteless, odorless, and (most of the time) invisible, it
protects us from the scorching rays of the sun and provides us with a mixture
of gases that allows life to flourish.
COMPOSITION OF THE
Atmosphere
• The Earth’s atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding the planet.
• The atmosphere is a mixture of gas molecule, microscopically small
suspended particles of solid and liquid, and falling precipitation.
• It is surrounded by a blanket of air, which we call atmosphere.
• It reaches over 560 km from the surface of the earth.

• Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere and processes that causes what
we refer to as the “weather”.
Atmosphere
• Absorbs the energy from the sun,
• Recycles water and other chemicals
• Protects us from high-energy radiation and the frigid vacuum of space.
• The atmosphere protects and supports life.
The Earth’s Atmosphere
• Earth’s atmosphere is made up of a mixture of gases called air.
Composition of the Atmosphere
• Various gases are present in a volume of
air near the earth’s surface.
• Notice that nitrogen (N2) occupies about
78 percent and oxygen (O2) about 21
percent of the total volume.
• If all the other gases are removed, these
percentages for nitrogen and oxygen hold
fairly constant up to an elevation of about
80 km (or 50 mi).
Composition of the Atmosphere
• The concentration of the invisible gas water vapor, however, varies greatly
from place to place, and from time to time.
• Close to the surface in warm, steamy, tropical locations, water vapor may
account for up to 4 percent of the atmospheric gases.
• The changing of water vapor into liquid water is called condensation,
whereas the process of liquid water becoming water vapor is called
evaporation.
Composition of the Atmosphere
• Water vapor is an extremely important gas in our atmosphere. Not only does it
form into both liquid and solid cloud particles that grow in size and fall to earth
as precipitation, but it also releases large amounts of heat— called latent
heat—when it changes from vapor into liquid water or ice.
Composition of the Atmosphere
• Latent heat is an important source of atmospheric energy, especially for
storms, such as thunderstorms and hurricanes. Moreover, water vapor is a
potent greenhouse gas because it strongly absorbs a portion of the earth’s
outgoing radiant energy. Thus, water vapor plays a significant role in the
earth’s heat energy balance.
Troposphere
• The region of the atmosphere from the surface up to about 11 km contains all
of the weather we are familiar with on earth.
• Also, this region is kept well stirred by rising and descending air currents.
• Here, it is common for air molecules to circulate through a depth of more than
10 km in just a few days.
• This region of circulating air extending upward from the earth’s surface to
where the air stops becoming colder with height is called the troposphere—
from the Greek “tropein”, meaning to turn, or to change.
Stratosphere
• The region, where the air temperature remains
constant with height, is referred to as an
isothermal (equal temperature) zone.
• The bottom of this zone marks the top of the
troposphere and the beginning of another
layer, the stratosphere.
• The boundary separating the troposphere
from the stratosphere is called the
tropopause.
Mesosphere
• Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere (middle sphere).
• The air here is extremely thin and the atmospheric pressure is quite low.
• Even though the percentage of nitrogen and oxygen in the mesosphere is
about the same as it was at the earth’s surface, a breath of mesospheric air
contains far fewer oxygen molecules than a breath of tropospheric air.
• At this level, without proper oxygen-breathing equipment, the brain would
soon become oxygen-starved—a condition known as hypoxia—and
suffocation would result.
• With an average temperature of –90°C, the top of the mesosphere represents
the coldest part of our atmosphere.
Thermosphere
• The “hot layer” above the mesosphere is the thermosphere.
• Here, oxygen molecules (O2) absorb energetic solar rays, warming the air. In
the thermosphere, there are relatively few atoms and molecules.
• Consequently, the absorption of a small amount of energetic solar energy can
cause a large increase in air temperature that may exceed 500°C, or 900°F.
Exosphere
• The region where atoms and molecules shoot off into space is sometimes
referred to as the exosphere, which represents the upper limit of our
atmosphere.
Ionosphere
• The ionosphere is not really a layer, but rather an electrified region within the
upper atmosphere where fairly large concentrations of ions and free electrons
exist.
• The ionosphere plays a major role in radio communications.
• The lower part (called the D region) reflects standard AM radio waves back to
earth, but at the same time it seriously weakens them through absorption.
• At night, though, the D region gradually disappears and AM radio waves are
able to penetrate higher into the ionosphere (into the E and F regions), where
the waves are reflected back to earth.
Ionosphere
• Because there is, at night, little absorption of radio waves in the higher
reaches of the ionosphere, such waves bounce repeatedly from the
ionosphere to the earth’s surface and back to the ionosphere again.
• In this way, standard AM radio waves are able to travel for many hundreds of
kilometers at night.
Earth System
Earth System
• The earth is our home and habitat, without its abundant resources (air, water,
heat) we would not be in existence today.
• The Earth is approximately 4.6 billion years old.
• Interdisciplinary study of the earth's naturally occurring phenomena, its
processes and evolution.
• Earth Science by necessity involves the marriage of a number of specialty
sciences.
Astronomy
• Astronomy- study of the origin, evolution and composition of
the universe, solar system and planetary bodies.
• Cosmology: origin of the universe
• Astrogeology: comparison of extra-terrestrial planetary bodies with
the earth
• Astrophysics: quantitative study of the physical nature of the
universe
 Geology
study of the earth, its composition, origin, evolution and processes.

• Mineralogy/Petrology: study of rocks and minerals

• Geophysics: study of earth physics and processes
• Volcanology: study of volcanoes
• Seismology: study of earthquakes and seismic waves
• Geomorphology: study of surface processes and landforms
• Paleontology/Historical Geology: study of past life and historical evolution of
the earth through time
• Plate Tectonics
Meteorology
Study of atmospheric phenomena.
• Climatology: study of geographic climate patterns: processes and causes
• Future Climate Prediction: Green House
• Paleoclimatology
• Weather studies and weather prediction
• Storm Prediction and Emergency Management
• Atmospheric Science: study of physics and chemistry of earth's atmosphere
• Environmental/Air Pollution Control
Oceanography
Study of Earth’s ocean systems

• Earth's surface covered by 70% ocean water... hence the reference to the
"Blue Planet".
• Study of ocean chemistry and circulation patterns
• Physical study of seafloor
Environmental
Spheres of the
Earth
Environmental Spheres of the Earth

• The earth can be subdivided into spheres" of composition represented by the

complex interface of four principal components of the environment:
• lithosphere,
• atmosphere,
• hydrosphere, and
• biosphere.
The Geosphere
• comprised of the solid, inorganic portion of the earth's framework including
elements to form atoms to form minerals to form rocks (the very foundation of
the planet)
(1) Lithosphere and Interior of the Solid Earth - The earth is comprised of a
series of compositionally distinct shells of rock.
• (a) inner core, a solid iron-rich zone with a radius of 1216 km
• (b) outer core, a molten metallic layer 2270 km thick
• (c) mantle, a solid rocky layer 2885 km thick
The Atmosphere
• (1) a thick envelope of air (100's of miles
thick) that surrounds the earth's surface.
• Provides the air we breathe, together
coupled with the sun's energy, drives our
climatic and weather systems.
• Troposphere-Stratosphere-Mesosphere-
Thermosphere-Exosphere
The Hydrosphere
• the waters of the earth including ground water (beneath the surface), surface
water (rivers, streams, lakes, oceans), and water locked up as ice in the form
of glaciers.
(1) the water and liquid that is present on the earth's surface, in its atmosphere, and
beneath its surface.
(2) Oceans cover 71% of the earth's surface and contain 97% of the earth's water.
(3) Water cycles from the ocean's to the air via evaporation, moves to land, precipitates
as rain/snow, partially infiltrates the earth's surface, and eventually flows back to oceans
via rivers.
 Biosphere
• all living matter and cellular tissue on the earth,
in the form of plant and animal, both
microscopic and macroscopic.
• (1) All life on the planet is contained within its
uppermost layer of the earth, including its
atmosphere.
• (2) the vast majority of all earthly life inhabits a
zone less than 3 miles thick, and the total
vertical extent of the life zone is less than 20
miles.
Hydrological
Cycle and
Clouds
Water Cycle
• The water cycle is made
up of five processes;
transpiration, evaporation,
condensation,
precipitation, and
accumulation.
Water Cycle
• The water cycle is the continuous recycling of water on earth; from the
oceans, up to the sky and down to land, to be transported back to the oceans
and sky again.
• Water is constantly moving due to the energy of the sun transforming surface
water into water vapor.
• The water vapor eventually forms clouds, and clouds condense back into
water droplets.
• When the droplets become so dense in the clouds, the force of gravity pulls
them back down to the earth where the cycle continues all over again.
This is the water cycle!
condensation

transpiration precipitation

evaporation

accumulation
Transpiration

• Evaporation of water from plants

• Plants need water to survive and they obtain
it from the soil, but plants can also ‘sweat’
water out through their leaves during dry
spells or really sunny days; this is called
transpiration.
• When plants transpire the water is in liquid
form and changes into water vapor
(gaseous state).
“Transpiration”
Do plants really sweat?
• Transpiration also cools plants and enables the
flow of mineral nutrients from the roots.
• The amount of water lost by a plant depends on
its size, along with the surrounding light intensity,
temperature, humidity, wind speed, and soil
water supply.
Evaporation
• Evaporation is a critical component of the
water cycle, which is responsible for clouds
and rain.
• Solar energy drives evaporation of water
from oceans, lakes, moisture in the soil,
and other sources of water.
• Evaporation is responsible for clouds and
rain.
• Solar energy drives evaporation of water
from the ocean.
• The evaporated water changes from a
liquid form into water vapor a gaseous
form.
Condensation
• The transformation of water vapor back into liquid water by cooling
• The water seen on the outside of a cold glass on a hot day is condensation.
• Condensation is the changing of water from a gaseous state back to a liquid
state in the form of clouds.
• Condensation forms clouds, which can produce rain, hail, or snow.
Precipitation
Rain, hail, or snow falling from the clouds
• Precipitation is a major due to the condensation of water

component of weather and of the

water cycle.
• Precipitation is responsible for
depositing most of the fresh
water on the planet.

When clouds become very heavy with

With enough condensed
condensed water,
water, the water you get rain!
is released
in the form of rain, hail, or snow.
Accumulation
The collection of precipitation into rivers, lakes,
and oceans.
• The ocean is an integral part of the
water cycle and is connected to all
of the earth’s water reservoirs via
evaporation and precipitation
processes.

This completes the water cycle!

Cloud
Classification
Cloud
• A cloud is a visible aggregate of tiny water droplets or ice crystals suspended
in the air.
• Some are found only at high elevations, whereas others nearly touch the
ground.
• Clouds can be thick or thin, big or little—they exist in a seemingly endless
variety of forms. T
• o impose order on this variety, we divide clouds into ten basic types.
• With a careful and practiced eye, you can become reasonably proficient in
correctly identifying them.
Clouds
• The first person to propose the first system of cloud classification is the
French naturalist Lamarck (1744–1829 in 1802).
• A year later, an English naturalist named Luke Howard, developed a cloud
classification system that found general acceptance.
• Howard’s innovative system employed Latin words to describe clouds as they
appear to a ground observer.
Clouds
• He named a sheet-like cloud stratus (Latin for “layer”);
• a puffy cloud cumulus (“heap”);
• a wispy cloud cirrus (“curl of hair”); and
• a rain cloud nimbus (“violent rain”).
• In Howard’s system, these were the four basic cloud forms.
• Other clouds could be described by combining the basic types.
Clouds
• In 1887, Abercromby and Hildebrandsson expanded Howard’s original system
and published a classification system that, with only slight modification, is still
used today.
• Ten principal cloud forms are divided into four primary cloud groups.
• Each group is identified by the height of the cloud’s base above the surface:
high clouds, middle clouds, and low clouds.
• The fourth group contains clouds showing more vertical than horizontal
development.
• Within each group, cloud types are identified by their appearance.
Four Major Cloud Group and
Their Types
1. High clouds
a. Cirrus (Ci)
b. Cirrostratus (Cs)
c. Cirrocumulus (Cc)
2. Middle clouds
a. Altostratus (As)
b. Altocumulus (Ac)
3. Low clouds
a. Stratus (St)
b. Stratocumulus (Sc)
c. Nimbostratus (Ns)
4. Clouds with vertical development
a. Cumulus (Cu)
b. Cumulonimbus (Cb)
Cloud Identification
1. High Clouds
• High clouds in middle and low latitudes generally form above 20,000 ft (or
6000 m).
• Because the air at these elevations is quite cold and “dry,” high clouds are
composed almost exclusively of ice crystals and are also rather thin.
Cirrus
• High clouds usually appear white, except near sunrise and sunset, when the
unscattered (red, orange, and yellow) components of sunlight are reflected
from the underside of the clouds.
• The most common high clouds are the cirrus, which are thin, wispy clouds
blown by high winds into long streamers called mares’ tails.
• Notice the figure above, that they can look like a white, feathery patch with a
faint wisp of a tail at one end.
• Cirrus clouds usually move across the sky from west to east, indicating the
prevailing winds at their elevation.
Cirrus
Cirrocumulus
• Cirrocumulus clouds, seen less frequently than cirrus, appear as small,
rounded, white puffs that may occur individually, or in long rows.
• When in rows, the cirrocumulus cloud has a rippling appearance that
distinguishes it from the silky look of the cirrus and the sheet-like cirrostratus.
• Cirrocumulus seldom cover more than a small portion of the sky.
• The dappled cloud elements that reflect the red or yellow light of a setting sun
make this one of the most beautiful of all clouds.
• The small ripples in the cirrocumulus strongly resemble the scales of a fish;
hence, the expression “mackerel sky” commonly describes a sky full of
cirrocumulus clouds.
Cirrocumulus
Cirrostratus
• The thin, sheet-like, high clouds that often cover the entire sky are cirrostratus
which are so thin that the sun and moon can be clearly seen through them.
• The ice crystals in these clouds bend the light passing through them and will
often produce a halo.
• In fact, the veil of cirrostratus may be so thin that a halo is the only clue to its
presence.
• Thick cirrostratus clouds give the sky a glary white appearance and frequently
form ahead of an advancing storm; hence, they can be used to predict rain or
snow within twelve to twenty-four hours, especially if they are followed by
middle-type clouds.
Cirrostratus
Cloud Identification
2. Middle Clouds
• The middle clouds have bases between about 6500 and 23,000 ft (2000 and
7000 m) in the middle latitudes.
• These clouds are composed of water droplets and—when the temperature
becomes low enough— some ice crystals.
Altocumulus
• Altocumulus clouds are middle clouds that appear as gray, puffy masses,
sometimes rolled out in parallel waves or bands.
• Usually, one part of the cloud is darker than another, which helps to separate it from
the higher cirrocumulus.
• Also, the individual puffs of the altocumulus appear larger than those of the
cirrocumulus.
• A layer of altocumulus may sometimes be confused with altostratus; in case of
doubt, clouds are called altocumulus if there are rounded masses or rolls present.
• Altocumulus clouds that look like “little castles” (castellanus) in the sky indicate the
presence of rising air at cloud level.
• The appearance of these clouds on a warm, humid summer morning often portends
thunderstorms by late afternoon.
Altocumulus
Altostratus
• The altostratus is a gray or blue-gray cloud that often covers the entire sky
over an area that extends over many hundreds of square kilometers.
• In the thinner section of the cloud, the sun (or moon) may be dimly visible as a
round disk, which is sometimes referred to as a “watery sun”.
• Thick cirrostratus clouds are occasionally confused with thin altostratus
clouds.
• The gray color, height, and dimness of the sun are good clues to identifying an
altostratus.
Altostratus
• The fact that halos only occur with cirriform clouds also helps one distinguish
them.
• Another way to separate the two is to look at the ground for shadows.
• If there are none, it is a good bet that the cloud is altostratus because
cirrostratus are usually transparent enough to produce them.
• Altostratus clouds often form ahead of storms having widespread and
relatively continuous precipitation.
• If precipitation falls from an altostratus, its base usually lowers.
• If the precipitation reaches the ground, the cloud is then classified as
nimbostratus.
Altostratus
Cloud Identification
3. Low Clouds
• Low clouds, with their bases lying below 6500 ft (or 2000 m) are almost
always composed of water droplets;
• however, in cold weather, they may contain ice particles and snow.
Nimbostratus
• The nimbostratus is a dark gray, “wet”-looking cloud layer associated with
more or less continuously falling rain or snow.
• The intensity of this precipitation is usually light or moderate—it is never of
the heavy, showery variety.
• The base of the nimbostratus cloud is normally impossible to identify clearly
and is easily confused with the altostratus.
• Thin nimbostratus is usually darker gray than thick altostratus, and you cannot
see the sun or moon through a layer of nimbostratus.
Nimbostratus
• Visibility below a nimbostratus cloud deck is usually quite poor because rain
will evaporate and mix with the air in this region.
• If this air becomes saturated, a lower layer of clouds or fog may form beneath
the original cloud base.
• Since these lower clouds drift rapidly with the wind, they form irregular shreds
with a ragged appearance called stratus fractus, or scud.
Nimbostratus
Stratocumulus
• A low, lumpy cloud layer is the stratocumulus.
• It appears in rows, in patches, or as rounded masses with blue sky visible
between the individual cloud elements.
• Often they appear near sunset as the spreading remains of a much larger
cumulus cloud.
• The color of stratocumulus ranges from light to dark gray.
Stratocumulus
• It differs from altocumulus in that it has a lower base and larger individual
cloud elements.
• To distinguish between the two, hold your hand at arm’s length and point
toward the cloud.
• Altocumulus cloud elements will generally be about the size of your thumbnail;
stratocumulus cloud elements will usually be about the size of your fist.
• Rain or snow rarely falls from stratocumulus.
Stratocumulus
Stratus
• Stratus is a uniform grayish cloud that often covers the entire sky.
• It resembles a fog that does not reach the ground.
• Actually, when a thick fog “lifts,” the resulting cloud is a deck of low stratus.
• Normally, no precipitation falls from the stratus, but sometimes it is
accompanied by a light mist or drizzle.
• This cloud commonly occurs over Pacific and Atlantic coastal waters in
summer.
Stratus
• A thick layer of stratus might be confused with nimbostratus, but the distinction
between them can be made by observing the base of the cloud.
• Often, stratus has a more uniform base than does nimbostratus. Also, a deck
of stratus may be confused with a layer of altostratus.
• However, if you remember that stratus clouds are lower and darker gray, the
distinction can be made.
Stratus
Clouds with vertical
development
Cumulus
• Familiar to almost everyone, the puffy cumulus cloud takes on a variety of
shapes, but most often it looks like a piece of floating cotton with sharp
outlines and a flat base.
• The base appears white to light gray, and, on a humid day, may be only a few
thousand feet above the ground and a half a mile or so wide.
• The top of the cloud— often in the form of rounded towers—denotes the limit
of rising air and is usually not very high.
Cumulus
• These clouds can be distinguished from stratocumulus by the fact that
cumulus clouds are detached (usually a great deal of blue sky between each
cloud) whereas stratocumulus usually occur in groups or patches.
• Also, the cumulus has a dome- or tower-shaped top as opposed to the
generally flat tops of the stratocumulus.
• Cumulus clouds that show only slight vertical growth (cumulus humilis) are
associated with fair weather; therefore, we call these clouds “fair weather
cumulus.”
• If the cumulus clouds are small and appear as broken fragments of a cloud
with ragged edges, they are called cumulus fractus.
Cumulus
Cumulus congestus
• Harmless-looking cumulus often develop on warm summer mornings and, by
afternoon, become much larger and more vertically developed.
• When the growing cumulus resembles a head of cauliflower, it becomes a
cumulus congestus, or towering cumulus.
• Most often, it is a single large cloud, but, occasionally, several grow into each
other, forming a line of towering clouds, as shown.
• Precipitation that falls from a cumulus congestus is always showery.
Cumulus congestus
Cumulonimbus
• If a cumulus congestus continues to grow vertically, it develops into a giant
cumulonimbus—a thunderstorm cloud.
• While its dark base may be no more than 2000 ft above the earth’s surface, its
top may extend upward to the tropopause, over 35,000 ft higher.
• A cumulonimbus can occur as an isolated cloud or as part of a line or “wall” of
clouds.
Cumulonimbus
• Tremendous amounts of energy are released by the condensation of water vapor
within a cumulonimbus and result in the development of violent up- and downdrafts,
which may exceed fifty knots. T
• he lower (warmer) part of the cloud is usually composed of only water droplets.
Higher up in the cloud, water droplets and ice crystals both abound, while, toward
the cold top, there are only ice crystals.
• Swift winds at these higher altitudes can reshape the top of the cloud into a huge
flattened anvil.
• These great thunderheads may contain all forms of precipitation—large raindrops,
snowflakes, snow pellets, and sometimes hailstones—all of which can fall to earth in
the form of heavy showers.
• Lightning, thunder, and even violent tornadoes are associated with the
cumulonimbus.
Cumulonimbus