BASIC

ENERGY: It is capacity to produce an effect.

Energy can be:
(i) Stored within a system
(ii) Can be transferred from one system to another

Oil Crisis of 1973:

This year brought an end to the era of secure and cheap oil. In October of that year, OPEC
(Organisation of petroleum Exporting countries) put ban on oil production and started oil-
pricing control strategy. The year “1973” is called as year of oil shock.
Government of all countries took this matter very seriously and for the first time, a need for
developing source of energy was felt.

Classification of energy Resources:

1. Based on Usability of Energy:
a) Primary energy resource:
These are resources already present in nature prior to undergone any human made
transformations. E.g., Coal, crude oil, sunlight, wind, vegetation, uranium.
These are located, explored, extracted, processed and are converted to a form as required
by the consumer. These resources are generally available in raw form (i.e., cannot be used
as such) and are, therefore known as raw energy resource.
b) Secondary energy resource:
The form of energy which is finally supplied to a consumer for utilization is called as
secondary energy resource.
E.g., Electrical energy, thermal energy (in the form of steam or hot water), chemical energy
(in the form of hydrogen), oil

2. Based on traditional use:

a) Conventional energy resource:
Energy resources which are being traditionally used for many decades and were in common use
around the oil crisis, are called as conventional energy resource.

E.g., Fossil fuel, Nuclear and hydro resources.

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b) Non-conventional energy:
Energy resources which are considered for large scale use after oil crisis. E.g., Solar, wind,
biomass, etc.

3. Based on long-term availability:

a) Non-renewable energy resource:
Resources which are finite and do not get replenished (fill up again) after their consumption
are called as non-renewable energy resource. E.g., Fossil fuel, uranium. These are also called
as brown energy, because produces pollution.
b) Renewable energy resource:
Resources which are renewed by nature again and again and their supply is not affected by
the rate of their consumption are called as renewable energy resource.
These are also called as green energy as produces very less or no pollution.
E.g., Solar, wind, Geothermal, Ocean (tide, wave, thermal), biomass, Hydro

Difficulties in harnessing renewable energy:

• It is present it dilute form (useful energy is very less).
• It is highly fluctuating type of energy. It depends on weather conditions. Hence,
continuous supply of such energy can’t be ensured always.
• Large area of land is required to produce energy for commercial applications.

Aim of subject:
To find replacement of fossil fuel.

Syllabus:
1.SOLAR RADIATION

2. SILAR COLLECTOR

3. SOLAR APPLICATION

4. ENERGY STORAGE

5. BIOMASS ENERGY

6. WIND ENERGY

7. TIDAL ENERGY

8. PHOTO-VOLTAIC CONVERTORS

9. FUEL CELL

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 SOLAR RADIATION
SUN (As a Source of energy)
• It is a large sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter.
• Surface temperature of Sun is around 5800K (Effective blackbody temperature
calculated by using Stefan-Boltzmann’s law)
• Core of Sun:
Density is round 100 times of water
Pressure is around 109 atm.
Temperature (8 × 106 𝑡𝑜 40 × 106 )K
• Such a higher inner core temperature is maintained by huge energy released due to
“continuous fusion reaction”. Several fusion reactions have been suggested to be
source of energy radiated by the sun. The most important of them is

In above equation, 4 hydrogen atoms combine together to form one helium atom.
The mass of helium is less than that of four hydrogens, the difference of mass is
been converted to energy in a fusion reaction.
• Solar energy can be used by three technological processes.
(i) Helio-chemical: Solar → Food + oxygen
(ii) Helio-electrical: Solar → Electricity
(iii) Helio-thermal: Solar → Thermal energy

SUN AND EARTH GEOMETRY

Position on earth: Position on earth is specified by latitudes and longitudes.

Define a point on sphere:

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Latitudes:

Longitudes

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Apparent motion of sun:
Although sun is stationary in our solar system but due to rotation of earth on its own axis
(from west to east) sun appears to be moving from east to west relative to earth at any
location on earth.
It appears to rising in east and setting in west to an observer on earth.

Scaling of time on earth:

It is done on the basis of sun rising and setting. It can be observed that different places in a
country will see rising and setting of sun at different moment. So, for that purpose standard
longitude is decided in any particular country to define standard time of that country.
E.g., For India it is 82.5°

Revolution of Earth around Sun:

• Earth revolves around sun on elliptical path and takes around one year for complete
revolution.
• The distance between Sun and Earth keep on varying all around year.
• The earth is tilted on its axis of rotation. As The axis of earth is tilted, both
hemisphere northern (NHS) and southern (SHS) receives different amount of solar
radiation at different time of year and so have different temperatures.
• Solstice: At solstice sun rays are normal on either Tropic of Cancer (21 June) or on
Tropic of Capricorn (21 December).
• Equinox: At equinox sun rays are normal on Equator (21 march and 21 September).
• Aphelion: It is point when distance between earth and sun is maximum (4th July)
• Perihelion: It is point when distance between earth and sun is minimum (4 th Jan).

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ONE ASTRONOMICAL UNIT
It is average distance between Sun’s centre to earth’s surface.

Spectral Energy Distribution of Sun:

It is given by Planck’s distribution, treating sun as black body. 99% of extra-terrestrial
radiation emitted by sun lies in the range of 0.2 to 4 𝜇𝑚.
In which,
Around 6.4% → Contains UV (𝜆 < 0.38 𝜇𝑚)
Around 48% → Contains visible region (0.38 𝜇𝑚< 𝜆 < 0.78𝜇𝑚)
Around 45.6% → Infrared region (𝜆 > 0.78 𝜇𝑚)

Note: Extra-terrestrial radiation peaks in visible range.

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Solar radiation and earth’s atmosphere:
The radiation available on the earth’s surface is less than what it is received outside the
earth’s atmosphere and this reduction depends upon:

1. Effect of atmospheric gases:

The earth’s atmosphere contains various gaseous constituents, suspended dust and other
minute solid and liquid particulate matter. These are air molecules, ozone, oxygen, nitrogen,
carbon dioxide, water vapor, dust, etc.
Atmospheric gases deplete solar radiation by
(i) Absorption: Absorption of various wavelength occurs by different molecules. The
absorbed radiation increases the energy of the absorbing molecules thus raising their
temperature. Such as ozone absorbs significant amount of UV radiation.
(ii) Scattering: Some scattering of incoming radiation takes place by dust particles and air
molecules. A part of scattered radiation is reflected back to space and remaining is directed
downward to earth’s surface from different directions as “diffuse radiation”.
Cloudy atmosphere:

• A major part of incoming solar radiation is reflected back into space by clouds.
• Another part is absorbed by the clouds.
• Rest is transmitted downward to the earth surface as diffuse radiation.
Albedo:
Total solar radiation reflected back to space by earth is called as albedo of earth-
atmosphere system. It has a value of 30% of incoming solar radiation.

Terrestrial Radiation: It is a region near to earth’s surface.

Extra-terrestrial Radiation: It is region on outer most part of atmosphere.

On the surface of the earth, we have two components of Solar radiation:

(a) Beam Radiation: Solar radiation propagating in a straight line and received at the earth’s
surface without change of direction is called as beam or direct radiation.
(b) Diffuse Radiation: Solar radiation scattered by dust and gaseous molecules is known as
diffuse radiation. It does not have unique direction.
(c) Global Radiation: It is sum of beam radiation and diffuse radiation.

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2. Distance travelled through atmosphere:
The second reason for depletion of solar radiation passing through atmosphere is the
distance travelled by beam radiation through the atmosphere before it reaches a location
on earth’s surface.
The path length of a solar beam through the atmosphere is accounted for in the terms of air
mass.

Air Mass (m):

It is defined as the ratio of the path length through the atmosphere, which the solar beam
actually passes up to ground (BA) to the vertical path length which is minimum through the
atmosphere (CA).

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Solar Constant (𝑰𝑺𝑪 ):
The solar energy received per second by a surface of unit area held normal to the direction
of Sun’s ray when earth is at the mean earth-sun distance, on the top of atmosphere, is
called as solar constant.

The world Radiation Centre (WRC) has adopted the value of the solar constant as “1367
W/𝑚2 ”. This has been accepted universally as a standard value of solar constant.

Extra-terrestrial Radiation (𝑰𝒆𝒙𝒕 )

It is solar radiation received on the outer most of atmosphere. It deviates from solar
constant value due to two reasons:
(i) Variation in the radiation emitted by sun itself (less than ±1.5%)
(ii) Variation of earth-sun distance, arising from the earth’s revolution on slightly elliptic
path (variation ±3%). This variation is given by Duffie & Beckman
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝒏
𝑰𝒆𝒙𝒕 = 𝑰𝒔𝒄 [𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ] 𝑾/𝒎𝟐
𝟑𝟔𝟓
𝑛 → days of year starting from 1st January
It is extra-terrestrial radiation measured on a plane normal to the sun ray on the nth day of
year.

Ques: Find extra-terrestrial radiation on

a) December 21

b) March 21

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c) June 21

d) September 21

Note:

• Extra-terrestrial radiation is close to maximum on December 21 (as the distance

between earth and sun is close to minimum), while it close to minimum on June 21
(as the distance between earth and sun is close to maximum).
• Extra-terrestrial radiation is close to solar constant value on 21 march and 21
September (as the distance between earth and sun is close to mean earth sun
distance)

Measurement of Solar radiation:

1. Solar radiation data are measured mainly by the following instruments.
a) Pyranometer: Device to measure either global or diffuse radiation.
b) Pyrheliometer: Device to measure beam radiation
c) Sunshine recorded: It measures the duration of bright sunshine in a day.
d) Albedometer: It measures both global radiation and reflected radiation.

2. Units used for measurement of solar radiation:

a) kJ/𝑚2 − 𝑑𝑎𝑦

b) kJ/𝑚2 − ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
c) Langley/hour or Langley/day

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Terms related to calculation of solar radiation:
In calculation of solar radiation, it is desirable to convert clock time into solar time.
To calculate solar radiation, we require position of sun in sky w.r.t. observer. Clock time
does not give position of sun in sky w.r
.t. observer as clock time is based on standard meridian of that country.
It is solar time with the help of which we are able to know position of sun in sky w.r.t.
observer. Solar time is based on solar noon.

Solar noon:
It is the time when sun is crossing the observer’s meridian (or longitude). At solar noon, the
sun is at the highest position in the sky at a given location.

Solar Day:
It is the duration between two consecutive solar noon. It is not exactly 24 hours throughout
the year.

Solar time (or Local apparent time):

The standard time of any location is converted to solar time by incorporating two
corrections, as follows

𝐿𝑠𝑡 → Longitude used for measuring standard time of that country

𝐿𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 → Longitude of the observer’s location

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± → “+ve” is used if 𝐿𝑠𝑡 lies in western hemisphere and “-ve” is used if 𝐿𝑠𝑡 lies in eastern
hemisphere
𝐸 → Equation of time. It can be given in tabular form or in the form of equation or graphical
form. E.g., if given in the form of equation:
𝐸 = 9.87 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝐵 − 7.53 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 − 1.5𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
360
𝐵= 364
(𝑛 − 81)

Scaling of solar time:

Question: Determine the local apparent time (LAT) corresponding to 1430 hours (IST) at
Mumbai (19° 7’N, 72° 51′𝐸) on July 1. Take equation of time as:
𝐸 = 9.87 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝐵 − 7.53 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 − 1.5 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
360
where, 𝐵 = 364 (𝑛 − 81)

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TO CALCULATE SOLAR RADIATION AT ANY LOCATION SOLAR RADIATION
GEOMETRY IS REQUIRED
(i) Latitude (or angle of latitude) ∅
It is the angle made by radial line joining the given location to the centre of the earth with
its projection on the equatorial plane.
By convention, the angle of latitude is taken as “+ve ” for northern hemisphere and “-ve” for
southern hemisphere.

(ii) Declination (𝜹):

It is the angle made by the line joining the centre of sun and the earth with the projection of
this line on the equatorial plane.

It may be calculated from cooper’s relation:

Note: The declination varies from a value of +23.45° (on June 21) to value of −23.45° (on
December 21).
At equinox: (on 21 March and 21 September) 𝛿 = 0

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(iii) Hour angle (𝝎)
The hour angle for a location on earth at any moment is the angle through which the earth
must turn to bring the meridian of location directly in line with sun.

Let take a case: At any particular location and at 05:00 hours solar time

Sun crosses any particular meridian at solar noon.

Due to apparent motion of sun, it takes 24-hour of solar time to complete revolve around
360°
earth (i.e., 360°). So, in 1 hour solar time it will cover 15° (24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 = 15°/ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟).

So, earth must be rotated to bring observer’s meridian in line with sun =

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(iv) Horizontal surface geometry
a) Zenith angle (𝜽𝒁 ): It is the angle between the sun’s ray and normal to the horizontal
plane.
b) Inclination angle (or Solar altitude angle) (𝜶): It is the angle between the sun’s ray and
its projection on a horizontal surface.
c) Solar azimuth angle (𝜸𝑺 ): It is the angle measured in horizontal plane, between line due
south and projection of sun’s ray on horizontal plane.

(v) Inclined surface geometry

a) Slope or tilt angle (𝜷): It is the angle between the inclined plane surface and the
horizontal.
b) Surface azimuth angle (𝜸): It is the angle measured in horizontal plane, between the line
due south and the horizontal projection of the normal to the inclined plane surface.
c) Angle of incidence (𝜽𝒊 ): It is the angle between the sun’s ray incident on the inclined
plane surface and the normal to inclined plane surface.

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ANGLE ON INCIDENCE W.R.T. EARTH

By geometry angle of incidence can be expressed as below:

Cos𝜃𝑖 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ cos𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾 +
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 (𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾)

Some special cases:

(i) For a surface facing due south
Cos𝜃𝑖 = cos(∅ − 𝛽) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔 + sin(∅ − 𝛽) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿

(ii) For a horizontal surface:

Cos𝜃𝑖 = cos ∅ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔 + sin ∅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿

(iii) For a vertical surface due south

Cos𝜃𝑖 = sin ∅ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔 − cos ∅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿

Ques:
a) Calculate the angle made by beam radiation with the normal to a flat plate collector on
May 1, at 09:00 hours (LAT). The collector is located in new delhi (28° 35′ 𝑁, 77° 12′𝐸 ). It is
tilted at an angle 0f 36° with the horizontal and is pointing due south. Use following
equation to calculate angle of incidence,
Cos𝜃𝑖 = cos(∅ − 𝛽) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔 + sin(∅ − 𝛽) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
(b) Repeat the calculation for 12:00 hours (LAT)

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Solution:

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Sunrise, Sunset and Day length:
At sunrise and at sunset, sun’s rays are parallel to the horizontal surface at any location. So,
the angle of incidence

Question: Calculate hour angle at sunrise and at sunset on May 1 and January 1, for a
horizontal surface located in New Delhi (28° 35′ 𝑁, 77° 12’E). Also, calculate daylength in
both cases.

18 MADE EASY
Empirical equations for predicting the availability of solar radiation
For measurement of solar radiation over a period of time at a place, it is better to approach
estimating average radiation data for that place.
If it is not possible to calculate data at any location then data from nearby location having a
similar geography and climate can be used.
Also, one can use empirical relationships linking the values of radiation with metrological
parameters like sunshine hours, cloud cover, etc

Conventions:
H → Daily I → Hourly g → Global
Our aim to calculate:
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑔 And 𝐼̅𝑔

Horizontal Surface (Cloudy sky)

Monthly Average of daily Global Radiation (̅̅̅̅
𝑯𝒈 )

It is given by simple relation suggested by angstrom

̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑔 𝑆̅
= 𝑎+𝑏( )
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑂 ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑔 → Monthly average of the daily global radiation on a horizontal surface at a location
(kJ/𝒎𝟐 − 𝒅𝒂𝒚)
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑂 → Monthly average of the daily extra-terrestrial radiation which would fall on a
horizontal surface at the location under consideration (kJ/𝒎𝟐 − 𝒅𝒂𝒚)

𝑆̅ → Monthly average of the sunshine hours per day at the location (in hours)
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 → Monthly average of the maximum possible sunshine hours per day at the location
(i.e., day length on a horizontal surface) (in hours)
a, b → Constants obtained by fitting data
Note: Values of a and b have been obtained by regression analysis of measured values of
global solar radiation and sunshine duration of many cities of world, also in India.
Values of a and b will be given in directly or in the form of chart.

19 MADE EASY
Calculation of ̅̅̅̅
𝑯𝑶
First calculating 𝐻𝑂 (daily extra-terrestrial radiation which would fall on horizontal surface)
360𝑛
𝐼𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝐼𝑆𝐶 (1 + 0.033 cos ) (Extra-terrestrial radiation falling in normal direction)
365

𝐼𝑆𝐶 = 1.367 𝑘𝑊/𝑚2

𝑘𝑊 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 3600 𝑘𝐽
= 𝑠−𝑚2 = =
𝑚2 𝑚2 −(3600−1 ℎ𝑟) 𝑚2 −ℎ𝑟

If 𝐼𝑆𝐶 is in 𝑘𝑊/𝑚2 then

360𝑛 𝒌𝑱
𝐼𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 3600 × 𝐼𝑆𝐶 (1 + 0.033 cos ) 𝒎𝟐 −𝒉𝒓
365

Angle of extra-terrestrial radiation falling on horizontal surface w.r.t. normal keep on

changing during sunshine hours in a day.

So, radiation falling on horizontal surface 𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼𝑒𝑥𝑡 cos 𝜃𝑖

For horizontal surface 𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑍
360𝑛 𝑘𝐽
𝐼𝑜 = 3600 × 𝐼𝑆𝐶 (1 + 0.033 cos ) (cos 𝜑 cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔 + sin 𝛿 sin 𝜑) 𝑚2 −ℎ𝑟
365

For 1 hour sunshine extra-terrestrial radiation falling on horizontal surface

360𝑛 𝑘𝐽
= 3600 × 𝐼𝑆𝐶 (1 + 0.033 cos ) (cos 𝜑 cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔 + sin 𝛿 sin 𝜑) 𝑚2
365

𝑘𝐽
For one day solar radiation, 𝐻𝑜 ( ) can be obtained by integrating above expression
𝑚2 −𝑑𝑎𝑦
over day length where time is expressed in hours,
360𝑛
𝐻𝑜 = ∫𝑑𝑎𝑦 3600 × 𝐼𝑆𝐶 (1 + 0.033 cos ) (cos 𝜑 cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔 + sin 𝛿 sin 𝜑) 𝑑𝑡
365

Where t → sunshine hours

An hour angle of 15° is equivalent to 1 hour duration of sunshine, so we have,
𝜔 180 12
𝑡 = 15 × 𝜋
(𝜔is taken in radians) 𝑡= 𝜋
𝜔

20 MADE EASY
 12
So, 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝜔
𝜋
12
For small change in sunshine hour dt, small change in hour angle 𝑑𝜔
𝜋

𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑡 360𝑛 12
𝐻𝑜 = ∫𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 3600 × 𝐼𝑆𝐶 (1 + 0.033 cos ) (cos 𝜑 cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔 + sin 𝛿 sin 𝜑) 𝑑𝜔
365 𝜋

𝜔 12 360𝑛
𝐻𝑜 = ∫−𝜔𝑆 3600 × × 𝐼𝑆𝐶 (1 + 0.033 cos ) (cos 𝜑 cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔 + sin 𝛿 sin 𝜑) 𝑑𝜔
𝑆 𝜋 365

During sunshine hour: 𝐼𝑆𝐶 , 𝑛, 𝜑, 𝛿 are constant but ω is varying

12 360𝑛 𝜔
𝐻𝑜 = 3600 × × 𝐼𝑆𝐶 (1 + 0.033 cos ) ∫−𝜔𝑆 (cos 𝜑 cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔 + sin 𝛿 sin 𝜑) 𝑑𝜔
𝜋 365 𝑆

12 360𝑛 𝜔
𝐻𝑜 = 3600 × × 𝐼𝑆𝐶 (1 + 0.033 cos ) × 2 × ∫0 𝑆(cos 𝜑 cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔 +
𝜋 365
sin 𝛿 sin 𝜑) 𝑑𝜔
𝟏𝟐 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝒏 𝒌𝑱
𝑯𝒐 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 × × 𝑰𝑺𝑪 (𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ) × 𝟐 × (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜹 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝑺 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜹 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝋 𝝎𝑺 ) 𝟐
𝝅 𝟑𝟔𝟓 𝒎 − 𝒅𝒂𝒚

The calculation of ̅̅̅̅

𝐻𝑂 has been simplified by Klein, who has determined the particular day in
each month on which the extra-terrestrial radiation is nearly equal to the monthly mean
value.

The days on which the value of ̅̅̅̅

𝐻𝑂 is equal to 𝐻𝑂 are as follows:
January 17, February 16, March 16, April 15, May 15, June 11, July 17, August 16, September
15, October 15, November 14 and December 10
As expected, these days are close to the middle of the month. Also, values of sun shine
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
hours for these dates are used as 𝑺 𝒎𝒂𝒙 for that month.

Note: 𝑆̅ will be given in question

Question: Estimate the monthly average daily global radiation on a horizontal surface at
Vadodara (22° 00’N, 73° 10′𝐸) during the month of march. The average sunshine hours per
day is 9.5 hours. Consider following relation
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑔 𝑆̅
= 𝑎+𝑏( )
̅̅̅̅
𝐻 𝑂
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥
Take value of a = 0.28 and b = 0.48

21 MADE EASY
22 MADE EASY
MONTHLY AVERAGE OF HOURLY GLOBAL RADIATION (𝑰̅̅̅
𝒈 ):

Empirical relation will be given in question:

E.g.
𝐼̅𝑔 𝐼̅𝑂
= (𝑎 + 𝑏 cos 𝜔)
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑔 ̅̅̅̅𝐻𝑂

Where, 𝑎 = 0.409 + 0.5016 sin(𝜔𝑆 − 60°)

𝑏 = 0.6609 − 0.4767 sin(𝜔𝑆 − 60°)
𝐼̅𝑔 → Monthly average of the hourly global radiation on a horizontal surface at a location
(kJ/𝒎𝟐 − 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓)

𝐼̅𝑂 → Monthly average of the hourly extra-terrestrial radiation which would fall on a
horizontal surface at the location under consideration (kJ/𝒎𝟐 − 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓)

Using Klein’s approximation

𝐼̅𝑂 = 𝐼𝑂 (At the mid-point of hour under consideration)

360𝑛 𝑘𝐽
𝐼𝑜 = 3600 × 𝐼𝑆𝐶 (1 + 0.033 cos ) (cos 𝜑 cos 𝛿 cos 𝝎 + sin 𝛿 sin 𝜑) 2
365 𝑚 − ℎ𝑟
Here, ω is calculated at mid-point of the hour under consideration.

Question: From previous question for Vadodara, calculate the monthly average of the
hourly global radiation on a horizontal surface during 11:00 to 12:00 hours (LAT).
Use following correlation:

𝐼̅𝑔 𝐼̅𝑂
= (𝑎 + 𝑏 cos 𝜔)
̅̅̅̅
𝐻𝑔 ̅̅̅̅𝐻𝑂

Where, 𝑎 = 0.409 + 0.5016 sin(𝜔𝑆 − 60°) 𝑏 = 0.6609 − 0.4767 sin(𝜔𝑆 − 60°)

23 MADE EASY
24 MADE EASY
 SOLAR COLLECTOR
TYPE OF SOLAR COLLECTORS
Non-Concentrating type
It absorbs radiation as it receives on the
surface of collector
Concentrating type
Concentrator increases the amount of
incident energy on the absorbing surface

NON-CONCENTRATING TYPE COLLECTOR

1. Liquid flat plate collector
2. Air- flat plate collector

1. LIQUID FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR

25 MADE EASY
1. Cover (or glazing):
The cover must permit the entry of solar radiation so it must have high transmissivity “𝜏” for
incoming solar radiation. It reduces the heat loss from the top collector in following ways.
a) It does not allow the radiation emitted by the absorber plate (mainly longer wavelength)
to leave from the top of collector. So it should have lesser transmissivity for longer
wavelength.
b) It helps to reduce heat loss due to convection from the top of collector.
c) It also helps the absorber plate from direct exposure to surrounding.

Material: Commonly used material are tempered glass and transparent plastics
Note: Plastic material have limited life because of the effect of UV radiation in reducing
their transmissivity. Also, plastics cannot withstand the stagnant temperature encountered
in flat plate collector. The main advantage of plastic material is resistance to breakage and
cost.
The glass cover may reflect some 15% of incoming solar radiation, which can be reduced by
applying anti-reflective coating on the outer surface of glass.

2. Absorber plate:

a) Top surface of absorber plate:

First purpose is to absorb as much as solar radiation incident on it. So, it must have high
absorptivity for incoming solar radiation.
Secondly, it must emit as less as radiation of its own energy (i.e., infrared radiation)

26 MADE EASY
Such type of surfaces is called as “selective surface”. These surfaces have high value of
absorptivity for shorter wavelength and emits less radiation of its own. This layer is less than
1𝜇𝑚 in thickness and is deposited by variety of methods. Some of these materials are Black
chrome, Nickel Chrome, cermets, copper oxide, cobalt oxide.

b) Remaining thickness of absorber plate:

Heat collected on the top surface is transmitted to tubes by conduction. Absorber plate
material must be of high conductivity so that it can conduct heat to liquid at higher rate.
Material: Copper, aluminium, steel
Thickness of absorber plate is usually made of thickness from 0.2 to 1 mm.
Selectivity: It is the ratio of solar radiation absorbed to radiation emitted from absorber
plate.

3. Tubes:
Purpose of tubes, channels is to transfer thermal energy collected at absorber plate to next
stage of the collector (solar application).
Tube material must be of high conductivity (Copper is preferred). Tubes generally have
diameter in range of 1 to 1.5cm. These are soldered, brazed, welded or pressure bonded to
absorber plate.
Mainly water is used as heat transfer fluid.
However, sometime ethylene glycol (anti-freeze mixture) is used if the ambient temperature
is likely to drop below 0℃ during nights.

4. Insulation:
It is provided to reduce heat losses from sides and bottom. So, it must have low conductivity
and have good stability at high temperature.
Commonly used materials are: Glass wool, Spintex 300, polyurethane foam.

5. Casing:
The outer casing should be weather tight, such that it prevents dust, moisture and liquid
water to enter in collector.

27 MADE EASY
 THERMAL ANALYSIS ON LIQUID FLAT FLATE COLLECTOR
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF LIQUID FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR

Efficiency of liquid flat plate collector (𝜼𝒄 )

It is defined as,
𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜂𝑐 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑞𝑢
𝜂𝑐 =
𝐺𝑆 × 𝐴𝑝

𝑞𝑢 → It is useful heat gain by Liquid (Watt)

Applying energy balance on the absorber plate yields the following equation:
𝑞𝑢 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 − 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑞𝑢 = 𝐴𝑃 𝑆 − 𝑞𝐿
𝑆 → Incident solar flux absorbed in absorber plate
𝑞𝐿 → Rate at which heat is lost from collector

28 MADE EASY
Heat Loss from Liquid Flat plate Collector (𝒒𝑳 ) and Over-all heat transfer
coefficient (𝑼𝑳 ):

𝑞𝑡 → Rate at which heat is lost from top

𝑞𝑠 → Rate at which heat is lost from sides
𝑞𝑏 → rate at which heat is lost from bottom
𝑞𝑡 , 𝑞𝑠 and 𝑞𝑏 can be expressed in an analogous manner to Newton’s Law of cooling
𝑞𝑡 = 𝑈𝑡 𝐴𝑝 (𝑇𝑝,𝑚 − 𝑇𝑎 ) ………………..(A)

𝑞𝑠 = 𝑈𝑠 𝐴𝑝 (𝑇𝑝,𝑚 − 𝑇𝑎 ) … … … … … .. (B)

𝑞𝑏 = 𝑈𝑏 𝐴𝑝 (𝑇𝑝,𝑚 − 𝑇𝑎 )…………………..(C)

𝐴𝑝 → Area of absorber plate

𝑇𝑝,𝑚 → Mean temperature of absorber plate under steady state condition

𝑇𝑎 → Temperature of surrounding air (Assumed to be same all around the collector)

𝑈𝑡 → Top loss coefficient (W/𝑚2 − 𝐾)
𝑈𝑠 → Side loss coefficient (W/𝑚2 − 𝐾)

𝑈𝐵 → Bottom loss coefficient (W/𝑚2 − 𝐾

Definition of each of loss coefficients is based on area 𝐴𝑝 and temperature difference (𝑇𝑝,𝑚 -
𝑇𝑎 ). This is done for convenience.
Now, Total heat loss (𝑞𝐿 )
𝑞𝐿 = 𝑞𝑡 + 𝑞𝑠 + 𝑞𝑏 ……………………(D)
Also,
𝑞𝐿 can be expressed in an analogous manner to Newton’s Law cooling.

29 MADE EASY
𝑞𝐿 = 𝑈𝐿 𝐴𝑝 (𝑇𝑝,𝑚 − 𝑇𝑎 ) ……………………(E)

𝑈𝐿 → Over-all heat transfer coefficient

From equations A, B, C, D and E
𝑈𝐿 = 𝑈𝑡 + 𝑈𝑠 + 𝑈𝑏

Also, Losses can be expressed in the form of resistance:

TOP LOSS COEFFICIENT (𝑼𝒕 )

It is evaluated by considering convection and radiation losses from absorber plate in upward
direction.
Assumption:
1. It is assumed that the transparent covers and the absorber plate constitute a system of
infinite parallel surfaces.
2. It is steady and one-dimensional heat transfer in upward direction.
3. Conduction across cover is negligible.

𝑇𝑝.𝑚 , 𝑇𝑐,1 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑐,2 all are steady state temperature

30 MADE EASY
Where, 𝑇𝑐,1 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑐,2 are temperature attained by two covers

𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦 → Effective temperature of sky with which radiative heat exchange takes place. If not
given then take 𝑻𝒔𝒌𝒚 = 𝑻𝒂 − 𝟔

𝜖𝑐 → Emissivity of both cover plate on their both sides

ℎ𝑝−𝐶,1 → Convective heat transfer coefficient between the absorber plate and the first
cover
ℎ𝐶,1−𝐶,2 → Convective heat transfer coefficient between the first cover and second cover

ℎ𝑤 → Convective heat transfer between top cover and ambient

From equation A and F, it is cleared that by knowing any one term among X, Y or Z. 𝑈𝑇 can
be calculated.

BOTTOM LOSS COEFFICIENT (𝑼𝒃 ) & SIDE LOSS COEFFICIENT (𝑼𝒃 )

Bottom Loss Coefficient (𝑼𝒃 )

It is evaluated by considering conduction loss from bottom insulation and then by
convective losses.

31 MADE EASY
It is assumed that the flow of heat is one dimensional and steady.
In most of cases, the thickness of insulation provided is such that the thermal resistance
associated with conduction dominates. Thus, neglecting the convective resistance, we have
𝑲𝒊
𝑼𝒃 =
𝜹𝒃

Side loss coefficient (𝑼𝑺 ) (Also called as edge loss coefficient)

To evaluate side loss coefficient, it is assumed that the conductive resistance dominates and
that the flow of heat is one dimensional and steady.
If the dimensions of absorber plate are 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 and the height of collector casing is 𝐿3 ,
then the area across which the heat flows side ways is 2(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 )𝐿3. The temperature drop
across which the heat flows varies from 𝑇𝑝,𝑚 − 𝑇𝑎 at the absorber plate level to zero at top
and bottom. Assuming therefore, the average temperature drop across the side insulation
(𝑇𝑝,𝑚 − 𝑇𝑎 )/2 and that the thickness of this insulation is 𝛿𝑠 , So, we have

32 MADE EASY
Question: Calculate the over-all loss coefficient for a flat-plate collector with top loss
coefficient of 3.79 W/𝑚2 𝐾. Given following data:
Size of absorber plate (𝐿1 × 𝐿2 ) = 1.9m × 0.90m; Height of casing (𝐿3 ) = 16 cm; Side
insulation thickness (𝛿𝑠 ) = 4 cm; Bottom insulation thickness (𝛿𝑏 ) = 8 cm; Thermal
conductivity of insulation = 0.05 W/𝑚2 𝐾.

Question: The edge loss coefficient 𝑈𝑒 in a solar collector with respect to edge area 𝐴𝑒 ,
collector area 𝐴𝐶 and back loss coefficient 𝑈𝑏 is
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
a) 𝑈𝑏 (𝐴𝑒) b) 𝑈𝑏 (𝐴𝑐 ) c) 𝐴𝑐 (𝑈𝑒 ) d) 𝑈𝑏 (2𝐴𝑒 )
𝑐 𝑒 𝑏 𝑐

33 MADE EASY
Question: In a solar water- heating system, a flat-plate solar collector with no cover plate is
used to collect the solar radiation to heat water. The surface emissivity of absorber plate is
0.15 while the solar absorptivity is 0.96. At a given time of the day, the absorber
temperature is 120℃ when the solar irradiation is 800 W/𝑚2 , the effective sky temperature
is −6℃. The ambient temperature is 27℃. Assume that convective heat transfer coefficient
for calm dry condition is given by

ℎ = 0.23 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )1/3

Assume steady-state condition, bottom surface is well-insulated and the absorber surface is
diffused. Work out the following
(i) Sketch the system and its control volume
(ii) The useful heat removal rate in W/𝑚2
(iii) The efficiency of the collector
Solution:

34 MADE EASY
Question:
The following data were obtained from a single glass cover flat plate solar heat collector
Mean plate temperature = 70℃
Ambient and sky temperature = 10℃
Back insulation thickness = 5 cm
Insulation thermal conductivity = 0.05 W/m-K

Coefficient of heat transfer by convection from plate to cover = 3 W/𝑚2 𝐾

Equivalent coefficient of heat transfer by radiation from plate to cover = 6 W/𝑚2 𝐾
Coefficient of convective heat transfer from cover to ambient air = 25 W/𝑚2 𝐾
Equivalent coefficient for radiation heat transfer from cover to sky = 5 W/𝑚2 𝐾
Compute the total loss per collector area. Assume that resistance to heat flow by convection
at the back surface of insulation is negligible.
35 MADE EASY
36 MADE EASY
FACTORS AFFECTING COLLECTOR EFFICIENCY
1. Transmissivity of cover: For Higher collector efficiency, transmissivity of cover plate for
shorter incoming radiation it should be high and for longer wavelength emitted by absorber
plate it should be low, so that greenhouse effect can be made between absorber plate and
cover.
2. Number of covers: Increasing number of covers decreases the incident radiation reaching
to absorber plate due to absorption and reflection taking place at each cover.
Increasing no. of covers also reduces heat leaving by absorber plate from the top of
collector by convection and radiation.
However, the reduction of incoming radiation becomes significant if no. of plates are high.
So, one or two covers are used at max, for higher collector efficiency
3. Shading: The main problem associated with large spacing is that shading of side walls on
absorber plate. So, spacing should be kept such that shading should be as less as possible.
Generally spacing is kept in range of 4 to 8 cm.

4. Collector tilt: Flat plate collector are normally used in a fixed position and do not track
sun. Therefore, the tilt angle at which they are fixed is very important. Optimum tilt angle
depends upon the nature of application.
Note: In northern hemisphere flat plate collectors are installed south facing while in
southern hemisphere it is installed north facing.

37 MADE EASY
E.g.: Application in northern hemisphere
A) Vapour Absorption Plants (summer applications): Demands are high in April, May and
June
Tilt is required less than angle of latitude. Normal practise is (∅ − 𝟏𝟎°) or (∅ − 𝟏𝟓°)
IN JUNE MONTH

North Pole is tilted towards sun. It is summer in northern hemisphere. Sun rays strikes
northern hemisphere more perpendicularly and the sun appears higher in the sky.
B) Space heating (winter application): Demands may be high in December, January and
February
Tilt is required greater than latitude. Usual practise is (∅ + 𝟏𝟎°) or (∅ + 𝟏𝟓°)
IN DECEMBER MONTH

North Pole is tilted away from sun. It is winter in northern hemisphere. Sun rays strikes
northern hemisphere more obliquely and the sun appears lower in the sky.

38 MADE EASY
5. Dust on top cover
Dust on cover plate reduces transmitted flux through the collector. Dust collection
decreases collector efficiency. So, regular cleaning must be done.

A VARIETY OF ABSORBER PLATE-TUBE DESIGNS HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED

(i) TUBE BELOW ABSORBER PLATE

Resistance between plate and fluid

(a) Resistance due to bonding material between plate and tube
(b) Resistance due to wall thickness of tube
(c) Convective resistance in fluid at tube surface
(ii) SEMI-CIRCULAR CROSS SECTIONAL TUBE

Resistance due to bonding material and wall thickness is removed which increases useful
heat gain and thus efficiency.
(iii) PIPE AND FIN TYPE

Liquid flows in pipe and hence they have a comparatively low wetted area and liquid
capacity. High temperature is achieved, used in domestic and industrial application.
(iv) RECTANGULAR OR CYLINDRICAL FULL SANDWICH

Wetted area is high as well as water capacity is high. (Used for low temperature
requirements such as heating swimming pool)

39 MADE EASY
 2. AIR FLAT PLATE
It is similar to liquid flat plate collector with a change in the configuration of absorber and
tube.

Application: Space heating and Agricultural drying

Mainly Air flat collector are classified in two categories

(i) NON-POROUS ABSORBER (ii) POROUS ABSORBER

Air stream does not flow through absorber Air stream flows through absorber plate.
plate.
Air flows either above or behind the
absorber plate.

(i) NON-POROUS ABSORBER

It is mainly of two type:

Air is heated in a space between cover and Air is heated in a separate passage below
absorber plate absorber plate

Convective losses from the top of collector

It is simple but convective losses from heated are reduced.
air are high.

40 MADE EASY
Following arrangements are done in second configuration to increase heat
transfer rate
a) By roughing rear part of absorber plate: Increases turbulence, which in turn increases
convective heat transfer coefficient.
b) By adding fins on rear part: It increases heat transfer area.

c) V-corrugated Copper foil:

On upper part, absorption of solar radiation is improved due to trapping the reflected
radiation.
Rear part helps to promote turbulence as well as increased surface area.

d) Two-pass design:

Air spends more time in collector for same area.

Following drawbacks in NON-POROUS absorber

a) Main drawback is necessity of absorbing all incoming radiation over projected area from
thin layer over the surface. Unless selective coatings are used radiation losses from absorber
plate are high, which increases cost.

41 MADE EASY
b) Pressure drop is high, especially in case of added fins. Turbulence increases ‘h’ but also
increases pressure drop along the flow. So, larger amount of energy is required to push air,
hence larger fan.

(ii) POROUS ABSORBER

Drawback of non-porous absorber is eliminated in two ways:

a) Solar radiation penetrates to greater depths depending on matrix density. The cool air
stream introduced from the upper surface of matrix is first heated by upper layer which are
cooler than bottom.
The lower layer are hotter than the upper ones, therefore air stream can effectively transfer
heat from matrix.
Matrix layer beyond optimum may no longer absorb solar radiation and heat the air stream
further.
So, the use of expensive selective surface is not required here.
b) In experiment it is has been shown that pressure drop in porous type is usually lower
than non-porous type (although matrix hinders the flow but pressure drop is less)

42 MADE EASY
 Different type of porous absorber
Transpired honey comb Crushed glass layer
It is favourable from A porous bed made by
pressure drop point of forming layers of broken
view. bottles.
Stacking copper wire screen
meshes or slit & expanded
metallic foil
Optimum depth (4 cm)

Following advantages of AIR FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR over LIQUID FLAT PLATE
COLLECTOR
a) Compact, simple in construction and requires little maintenance
b) Air is directly used as working fluid, so need to transfer thermal energy from working fluid
to another fluid is eliminated.
c) Possibility of freezing of working fluid is completely eliminated.
Major disadvantages:
a) A large amount of fluid is to be handled due to low density, so sometime electrical power
required to blow the air through the collector is significant.
b) Convective heat transfer coefficient between absorber plate & air is low.

43 MADE EASY
 CONCENTRATING TYPE OF COLLECTORS
It consists of:
(i) Concentrator: It increases amount of solar radiation on small area. Concentrator can be
reflecting mirror or refracting lenses.
(ii) Receiver: It is of small area usually tube, which absorbs solar radiation concentrated by
concentrator.
It can be classified as

(i) Focus type (ii) Non-Focus type

After concentration image of light is formed After concentration no image of light is
formed
Further classified as
(a) Line focus: Image is formed on line
(b) Point focus: Image is formed on point

(i) FOCUS TYPE

(a) LINE FOCUS CONCENTRATORS:

There are several type of line focus concentrators available, in which cylindrical parabolic
concentrator is quite common.

44 MADE EASY
(b) POINT FOCUS CONCENTRATORS:
Paraboloidal dish concentrator is quite common

TERMS USED IN CONCENTRATING TYPE COLLECTOR

1: APERATURE: It is the plane opening of the concentrator through which the solar
radiation passes.

2. AREA CONCENTRATION RATIO OR CONCENTRATION RATIO (CR):

It is defined as:
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎
𝑪𝑹 =
𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓

45 MADE EASY
Range of CR

(a) Line focus: CR (10 to 80)

(b) Point focus: CR (100 to few thousands)

(c) Flat plate: CR=1

Note: The theoretical maximum value of concentration ratio for line-focus concentrator is 215 and
for point focus concentrator is around 46000.

SOME OTHER TYPE OF LINE FOCUS CONCENTRATOR

a) FIXED MIRROR CONCETROTOR:

b) LINEAR FRESNEL LENS COLLECTOR

46 MADE EASY
SOME OTHER TYPE OF POINT FOCUS CONCENTRATOR
a) CENTRAL TOWER RECIEVER

b) CIRCULAR FRESNEL LENS CONCENTRATOR

NON-FOCUS TYPE CONCENTRATOR

a) MODIFIED FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR

47 MADE EASY
b) COMPOUND PARABOLIC CONCENTRATOR

The segments of parabolas are oriented such that the focus of one is located at the bottom
end point of the other in contact with the receiver.

EVACUATED TUBE COLLECTOR

The performance of a flat plate collector can be improved by reducing heat loss from collector by
convection and conduction. It is done by having vacuum around absorber.

It becomes essential to use glass tube as the cover because only a tubular surface is able to
withstand the stress introduced by the pressure difference as a result of vacuum.

48 MADE EASY
Evacuated tube collector are very expensive compared to conventional flat plate collector.
Thus, it is possible to consider them only for high fluid temperature in a range of 100℃ to
130℃. These are so mainly used in cold areas.

TEMPERATURE RANGE OF COLLECTORS AND APPLICATIONS

1. FLAT PLATE
Low temperature
application
Up to 100℃
Swimming pool heating,
Domestic hot water, Space
heating and cooling, solar
drying, solar desalination
2. LINE FOCUS 3. POINT FOCUS
Medium temperature High temperature
application application
150℃ to 400℃ 500℃ to 3000℃
Industrial process heat Industrial process heat for
(paper and food industry), manufacturing, like metals,
power station (parabolic cements and also for power
trough concentrating power generation (central tower
plants) receiver and solar dish
power plants)

COMPARASION BETWEEN NON-CONCENTRATING AND CONCENTRATING TYPE COLLECTOR

Advantage of flat plate collector

• Simple in construction.
• No necessary requirement of sun tracking
• Mechanically stronger than concentrating type
• Less maintenance

49 MADE EASY
Disadvantage of flat plate
Because of absence of optical concentration, the area from which heat is lost is more
High temperature cannot be achieved.

Advantage of concentrating type:

Main advantage is high temperature achieved.

50 MADE EASY
 SOLAR COLLECTOR APPLICATIONS
1. SOLAR WATER HEATER
Flat plate collector is generally used for water heating. The heated water is then stored in an
insulated storage tank.
Active system: In this type system mechanical device such as pump, blower, etc is used to
circulate the working fluid for transportation of heat.
Passive system: It does not require any mechanical device and make use of natural process
of convection, radiation and conduction for transportation of heat.
Open loop system: Heated water in collector is directly used.
Closed loop system: Heated water in collector is passed through a heat exchanger there it
transfers heat to another tube containing cold water.

Different configuration of solar water heater is available:

(i) Solar batch heaters (integrated collector storage): Open loop and Passive system
In this type collector and storage tank are combined in one unit (integrated collector
storage). A tank of water, enclosed in an insulated box covered with glass, is placed facing
sun. Cold water is piped to the bottom of tank and hot water is taken off the top. Whenever
there is requirement for hot water, pressure from the home move hot water from the top of
the solar batch heater as cold water is pushed into bottom.

It is better in moderate climate where freezing is not an issue.

(ii) Thermo-syphon Systems: Open loop and Passive system
The potable water enters the bottom of the collector and rises to the tank as it warms by
natural convection (called as thermo-symphon action).
Hot water storage tank is above collector level. So, water rises up by natural convection and
flow down to collector by gravity.

51 MADE EASY
It is better for non-freezing climate. It’s advantage over batch type heater is that thermal
energy is stored in well-insulated tank, so hot water can be used any time, without penalty
of overnight losses. Whereas in batch-type we cannot use insulated tank.

(iii) Open-loop direct system: Active system

Used in tropical setting where freezing never occurs, this is the simplest of the active
system.
In this system, one tank with an electrical resistance heater is used along with pump to
circulate.
Water in tank with electrical resistance heater is preheated in tank containing hot water
from solar collector. Electric resistance heater is only turned on when it is required.

52 MADE EASY
(iv) Pressurized Glycol System: Closed loop and active system
A water and antifreeze mixture (propylene glycol) circulates from the collector through a
coil of pipe in the solar tank (heat exchanger), and then it is pumped back to the collector.
Good choice for cold climate.

(v) Closed-Loop Drainback System: Closed loop and active system

The heat transfer fluid is distilled water.
When system is at rest (not pumping), the solar collector is empty and the distilled water is
stored in a reservoir tank, usually located just above the solar storage tank.

53 MADE EASY
Pump is turned on as temperature sensor senses temperature difference of around 15℃
between collector and water in storage tank. The distilled water is circulated from the
reservoir tank back through the collector and heat exchanger, passing heat to the potable
water in storage tank. When pump shuts off again the distilled water drains back into the
reservoir protecting it from freezing also water is heated in collector when there is
available solar energy. The collector tank must therefore always be higher than storage
tank and there must be sufficient continuous slope in the piping to ensure against freezing.
Drain back systems are effective and reliable. They work great, even on the hottest and
coldest days of the year, and can go twenty years in operation without needing services.

2. Solar passive space heating and cooling system:

• In solar passive system it do not requires any mechanical device. It make use of
natural convection, radiation and conduction for transport of heat.
• Its use put restriction on building design to make possible the flow of heat naturally.
Such a specially designed building is called a solar house.
• Active heating systems employ mechanical devices, e.g. pumps, blowers, etc., to
circulate the working fluid for transport of heat and, therefore, a special building
design is not necessary as required in the case of passive heating.

Solar passive space-heating system:

• The thick wall facing to sunlight, called Trombe Wall is made of concrete, stone or
composites of brick and sand, designed for thermal storage.
• In order to increase the absorption, the outer surface facing toward sunrays is
painted black.
• The entire south wall is covered by one or two sheets of glass or plastic with some
air gap (usually 10-15 cm) between the wall and inner glazing.
• Solar radiation after penetration through the glazing is absorbed by Trombe wall.
The air in the gap between wall and inner glazing thus gets heated, rises up and
enters the room through the upper vent while cool air from the room replaces it
from the bottom vent.
• The circulation of air continues till the wall goes on heating the air. Thus, Trombe
wall collects, stores and transfer the heat to the room.
• Heating can be adjusted by controlling the air flow through the inlet and outlet
vents by shutters. Opening the damper at the top of glazing allows the excess heat
to escape outside, when heating is not required.
• A movable insulation cover is also sometimes used to cover the glaze to reduce the
heat loss from the storage wall to outdoors during night.

Solar passive cooling:

• In this type, cooling effect is obtained by ‘solar chimney effect’ and is effective
where outside temperatures are moderate.
54 MADE EASY
 • Solar radiation is allowed to heat up the air between the glazing and the wall. The
heated air rises up, is ducted outside and the warm air from the room is drawn into
this space due to the natural draught thus produced. As a result, cool outside air
enters the room from the bottom air vent on the other side of the room.

3. Solar refrigeration and air-conditioning system

Solar energy can also be used in air conditioning (cooling for comfort) and refrigeration
(cooling for preserving food). It is based on Vapour-absorption cycle.
The most common Vapour-absorption system used are:
Lithium bromide-Water Absorption cooling system: In which water is refrigerant and
Lithium bromide is absorbent. It can be used only for comfort cooling
Aqua-Ammonia absorption cooling system: In which Ammonia is refrigerant and water is
absorbent. It can be used For both refrigeration as well as comfort cooling.

4. Solar cookers:
Harnessing solar energy for cooking purposes is an attractive and relevant option. A variety
of solar cookers have been developed

(i) Box-type Solar Cooker

55 MADE EASY
 • The external dimension of typical family-size box-type cooker are 60cm × 60cm
×20cm. This cooker is simple in construction and operation.
• An insulated box of blackened aluminium contains the utensils filed with food
material.
• The box receive direct radiation and also reflected radiation from reflected
mirror fixed on the inner side of the box cover hinged to one side of the box. The
angle of the reflector can be adjusted as required. A glass cover consisting of two
layers of clear-window glass sheets serves as the box door. The glass cover traps
heat due to greenhouse effect.
• The maximum air temperature obtained inside the box is around 140-160℃.
This is enough for cooking boiling type food-stuffs slowly in about 2-3 hours. It is
capable of cooking 2 kg of food and can save up to 3-4 LPG cylinder fuel in a year.
• Drawback is food is cooked outside of the house and cannot be used during
nights.

(ii) Paraboloidal Dish-type (Direct Type) Solar cooker

• A specially designed paraboloidal reflector surface concentrates the beam radiation
at its focus, where cylindrical brass vessel containing food material is placed.
• The vessel directly receives the concentrated solar radiation. The reflector is
periodically adjusted to track the sun. A fairly high temperature of about 450℃ can
be obtained and a variety of food requiring boiling, baking and frying can be cooked
for 10-15 persons.
• It can save on fuel for up to 10 LPG cylinders annually on full use.
• The cooking time is approximately 20-30 minutes.

5. Solar furnaces:
• A solar furnace is an ideal tool to study the chemical, optical, electrical and
thermodynamic properties of the materials at high temperatures.
• It is basically an optical system in which solar radiation are concentrated over a small
area.

56 MADE EASY
 • It has two main components: A concentrator and a system of a large number of small
heliostats
• The large number of heliostats direct solar radiation onto a paraboloidal reflector
surface.
• Accurate sun tracking is required for this purpose. The concentrators focus the
incoming rays at the target placed at their focii.

6. Solar green house:

• A greenhouse is an enclosure where proper environment is provided for growth and

production of crops, vegetable and flower plants under adverse climatic conditions.
• By controlling the environment, a particular vegetable or flower can be grown
throughout the year.
• The design of greenhouse depends on local climatic conditions.
• In cold countries, winter greenhouse provides supplementary heat to maintain
adequate temperature during the cold months when solar insolation is low
• Although, there is slight variation in the environmental needs of each variety of plant
for best production, basically they all require moderate temperatures and light,
adequate quantities of carbon dioxide, oxygen, mineral nutrients, air movement and
water.
• Moderate temperature, light and air movement are energy related needs of plants
and are supplied by green house.
• A greenhouse designed to use solar energy to meet these requirements is known as
solar greenhouse.
• Passive greenhouse: If natural means are adopted to collect, store and distribute the
energy inside, it is known as passive green house
• Active greenhouse: Greenhouse where auxiliary means are used for these functions.

57 MADE EASY
A typical winter green house: A Transparent wall and roof is provided with double-
glazing. Another part of roof is made of insulating material with reflecting inner lining to
reflect solar radiation on the plant canopy. The frame of entire greenhouse is made of
wood.

7. Solar dryer
The drying process removes moisture and helps in preservation of any product. Solar crop
drying is perhaps the most ancient and widespread direct use of solar energy.
The customary way is to spread the material to be dried in a thin layer on the ground. The
disadvantages associated with this method:

• The process is slow

• The product is vulnerable to attack insects
• Dust gets mixed with the product

The solar drier helps to eliminate these disadvantages.

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 • It is an enclosure with a transparent cover, similar to a greenhouse. The material to
be dried is placed on perforated trays. Solar radiation enters the enclosure and is
absorbed by the product as well as the surrounding internal surface of the enclosure,
increasing its temperature.
• The inside air heats up to a temperature ranging from 50 to 80℃, and rises above.
Natural circulation of air is ensured by providing suitable openings at the bottom and
top. The circulating air removes the moisture from the product.
• For large-scale drying, forced circulation of air may be used by employing a blower.
• In case where direct exposure to the sun tends to produce curling and wrapping of
products, where direct sunlight is not adequate, controlled temperature drying as
kiln drying may be used. Here, the air is heated separately in an array of solar air
heaters and then ducted to the chamber where the product to be dried is stored.
Such dryers are also suitable for food grains and products like tea and tobacco.

8. Solar distillation (or desalination of water)

Potable or fresh water (water with less than 500 ppm salt content) is one of the
fundamental necessities of life for humans. Industries and agriculture also require fresh
water without which they cannot thrive.

Desalination:
• In this method, the brackish or saline water is evaporated using thermal energy, and
the resulting steam is collected and condensed as final product.
• A device used for converting brackish water into potable water using solar energy is
called Solar Still.

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 • A simple basin-type solar still consist of a shallow blackened basin filled with saline
or brackish water to be distilled. The depth of water is kept about 5-10 cm. It is
covered with a sloppy transparent roof. Solar radiation, after passing through the
roof, is absorbed by the blackened surface of the basin and thus increases the
temperature of water. The evaporated water increases the moisture content, which
gets condensed on the cooler underneath the glass. The condensed water slips down
the slope and is collected through the condensate channel attached to the glass.

9. Solar thermo-mechanical system

It is possible to convert solar thermal energy to mechanical energy through heat engines
using Rankine cycle, Stirling cycle or Brayton cycle. The mechanical energy thus produced
may be used for applications requiring shaft power such as water lifting, cooling (through
vapour compression method), etc., or may be converted to electrical energy using an
alternator.

A. Solar thermal water pump

• A typical Rankine cycle is used with solar thermal water pump.
• Water is used as a heat-transport fluid, and yields its heat to a low-boiling point
organic working fluid (such as Freon R113, R12, isobutene, etc.) in a heat exchanger.
• Surplus heat is stored in the thermal storage to be used later when sun is not
available.
• The high-pressure vapours of the working fluid expand in the turbine, condense in
the condenser and return in the heat exchanger (boiler).

B. Solar vapour compression refrigeration

• A cooling system based on the vapour-compression principle has the advantage that
the system, apart from cooling, can also be used in a heat-pump mode.
• Here, solar power is first converted to mechanical power in the same way as in solar
thermal water pump. The shaft power thus produced drives the compressor of
conventional vapour compression refrigerator.

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 • A suitable refrigerant vapour is compressed and then condensed to a liquid, rejecting
heat to the ambient. Now, the pressure is reduced by passing it through an
expansion valve where it gets evaporated at low pressure, producing a cooling
effect.
• Thus, the refrigerant absorbs heat in the evaporator, from the space to cooled and
rejects it in the condenser.

C. Solar-pond electric-power plant

• An artificially constructed pond in which significant temperature rises are caused to
occur in lower regions by preventing convection is called a ‘solar pond’.
• The usual method adopted to prevent convection is to dissolve a salt in the water
and to maintain a concentration gradient. For such ponds, the more specific term
‘salt-gradient solar pond’ is used.

Description:
• It combines the function of heat collection with long-term storage and can provide
sufficient heat for entire year. Typically, it is about 2 or 3 metres deep with a thick
durable plastic liner laid at the bottom.
• Salts like magnesium chloride, sodium chloride or sodium nitrate are dissolved in the
water, the concentration varying from 20 to 30 per cent at the bottom to almost
zero at the top.
• If left to itself, the salt concentration gradient will disappear over a period of time
because of upward diffusion of the salt. In order to maintain it, fresh water is added
at the top of the pond while slightly saline water is run off. At the same time,
concentrated brine is added at the bottom of the pond. The amount of salt required
for this purpose is about
• 50 g/𝑚2 − 𝑑𝑎𝑦.

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• In order to extract the energy stored, hot water is removed continuously from the
bottom, passed through a heat exchanger and returned to the bottom. Alternatively
heat is extracted by water flowing through a heat exchanger coil submerged at the
bottom.
• Because of movement and mixing of fluid both at the top and bottom, the solar
pond is characterized by three zones: a surface convective zone, a non-convective
concentration gradient and a lower convective zone.
• The surface convective zone usually has a small thickness, around 10 to 20 cm. It has
low, uniform concentration, which is close to zero, as well as fairly uniform
temperature, which is close to ambient temperature.
• The non-convective zone is much thicker and occupies more than half the depth of
the pond. Both concentration and temperature increase with depth in this zone. It
serves principally as an insulating layer and reduces heat losses in the upward
direction. Some of heat collection also takes place in this zone and it serves also as
part of thermal storage.
• The lower convective zone is comparable in thickness to the non-convective zone.
Both the concentration and the temperature are nearly constant in this zone. It
serves as the main heat-collection as well as thermal-storage medium.

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 • Solar radiation penetrates through water up to the blackened bottom, where it gets
absorbed and increases the temperature near the bottom. In spite of the
temperature rise of the bottom layers of the brine, its density remains higher than
that at the top because of the concentration gradient thus convection mixing is
minimized. The bottom layers of the brine reach 70-85℃ while top remains at 25℃.
• The hot brine from bottom is slowly withdrawn from the pond and used to
evaporate an organic working fluid in a heat exchanger and returned to the pond.
The organic fluid produces mechanical power in a Rankine cycle, which in turn
generates electrical power using an alternator.
• The annual efficiency generally ranges between 15 to 20 per cent. These values
are lower than those obtained for a flat-plate collector. Nevertheless, solar ponds
are more cost effective, since their cost per square metre is much less than that
for a liquid flat plate collector.

D. Solar chimney plant

• A solar chimney is much simpler but works with much lower efficiency as compared
to a central tower receiver power plant. The circular field of heliostats is replaced by
a circular area of land covered with glazing, i.e. a circular greenhouse. The central
receiver tower is replaced by a tall chimney that houses a wind turbine at the base of
the chimney. Sunlight passing through the transparent cover causes the air trapped
in the greenhouse to heat up. A convection system is set up in which the air drawn
up through the chimney drives the turbine coupled with a generator. The hot air is
continuously replenished by fresh air drawn in the periphery of the green house.

63 MADE EASY
 SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE
• The intermittent, variable and unpredictable nature of solar radiation generally leads
to a mismatch between the rate and time of collection of solar energy and the load
needs of thermal application.
• As a result it is often necessary to use a storage system in between.
• The storage system stores energy when the collected amount is in excess of the
requirement of the application and discharges energy when the collected amount is
inadequate.
• Size of storage system depends upon the specific purpose for which it is used.

There are three basic methods for storing thermal energy:

1. Sensible heat storage: Heating a liquid or a solid which doesn’t not change phase.
The amount of energy stored is dependent on the temperature change of the material and
can be expressed in the form
𝑇2
𝐸 = 𝑚 ∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇
𝑇1

Where m is the mass of thermal storing substance, 𝐶𝑝 the specific heat, 𝑇1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇2 represent
the lower and upper temperature levels between which the storage operates. The
difference (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) is referred to as the temperature swing.
Substance used are

• Water: (up to 100℃)

• Heat transfer oils: (100-300℃) such as Caloria HT43 and Therminol T66 (US brand),
Servotherm (Indian brand)
• Molten inorganic salts: such as Hitec (trade name)
• Liquid metals (also used for high temperature application): Such as liquid sodium
Rocks or pebbles: (up to 100℃) with solar air heaters
• Refractories: (for high temperature applications): magnesium oxide (magnesia),
aluminium oxide (alumina) and silicon oxide.

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2. Latent heat storage: Heating a material which undergoes a phase change (i.e. usually
melting). The amount of energy storage in this case depends upon the mass and the latent
heat of fusion of the material.
𝐸 = 𝑚𝜆
𝜆is the latent heat of fusion. In this case, the storage operates isothermally at the melting of
the material. If isothermal operation at the phase change temperature is difficult, the
system operates over a range of temperature 𝑇1 to 𝑇2 which includes the melting point.
Then sensible heat contributions have to be considered and the amount of energy stored is
given by:
𝑇𝑚𝑝 𝑇2
𝐸 = 𝑚 [{∫ 𝐶𝑝,𝑠𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑇} + 𝜆 + {∫ 𝐶𝑝,𝑙𝑖𝑞 𝑑𝑇}]
𝑇1 𝑇𝑚𝑝

𝐶𝑝,𝑠𝑜𝑙 and𝐶𝑝,𝑙𝑖𝑞 specific heats of the solid and liquid phase. 𝑇𝑚𝑝 is melting point.

Substance used are:

• In a latent energy heat storage system, heat is stored in a material when it melts and
extracted from the material when it freezes.
• A number of such materials (called ‘phase change materials’ or PCMs) have been
investigated from the point of view of their suitability for solar energy applications.
• The most suitable PCMs under the category of ‘organic materials’ are paraffin
waxes. They are suitable for space heating.
• Hydrated salts: (melting point in the range of 10℃ to 100.)
• Ice: Good PCM if energy is to be stored/extracted at 0℃.
• Sodium nitrate, sodium hydroxide and eutectic of lithium carbonate and
potassium carbonate (melting point 300-500℃): used for high temperature
applications

65 MADE EASY
3. Thermochemical storage system:
• In a thermochemical storage system, the solar energy to be stored is used to
produce a certain endothermic chemical reaction and the products of the reaction
are stored.
• When the energy is required to be released, the reverse exothermic reaction is made
to take place. Both reactions take place at different temperatures, the forward
reaction occurring at a higher temperature than the reverse reaction.
• Thermochemical storage system are suitable for medium or high temperature
applications only.

Criteria for judging suitability of thermo-chemical storage:

1. The forward reaction should occur in the temperature range of the solar collector used.
2. The reverse reaction should occur in the temperature range of load extraction.
3. The energy absorbed per unit volume should be large and products should be in liquid
form so that size can be reduced.

Some examples:
1. 𝑪𝑯𝟒 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 ⇆ 𝑪𝑶 + 𝟑𝑯𝟐 .

• Temperature of forward reaction is 780℃, temperature of reverse reaction is 610℃,

energy stored per unit volume of storage material 209.4 MJ/𝑚3 .
• Forward reaction is called asmethane-syngas reaction, takes place in the presence of
nickel catalyst. The reverse reaction called as methanation process is being commercially
used for the manufacture of methane on large scale.
• The main problem is that the products CO and 𝐻2 are gases and have to be stored at a
pressure of about 100 bars.
𝟏
2. 𝑺𝑶𝟑 ⇆ 𝑺𝑶𝟐 + 𝑶𝟐 .
𝟐

• Temperature of forward reaction is 1025℃, temperature of reverse reaction is 590℃,

energy stored per unit volume of storage material 460.6 MJ/𝑚3 .
• It is endothermic decomposition of sulphur trioxide to sulphur dioxide and oxygen in
forward step and exothermic recombination of sulphur dioxide and oxygen to form
sulphur trioxide in reverse step, in the presence of a catalyst.
• Disadvantage associated with this system is that although 𝑆𝑂2can be stored as a liquid,
𝑂2 has to be stored as a gas under a pressure of about 100 bars.
3. 𝑵𝑯𝟒 𝑯𝑺𝑶𝟒 ⇆ 𝑵𝑯𝟑 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝑺𝑶𝟑 .

• Temperature of forward reaction is 498℃, temperature of reverse reaction is 435℃,

energy stored per unit volume of storage material 2143.7 MJ/𝑚3 .

66 MADE EASY
What method of storage is adopted depend upon the specific application:
Some of consideration which determine the selection of the method of storage and its
design are as follows:
1. The temperature range over which the storage has to operate.
2. Heat loss from the storage has to be kept to a minimum. Heat losses are of particular
importance for ‘long-term’ storage.
3. Cost of storage unit. This includes the initial cost of the storage medium, the container
and insulation, and the operating cost.

Comparison between different type of storage system:

• Advantage of sensible storage over latent storage and thermo-chemical is simpler in
design. Disadvantage are bigger in size and cannot store or deliver energy at a constant
temperature.
• Advantage of PCM is more compact than a sensible heat system and can deliver heat
at constant temperature.
• In thermochemical storage the energy stored per unit volume in the proposed
reactions is high, it is apparent that thermochemical storage system would be too
costly for short-term storage. It is possible that they may have a role to play only
where long term storage is required.

67 MADE EASY
 BIOMASS ENERGY

Photosynthesis:
Solar radiation incident on green plants performs two basic functions:
(i) Temperature control for chemical reactions to process
(ii) Photosynthesis process
The fundamental conversion process in green plants is photosynthesis, which is the process
of combining 𝑪𝑶𝟐 from the atmosphere with water plus light energy to produce oxygen
and carbohydrates (sugars, starches, cellulose and hemicelluloses). They are the ultimate
source of most of our foods and other necessities of daily life such as clothes (in the form of
cotton), furniture (in the form of wood), etc.
The reaction is the formation of carbohydrate in photosynthesis, is represented by
𝒙𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝒚𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 → 𝒙𝑶𝟐 + 𝑪𝒙 (𝑯𝟐 𝐎)𝒚

The reverse of this process as called as respiration: In which𝑪𝑶𝟐 , 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 and energy

are produced using carbohydrate and oxygen. The energy produced in the plants by
respiration is used in several processes such as to draw moisture and nutrients through its
roots. In green plants, both photosynthesis and respiration occur during the day and only
respiration at night.

Note: There is a net overall gain of energy in the process, as the rate of energy loss in
respiration is much less as compared to the rate of energy gain during photosynthesis
process.
68 MADE EASY
Biomass resources:
(i) Forests
Forests, natural as well as cultivated, serve as a source of fuel wood.
Some fast-growing energy intensive trees such as eucalyptus, poplar, pine are specially
cultivated for the purpose of energy.
Some wild plants produce seeds to yield vegetable oil on pressing. Jojoba (a shrub,
producing nuts) and Karanj (a tree generally seen on roadside in India, produces small
seeds)
Note:When plants are cultivated especially for the purpose of energy, it is known as energy
farming.

(ii) Agriculture Residue:

Crop residue such as straw, rice husk, coconut shell, groundnut shell.

(iii) Energy Crops:

Certain cultivated plants produce raw material for bio-fuels.
Sugar plants: sugar cane, sweet sorghum and sugar beet
Starch plants: Jerusalem artichoke, cassava, potatoes and sweet potatoes (tubular plants)
Grains:maize, barley, rice and wheat provide starch
Oil producing plants: sunflower, castor oil, soybean, groundnut, cottonseed and Jatropha
curcas

(iv) Aquatic Plants: Some water plants grow faster than land-based. These are water
hyacinth, kelp, seaweed and algae.

(v) Urban waste: urban waste is of two type: (a) Municipal solid waste (b) Sewage

69 MADE EASY
Usable forms of biomass, their composition and fuel properties:
(i) Fuel wood:
• Wood is the most obvious and oldest source of biomass energy. This was the main
source of energy by mankind for centuries. Direct combustion is the simplest way to
obtain heat energy. Its energy density is 16-20 MJ/kg.
• It can also be converted to more useful forms such as charcoal.

(ii) Charcoal
Source: Wood

• Charcoal is a clean (smokeless), dry, solid fuel, black in colour. It has 75-80% carbon
content and has energy density of about 30 MJ/kg.
• It is obtained by the carbonisation process of woody biomass to achieve higher
energy density per unit mass, thus making it more economical to transport. It can be
used as fuel in domestic environment as it burns without smoke.

(iii) Fuel Pellets and Briquettes

Source: Crop residue such as straw, rice husk and waste wood are pressed to form lumps,
known as fuel pellets or briquettes and used as solid fuel.
• The purpose is to reduce moisture content and increase the energy density of
biomass making it more feasible for long distance transportation.

(iv) Bio-diesel
• Raw vegetable oil is upgraded as bio-diesel (methyl ester and ethyl ester) through a
chemical process called as trans-esterification, leaving glycerine as by product (a
valuableby product usually used in soaps).

Source: Bio-diesel can be produced from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled restaurant
greases.

(v) Bio-ethanol
• Ethanol (𝑪𝟐 𝑯𝟓 𝑶𝑯) is a colourless liquid biofuel. Its boiling point is 78℃ and energy
desity 26.7 MJ/kg.

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 • Blend of up to 22% anhydrous ethanol with gasoline, requires no engine
modification and incurs no mileage penalty. It is being used by a large number of
automobiles in the world.

Source: It can be derived from wet biomass containing sugars and starches. Ethanol is
largely produced from sugar cane and also by maize (in USA due to surplus production)

(vi) Biogas
• Biogas is produced in a biogas fermentation or digester. It is used for cooking,
lightning (using mantle lamps), heating.
• Use of biogas is widespread in rural China and India.

Source: Organic wastes from plants, animals and human contain enough energy to in
many areas, particularly the rural regions of developing countries. Aquatic biomass can
also be used.
If raw material is cow manure, the output biogas will contain about 50-60% 𝐶𝐻4 , 30-40%
𝐶𝑂2, 5-10% 𝐻2 , 𝑁2 0.5-.7 %. Its energy density is about 23 MJ/𝒎𝟑 .

(vii) Producer gas

Woody matters such as crop residue, wood chips, bagasse (fibrous residue of sugar cane
after juice extraction), rice husk and coconut shells, can be transformed to producer gas
(also known as synthesis gas, syn gas, wood gas and water gas or blue gas) by a method
known as gasification of solid fuel.

71 MADE EASY
Conversion of Biomass to useful form for consumer
(A) Physical method
(i) Briquetting and Palletisation:
The simplest form of physical conversion of biomass is through compression of combustible
materials. Its density is increased by reducing the volume by compression through the
processes called briquetting and palletisation. Wood pellets are smaller in size while
briquettes are relatively larger in size. The moisture content is reduced in this process to
about 10%. It is used in steam power plants.
(ii) Extracting oil from agro products: Concentrated vegetable oils may be obtained by
certain agro products and may be used as fuel in diesel engines. However, difficulties arise
with direct use of plant oil due to viscosity and combustion deposits are upgraded by
chemical method known as trans-esterification.

(B) Incineration
Incineration means direct combustion of biomass for immediate useful heat. The heat
produced are either used to generate electricity or provide the heat for industrial process,
space heating or cooking.

(C) Thermochemical:
In this method biomass is changed to usable fuel (producer gas) by thermochemical process
(Biomass is heated by chemical reaction).

(D) Biochemical:
The process makes use of metabolic action of microbial organisms on biomass to produce
liquid and gaseous fuel. Two major biochemical processes are explained below:
(i) Ethanol fermentation:Alcoholic fermentation is the decomposition in the absence of air
of simple hexose sugars (i.e. 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6) in aqueous solution by the action of an enzyme
present in yeast (micro-organism fungi). Thus
𝟑𝟎℃, 𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐭 (𝐟𝐮𝐧𝐠𝐢)
𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 → 2 𝐶2 𝐻5 OH + 2𝐶𝑂2
The products are ethanol and carbon dioxide.

72 MADE EASY
(ii) Anaerobic Fermentation (Anaerobic digestion): This process converts decaying wet
biomass and animal wastes into biogas through the decomposition process by the action of
anaerobic (bacteria that live and grow in absence of oxygen). Thus,
𝟐𝟎−𝟓𝟓℃, 𝐚𝐧𝐚𝐞𝐫𝐨𝐛𝐢𝐜 𝐛𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐚
𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 wet biomass → 𝐵𝑖𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑠 (𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝐶𝐻4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑂2 )

The main advantages of Biomass energy resources are:

(i) It is a renewable source (if consumption and growth are at same pace).
(ii) The energy storage is an in-built feature of it.
(iii) The pollutant emissions from combustion of biomass are usually lower than those from
fossil fuels,
(iv) Use of biogas plants leads to improved sanitation, better hygienic condition in rural
areas as the harmful decaying biomass (if left in open environment) is used to extract
energy.
(v)The nitrogen rich bio-digested slurry and sludge from a biogas plant serves as a very good
soil conditioner and improves the fertility of the soil

Disadvantages:
(i) It is dispersed and requires large area of land.
(ii) It is often low energy density resource.
(iii) It is also labour intensive and the cost of collecting large quantities for commercial
application is significant.

73 MADE EASY
Biomass Gasification:
• Gasification means converting solid fuel into gaseous fuel by thermo-chemical
method (without leaving any carbonaceous residue).
• Raw material: Wood chips, other waste from wood industry, coconut shell, straw
• Gasification: partial oxidation (combustion) + Reduction
• Combustion: is a chemical process, in which substance (i.e fuel) reacts with oxygen
(i.e. air) and gives heat.
• Reduction: is a chemical process that is just opposite of combustion process

In gasifier, raw material passes through following zones:

1. Drying zone: Raw material (Biomass) is first dried by removing moisture. (Temperature
100℃→150℃)
2. Pyrolysis zone: After drying raw material is send to pyrolysis zone (Temperature
200℃→600℃). Process of heating in absence of air. Complex structure is broken into simple
structure. Product of pyrolysis are solid (called as charcoal) and liquid/gases (called as tar).
3. Oxidation zone: In this zone predetermined quantity of air is send to the product of
pyrolysis. Here, exothermic reaction takes place and heat is released in good amount which
raises the temperature in this zone (Temperature 900℃→1200℃).
Carbon from charcoal and tar reacts with oxygen.
𝐶 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
4. Reduction zone:
Reduction is the process of removal of oxygen atoms from combustion product, so as to return the
molecules to forms that can burn again (i.e. combustible gas). Temperature in this zone
(650℃→900℃). Temperature of this zone reduces as heat is been consumed in endothermic
reaction

Following main reaction taking place are:

Endothermic reaction:

𝐶 + 𝐶𝑂2 → 2CO
𝐶 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → CO + 𝐻2
Exothermic reaction:

𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑂2 + C𝐻4
𝐶 + 2𝐻2 → C𝐻4

Product of this zone (CO, 𝐻2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 C𝐻4 also we get𝐶𝑂2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁2) are called as producer gas.

74 MADE EASY
For wood chips as input, typical gas composition is

CO 19%
𝐻2 18%
𝐶𝐻4 1%
𝐶𝑂2 11%
𝑁2 Remaining
Energy density 4-8 MJ/𝑚3 (5-10 MJ/kg)

Application: It can be used to fuel IC engines (In diesel engine with dual fuel-mode engines)
for irrigation pumps, motor vehicles and small-scale power generation.
The commercial diesel engine has to be modified to a dual-fuel mode engine. The air intake
manifold is modified to a suck (air + producer gas) mixture. Limited quantity of diesel is
required to initiate the ignition. The engine is started with diesel fuel only and subsequently
the quantity of diesel is reduced as producer gas is mixed with air. About 85-87% diesel
replacement can be obtained.

Gasifier can be mainly classified in two types:

(i) Downdraft Type:
In this type air enters at combustion zone and the producer gas leaves from the bottom of
the gasifier. It produces a relatively clean gas (very less tar).
(ii) Updraft type: In this type air enters from bottom and the producer gas leaves from the
top of the gasifier. The gas contains tar and water vapour because of passing of gas through
unburnt fuel.

75 MADE EASY
Biogas production:
Raw materials for Biogas:
(a) animal-waste based resources, such as animal and human excreta, slaughter house
waste, etc.
(b) land-based resources: crop wastes, by-products of agro-based universities, urban solid
wastes
(c) water-based resources such as algae, sea weed, etc.

Organic waste, if left to open air, is attacked by aerobic bacteria, decomposes organic
material completely (oxidised completely, no fuel is obtained).
But if organic waste is kept in close and air tight container (called as digester), is attacked by
anaerobic bacteria, which produces Bio Gas.

Biogas Plant Construction:

There are three stages in biogas plant:

Stage I: (Called as Hydrolysis) The original matter containing complex compounds, e.g.
carbohydrates, protein and fats is broken down through the influence of water (known as
hydrolysis) to simple water-soluble compounds.

76 MADE EASY
Stage II: The anaerobic bacteria (also called as acid formers) produces mainly acetic and
propionic acid.
Stage III: (Called as methane formation stage) now the products stage two is slowly
digested to produce methane, carbon dioxide, a small amount of hydrogen and a trace
amount of other gases.

Composition of Bio Gas

1 Methane 55-70%
2 Carbon Dioxide 30-45%
3 Hydrogen Sulphide 1-2%
4 Nitrogen 0-1%
5 Hydrogen 0-1%
6 Carbon Mono Oxide Traces
7 Oxygen Traces
• Biogas burns with Blue Flame.

Operational Parameters of Biogas Plant:

(i) Temperature: Methane-forming bacteria works best in temperature ranges 20-55℃.
Digestion at higher temperature processes more rapidly than at lower temperature, with
gas-yield rates doubling at about every 5℃ increase in temperature but methane content
gets relatively reduced. The gas production decreases sharply below 20℃ and almost stops
at 10℃.
(ii) Solid to Liquid Ratio in the Biomass: Water is essential for survival and activity of
microorganisms and hydrolysis process. This helps in (a) better mixing of various
constituents of the biomass, (b) movement of bacteria and (c) faster digestion rate.
However, when water content is too high, the mean slurry temperature drops and gas
production stops. If water content is too low, acids accumulate at a location and hinder
fermentation process.
The optimum total solid concentration is 7 to 9%.
(iii) ph. value: During the methane-formation stage, a ph. value of 6.5 to 7.5 is maintained,
as methane-forming bacteria are very sensitive to acidity. Deviation from this value is likely
to cause imbalance in bacteria population affecting the production of gas.
(iv) Retention Time: It is the time duration for which the slurry remains in the plant or the
time that is available for bio digestion. It is determined by the volume of slurry in digester
divided by the volume of slurry added per day. Retention time is optimized to achieve a 70-
80% complete digestion.
E.g.: Required retention time of various feed materials at 35℃.

77 MADE EASY
 Raw material Required retention time (days)
Cow dung 50
Poultry droppings 20
Rice straw 33
Sugar cane tops 43

(v) Feeding rate: At a higher feeding rate, the retention period will be less and undigested
slurry may come out. Therefore, a uniform feeding rate should be maintained. As too much
raw material at a time leads to accumulation of acids at a particular location and the
digestion process may stops.
(vi) Carbon to nitrogen (C/N) Ratio and other nutrients in Biomass:
For production of anaerobic bacteria: Carbon (in carbohydrates) supplies energy and
nitrogen (in proteins, nitrates, etc.) is needed for building of cell structures i.e growth.
The fact that anaerobic bacteria use carbon 25 to 30 times faster than nitrogen. The
optimum C:N ratio is 30:1 for maximum micro-biological activity.
(vii) Seeding of Biomass with Bacteria:To start and accelerate the fermentation process, a
small amount of digested slurry, containing methane forming bacteria is added to freshly
charged plant. This is known as seeding.
If the biomass is animal manure, it already contains acid and methane fermenters and
seeding is not necessary.
(viii) Mixing or stirring: Mixing has three important effects: (a) maintains uniformity (b)
minimize the formation of scum at the surface (c) prevents the deposition of solids at the
bottom.

78 MADE EASY
SOME FACTS ABOUT BIO GAS PLANT RUNNING ON COW DUNG AS RAW
MATERIAL
1 Cow dung produced 10kg/cow/day
2 % of Cow dung that can be recovered per cow 70%

Remaining 30% is lost in field

during grazing
Generally 7kg (approx..) of cow
dung can be collected
3 Solid content in cow dung About 18%
4 Gas Yeild ( per kg of dry matter) 0.34( per kg of dry matter)
5 Biogas required for cooking 0.227 /person/day
6 Biogas required for lightning 100CP (Candle 0.126 /hour
power) mantle lamp
7 Density of Slurry 1090 /kg
8 Required retention time 50 days
9 Biogas plant producing 2 could replace Fuel equivalent of 26kg of LPG
10 Volume of digester Generally 90% of digester is
occupied by slurry and 10%
empty space is left to collect
gas formed
11 Output biogas contains 50-60% Methane, 30-40%
Carbon Dioxide, 5-10%
Hydrogen, 0.5-.7 % Nitrogen.

Energy Density is about

23 𝑀𝐽/𝑚3

Question: A family living in a village having 5 cows is interested to set up a biogas plant to
meet its cooking requirements. The family has 5 adult persons. Estimate the biogas
requirements on daily basis. Also, workout the cow dung requirements on daily basis and
also find out whether the number of cows available with the family is sufficient to meet its
requirement or not. The following data may be useful
Collectable cow dung per cow = 7kg (approx.)
Percent of solid mass in cow = 18%

Gas yield per kg of dry matter of cow dung = 0.34 𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔 of dry matter

Gas requirement for cooking = 0.227 /person/day

79 MADE EASY
TYPE OF BIO GAS PLANT
It is mainly classified in two categories:
(i) Floating Drum Biogas plant (Constant pressure type)
Examples: Janta Biogas plant, Deen-bandhu Biogas plant

(ii) Fixed Dome Biogas plant (Constant Volume type)

Examples: Khadi and Village, Industries type biogas plant, Pragati Design biogas plant,
Ganesh Biogas plant, Ferro-cement digester Biogas plant.

(i) Floating Drum type:

• It has an inverted mild steel drum to work as gas holder.

• It is most expensive part of the plant.
• The digester is underground masonry construction with a partition wall.
• The bifurcation (Partition wall) of digester chamber provides optimum conditions for
growth of acid formers and methane formers.

80 MADE EASY
(ii) Fixed Dome type:

• These plants are more economical as only masonry work is required.

• Gas pressure in the dome varies depending on the production/consumption rate.
• As inside pressure acting on dome is high relative to outside ambient pressure, the
inner walls must be constructed with good care by skilled masonry workman else
problem of leakage of gas can occur.
• Stirring is required if raw material is crop residue.

Comparison of floating drum and Fixed Dome type Plants

S no Features Floating Drum Fixed Dome
1 Cost More (due to steel drum) Less
2 Maintenance • More • Less
• Drum requires painting • No steel part is used
(once or twice a year) • Gas pipe is a fixed GI
• Flexible gas pipe requires pipe
replacement
3 Scum braking Not required Stirrer is required
4 Gas production High (Due to bifurcation, both Low
per unit volume acid and methane formers find
of digester better environment for growth)
5 Leakage Less likely More Likely
6 Danger of No More likely
mixing with
oxygen due to
leakage from
cracks
7 Gas pressure Constant Varies
8 Masonry work- Average skill Specialized, skilled masonry
Manship work required

81 MADE EASY
 WIND ENERGY
• Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with movement of large masses of air.
These motions result from uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, creating
temperature, density and pressure differences.
• It is thus indirect form of solar energy.
• Unlikely diurnal availability of direct solar radiation, wind energy can be available
continuously throughout a 24-hour day.
• Very slow wind are useless, having no possibilities of power generation. On the other
hand, very strong stormy winds cannot be utilized due to safety of turbine.
Moderate to high-speed winds, typically from 5 m/s to about 25 m/s are considered
favourable for most wind turbines.
• The main disadvantages are that it is dispersed, not regular in pattern and location
specific source.

Origin of winds:
The origin of winds may be traced basically to uneven heating of the earth’s surface due to
sun. This may lead to circulation of widespread winds on a global basis, producing planetary
winds or may have a limited influence in a smaller area to cause local winds.

Global (or Planetary) Winds: Two major forces determine the speed and direction of
wind on a global basis:
(i) The primary force for global winds is developed due to differential heating of the earth at
equatorial and Polar Regions. In the tropical regions, there is net gain of heat due to solar
radiation, whereas in polar region there is net loss of heat. This means that the earth’s
atmosphere has to circulate to transport heat from tropics to poles. On a global scale, these
atmospheric currents work as an immense energy-transfer medium.
(ii) Spinning of the earth about its axis produces a Coriolis force, which is responsible for
deviation of air currents towards the west.

Local winds: Localized uneven heating is responsible for local winds

The mechanism is differential heating of land surface and water bodies due to solar
radiation. During the day, solar energy is readily converted to sensible thermal energy on
the land surface and this quickly increases its temperature. Whereas, on water bodies it is
partly consumed in evaporating water and only partly absorbed to cause an increase in
temperature. The land mass thus becomes hotter than water, which causes differential
heating of air above land mass and water mass. As a result, during daytime low pressure
zone is created near surface of land part and relatively high pressure on the surface of water
body. This pressure difference due to differential heating provides movement of cold breeze
from water towards land. During night time land cools at faster rate relative to water body
and so direction of wind is from land to water body.

82 MADE EASY
Nature of winds:
• The behaviour and structure of the wind varies from site to site depending on the
general climate of the region and the physical geometry of the locality.
• Beaufort scale: Gives wind-speed classification and the effect of the wind.
• Wind speed is measured by an anemometer and wind direction is measured by a
wind vane attached to a direction indicator.

Variation of wind speed with height:

• At the earth’s surface, wind speed is always zero. It increases with height above the
ground.
• The wind near the earth’s surface is retarded by surface roughness. The rate of
change of wind speed with height is called wind shear. The lower layers of the air
retard those above them, resulting in change in mean wind speed with height, the
shear force keep on decreasing with increase of height until it becomes zero. This
height is called the gradient height and is typically of about 2000m. Above the
gradient height, known as free atmosphere, change in wind speed are not affected
by ground conditions.
• The layer of air from ground to gradient height is known as planetary boundary
layer. The planetary boundary layer mainly consists of (i) surface layer, which

83 MADE EASY
 extends from the height of local obstruction to height of approximately 100m and(ii)
Ekman layer, which starts from 100m and extends up to gradient height.
• A simple empirical power law model can be used to estimate wind speed 𝑢𝑧 at a
height ‘z’ relative to that available at standard reference height H.

𝒛 𝜶
𝒖𝒛 = 𝒖𝑯 ( )
𝑯

𝑢𝐻 → mean wind speed at reference height H (usually 10 m)

α → depends upon surface roughness and range of height covered. The value of α is often
taken as 0.14 for open sites. It varies with season and time of the day.

Wind turbines Sites:

(i) No tall obstructions for some distance (about 3 km) in the upwind direction (i.e. the
direction of incoming wind) and also as low a roughness (small buildings, trees, hills, etc.) as
possible in the same direction.
(ii) A wide and open view i.e. open plain or offshore locations (inside sea to some distance
away from the shore of sea).
(iii) An island in a lake or the sea
(iv) A narrow mountain gap through which wind is channelled
(v) Site reasonably close to power grid

Major applications of wind power:

(i) Wind pumps: Low-power turbines are used for producing mechanical power for pumping
water in remote areas.

84 MADE EASY
(ii) Heating: The direct dissipation of mechanical power produces heat with 100% efficiency
using a paddle wheel.
(iii) Powerful turbines of about 50 kW are producing electrical power for navigation signals
(e.g. lighthouse), remote communication, and weather stations
(iv) As grid-connected electrical power source: Large aero-generators in the range of a few
hundred kW to a few MW are planned for supplying power to utility grid.

WIND TURBINE DEVELOPMENT

1. Dutch Wind Mill

2. Savonius Rotor

85 MADE EASY
Wind turbine type
Wind turbines broadly classified into two categories.

(i) Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT):

When the axis of rotation is parallel to the air stream (i.e., horizontal)

Main components:
1. Turbine blades:
Material: Turbine bladesare made of high-density wood or glass fibre and epoxy
composites.
Blades are made of aerofoil cross-section and it is twisted from root to tip. Generally two or
three blades are used.
2. Hub: The central solid portion of the rotor wheel is known as hub. All blades are attached
to the hub. The mechanism for pitch control is also provided in hub.

86 MADE EASY
3. Nacelle: The rotor is attached to the nacelle, and mounted at the top of a tower. It
contains rotor brakes, gearbox, generator and electrical switch gear and control. Brakes are
provided to stop the rotor when power generation is not desired and also at high wind
condition. Gearbox set up the shaft rpm to suit the generator. The generated electrical
power is conducted to ground terminals through a cable.

4. Yaw-control Mechanism: The mechanism to adjust the nacelle around the vertical axis to
keep it facing the wind, is provided at the base of the nacelle. It continuously orients the
rotor in the direction of wind.

5. Tower: The tower supports the nacelle and rotor. Both steel and concrete tower are
used.

(ii) Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT):

When the axis of rotation is vertical to the air stream (i.e. vertical)
These are in under developing stage. The main attraction of VAWT are:
(i) It can accept wind from any direction, eliminating the need of yaw control,
(ii) The gearbox, generator, etc. are located at the ground, thus eliminating the heavy
nacelle at the top of tower.
(iii) The inspection and maintenance also get easier
(iv) It also reduces overall cost.

Environmental Aspects
(i) Indirect energy use and emissions:Energy is required to produce material to construct
the wind turbine and its installation. This energy is paid back in a period of few months to
about a year, what is known as energy payback period.
(ii) Bird life: Large winds turbines pose a threat to bird life as a result of collision with tower
or blades.
(iii) Noise: The disturbance caused by the noise produced by a wind turbine is one of the
important factors that prevents its siting close to inhabited areas.
(iv) Telecommunication interference:Wind turbines present an obstacle for incident
electromagnetic waves (such as TV or radio signals)

87 MADE EASY
Power available in wind (𝑷𝑶 ):
Maximum power that can be extracted is rate of kinetic energy of moving mass
1
𝑃𝑂 = 𝑚̇𝑉𝑜 2
2
1
𝑃𝑂 = (𝜌 𝐴 𝑉𝑜 )𝑉𝑜 2
2
𝟏
𝑷𝑶 = 𝝆 𝑨 𝑽𝒐 𝟑 Watt
𝟐

Power extraction from wind at turbine (𝑷𝑻 )

𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 → 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (BY WIND TURBINE)
Rotor of turbine collects energy from the whole area swept.

Analysis: Considering horizontal axis wind turbine and one dimensional flow.

Since same mass is flowing with different velocity, it will flow with different areas
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐴𝑖 𝑉𝑖 = 𝜌𝐴𝑡 𝑉𝑡 = 𝜌𝐴𝑒 𝑉𝑒

This stream tube model is known as BETZ model of expanding air stream.

88 MADE EASY
Now, axial thrust on rotor, is equal to reduction in linear momentum per unit time,
𝐹𝐴 = 𝑚̇𝑉𝑖 − 𝑚̇𝑉𝑒
This force F is applied by the air at uniform air-flow speed of𝑉𝑡 , passing through rotor. So,
the power extracted by the turbine
𝑃𝑡 = 𝐹 × 𝑉𝑡 = 𝑚̇(𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑒 )𝑉𝑡 ……………….(A)

Also, power extracted from wind is equal to loss in kinetic energy per unit time. Thus,
1 ̇
𝑃𝑡 = 2 𝑚(𝑉𝑖 2 − 𝑉𝑒 2 ) ……………………….(B)

From (A) and (B),

𝑽𝒊 + 𝑽𝒆
𝑽𝒕 =
𝟐
Axial interference factor ‘a’ (Also called as induction factor)
It is defined as fractional wind speed decrease at the turbine
𝑽𝒊 − 𝑽𝒕
𝒂=
𝑽𝒊
Expressing velocity at turbine 𝑽𝒕 , downstream velocity 𝑽𝒆 and power extracted at turbine
𝑷𝒕 in terms of ‘a’ and ′𝑽𝒊 ′:
𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑡
𝑎= or, 𝑎𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑡 or, 𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑎 𝑉𝑖 or, 𝑽𝒕 = (𝟏 − 𝒂) 𝑽𝒊
𝑉𝑖

𝑽 +𝑽
𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑡 𝑉𝑖 − 𝒊 𝒆 2𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑒 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑒
𝟐
𝑎= = = = or, 2𝑎𝑉𝑖 = (𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑒 ) or, 𝑽𝒆 = (𝟏 − 𝟐𝒂)𝑽𝒊
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 2 𝑉𝑖 2 𝑉𝑖

𝟏
Also, 𝑷𝒕 = 𝟒 𝒂 (𝟏 − 𝒂)𝟐 × × 𝝆 × 𝑨𝒕 × 𝑽𝒊 𝟑
𝟐

1
𝑃𝑜@𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = × 𝜌 × 𝐴𝑡 × 𝑉𝑖 3(Maximum available power of undisturbed wind at turbine)
2

𝑃𝑡 = 𝐶𝑝 × 𝑃𝑜@𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒

Power coefficient (𝑪𝒑 ):

It is the fraction of available power in the wind at turbine that can be extracted
𝑷𝒕
𝑪𝒑 = 𝟒 𝒂 (𝟏 − 𝒂)𝟐 =
𝑷𝒐@𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆

89 MADE EASY
For maximum power extraction at turbine:
1
𝑃𝑡 = 4 𝑎 (1 − 𝑎)2 × × 𝜌 × 𝐴𝑡 × 𝑉𝑖 3
2

𝑃𝑡 = 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐 (𝑎)
𝜕𝑃𝑡
For 𝑃𝑡 → 𝑃𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 =0
𝜕𝑎

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
[𝑎(1 − 𝑎)2 ] = 0or, [𝑎 (1 + 𝑎2 − 2𝑎)] = 0 or, [𝑎 + 𝑎3 − 2𝑎2 ] = 0
𝜕𝑎 𝜕𝑎 𝜕𝑎

1 + 3𝑎2 − 4𝑎 = 0
1
𝑎= ,1
3

For, a = 1, 𝑃𝑇 becomes zero, so 𝑎 ≠ 1

𝟏
So, for 𝑷𝑻 → 𝑷𝑻,𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒂 = 𝟑

1 1 2 𝟏𝟔
𝐶𝑝,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4𝑎 (1 − 𝑎)2 = 4 × 3 (1 − 3) = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟗𝟑 (It is called as BETZ limit)
𝟐𝟕

Also,
1 𝟐
𝑉𝑡 = (1 − 3) 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑽𝒊
𝟑

1 𝟏
𝑉𝑒 = (1 − 2 × 3) 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑽𝒊
𝟑

So, at maximum power extraction at turbine (𝑷𝑻,𝒎𝒂𝒙 ):

𝟏 𝟏𝟔 𝟐 𝟏
𝒂= , 𝑪𝒑,𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟐𝟕 , 𝑽𝒕 = 𝟑 𝑽𝒊 , 𝑽𝒆 = 𝟑 𝑽𝒊
𝟑

At maximum power extraction, the upstream wind is reduced to 𝟐⁄𝟑 𝒓𝒅 at the turbine
and further reduced to 𝟏⁄𝟑 𝒓𝒅 downstream.

16
𝑃𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = × 𝑃𝑜@𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
27

Maximum possible axial thrust on turbine (𝑭𝑨,𝒎𝒂𝒙 ):

90 MADE EASY
Now applying Bernoulli’s equation:
(𝑃∞ → 𝑃+ )
1 2 1 2
𝜌𝑉𝑖 + 𝑃∞ = 𝜌𝑉𝑡 + 𝑃+ …………………….(A)
2 2

(𝑃 − → 𝑃∞ )
1 2 1 2
𝜌𝑉𝑡 + 𝑃− = 𝜌𝑉𝑒 + 𝑃∞ …………………….(B)
2 2

On adding (A) and (B),

1
𝑃+ − 𝑃 − = 𝜌 (𝑉𝑖 2 − 𝑉𝑒 2 )
2
𝟏
Axial Force can also be expressed as : 𝑭𝑨 = (𝑷+ − 𝑷− )𝑨𝒕 = 𝝆 (𝑽𝒊 𝟐 − 𝑽𝒆 𝟐 )𝑨𝒕
𝟐

The maximum value of static pressure difference occurs when 𝑉𝑒 approaches zero.
1
(𝑃+ − 𝑃− )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜌 𝑉𝑖 2
2
So, maximum possible thrust on rotor on rotor (𝐹𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥 )

𝝆 𝑽𝒊 𝟐
𝑭𝑨,𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑨𝒕 ×
𝟐

Also, axial thrust can be expressed as:

𝐹𝐴 = 𝑚̇(𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑒 ) = 𝑚̇𝑉𝑖 − 𝑚̇(1 − 2𝑎)𝑉𝑖 = 𝑚̇𝑉𝑖 (1 − 1 + 2𝑎) = 𝑚̇𝑉𝑖 (2𝑎)

Or, 𝐹𝐴 = 2𝑎 𝑉𝑖 (𝜌𝐴𝑡 𝑉𝑡 ) = 2𝑎 𝑉𝑖 𝜌𝐴𝑡 (𝟏 − 𝒂)𝑽𝒊 = 2𝑎 (1 − 𝑎) 𝐴𝑡 𝜌 𝑉𝑖 2

𝐴𝑡 𝜌 𝑉𝑖 2
𝐹𝐴 = 2𝑎 (1 − 𝑎) × 𝟐 ×
𝟐
𝑨𝒕 𝝆 𝑽𝒊 𝟐
𝐹𝐴 = 4𝑎 (1 − 𝑎) ×
𝟐
𝐹𝐴 = 4𝑎 (1 − 𝑎) × 𝑭𝑨,𝒎𝒂𝒙

𝐹𝐴 = 𝐶𝐹 × 𝐹𝐴,𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑪𝑭 → Thrust coefficient 𝑪𝑭 = 𝟒𝒂 (𝟏 − 𝒂)
Note: Theoretical maximum axial thrust occurs when 𝑪𝑭 = 𝟏, which is achieved when a =
0.5 and 𝑽𝒆 = 0.
1 1 𝟖 𝟖
Also, at 𝑷𝒕,𝒎𝒂𝒙 (Betz limit): 𝑪𝑭 = 4 3 (1 − 3) = 𝟗
and 𝑭𝑨 = 𝟗 × 𝑭𝑨,𝒎𝒂𝒙

91 MADE EASY
Tip speed ratio (TSR) (𝜆):
It gives rotation of blade in comparison to wind speed.
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒊𝒑 𝑅𝜔
𝑻𝑺𝑹 = =
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑉𝑖

TSR for:
Wind turbine used for water pumping: Low TSR (1.5 to 2)
Wind turbine for electricity generation: High TSR (6 to 9)

Power coefficient (𝑪𝒑 ):

It is aerodynamic efficiency of rotor.
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑪𝒑 =
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅

Power output: Power given by rotor (or aerodynamic power)

Question:
A propeller-type wind turbine has the following data:
Speed of free wind at a height of 10m = 12m/s

Air density = 1.226 kg/𝑚3 , 𝛼 = 0.14, height of tower = 100m, diameter of rotor = 80m, wind
velocity at turbine reduces by 20%, Generator efficiency = 85%
Find:
(i) Total power available in wind
(ii) Power extracted by the turbine
(iii) Electrical power generated
(iv) Maximum Axial thrust on the turbine
(v) Axial thrust on the turbine
(vi) COP of turbine

92 MADE EASY
93 MADE EASY
Aerodynamics:
Modern wind turbine blades work on aerodynamic principles.

Aerodynamic forces

𝐹𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐹𝐿 Magnitude depends upon shape of object.

Drag force:
It is component of F that is in line with the direction of air stream.
Object designed to minimize the drag force experienced in an air stream are described as
streamlined. (E.g. the shape of aeroplane, fish, etc)
Lift force:
It is component of F that is perpendicular to the direction of air stream.

Aerofoil: An aerofoil is the term used to describe the cross-sectional shape of an object
that, when moved through a fluid such as air, creates an aerodynamic force. Aerofoils are
employed on aircraft as wings to produce lift or on blades of modern wind turbine
producing lift to rotate it.

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The air flowing on upper surface tends to accelerate over the convex “upper surface”. The
high air speed thus induced results in a large reduction in pressure over the upper surface
relative to the lower surface. This phenomenon is known as Bernoulli Effect.
Due to this pressure difference ‘suction effect, is created which ‘lifts’ the aerofoil.

Angle of attack (α): It is the angle which an aerofoil makes with the direction of an airflow,
measured against a reference line (the chord line of the aerofoil)

Drag and Lift coefficient of aerofoil section:

Drag coefficient (𝑪𝑫 ):
The drag coefficient of an aerofoil is given by the following expression:
𝐹𝐷
𝐶𝐷 = 1
𝜌 𝑉 2 𝐴𝑏
2

Where:
𝐹𝐷 → Drag force (N)
𝑘𝑔
𝜌→ Density of air ( ⁄𝑚3 )

𝑉→ Velocity of air approaching the aerofoil (m/s)

𝐴𝑏 → Blade area (chord × length) (𝑚2 )

Lift coefficient (𝑪𝑳 ):

The lift coefficient of an aerofoil is given by the following expression:
𝐹𝐿
𝐶𝐿 = 1 𝐹𝐿 → Lift force (N)
𝜌 𝑉 2 𝐴𝑏
2

95 MADE EASY
The lift and drag coefficient of an aerofoil can be measured in a wind tunnel at different
angles of attack and wind velocities. The result of such measurement can be presented in
graphical form:

This curve is made on the basis of experiment performed in wind tunnel test.
It can be concluded that each aerofoil has an angle of attack at which the lift to drag
𝐶
( 𝐿⁄𝐶 ) is at maximum. This angle of attack results in the maximum force for rotation of
𝐷
blade and is thus the most efficient setting of the blade of HAWT.
So optimum angle of attack is that angle where lift to drag force ratio is maximum and it is
one of the most important parameter for designers for designing blade.

Stall angle:
This is the angle of attack at which the aerofoil exhibits stall behaviour. Stall occurs when
the flow suddenly leaves the suction side of the aerofoil when the angle of attack becomes
too large, resulting in a dramatic loss in lift and an increase in drag.

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A section through a moving rotor blade of a HAWT showing vector diagram
of the forces and velocities at a position along the blade (from root towards
tip) at any instant of time:

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R→ Tip radius
r→ Distance from root on a aerofoil where our study is focussed
⃗ → Tangential velocity at any location “r”
𝑈
⃗ →Wind velocity at rotor
𝑉
⃗⃗⃗ → Relative wind velocity or approach velocity (i.e., velocity of wind relative to blade)
𝑊
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑉
𝑊 ⃗ −𝑈
⃗

⃗ and relative wind)

Φ →Relative wind angle (The angle between 𝑈
𝛂 →Angle of attack (The angle between chord of aerofoil at location r and relative wind)
⃗ )
𝛃 →Blade pitch angle (The angle between chord of aerofoil at location r and 𝑈
𝛃 + ∝ =Φ
𝐹𝐿 →Lift force (Act in normal direction to relative wind direction)
𝐹𝐷 →Drag force (Act in the direction of relative wind)

Force responsible to rotate the blade: The component of lift force in the direction of
⃗ (i.e. 𝐹𝐿 sin Φ )
𝑈

Total torque (Q): Total torque on rotor can be calculated by summing the torque at all
points along the length of blade and multiplying by the number of blades.

First calculating torque on one blade (q): The torque is moment about the centre of
rotation of the rotor in the plane of the rotor (N-m). Moment is product of net force in the
direction of rotation (i.e. lift force component – drag force component) and distance from
root “r”.

So on small element of thickness (dr) having area d𝐴𝑏 , differential amount of torque dq
𝑑𝑞 = (𝑑𝐹𝐿 sin Φ − 𝑑𝐹𝐷 cos Φ) × 𝑟

𝑞can be obtained by integrating above expression.

98 MADE EASY
So, 𝑸 = 𝒏 × 𝒒 N-m

Power from the rotor: It is the product of the total torque Q and the rotor’s angular
velocity (ω).

Note: Relative wind velocity vector will keep on changing as U is changing from root to tip
(U = (r × ω). Due to which relative wind angle (Φ) keep on decreasing from root to tip.

Twisting in rotor blade:

From root to tip, relative wind angle (Φ) decreases.

Now, 𝛃 +𝛂= Φ
For maximum power production, angle of attack must be optimum (where lift to drag ratio
is maximum) and it must be kept constant along the length of blade from (root to tip). So
pitch angle (𝛃) must vary such that angle of attack remains constant.
And this variation of pitch angle, in order to keep angle of attack constant along the length
Is called as twisting in blade.

Tapering in rotor blade:

Moving from root to tip along the length of blade, relative wind (W) increases due to which
1
magnitude of lift force (𝐹𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿 × 𝜌𝑊 2 × 𝐴𝑏 ) as well as drag force (𝐹𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 ×
2
1
𝜌𝑊 2 × 𝐴𝑏 ) increases. By twisting and maintaining the
2

constant angle of attack along the length of blade the ratio of Lift to drag is kept optimum.
But both magnitude increases. Due to this, axial thrust on blade keeps on increasing from root to
tip.

So, the area is gradually decreased from root to tip so that magnitude of thrust force can be kept
such that to minimize the possibility of bending of blade toward tip, which may be a cause of failure
of blade.

99 MADE EASY
3-D view of an optimally tapered and twisted HAWT rotor blade design: In
this figure the blade aerofoil section and the angle of attack are assumed to
be constant along the length of the blade

PITCH CONTROL
It is blade tilting mechanism provided at the root of blade. It helps to control rotor speed in
variable wind condition by tilting the blade from root, which changes blade pitch angle.

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Aerodynamic forces on aerofoil section VAWT (DARRIEUS ROTOR)

101 MADE EASY

Different types of rotor:
HAWT rotors:
Single blade, two blade and three blade rotor:

Driving force: Lift force

Single blade rotor is economical but produces noise and unbalance forces (as it uses counter
balance weight).
In one blade and two blade rotor, Teetering of rotor is required. As wind speed increases
with height, the axial force on blade when it attains the upper position is significantly higher
as compared to that when it is at a lower position. It causes cyclic (sinusoidal) load on a rigid
hub leading to fatigue. This is greatly relieved by providing a teeter hinge (a pivot within the
hub) that allows a see-saw motion to take place out of the plane of rotation (i.e. vertical
plane).
Increasing the number blade from two to three: Use of teetering is not required. Cost
increases.
Increasing three to four blades increase in efficiency is quite low (around 0.5%) but increase
in cost is quite high.
Application: power generation

Sail-wing rotor:
Driving force: Lift force
Application: power generation or water pumping

102 MADE EASY

Multi-bladed rotor:
Driving force: Drag type Application: water pumping

Dutch-type rotor:
Driving force:Drag force
Application: water pumping

VAWT rotors:

Cup-type rotor:
Driving force: Drag force (due to difference in driving force on concave and convex shape)
Application: It is used for measuring wind speed and apparatus is known as cup typr
anemometer.

Savonius or S-rotor:
Driving force: Drag force
It has high starting torque, low speed and low efficient.
Application: It is used for low power applications (water pumping)

103 MADE EASY

Darrius Rotor:
Driving force: Lift force
It has blade that take the form of ‘troposkein’ (the curved, arch-like shaped taken by a
spinning skipping rope). This shape is a structurally efficient (minimizes bending stresses
caused by centrifugal forces). However, they can be difficult to manufacture, transport and
install. This problem can be overcome by straight bladed VAWT, these included the H-type
vertical axis wind turbine.
Application: power production

Difference between HAWT and VAWT

Characteristics HAWT VAWT
YAW control mechanism is required It can accept wind from any
direction, no use of YAW
control mechanism
Position of nascelle Nascelle is placed at the top Nascelle is placed at the
of tower so installation, ground so installation,
inspection and maintenance is inspection and maintenance is
difficult. Which increases easy
overall cost
Fatigue No issue of fatigue Many VAWTs suffer from
fatigue arising from numerous
natural resonance in the
structure
Power available High available energy as Low available energy as
operate at more height. operate at low height
Angle of attack HAWT with fixed-pitch blade, VAWT with fixed pitch blade,
the angle of attack at a given under the same condition the
position on the rotor blade angle of attack at a given
stays constant throughout its position on the rotor blade is
rotation. constantly varying throughout
its rotation cycle.

Angle of attack changes from

positive to negative and back
again over each rotation cycle
Noise Less noise More noise
Self-start It does not requires any self- Many of VAWT requires some
starting mechanism. self-start mechanism (as they
are generally unable to
produce sufficient
aerodynamic starting torque )
Development Well researched in HAWT It is under developing stage

104 MADE EASY

Solidity ratio:
𝑩𝒍𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑺𝒘𝒆𝒑𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂
More number of blades means high solidity.

Note:
1) A two or three bladed wind turbine has a low solidity and so need to rotate faster to
intercept and capture wind energy with aerofoil blades. Otherwise, the major part of wind
energy would be lost through the large gaps between the blades. High speed wind turbine
has a low starting torque.
2) Rotors having a high value of solidity, like the multi-blade wind water pump turbine,
operate at low tip speed ratio. Such rotors have high starting torque.
3) High-solidity rotors use drag force and turn slower. The solidity of Savonious rotor is
unity, and that of the American multiblade rotor is typically 0.7. Low solidity rotor on other
hand, uses lift force. Lift device usually have solidity in the range of 0.01. to 0.1. When
solidity is less than 0.1, the device will usually not start up without first being rotated to
generate lift.
For water pumping (High starting torque): High solidity
For electricity (High Speed is required): Low solidity

Dynamic Matching for Maximum Power Extraction

As per the Betz criterion, a turbine can theoretically extract a maximum of 59% of the
available power in wind. However, this criterion tells nothing about dynamic rotational state
of the turbine required to reach this maximum power condition.
Tip Speed Ratio: For constant wind speed (𝑉𝑖 ), the power extracted by a turbine (𝑃𝑡 ) will
decrease if
(i) The blades are so close together, or rotating so rapidly that a blade moves into the
turbulence created by a preceding blade.
(ii) The blades are so far apart or rotating so slowly that much of the air passes through the
cross section of the device without interacting with the blades.
Tip Speed ratio at optimum power extraction (𝝀𝒐 ):
4𝜋
𝜆𝑜 ≈
𝑛

105 MADE EASY

n → number of blades

Power Coefficient Vs Tip Speed Ratio

For two blade turbines (HAWT): Optimum power extraction occurs at 𝜆𝑜 ≈ 2 𝜋

For four blade turbines (HAWT): Optimum power extraction occurs at 𝜆𝑜 ≈ 𝜋

Power output Vs Wind speed at hub height:

106 MADE EASY

(i) From a to b: In this region, the turbine is kept in braked position till minimum wind speed
(about 5 m/s), known as cut-in speed becomes available. Below this speed, the operation of
the turbine is not efficient.
(ii) From b to c: In this region, rotor speed is varied with wind speed so as to operate it as
constant tip speed ratio, corresponding to maximum power coefficient (𝐶𝑝,𝑚𝑎𝑥 ).

In this range of wind speed, as wind speed increases, rotor velocity is increased in such a
manner that power output of turbine is close to maximum available power and it follows
the path that look like path of 𝑃𝑜 .
(iii) From c to d: During high wind speed (above 12 m/s), the rotor speed is limited to an
upper permissible value based on the design limit of system components. To maintain
constant turbine speed, pitch control is used.
(iv) beyond point d: Beyond a certain maximum value of wind speed (around 25 m/s), the
rotor is shut down and power generation is stopped to protect the blades, generator and
other components of the system.
Cut-in wind speed: The wind speed at which turbine begins to generate power.
Rated wind speed: The wind speed at which a turbine generates its rated power.
Cut-out wind speed or shut down speed: The speed at which a turbine is shut down and
stops generating power. Also called as furling speed
Rated power: On which generator works

107 MADE EASY

 TIDAL ENERGY
• Tidal energy uses the natural rise and fall of coastal tidal waters caused principally by
the gravitational fields of the sun and the moon on earth.

Origin and nature of Tidal energy:

Tides are formed due to tidal forces acting on ocean. Tidal forces on ocean are net resulting
force caused due to gravitational attraction of moon and revolution of earth and moon
around common centre or the gravitational attraction of sun acting upon the earth and
revolution of earth.

Mechanism:
Due to tidal forces ocean water bulges (i.e. Surface water is pulled away from the earth) in
the line joining earth and moon (or earth and sun).

108 MADE EASY

At point A and C ocean water level increases than the mean ocean level while at B and D it
decreases.
The highest level of tidal water is called as high tide or flood tide. The lowest level is known
as low tide or ebb tide. The high tide and low tide both occurs at two areas. As earth
rotates, position of a given area relative to the moon and sun changes and so also location
of the tides.
So, we have Lunar Tides (due to moon gravity and moon-earth revolution around common
centre) and Solar Tides (due to sun gravity and earth revolution around sun).
About 70% of tide producing force is due to moon and 30% due to Sun. So, moon play major
role in formation of tides.

Position of moon relative to the sun and the earth:

Lunar month:
A month measured between two successive new moons. (It is 29.51 days)

Lunar day:
Due to rotation of the earth, moon crosses a particular meridian (longitude). Lunar day is
the time interval between two successive crossings of a particular meridian by the moon. It
is 24 hour 50 minutes.

109 MADE EASY

Nature of tide at any particular location in ocean during one lunar day:

As earth is rotating about its axis, a location on earth (A) is also changing position w.r.t.
moon. During one complete rotation of earth (i.e., 𝐴1 → 𝐴2 → 𝐴3 → 𝐴4 → 𝐴1 ), point A
comes under high tide two times (i.e. 𝐴1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴3 ) and two times low tides (i.e. 𝐴2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴4 ).

Tidal Range:
The difference between high tide and low tide at a location is called the range of the tide.
The tidal range R is defined as:
R = Water elevation at high tide – Water elevation at low tide
Note: The tidal range of moon is around 2.2 times more than that of the sun.

Tidal cycle:
Time duration between two high tides or two low tides is called as one tidal cycle. There are
two tidal cycle in a lunar day. One tidal cycle is 12 hr 25 min

Spring tide and neap tide:

When sun, earth and moon are aligned (approx.), the lunar tide and solar tide are in phase
(i.e. tidal force caused due to moon and sun supports), producing net maximum range.
These are called as spring tides occurring twice per lunar month at times of both full and
new moon.

110 MADE EASY

When sun-earth and moon-earth directions are perpendicular, the solar and lunar tide are
out of phase (i.e. Tidal force caused due to moon and sun opposes at maximum). Due to this
net tidal range has minimum value. These are the called as Neap tides occurring twice per
lunar month at times of half-moon (first and third quarter of the cycle of moon around
earth).

Note: The tidal range in spring tide is around 3 times more than that of neap tide.

111 MADE EASY

NOTE: Because of changing position of the moon and the sun relative to earth,
the tidal range does not remain constant during entire lunar month at a given
location.

Basic principle of Tidal plant:

The principle used for harnessing this energy consisted of a pond filled through sluice (rapid
controlled gates). When tides are high pond is filled and emptying it during low tides via an
undershot waterwheel, producing mechanical power. The basic principle used to generate
electricity in the same manner as in hydroelectric plants.

Main parts of Tidal plants:

(i) Dam or barrage: a barrier constructed to hold water
(ii) Sluice ways: rapid controlled gates, used to fill a basin during high tides or emptying it
during low tides
(iii) A power turbine-generator set: Steel shell containing an alternator and special Kaplan
turbine.

AVAILABLE ENERGY IN TIDAL PLANT:

Consider water trapped at high tide in a basin of area A, and allowed to run out through a
turbine at low tide.

A → Cross-sectional area of basin is assumed to be constant from top to bottom of

reservoir.
Potential energy in the mass of water stored in incremental head dh above the head h is:

112 MADE EASY

 𝑑𝐸 = 𝑑𝑚. 𝑔. ℎ
But, 𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌. 𝐴. 𝑑ℎ
Thus, 𝑑𝐸 = 𝜌. 𝐴. 𝑑ℎ. 𝑔. ℎ
𝐸 𝑅

∫ 𝑑𝐸 = ∫ 𝜌. 𝐴. 𝑑ℎ. 𝑔. ℎ
0 0

Total potential energy of water stored in the basin is:

𝑅

𝐸 = ∫ 𝜌. 𝐴. 𝑔. ℎ. 𝑑ℎ
0
𝟏
𝑬 = 𝟐 𝝆. 𝑨. 𝒈. 𝑹𝟐 Joules

(where, 𝜌 is density of sea water)

Average power available from E (𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈 ):
𝑬
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈 =
𝒕
𝒕 → Time of single emptying the reservoir or filling the reservoir (in seconds)

Special Case: If reservoir is emptied in time duration between a high tide to low tide (i.e., 6
hours and 12.5 min = 22350 seconds); Average power available 𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈

𝐸 1⁄ × 1025 × 𝐴 × 9.81 × 𝑅 2
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈 = = 2 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟓 × 𝑨 × 𝑹𝟐 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕
22350 22350

MINIMUM HEAD OF OPERATION (r):

And also due to the fact that the turbine cannot be operated down to zero level head, and
thus full power generation potential cannot be utilized. The turbine has to be stopped when
the head reaches a minimum value “r” below which operation becomes uneconomical; the
above expression are modified as:
𝑅
𝐸 = ∫𝑟 𝜌 × 𝐴 × 𝑔 × ℎ × 𝑑ℎ Joule
𝟏
𝑬 = 𝟐 𝝆. 𝑨. 𝒈. (𝑹𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐 ) Joules
𝟏
𝝆.𝑨.𝒈.(𝑹𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐 )
𝟐
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈 = Watt
𝒕

Note: Tidal power developed is directly proportional to

(i) Area of basin and (ii) square of the range

113 MADE EASY

ACTUAL POWER GENERATED (𝑷𝒈𝒆𝒏 ):
The actual power generation by a practical system would be less than the average
theoretical power given in the above expression due to frictional losses of the fluid, so the
conversion efficiency of the turbine and generator are taken into account.
If turbine and generator both efficiencies are given separately then
𝑷𝒈𝒆𝒏 = 𝛈𝒕 × 𝛈𝒈𝒆𝒏 × 𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈

Types of Tidal energy Power plants:

(I) SINGLE BASIN: SINGLE EFFECT SCHEME
It has only one basin. In single-effect schemes, power is generated either during filling or
emptying the basin. Two type of operation cycles are possible:

a) Ebb generation cycle: The sluice way is opened to fill the basin during high tide. Once
filled, the impounded water is held till the receding cycle creates a suitable head. Water is
now allowed to flow through the turbine coupled to the generator till the rising tide reduces
the head to the minimum operation point. The flow is held till the next generating cycle. The
cycle is repeated and power is generated intermittently.
There are two water levels: sea level and water in basin level.
Variation of sea level is approximately sinusoidal.
From a → b: (Turbine is closed & sluice gate open) initially basin level follows sea level
closely and remains slightly less than sea level. At ‘b’ each level becomes same and sluice
gate is closed.
From b → c (Turbine is closed & sluice gate is also closed) Sea level decreases but basin
level remains same as sluice gate is still closed. At ‘c’ head becomes sufficient to produce
power.
From c → d: (Turbine is open & sluice gate closed)At ‘c’ turbine is opened. Now sea level
decreases as well as basin level also decreases and we start getting power with variable
head up to ‘d’. At ‘d’ head becomes insufficient to produce power and now turbine is closed.

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From d →e: (Turbine is closed & sluice gate closed)Sluice gate are kept closed. Sea level
increases and basin level remains same. At ‘e’ sea level becomes slightly greater than basin
level and again sluice gate is opened.
From e → a: (Turbine is closed & sluice gate open) Basin level increases and follows sea
level and remains slightly less than sea level.

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B) FLOOD GENERATION CYCLE:
The sequences are altered to generate power during filling operation of the basin.

(II) SINGLE BASIN: DOUBLE EFFECT SCHEME

It has single basin. Power is generated on both flood and ebb. Two way (reversible)
hydraulic turbine are used.

From a→ b:(Turbine is open & sluice gate is closed)Turbine is working in the direction of
basin. Water is going into basin and power is produced. Both sea level as well as basin level
increases. At ‘b’ head becomes too low to produce power and at ‘b’ turbine is closed.
From b→ c: (Turbine is closed & sluice gate open) Sea level decreases and basin level
increases. At ‘c’ both level becomes same.

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From c→ d:(Turbine is closed & sluice gate is also closed) Sea level decreases and basin
level remain same. At ‘d’ head becomes sufficient to produce power.
From d→ e:(Turbine is open & sluice gate is closed) Turbine is opened in opposite
direction. Water goes from basin to sea and power is produced. At ‘e’ head becomes quiet
low for power production and turbine is closed.
From e→ f: (Turbine is closed & sluice gate open) Sea level increases and basin level
decreases. At ‘f’ both level becomes same.
From f→ g: (Turbine is closed & sluice gate is closed) Turbine is closed as well as sluice
gate is closed. Sea level increases and basin level remains same. At ‘g’ head becomes
sufficient to generate power and turbine is opened.
From g→ a: (Turbine is open & sluice gate is closed) Turbine is open in the direction of
basin. Water is filling in basin and power is produced.

Note: Both schemes produce intermittent power, which is not desired. So, to eliminate this
problem different scheme is used (i.e. Two basin)

(iii) Two Basin: In order to maintain continuity of power supply continuous head must be
present.
Linked basin scheme: It consist of two basins one topped at high tide and the other emptied
at low tide. Thus, a permanent head is created between the two basins. Water flows from
the high basin to low basin.
In this arrangement a large basin is converted into two basins of suitable dimensions: one
which is at higher level is called high basin and the other low basin.
The scheme consists of three barrages, one separating the high basin from the sea and
containing the filling gates, another separating the low basin from the sea and containing
the emptying gates. The third barrage separates the high basin from the low basin and
contains the powerhouse.

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Limitations of Tidal energy:
(i) Economic recovery of energy from tides is feasible only at those sites where energy is
concentrated in the form of tidal range of about 5m or more. Thus it is site specific.
(ii) Changing tidal range in two-week periods produces changing power.
(iii) The turbines are required to operate at variable head.
(iv) Requirement of large water volume at low head necessitates parallel operation of many
turbines.
(v) Tidal plants disrupt marine life at the location and can cause potential loss to ecology.

Question: A single basin type tidal power plant has a basin area of 2 𝑘𝑚2 . The tide has an
average range of 13m. power is generated only during the ebb cycle. The turbine stops
operating when the head on it falls below 3m. Calculate the average power generated by
the plant in single emptying process of the basin if turbine-generator efficiency is 70%.
Estimate the average annual energy generation of the plant (in kW-hr). Take density of sea
water as 1025 kg/𝑚3 .

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Question:
In a barrage of 300000 𝑚2 area with a tide height of 3m, barrage drain time of 10hr. Density
of sea water as 1025 kg/𝑚3 and gravitational acceleration is 9.8 m/𝑠 2 , the average power
will be
a) 377 kW b) 381 kW c) 388 kW d) 396kW

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 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM
• Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems convert solar energy directly into electrical energy.
• The basic conversion device used is known as a solar photovoltaic cell or a solar cell.
• It is based on semi-conductor.
• A solar cell is the most expensive components in a solar PV system (about 60% of the
total system cost) though its cost is falling but slowly.
• Commercial photocells can produce electrical energy of 1-2 kWhr per square metre
per day in ordinary sunshine.

Major applications: Space satellite, remote radio-communication booster stations and

marine warning lights. Also increasingly being used for lightning, water pumping and
medical refrigeration in remote areas especially in developing countries.

Solar cell fundamentals:

Semi-conductor:
A semiconductor is an element with electrical properties between those of a conductor and
an insulator. E.g. Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge)
Silicon is one of the most abundant materials on earth. However its refining process is
costly.
A Silicon atom has 14 protons and 14 electrons. The outer most orbit (valence orbit)
contains four electrons. When silicon atoms combine to form a solid, they arrange
themselves into an orderly pattern called a crystal. Each silicon atom shares its electron
with four neighbouring atoms in such a way as to have eight electrons in its valence orbit.

At absolute zero temperature, a semiconductor is a perfect insulator with no charge carriers

available for conduction of current. However, if temperature is increased, the vibration of
atoms can occasionally dislodge an electron from the valence orbit. This dislodge electron is
known as free electrons and the vacancy thus created in the valence orbit is known as hole.
Thus, with breaking of a covalent bond a free electron-hole pair is produced.

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A silicon crystal in intrinsic if every atom in the crystal is a silicon atom. There is equal
number of free electrons and holes in an intrinsic semiconductor.
To increase the conductivity of a semiconductor impurity is added to intrinsic
semiconductor. This process is known as doping. The doped semiconductor is called as
extrinsic semiconductor.

Doping of semiconductor:
When the doping atom is pentavalent (such as arsenic, antimony and phosphorus), one
extra electron will be left unattached to any atom after sharing four electrons with
neighbouring four silicon atoms in the crystal. Thus each pentavalent atom donates one free
electron and therefore is known as donor and the doped semiconductor material is known
as n-type silicon.

In the same manner when doping material is trivalent (such as aluminium, boron and
gallium), one electron vacancy (hole) will remain after sharing its three electrons with the
neighbouring four silicon atoms in the crystal. Therefore, trivalent doping elements are
known as acceptors and the doped semiconductor material is known as p-type silicon.

Energy Bands:
The behaviour of a semiconductor can be best explained with the help of quantum theory.
According to it we can identify the total energy of an electron with the size of its orbit i.e.
we can think of each radius of an orbit as equivalent to an energy level.
Since an electron is attracted by the nucleus, extra energy is needed to lift an electron into a
larger orbit. That extra energy can be given by photons.

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When an electron in a valence band receives sufficient energy (say by photon) to overcome
𝑬𝒈 it jumps to the next higher band known as conduction band leaving behind a hole in the
valence band.
Band gap Energy: The difference between the energy of electron in the conduction band
and the energy of electron in the valence band is called as Band gap energy.
Thus, electron hole-pair is constructed. The electrons moves in the conduction band and the
holes moves in the valence band.

A p-n junction semiconductor:

When p-type semiconductor is joined with n-type, the free electrons from n-type material
diffuses into p-type material and combines with holes. Due to diffusion a layer of negative
ions near the junction in p-type are formed.
Similarly, the holes from p-type material diffuses into n-type material resulting in a layer of
positive ions near the junction in n-type material.
These two layers of positive and negative ions form the depletion region.

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These layer of ions forms an electric field in the direction from n-type to p-type. Due to this
this electric field, holes of p-type material will experience repulsive force from positive ion
and free electrons of n-type material will also experience repulsive force from negative ion.
As more electron diffuses in p-type material, the electric field strength goes on increasing.
At one point the electric field becomes sufficiently strong to stop further diffusion of free
electrons and holes and formation of depletion region stops. The depletion region is formed
in a very quick span of time and thickness of depletion region is very less as compared to
that of p and n type material.
The electric field (in depletion layer) act as barrier which prevents further diffusion of free
electrons and holes after equilibrium is reached. So if we want to move an electron from n-
type material to p-type material, energy must be supplied to the electrons to overcome the
barrier. The external voltage required to move the electrons through the electric field is
called as barrier voltage. It is measured in volts. Typical value of barrier voltage at 25℃ is
0.7 volt for silicon and 0.3 volt for germanium.
Note: After the formation of depletion region, since free electrons from n-type has moved
to p-type there exist net positive charge in n-type material and also holes have moved from
p-type to n-type there exist net negative charge in p-type material.

Construction and working of solar cell:

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Mechanism:
The n-type material thickness is made thin so that solar energy can penetrate inside
material up to depletion layer region. Upper part and lower part are made in contact with
metal electrode.
Now, as photon energy falls on depletion layer ions start breaking and free electron-hole
pair starts forming.
If no external circuit is connected, the free electrons formed due to photon energy start
getting collected on upper plate due to net positive charge in n-type material and holes
formed start getting collected on lower metal due to net negative charge in p-type material.
Due to this, potential difference is created between both metals.
The voltage developed with no circuit is called as Open Circuit Voltage (𝑉𝑂𝐶 ). The maximum
of 0.5V potential difference can be created.
Now, if a wire is connected without any load, then short circuit occurs and the current
flowing is called as Short Circuit Current (𝐼𝑆𝐶 ).

I-V Characteristic:

Maximum Power that can be obtained by solar cell:

It is desirable to operate solar cell to produce maximum power. The maximum power that
can be obtained by solar cell is area made by rectangle having maximum area in I-V
characteristic.

Note: Closeness of the characteristic curve to the rectangle shape is a measure of the
quality of the solar cell. An ideal solar cell would have a perfect rectangular characteristic.

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Fill Factor:
It indicates the quality of a solar cell and is defined as the ratio of peak power to the product
of open-circuit voltage and short circuit current.
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑽𝒎 𝑰 𝒎
𝑭𝑭 = =
𝑽𝒐𝒄 𝑰𝒔𝒄 𝑽𝒐𝒄 𝑰𝒔𝒄
An ideal cell will have FF = 1

Conversion efficiency of solar cell:

It is given by
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑭𝑭 (𝑽𝒐𝒄 𝑰𝒔𝒄 )
𝜼𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 = =
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕
It is normally in range of 15 to 25%.

Question: A photo-voltaic cell is operating at cell temperature of 40℃. Its performance

curve is given below
(a) Determine the maximum power from the solar cell, if fill factor is 0.85.
(b) If voltage in above problem at maximum power is 0.45 volt. Then determine the current
for maximum power condition.

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Question:
A PV cell is illuminated with irradiance (E) of 1000 W/𝑚2 . If cell is 100mm × 100mm in size
and produces 3A at 0.5V at the maximum power point, the conversion efficiency will be
a) 15% b) 19% c) 23% d) 27%

Type of Solar Cell:

1: Silicon Solar cell:
a) Single crystal solar cell (𝜼𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 about 17%)
b) Multi crystal solar cell (𝜼𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝟏𝟎%)
c) Amorphous solar cell (𝜼𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 𝟒 − 𝟖%)
2. Compound: Gallium-Arsenide (Ga-As) (𝜼𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 around 25%)
3. Organic Solar cell:(𝜼𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 𝒂𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝟑. 𝟓%)

Advantages of solar PV system over conventional power system are:

(i) It converts solar energy directly into electrical energy without going through the thermal-
mechanical link. It has no moving parts.
(ii) Solar PV systems are reliable, modular, durable and generally maintenance free.
(iii) These systems are quiet, compatible with almost all environments, respond
instantaneously to solar radiation and have an expected lifespan of 20 years or more.

Disadvantages:
(i) At present, the cost of solar cells are high, making them economically uncompetitive with
other conventional power sources.
(ii) The efficiency of solar cells is low. As solar radiation density is also low, a large area of
solar cell modules are required to generate sufficient useful power.
(iii) As solar energy is intermittent, some kind of electrical energy storage is required, which
makes the whole system more expensive.

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 FUEL CELL
It is an electrochemical energy conversion device that continuously converts chemical
energy of fuel directly into electrical energy. It is under development stage.
Its working principle is just opposite of electrolysis.
Fuel cell is mainly consisted of:
(i) Electrode (a) Fuel electrode (anode)(b) Oxidant electrode (cathode)
(ii) Electrolyte
(iii) Fuel
(iv) Oxidant

Classification of fuel cell:

(A) Based on type of electrolyte
(i) PEMFC (Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell) or SPFC (Solid polymer Fuel Cell) or
PEMFC (Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell)
(ii) PAFC (Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell)
(iii) AFC (Alkaline Fuel Cell)
(iv) MCFC (Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell)
(v) SOFC (Solid Oxide Fuel Cell)

(B) Based on the chemical nature of electrolyte

(i) Acidic Electrolyte type
(ii) Alkaline Electrolyte type
(iii) Neutral Electrolyte type

(C) Based on operating temperature

(i) Low temperature fuel Cell (below 150℃)
(ii) Medium temperature fuel Cell (150℃ to 250℃)
(iii) High temperature fuel Cell (250℃ to 1000℃)

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Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)

Membrane:
It is a solid thin membrane of organic material (such as polystyrene sulphonic acid).
It allows 𝐻 + ions to pass through it (i.e. it is porous, means it allows to pass protons)
It does not allow free electrons to pass (electrically nonconductive).

Catalyst:
Platinum is used as catalyst and deposited on each side of membrane. Finely divided
platinum (in order of nano-particle) is used which reduces weight, as well as reduces cost as
platinum is expensive stuff and increases life and efficiency of fuel cell.
When 𝐻2 gas comes in contact with catalyst it ionizes.

At negative electrode (ANODE)

Hydrogen enters a closed compartment, interacts with negative electrode and gets
converted into 𝐻 + ions and equal number of electrons.
𝐻2 → 2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 − (in presence of catalyst)
The 𝑯+ ions are transported to a positive electrode through membrane and electrons
return to a positive electrode through external resistance.

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At positive electrode (CATHODE)
The ions (𝐻 + ), electrons from external circuit and oxygen interact to produce water.
1
𝑂 + 2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 − → 𝐻2 𝑂
2 2
Net reaction:
𝟏
𝑯𝟐 + 𝑶 → 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝟐 𝟐
Applications: Residential, portable laptops, cellular phones, video cameras, buses, cars,
railway locomotive

Modified version of this fuel cell:

Methanol is used directly without reforming instead of pure hydrogen, Direct methanol
Fuel Cell (DMFC)
Reaction at anode:
𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 6𝐻 + + 6𝑒 − (in the presence of catalyst)
Reaction at cathode:
3
𝑂 + 6𝐻 + + 6𝑒 − → 3𝐻2 𝑂
2 2
Overall Reaction:
𝟑
𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑶𝑯 + 𝑶 → 𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝟐 𝟐
Excess 𝐻2 𝑂 and 𝐶𝑂2 is discharge as exhaust.

Advantages of DMFC:
Storage of methanol is much easier relative to 𝐻2 gas (which requires storage at very high
pressure or very low temperature)
Disadvantage of DMFC:
(a) Low power density and low efficiency
(b) Low temperature oxidation of methanol to hydrogen ions and carbon dioxide requires a
more active catalyst, which typically means larger quantity of expensive platinum catalyst is
required than in conventional PEMFCs.

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Efficiency of a fuel cell:
In a fuel cell, electrochemical reactions takes place whereby reactants are converted to
products in a steady flow process.
If temperature and pressure of the flow stream from entrance to exit (during reaction)
remains unchanged, from first law of thermodynamics:
1 1
𝐻𝑖 + 𝑚 𝐶𝑖 2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑍𝑖 + 𝑄 → 𝐻𝑒 + 𝑚 𝐶𝑒 2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑍𝑒 + 𝑊
2 2
𝑄 − 𝑊 = ∆𝐻 + ∆(𝑘. 𝑒. ) + ∆(𝑝. 𝑒. )
Q → Heat interaction with surrounding
W → Work done by flow stream
∆(𝑘. 𝑒. ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆(𝑝. 𝑒. )are usually negligible. Thus,
𝑾 = 𝑸 − ∆𝑯

Now, for W to be maximum, the process must be reversible:

i.e. Q = 𝑇∆𝑆 (T is temperature of process and it remains constant)
𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑇∆𝑆 − ∆𝐻
𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −(∆𝐻 − 𝑇∆𝑆) ……………………….(A)
Also, Gibbs free energy is given by,
𝐺 = 𝐻 − 𝑇𝑆
∆𝐺 = ∆𝐻 − (𝑇∆𝑆 − 𝑆∆𝑇) (As there is no change in temperature∆𝑇 = 0)
∆𝐺 = ∆𝐻 − 𝑇∆𝑆 ………………………………(B)
From (A) and (B),
𝑾𝒎𝒂𝒙 = −∆𝑮

Also, Heat rejection at maximum work condition

𝑄 = ∆𝐻 + 𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑸 = ∆𝑯 − ∆𝑮
Efficiency of energy conversion of fuel cell:
It is the ratio of useful work to the energy released by combustion of fuel.
𝑾
𝜼𝒆 =
−∆𝑯

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Maximum efficiency of energy conversion:
𝑾𝒎𝒂𝒙 −∆𝑮 ∆𝑮
𝜼𝒆,𝒎𝒂𝒙 = = =
−∆𝑯 −∆𝑯 ∆𝑯

VI Characteristic of fuel cell:

The theoretical EMF (E) of a fuel cell can be calculated from the change in Gibbs free energy,
∆G during the reaction.
− ∆𝑮
𝑬=
𝒏𝑭
n→ number of electrons transferred per mole of the reactant
F → Faraday’s constant (96500 coulomb/gram mole)

E.g.: For 𝐻2 − 𝑂2 fuel cell, (at 25℃ and 1 ATM)

n = 2, ∆G = -237191 kJ/kg mole, ∆H = -285838 kJ/kg mole
− (−237191 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒)
𝐸= = 1.23 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
2 × 96500
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
Actual value of cell output voltage V attained is less than E.

Polarisation:
The difference between theoretical and actual voltage is known as polarisation.

Voltage efficiency:
𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 (𝑽)
𝜼𝒗 =
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 (𝑬)

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At no load, the terminal voltage is equal to theoretical open-circuit voltage.
As cell is loaded (current is supplied to load), voltage decreases and hence efficiency drops
significantly.
From curve it can be seen that, voltage regulation is poor for small and large values of
output current. Therefore, in practise the operating point is fixed in the range BC of the
characteristics where voltage regulation is best and output voltage is roughly around
(0.6volt to 0.8 volt)

PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELL (PAFC):

Electrode: Made of porous conducting material (commonly nickel) to collect charge. A

catalyst is required in the electrode to accelerate the reaction (generally platinum is used).
Finely divided platinum is deposited on electrode.

Electrolyte: Concentrated phosphoric acid (𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 ) filled between electrodes.

At negative electrode:
Hydrogen gas is converted to hydrogen ions (𝐻 + ) and an equal number of electrons. Thus,
𝐻2 → 2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 − (in presence of catalyst)

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The electrons originating at the negative electrode flow through the external load to the
positive electrode. Also, the 𝐻 + ions migrates from the negative electrode towards the
positive electrode through the electrolyte.
At positive electrode:
1
𝑂2 + 2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 − → 𝐻2 𝑂 (in presence of catalyst)
2

Net reaction:
𝟏
𝑯𝟐 + 𝑶 → 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝟐 𝟐
Application: dedicated power and railways

ALKALINE FUEL CELL (AFC)

The electrode and catalyst are same as PAFC.
It also works with 𝐻2 and 𝑂2 and almost same level of EMF is produced.

At positive electrode:
Oxygen, water (from electrolyte) and returning electrons from external load combine to
produce 𝑂𝐻 −
1
𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 2𝑒 − → 2𝑂𝐻 −
2

These O𝐻 − migrates from the positive to the negative electrode.

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At negative electrode:
O𝐻 − combines with 𝐻2 to produce water. An equivalent number of electrons are liberated
that flow through the external load towards positive electrode.
Thus,
𝐻2 + 2𝑂𝐻 − → 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 2𝑒 −
Overall reaction:
𝟏
𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 → 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝟐

The fuel used in AFC must be free from 𝐶𝑂2 because this gas can combine with potassium
hydroxide electrolyte to form potassium carbonate. This increases the electrical resistance
of the cell (barrier in the flow of electron), which in turn decreases the available output
voltage of the cell. Similarly, if air is used instead of pure oxygen, the C𝑂2 must first be
removed from air.
Application: Space and military

MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELL (MCFC)

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At negative electrode:
𝐻2 and𝐶𝑂 reacts with 𝐶𝑂3−− ions present in the electrolyte and release two electrons each to
the electrode.
𝐻2 + 𝐶𝑂3−− → 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝑒 −

𝐶𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂3−− → 2𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝑒 −
These electrons circulate through external resistance, forming load current, and reaches
positive electrode.

At positive electrode:
The 𝐶𝑂2 produced at the fuel electrode is circulated through an external path to the oxidant
electrode, where it combines with 𝑂2 and the returning electron through the external path
to produce 𝐶𝑂3−− ion.
𝑂2 + 2𝐶𝑂2 + 4𝑒 − → 2𝐶𝑂3—
Carbonate ion thus produced are responsible for transportation of charge from positive to
negative electrode within electrolyte.

Overall reaction:
𝑯𝟐 + 𝑪𝑶 + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝑪𝑶𝟐

Electrolyte:
Carbonate of alkali metals (Na, K or Li) in a molten (liquid) phase is used as electrolyte. It
requires the cell operation at a temperature above melting point (i.e. about 600℃→700℃)
of the respective carbonates. Because of high temperature operation, a catalyst is not
necessary.

Note:
A special feature of these cells is that during operation they oxidizes hydrogen to water and
CO 𝑡𝑜 𝐶𝑂2 . Hence, gaseous mixture of 𝑯𝟐 and CO (i.e. syn. gas) can be used.

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SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL (SOFC)

Electrolyte:
Certain solid oxides (ceramics) at high temperature can be used as electrolyte. E.g.:
Zirconium oxide. The material is able to conduct 𝑂2− ions at high temperature.

Electrode:
The negative electrode is made of porous nickel and a positive electrode is made of metal
oxide (indium oxide).

At negative electrode (i.e. fuel electrode)

𝐻2 and CO react with 𝑂2− ions present in the electrolyte to produce 𝐻2 𝑂 and 𝐶𝑂2.
𝐻2 + 𝑂−− → 𝐻2 𝑂 + 2𝑒 −

𝐶𝑂 + 𝑂−− → 𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝑒 −
Two electrons released per ion of 𝑂−− , flow through external path to constitute load
current.

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At positive electrode (i.e. Air electrode)
𝑂2 + 4𝑒 − → 2𝑂−−
Overall reaction:
𝑯𝟐 + 𝑪𝑶 + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝑪𝑶𝟐

Note: Due to high temperature operation (600℃ to 1000℃ ), a catalyst is not required.
These cells could utilize the same fuel as used in MCFCs.

Characteristics of various fuel cells:

Fuel Cell Operating Fuel Efficiency of energy
Temperature conversion
AFC 70℃ to 100℃ 𝐻2 Around 64%
PEMFC 40℃ to 60℃ 𝐻2 48-58%
PAFC 150℃ to 200℃ 𝐻2 Around 42%
MCFC 600℃ to 700℃ 𝐻2 and 𝐶𝑂 Around 50%
SOFC 800℃ to 1000℃ 𝐻2 and 𝐶𝑂 60-65%

Advantages of Fuel cell:

(i) It is quiet in operation as it is static device and requires less maintenance as no moving
parts.
(ii) It is clean form of energy conversion, water is obtained generally as residue
(iii) Its conversion efficiency is more than conventional power plants due to direct single-
stage conversion.
(iv) Fuel cell can be installed near the point of use, thus transmission and distribution losses
are avoided.
(v) No cooling water is needed in fuel cell plants as required I the condenser of conventional
steam plant
Major drawback: High cost

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Question:
A hydrogen oxygen fuel cell in which the following reaction occurs; operate at 25℃
Reactions are as follows:
1
At the anode: 𝐻2 + 2𝑂𝐻 − → 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 2𝑒 − ; At the cathode: 2𝑒 − + 2 𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 2O𝐻 −

Take: (∆𝐻)25℃ = −68,317 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 ; (∆𝐺)25℃ = −56,690 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒

Calculate:
(i) The maximum voltage output of cell
(ii) The maximum conversion efficiency
(iii) The maximum electrical work output per mole of 𝐻2 consumed
(iv) Heat transfer to the surrounding, in case of maximum conversion.

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