Dr.

Ahmed Fattah Hassoon ……lecture of principle radiation

Wave theory
1- Direct and diffuse radiation
2- Solar constant
3- Insolation
4- Vertical profile of absorption
5- Level of maximum absorption in an exponential atmosphere
6- Phase
7- Phase difference
8- Superposition and interference of wave
9- Huggen s principle

Chapter one
SOLAR RADIATION AT THE TOP OF
THE ATMOSPHERE
1.1 The sun as an energy source:
Virtually all of the energy that the earth receives and drives the earth's Atmosphere
in motion comes from the sun. Its main elements are primitive hydrogen and helium
plus a small amount of heavier elements such as iron, silicon, neon, and carbon.
Hydrogen makes up about 75% of the mass, while the remaining 25% or so is helium.
The source of solar energy is believed to be generated from the balanced conversion
of four hydrogen atoms to one helium atom in fusion reactions.

1.2 Solar Surface Activity: Sunspots

Sunspots are relatively dark regions on the photosphere-the surface of the sun. The
sunspots have an average size of about 10,000 km. Sunspots are cooler regions
having an average temperature of about 40000K, compared to an average temperature
of 60000K for the photosphere. Owing to the relatively low temperature, sunspots
appear black. Figure 1 illustrates a large sunspot group photographed with the 100-
inch telescope on Mount Wilson. The average length of time between sunspots
maxima is about 11 years; the so-called 11-year cycle. It is believed that sunspots are
associated with the very strong magnetic fields that exist in their interiors. Magnetic
field measurements utilizing the Zeeman Effect (the splitting of a spectral line into
several separate lines) Show that pairs of sunspots often have opposite magnetic
polarities). Show that pairs of sunspots often have opposite magnetic polarities. For a
given sunspot cycle, the polarity of the leader spot is always the same for a given

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hemisphere. With each new sunspot cycle, the polarities reverse. The cycle of the
sunspot maximum having the same polarity is referred to as the 22-year cycle. The
sunspot activities have been found to have a profound influence on many geophysical
phenomena and on atmospheric processes.

Fig.1 A large cluster of sunspots photographed with the 100-inch telescope in 1947 at sunspot
maximum. The lower photograph is an enlarged view.

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1.3 The earth's orbit about the sun

Meanwhile, the earth with a mass of 6 x 1027 g, moves eastward around the sun
once in approximately 365 days. The earth's orbit about the sun and the earth's
rotation about its axis are the most important factors determining the amount of solar
radiant energy reaching the earth, and the climate and climatic changes of the earth-
atmosphere system. Owing to the rotation of the earth about its axis, the earth
assumes the shape of an oblate spheroid, having equatorial and polar radii of 6378.17
and 6356.79 km, respectively. Its orbit around the sun is an ellipse, and the axis of its
rotation is tilted as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 1.2 The earth's orbit about the sun and effects of the obliquity of the ecliptic on the
seasons.

There are three ways in which the earth's orbit about the sun varies. The earth
orbital eccentricity, defined as the ratio of the distance between the two foci to the
major axis of the ellipse, fluctuates within about 0.05 with a variable period of about
100,000 years. The mean eccentricity of the earth's orbit is about 0.017. In reference
to Fig. 2, the axis of the earth's rotation is tilted at an angle of 23.5° from the normal
to the plane of the ecliptic, the inclination angle. This angle, representing the
obliquity of the ecliptic, varies cyclically over an average range of 1.50 with a period
of about 41,000 years. In addition to these two factors, there is a very slow westward
motion of the equinoctial points along the ecliptic, called precession, caused by the
attraction of other planets upon the earth.

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1-4 solar constant

Figure 1.2.1 shows schematically the geometry of the sun-earth relationships. The
eccentricity of the earth’s orbit is such that the distance between the sun and the earth
varies by 1.7%. At a distance of one astronomical unit, 1.495 × 1011 m, the mean
earth-sun distance, the sun subtends an angle of 32'. The radiation emitted by the sun
and its spatial Relationship to the earth result in a nearly fixed intensity of solar
radiation outside of the earth’s atmosphere. The solar constant Gsc is the energy
from the sun per unit time received on a unit area of surface perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the radiation at mean earth-sun distance outside the
atmosphere. Before rockets and spacecraft, estimates of the solar constant had to be
made from ground-based measurements of solar radiation after it had been
transmitted through the atmosphere and thus in part absorbed and scattered by
components of the atmosphere.
Extrapolations from the terrestrial measurements made from high mountains were
based on estimates of atmospheric transmission in various portions of the solar
spectrum.
Pioneering studies were done by C. G. Abbot and his colleagues at the
Smithsonian Institution. These studies and later measurements from rockets were
summarized by Johnson (1954); Abbot’s value of the solar constant of 1322 W/m2
was revised upward by Johnson to 1395 W/m2.

Figure 1.3 : sun earth relationships

The availability of very high altitude aircraft, balloons, and spacecraft has
permitted direct measurements of solar radiation outside most or all of the earth’s
atmosphere. These measurements were made with a variety of instruments in nine
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separate experimental programs. They resulted in a value of the solar constant Gsc of
1353 W/m2 with an estimated error of ±1.5%. For discussions of these experiments,
see Thekaekara (1976) or Thekaekara and Drummond (1971). This standard value
was accepted by NASA (1971) and by the American Society of Testing and Materials
(2006).
The data on which the 1353-W/m2 value was based have been reexamined by
Frohlich (1977) and reduced to a new pyrheliometric scale2 based on comparisons of
the instruments with absolute radiometers. Data from Nimbus and Mariner satellites
have also been included in the analysis, and as of 1978, Frohlich recommends a new
value of the solar constant Gsc of 1373 W/m2, with a probable error of 1 to 2%. This
was 1.5% higher than the earlier value and 1.2% higher than the best available
determination of the solar constant by integration of spectral measurements.
Additional spacecraft measurements have been made with Hickey et al. (1982)
reporting 1373 W/m2 and Willson et al. (1981) reporting 1368 W/m2. Measurements
from three rocket flights reported by Duncan et al. (1982) were 1367, 1372, and 1374
W/m2. The World Radiation Center (WRC) has adopted a value of 1367 W/m2, with
an uncertainty of the order of 1%. As will be seen in Chapter 2, uncertainties in most
terrestrial solar radiation measurements are an order of magnitude larger than those in
Gsc. A value of Gsc of 1367 W/m2 (1.960 cal/cm2 min, 433 Btu/ft2 h, or 4.921
MJ/m2 h) is used in this book. [See Iqbal (1983) for more detailed information on the
solar constant.]

1.5 DISTRIBUTION OF ISOLATION OUTSIDE

THE ATMOSPHERE
Insolation is defined as the flux of solar radiation per unit horizontal area. It
depends strongly on the solar zenith angle and to some extent on the variable distance
of the earth from the sun. The flux density at the top of the atmosphere may be
expressed by:
F=F 0 cos θ 0 ……………………………… (1)

Where F0 represents the solar flux density at the top of the atmosphere when the
instantaneous distance between the earth and sun is d, and θ0 denotes the solar zenith
angle. From Eq. above, we find:
2
dm
F=S( ) cos θ0 …………………………..(2)
d

The solar heating received at the top of the atmosphere per unit area Define as Q,
then the solar flux density may be written as:
dQ
F= ………………………………… (3)
dt
Thus, the insolation for a given period of time is:

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Q=∫ F ( t ) dt ……………………………… (4)

The total solar energy received on unit area per one day may be evaluated By
integrating over the daylight hours. Upon substituting Eq. above into recent eq., we
find the daily insolation as follows:

( )
2 sunset
d
Q=S m
d
∫ cos θ0 (t) dt …………………………… (5)
sunrise

The solar zenith angle is normally determined from other angles that are known.
From the spherical trigonometry, the cosine of the solar zenith angle as given:

…………………..(6)

The solar inclination  is a function of day of year only, and is independent of the
location of the observation point. It varies from 23°27' on June 21 to - 23°27' on
December 22. The hour angle is zero at solar noon, and increases by 15° for every
hour before or after solar noon.

1.6 RATIO OF BEAM RADIATION ON TILTED SURFACE TO

THAT ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE
For purposes of solar process design and performance calculations, it is often
necessary to calculate the hourly radiation on a tilted surface of a collector from
measurements or estimates of solar radiation on a horizontal surface. The most
commonly available data are total radiation for hours or days on the horizontal
surface, whereas the need is for beam and diffuse radiation on the plane of a
collector. The geometric factor Rb, the ratio of beam radiation on the tilted surface to
that on a horizontal surface at any time, can be calculated exactly by appropriate use
of

Figure 1.4 Beam radiation on horizontal and tilted surfaces.

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Figure 1.4 indicates the angle of incidence of beam radiation on the horizontal and
tilted surfaces. The ratio Gb,T /Gb is given by:

G b , T G b ,T cos θ cos θ
Rb = = = …………………..(1.7)
Gb G b cos θ z cos θ z
Or

…………1.8

1.7 Variation of Extraterrestrial Radiation:

Two sources of variation in extraterrestrial radiation must be considered.
The first is the variation in the radiation emitted by the sun. There are conflicting
reports in the literature on periodic variations of intrinsic solar radiation. It has been
suggested that there are small variations (less than ±1.5%) with different periodicities
and variation related to sunspot activities. Willson et al. (1981) report variances of up
to 0.2% correlated with the development of sunspots. Others consider the
measurements to be inconclusive or not indicative of regular variability.
Measurements from Nimbus and Mariner satellites over periods of several months
showed variations within limits of ±0.2% over a time when sunspot activity was very
low.
The second Variation of the earth-sun distance, however, does lead to variation of
extraterrestrial radiation flux in the range of ±3.3%. The dependence of
extraterrestrial radiation on time of year is shown in Figure 1.4.
A simple equation with accuracy adequate for most engineering calculations is
given by Equation 1.4.a. Spencer (1971), as cited by Iqbal (1983), provides a more
accurate equation (±0.01%) in the form of Equation 1.7.b:

(
G=G 0 1+ 0.033 cos
360 n
365 )
( 9. a )
G=G 0 ¿

Where Gon is the extraterrestrial radiation incident on the plane normal to the
radiation on the nth day of the year and B is given by

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Figure 1.5 Variation of extraterrestrial solar radiation with time of year.

At any point in time, the solar radiation incident on a horizontal plane outside of
the atmosphere is the normal incident solar radiation as given by Equation 1.7
divided by Rb

………………………..(10)

Where Gsc is the solar constant and n is the day of the year. Combining Equation 6
(zenith angle) for cos θz with Equation 10 gives Go for a horizontal surface at any
time between sunrise and sunset

.(11)
It is often necessary for calculation of daily solar radiation to have the integrated
daily extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface, Ho. This is obtained by
integrating Equation 11 over the period from sunrise to sunset. If Gsc is in watts per
square meter, Ho in daily joules per square meter per day is

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…………12
Where ωs is the sunset hour angle, in degrees, from Equation below. Sunset hour
angle is given:

The monthly mean daily extraterrestrial radiation Ho is a useful quantity. For

latitudes in the range +60 to −60 it can be calculated with Equation 12 using n and δ
for the mean day of the month 12 from Table 1.6.1. Mean radiation Ho is plotted as a
function of latitude for the northern and southern hemispheres in Figure 1.6. The
curves are for dates that give the mean radiation for the month and thus show Ho.
Values of Ho. for any day can be estimated by interpolation. Exact values of Ho for
all latitudes are given in Table 1.1.

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Table 1.1 Monthly Average Daily Extraterrestrial Radiation, MJ/m2

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Figure 1.6: Extraterrestrial daily radiation on a horizontal surface. The curves are
for the mean days of the month from Table 1.6.1

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Example 1
What is Ho, the day’s solar radiation on a horizontal surface in the absence of the
atmosphere, at latitude 43◦ N on April 15?

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Example 2:

wω=15(h−12)
The hourly extraterrestrial radiation can also be approximated by writing Equation
11 in terms of I, evaluating ω at the midpoint of the hour. For the circumstances of
Example, the hour’s radiation so estimated is 3.80 MJ/m2. Differences between the
hourly radiations calculated by these two methods will be slightly larger at times near
sunrise and sunset but are still small. For larger time spans, the differences become
larger. For example, for the same circumstances as in Example 2 but for the 2-h span
from 7:00 to 9:00, the use of Equation 12 gives 4.58 MJ/m2, and Equation 12 for
8:00 gives 4.61 MJ/m2.

1.8 DEFINITIONS
Several definitions will be useful in understanding the balance of this chapter.
Air Mass m The ratio of the mass of atmosphere through which beam radiation
passes to the mass it would pass through if the sun were at the zenith (i.e., directly
overhead). Thus at sea level m = 1 when the sun is at the zenith and m = 2 for a zenith
angle θz of 60◦. For zenith angles from 0◦ to 70◦ at sea level, to a close
approximation,

For higher zenith angles, the effect of the earth’s curvature becomes significant and
must be taken into account..

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Beam Radiation The solar radiation received from the sun without having been
scattered by the atmosphere. (Beam radiation is often referred to as direct solar
radiation; to avoid confusion between subscripts for direct and diffuse, we use the
term beam radiation.)
Diffuse Radiation The solar radiation received from the sun after its direction has
been changed by scattering by the atmosphere. (Diffuse radiation is referred to in
some meteorological literature as sky radiation or solar sky radiation; the definition
used here will distinguish the diffuse solar radiation from infrared radiation emitted
by the atmosphere.)
Total Solar Radiation The sum of the beam and the diffuse solar radiation on a
surface. (The most common measurements of solar radiation are total radiation on a
horizontal surface, often referred to as global radiation on the surface.)
Irradiance, W/m2 The rate at which radiant energy is incident on a surface per unit
area of surface. The symbol G is used for solar irradiance, with appropriate subscripts
for beam, diffuse, or spectral radiation.
Irradiation or Radiant Exposure, J/m2 : The incident energy per unit area on a
surface, found by integration of irradiance over a specified time, usually an hour or a
day.
Insolation is a term applying specifically to solar energy irradiation. The symbol
H is used for insolation for a day. The symbol I is used for insolation for an hour (or
other period if specified). The symbols H and I can represent beam, diffuse, or total
and can be on surfaces of any orientation.
Subscripts on G, H, and I are as follows: o refers to radiation above the earth’s
atmosphere, referred to as extraterrestrial radiation; b and d refer to beam and diffuse
radiation; T and n refer to radiation on a tilted plane and on a plane normal to the
direction of propagation. If neither T nor n appears, the radiation is on a horizontal
plane.
Radiosity or Radiant Exitance, W/m2 : The rate at which radiant energy leaves a
surface per unit area by combined emission, reflection, and transmission. Emissive
Power or Radiant Self-Existence, W/m2: The rate at which radiant energy leaves a
surface per unit area by emission only.
4Total solar radiation is sometimes used to indicate quantities integrated over all
wavelengths of the solar spectrum.

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Any of these radiation terms, except insolation, can apply to any specified wave-
length range (such as the solar energy spectrum) or to monochromatic radiation.
Insolation refers only to irradiation in the solar energy spectrum.
Solar Time: Time based on the apparent angular motion of the sun across the sky
with solar noon the time the sun crosses the meridian of the observer. Solar time is
the time used in all of the sun-angle relationships; it does not coincide with local
clock time. It is necessary to convert standard time to solar time by applying two
corrections. First, there is a constant correction for the difference in longitude
between the observer’s meridian (longitude) and the meridian on which the local
standard time is based. The sun takes 4 min to transverse 1◦ of longitude. The second
correction is from the equation of time, which takes into account the perturbations in
the earth’s rate of rotation which affect the time the sun crosses the observer’s
meridian. The difference in minutes between solar time and standard time is

where Lst is the standard meridian for the local time zone, Lloc is the longitude of
the location in question, and longitudes are in degrees west, that is, 0◦ < L < 360◦.
The parameter E is the equation of time (in minutes) from Figure 1.5.1 or Equation
1.5.36 [from Spencer (1971), as cited by Iqbal (1983)]:

Where B is found from Equation 9, and n is the day of the year. Thus 1 ≤ n ≤
365.Note that the equation of time and displacement from the standard meridian are
both in minutes and that there is a 60-min difference between daylight saving time
and standard time. Time is usually specified in hours and minutes. Care must be
exercised in applying the corrections, which can total more than 60 min.

Example
At , Wisconsin, what is the solar time corresponding to 10:30 AM central time on
February 3?
Solution
In Madison, where the longitude is 89.4◦ and the standard meridian is 90◦,
Equation 1.5.2 gives :

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Solar time = standard time + 4(90 − 89.4) + E

= standard time + 2.4 + E

On February 3, n = 34, and from Equation 1.5.3 or Figure 1.5.1, E = −13.5 min, so
the correction to standard time is −11 min. Thus 10:30 AM Central Standard Time is
10:19 AM solar time.

1.9 Spectral Distribution of

Extraterrestrial Radiation
In addition to the total energy in the solar spectrum (i.e., the solar constant), it is
useful to know the spectral distribution of the extraterrestrial radiation, that is, the
radiation that would be received in the absence of the atmosphere. A standard
spectral irradiance curve has been compiled based on high-altitude and space
measurements. The WRC standard is shown in Figure 1.7. Table 1.3.1 provides the
same information on the WRC spectrum in numerical form. The average energy Gsc,λ
(in W/m2 μm) over small bandwidths centered at wavelength λ is given in the second
column. The fraction f0−λ of the total energy in the spectrum that is between
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wavelengths zero and λ is given in the third column. The table is in two parts, the first
at regular intervals of wavelength and the second at even fractions f0−λ. This is a
condensed table; more detailed tables are available elsewhere (see Iqbal, 1983).

Figure 1.7: the WRC standard spectral irradiance curve at mean earth – sun
distance

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