Chapter 1

Introduction
This thesis investigates how the solar corona can be at a consistently high temperature
of 1-3 MK when its effective surface, the photosphere, is only at 6000 K. We explore
this problem theoretically in two complementary ways in this thesis: using dissipation
of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) waves and magnetic reconnection of emerging
fluxes. This first and introductory chapter starts with a brief overview of the Sun
followed by a review of the MHD waves and magnetic reconnection describing the
possible sources of coronal heating mechanisms.

1.1 An Introduction to the Sun

Sun is a massive ball of hot plasma revealing many interesting features. It is a
fascinating star which shows some extra ordinary phenomena such as coronal loops,
coronal holes, coronal mass ejections, solar wind, solar flares etc. It is the largest
object and contains approximately 98% mass of the total solar system situated at
about 1.497×108 km from the Earth at the centre of the solar system. It is actually a
fairly ordinary star of spectral type G2 V (a star that absorbs strong metallic lines in

its spectrum) with a radius

R » 700,000 km, a mass of M  » 2×1033 g, a luminosity

of
L » 3.8×1026 W, and an age of T » 4.6 ×109 years. Our Sun not only lights and

warms the Earth, but also occasionally disturbs radio signals, disables spacecrafts, and
knocks out entire electrical power grids. The Sun is for us humans of particular
significance, first because it provides us with the source of all life, and second
because it furnishes us with the closest laboratory for astrophysical plasma physics,
magnetohydrodynamics (MHD), atomic physics, and particle physics.
Due to high temperature, the matter in the interior and atmosphere of the Sun is in the
form of a sea of free charge carriers known as plasma, the fourth state of the matter.
When the magnetic field lines generated by the dynamo action inside the Sun interact
with the plasma produces magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) waves. In this thesis, we
investigate the heating of the outer solar atmosphere by dissipation of MHD waves
and by magnetic reconnection. However, before describing the heating mechanisms of
chromosphere and corona we must describe how the MHD waves generated? How
they carry the energy from below to the corona? How they dissipate their energy?
What is the role of MHD waves in the heating? Therefore, to study the propagation
and dissipation of MHD waves in the solar atmosphere it is essential for us to know
about the structure of the Sun, in particular, its interior and atmosphere.
1.1.1 The Solar Interior

Figure 1.1 A cutaway view of the Sun, showing the three internal (thermonuclear, radiative, and convective)
zones, the solar surface (photosphere), the chromosphere and corona, and a number of phenomena associated
with the solar activity cycle (filaments, prominences, flares).

The basic structure of the Sun is sketched in Fig. 1.1. The interior of the Sun is
separated into four regions by the different processes that occur there. The pressure

p  1.6×105 kg m-3 and density of around  =150 g cm-3 in the central core drive

thermonuclear fusion resulting in super hot (1.5×107 K) plasma where hydrogen is

fusing to form helium with energy released as photons and neutrinos. The energy

generated in the core is radiatively transported out to about 0.7

R where the

temperature drops to 1 MK, then the energy is convectively transported to the surface.
The radiation zone is a place where the photons (packets) of energy are absorbed and
re-emitted many times, and energy transfer through this region can take up to 170,000
years. The temperature and density in the interior decrease through the radiation zone
and there is a place where ions begin to recombine with electrons. This produces a
barrier to radiation and from this point, convection becomes more efficient, i.e. a
convection zone exists. The interface layer, or tachocline, is a thin layer between the
radiative and convective zones where the Sun’s magnetic field is generated.
1.1.2 The Photosphere

The effective surface of the Sun, photosphere (see, Fig. 1.2a), lies between the
optically opaque interior and transparent solar atmosphere is a few hundred kilometer
thick transition layer. The average temperature and density of the photospheric plasma
are ≈6,000 K and ≈1023 m−3 respectively. The photosphere emits energy of many
different wavelengths, from visible to infrared. Observations made in these
wavelengths show that the photosphere is covered by granules (Fig. 1.2c) which are
about 1,000 km across. These are the tops of the convection cells of the hot material
from below, rising up in the bright centre of the cell before spreading out, cooling and
falling back down along the dark edges. Using Doppler measurements, large-scale
convection and motion are also detectable as supergranular (Fig. 1.2d) cells. The
localized enhancements in the magnetic field in bright small faculae and dark
sunspots are also seen on the photosphere. The sunspots are relatively cool at ≈4,000
K, and hence appear dark. The sunspot consists of two very distinct parts, the
innermost umbra (darkest, radiating at a temperature of 2,200 K) and outermost
penumbra (less dark, radiating at a temperature of 3,000 K). These are caused by the
Sun's magnetic field welling up to the photosphere. Sunspots occur in pairs, one is
always a south pole while the other is a north pole. It can be seen from Figure 1.2b
that one sunspot has North magnetic polarity and other has South magnetic polarity.
The spots appear in two latitude bands either side of the equator which is thought to
be above the regions of strongest field shearing, with the total number of spots
fluctuating over an approximately 11 year cycle called sunspot cycle.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 1.2 Photosphere in white light (a) Sunspot group as North and South magnetic polarity (b) Granulation
(c) and Supergranulation (d).

1.1.3 The Chromosphere and Transition Region

The first layer of the Sun’s atmosphere above the photosphere is the chromosphere
(Fig. 1.3) that extends from the temperature minimum of about 4,000 K at the
interface between the layers to ≈ 25,000 K at a height of about 2,500 km. Since the
density in the chromosphere drops to ≈ 10 19 m−3, there is little absorption and most of
the radiation comes from spectral emission at UV and optical wavelengths. For
instance in Hα, filaments or prominences are cool, dense clouds of material suspended
by magnetic fields in the chromosphere and well beyond to heights of ≈50,000 km
where a density of ≈1017 m−3 is maintained even though the surrounding atmosphere is
a hundred times less dense. There are also spicules (Fig. 1.4d), small vertical jets of
material travelling into the higher atmosphere with velocities up to 20-30 km s −1.
These are edges of the supergranular cells associated with regions of enhanced
vertical magnetic fields. These cell boundaries are also outlined in the chromosphere
by the chromospheric network (Fig. 1.4a), a web-like cellular pattern of bright
patches. A thin transition layer of about 100 km thick called the transition region lies
between the chromosphere and the very hot upper atmosphere (corona). Across the
few 100 km of this region, the density of the atmosphere drops and the temperature
increases by two orders of magnitude. The sharp increase in temperature means that
all the hydrogen becomes quickly ionized in this region. The transition region can be
selectively observed at various temperatures and heights, using different emission
lines at UV and EUV wavelengths, for instance, C IV at ≈ 100,000 K or S VI at ≈
200,000 K. Blinkers (Fig. 1.5) are the small bright intensity enhancements that have
been observed in the transition region using CDS on board SoHO. Blinkers were
thought of as a purely quiet Sun phenomena, but recent discovery showed that they
are also found in an active region above a sunspot. Blinkers are most easily identified
by CDS in the 629 Å emission line from O V which is formed at 2.5 × 105 K, but also
have strong signatures in other EUV lines emitted from O III (599 Å), O IV (554 Å),
He I (584 Å), and He II (308 Å), which are formed at temperatures of 1.0 × 10 5 K, 1.6
× 105 K, 2.0 × 104 K, and 5.0 × 104 K, respectively. The origin of blinkers is
unknown, but it is suggested that they may be produced either by the reconnection
between newly emerging flux and network or by the superposition of many small
reconnection brightenings. One of the interesting things about the chromosphere and
the transition region is the way in which the temperature rises with height. We believe
that this source of heating deals with wave motions, specifically
magnetohydrodynamic waves. They are created when a magnetic field line is
displaced.  When the line tries to go back to its original shape, it begins to oscillate. 
This oscillation creates the waves that give up energy as they move through plasma
and causes the strange rise of temperature in the chromosphere.
 Figure 1.3 The Chromosphere

(a) (b)
 (c) (d)
Figure 1.4 Chromospheric network in Calcium II K band (a) A filament eruption on the disk of the Sun in
Calcium K band (b) Loops in the prominence (c)
and Spicules (d).

Figure 1.5 Variation of Solar atmospheric temperature with height (left) and the circled region in the right
image shows blinkers.

1.1.4 The Corona

Figure 1.6 Corona in Fe XII emission (EIT-left), and in EUV emission (EIT-right), red at 2MK, green at
1.5MK, and blue at 1 MK.

The upper solar atmosphere, the corona, extending from 2600 km to several
R above

the photosphere, is very tenuous, with a number density of ≈10 15 m−3, and hot at 1-3
MK (see, Fig. 1.6). From Earth, the extended corona can only be observed with
special telescopes or during a solar eclipse. During totality the corona appears as a
beautiful, bright and fainter than the photosphere and chromosphere. It is much less
dense (particle density is about 10 15 m-3) and most of the light is radiated in the
ultraviolet part of the spectrum. It emits most of its radiation at very short ultraviolet
and X-ray wavelengths whereas the underlying photosphere emits very little radiation
in these parts of the spectrum, so an image of the Sun in short ultraviolet and X-ray
wavelengths produces an accurate picture of the corona. Much of the ultraviolet and
X-ray radiation that hits Earth's atmosphere is absorbed by atoms and molecules in the
atmosphere, so we use instruments in space to study the corona. The corona displays a
variety of features including streamers, plumes, loops, coronal holes, solar wind, and
coronal mass ejections.
Coronal loops are the basic structures of magnetically dominated solar corona. They
are ideal structures to observe when trying to understand the transfer of energy from
the solar body, through the transition region and into the corona. Figure 1.7a
indicates that many scales of coronal loops exist, neighbouring open flux tubes that
give way to the solar wind and reach far into the corona and heliosphere. These loops
are the closed-magnetic flux cousins of the open-magnetic flux that can be found in
coronal hole (polar) regions and the solar wind. Often, the solar plasma will fill these
loops from one footpoint and drain from the other. This is known as chromospheric
evaporation and chromosperic condensation respectively. The three dimensional
structure and the dynamics of these loops is an area of active research.
A region of the Sun’s corona that appears dark during a total solar eclipse, and that
shows up as a void in X-ray and extreme ultraviolet images, is called coronal hole.
Coronal holes occur at the solar poles during solar minimum and can also appear at
low latitudes during solar maximum. Today, it is fairly clear that these zones are
dominated by open magnetic field lines that act as efficient conduits for flushing
heated plasma from the corona into the solar wind, if there are any chromospheric
upflows at their footpoints. Because of this efficient transport mechanism, coronal
holes are empty of plasma most of the time, and thus appear much darker than the
quiet Sun, where heated plasma upflowing from the chromosphere remains trapped
until it cools down and precipitates back to the chromosphere.
Polar plumes are associated with sites of open magnetic field lines where bright thin
vertical strips of emission are seen. Solar wind, a stream of energetic particles, mostly
consisting of electrons and protons flows into the interplanetary medium. The solar
wind can be separated into slow and fast components. The velocity of slow
component is around 400 km s−1 whereas the velocity of the fast component is double
that of the slow component. The fast component is thought to originate from sites of
weak open magnetic field lines at coronal holes. The slow component comes from the
Sun’s equatorial regions where the hot plasma is able to escape at the edges of bright
wedge-shaped regions called helmet streamers.
 (a) (b)
Figure 1.7 Magnetic coronal loops (a), Coronal holes (b).

(1.8a) (1.8b)

(1.8c) (1.8d)
 (1.8e) (1.8f)
Figure 1.8 A large eruptive solar flare (a), Coronal mass ejections (b) Geo-space impact of solar wind (c), Solar
wind (d), Coronal streamer (e), and Polar plumes in UV emission (f).

1.2 The Chromospheric and Coronal Heating Problem

The heating of the chromosphere and corona remains one of the major unsolved
problems in solar physics. The Sun’s outer atmosphere (corona) is hotter than 1 MK
while the visible surface has a temperature of only about 6000 K. The process that
heats the corona to such a high temperatures, and accelerates the solar wind is a great
solar mystery. The high temperature of the corona was first established by the
Swedish physicist Edlén (1943) who showed that spectral lines observed from the
corona that previously assumed to come from a new element called coronium, were
actually from highly ionized iron and nickel. He first time identified Fe IX and Ca
XIV lines in the solar spectrum and a coronal temperature of T = 1 MK was inferred
from the formation temperature of these highly ionized atoms. We believe that the
heat of the corona results from effects of the Sun’s magnetic fields instead of radiation
from the Sun’s core. Comparisons of the corona and the Sun’s magnetic fields have
shown that the corona is hottest where the magnetic fields are strongest. The entire
corona is stitched together by thin, bright, magnetized loops of material that constrain
the hot, dense gas of the corona and shine brightly at X-ray wavelengths. These loops
are in a continuous state of change they can rise from inside the Sun, sink back down
into it, or expand into space. They often come together, sometimes merging with each
other and sometimes destroying each other. The magnetic loops store magnetic
energy. When they interact, the magnetic loops release their stored energy into the
corona, providing the energy that keeps the corona so hot.
In this section, we will briefly describe a fair number of theoretical models that
provide coronal heating mechanisms. The theoretical heating models are expressed in
parameters that are often not directly measurable in the corona, such as the magnetic
field strength, azimuthal field components, non-potential fields, currents, resistivity,
viscosity, turbulence, waves, etc. However, the detection of MHD waves in the
corona by TRACE and EIT, and the spectroscopic measurements of line widths by
SUMER on board SoHO opened up powerful new tools that promise to narrow down
the number of viable coronal heating mechanisms in the near future. Reviews on the
coronal heating problem can be found in Withbroe and Noyes (1977), Hollweg
(1985), Narain and Ulmschneider (1990, 1996), Zirker (1993), Parker (1994),
Mandrini et al. (2000), Gomez et al. (2000), and Heyvaerts (2001).
Historically the mechanisms of coronal heating can broadly be divided into two
categories, namely alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC). For each of the
two model groups there are a number of variants of how the currents are dissipated,
either by Ohmic dissipation, magnetic reconnection, current cascading, and viscous
turbulence in the case of DC models, or by Alfvénic resonance, resonance absorption,
phase mixing, current layer formation, MHD wave dissipation, and turbulence in the
case of AC models. In essence, there are many flavours of AC heating described
widely by several researchers for example; Phase mixing (Heyvaerts and Priest, 1983;
Hood et al., 1997; De Moortel et al., 1999), resonant absorption (Ionson, 1978, 1982,
1983; Davila, 1987), Cyclotron resonance (Hollweg, 1986; Cranmer et al., 1999), and
MHD wave dissipation (Osterbrock, 1961; De Moortel and Hood, 2003, Carbonell et
al., 2004). Phase mixing occurs when the local Alfvén speed varies with position.
Since Alfvén waves of the same frequency on different fieldlines travel with different
speeds hence have different wavenumbers. As they propagate they become out of
phase with their neighbours. It means that the gas speed has large gradients, inducing
instabilities and dissipating the wave energy. Resonant absorption happens when a
magnetic loop is excited with a frequency that matches the Alfvén eigen-frequency, so
that standing waves are induced in the loop. If there is a wave-speed gradient across
the loop, a single thin surface will resonate and the gas velocities will again have large
gradients. DC heating is also usually split into two flavours, Joule heating and nano-
flares. Parker (1972) is generally accepted as the father of the Joule heating model,
while Glencross et al. (1974) and Parker (1983) coming up with the nano-flare flavor
of DC heating.
Thus there are number of theories emerged to explain why the corona is so hot. But
out of these, two theories, wave heating theory based on the MHD wave dissipation
and reconnection theory of magnetic field lines are more effective in the heating of
upper solar atmosphere (chromosphere and corona). Though in the past 60 years, none
of the single theory has been able to account for the coronal heating. Most solar
physicists now believe that some combination of the theories can probably explain
coronal heating, although the details are not yet complete.
1.2.1 Wave heating theory

In 1949, it was proposed by Evry Schatzman that waves carry energy from the solar
interior to the solar chromosphere and corona. Since the Sun is made of plasma rather
than ordinary gas, so it supports several types of waves analogous to sound waves in
air. The most important types of wave are magnetoacoustic waves (slow- and fast-
modes) and Alfvén waves which are generally known as MHD waves. Both types of
waves can be launched by the turbulence of granulation and supergranulation at the
solar photosphere, and can carry energy for some distance through the solar
atmosphere before turning into shock waves that dissipate their energy as heat. In the
solar atmospheric plasma there are typically four modes of wave motion driven by
different restoring forces. The magnetic tension and Coriolis forces can drive Alfvén
waves and inertial waves respectively. The magnetic pressure, plasma pressure and
gravity can act separately and generate compressional Alfvén waves, sound waves
and gravity waves respectively, but when these three forces acting together they
produce only magnetoacoustic gravity modes. In the absence of gravity these two
modes are referred to as magnetoacoustic waves, and when magnetic field vanishes
they are called acoustic gravity waves.
1.2.1.1 Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) Waves (Observations and
Damping)
The theoretical framework used in this thesis to describe the behaviour of a plasma is
Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD). The MHD theory is a non-relativistic fluid theory,
expressed in terms of macroscopic parameters, such as density, pressure, temperature,
and flow speed of the plasma. The majority of structures and phenomena in the solar
atmosphere are the result of the interaction of the solar plasma with the magnetic field
(Osterbrock, 1961; Cowling, 1957; Roberts, 1967; Priest, 1982, 1994). Such
interactions are governed by a set of equations known collectively as
magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) equations. These are a combination of the equations
of electric and magnetic fields, and those of fluid dynamics. Using simple
approximations and combining linearized versions of these equations lead to wave
dispersion relation which describes the behaviour of a plasma in a magnetic field.
This section contains a brief summary of these equations, the observations, and
damping of the wave modes which arise from them in both homogeneous and non-
homogeneous plasmas.
The first direct observation of waves propagating into and through the solar corona
was made in 1997 with the SoHO space-borne solar observatory. These were
magnetoacoustic waves with a frequency of about 1 mHz, that carry only about 10%
of the energy required to heat the corona. Many observations exist of localized wave
phenomena, such as Alfvén waves launched by solar flares, but those events are
transient and cannot explain the uniform coronal heating. Recent observational
evidence for the existence of MHD waves and oscillations in the solar atmosphere
invigorate theoretical developments in solar plasma physics. MHD waves are
responsible for carrying energy and momentum, creating instabilities, generating
phenomena like magnetic reconnection, resonant absorption, phase mixing, etc. They
can also serve as unique tools for plasma diagnostics due to their ability to carry
information about the medium in which they propagate. When part of their energy or
momentum is transferred to the plasma they can heat and accelerate the plasma (e.g.,
resonant absorption, dissipation via viscosity, resistivity, thermal conductivity and
radiation, magnetic reconnection). One of the most interesting processes in solar and
astrophysical plasmas is the complicated interaction of plasma motions with magnetic
fields. There are many ways in which a magnetic field influences the solar plasma. In
the convection zone the field inhibits heat transport, resulting in cool sunspots. In the
visible surface of the Sun, the field acts as a waveguide in transporting mechanical
energy from convection zone to the atmosphere above. In the higher layers of the
Sun’s atmosphere the energy stored in the field is released to heat the chromosphere
and corona which can be explained on the basis of dissipation or damping of MHD
waves in these layers.
The basic MHD equations to describe the motion of the solar plasma can be written
as:

 .( u ),
t (1.1)
  (  B )  B 2
   (u . ) u  p   ν u +  g,
 t  4 (1.2)
B
   (u  B -   B ),
t (1.3)
   p  
  (u . )  p    (u . )    (  1)[ L  G ], and
 t    t  (1.4)
.B  0. (1.5)
Equation (1.1) expresses the conservation of mass and is called continuity equation.
Equation (1.2) is the equation of motion or Newton’s law. In the left hand side the
Lagrangian (substantial) derivative consists of the Eulerian (local) time derivative,
describing the temporal change at a fixed position, plus the convective derivative,
describing the temporal change due to the fact that the plasma element moves through
the geometric space where the properties are spatially different. In the right hand side
of Newton’s Eq. (1.2) there are some other forces present in hydrodynamics, such as
 2
the pressure force, the viscous force ν u , and the force exerted by gravitational field.
Equation (1.3) is the induction equation. It describes the evolution of the magnetic

field and is obtained from Faraday’s law, B / t    E , where the electric field E

is eliminated by the generalized Ohm’s law E  u  B + 0 j .  is the magnetic

diffusivity and it is related to the electrical conductivity σ or the electrical resistivity

1

1/ σ by 0 . In the generalized Ohm’s law the electron inertia term, and the Hall

term are neglected. The importance of the ohmic term can be expressed by the

magnetic Reynolds number Rm  lu / , where l and u are typical values for the length
and plasma velocity. Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity comparing the
timescale of the magnetic diffusion and the dynamical time scale. In solar plasmas the
typical length and thus the Reynolds number is so large that magnetic diffusion can be
neglected. It only comes into to play when small length scales are created. Equation
(1.4) is the internal energy equation. γ is the ratio of the specific heats at constant
pressure and at constant volume respectively. The right hand side expresses the gains
G and losses L through thermal conduction, heating or radiation. Equation (1.5) is the
solenoїdal constraint.
Linearizing Eqs. (1.1)–(1.5), (assuming, for the sake of simplicity, that the
equilibrium flow, viscosity, gravity, and equilibrium plasma current are zero) we get

 .u1  0,
t (1.6)
u1 (  B1 )  B0
  p1  ,
t 4 (1.7)
B1
   (u1  B0 ),
t (1.8)
p1  p0 1
  0.
t  t (1.9)
Here, the subscript “0” denotes an equilibrium quantity whereas “1” denotes the
perturbed quantities. Following the Landau and Lifshitz (1960), without loss of
generality, we assume that B0 is along z-axis and seek solution of Eqs. (1.6)-(1.9)
proportional to
exp(ik.r  it ) , (1.10)
where ω is the frequency and k =kxêx+kzêz is the wavenumber of the propagating plane
wave.
Eqs. (1.6)-(1.9) yield, after much algebraic manipulation, the following dispersion
relations for magneto-acoustic waves
   k 2 (cs2  u A2 )   cs2u A2 k 4 cos 2    (1.11)
p B0
cs2  uA 
 is the sound speed, and 4
Here θ is the angle between k and B, is

the Alfvén speed. Since the dispersion relation (1.11) is a quadratic for  , there are
2

two solutions  2
(k ), which are called the slow- and fast-modes. If the perturbation is

incompressible i.e. the wave direction is perpendicular to the velocity disturbance (

k.u 1 = 0 or .u1 = 0), the velocity disturbance u 1 is restored by a magnetic field

change B1. This can easily be derived from the induction Eq. (1.8), where .u1  0

leads to  B1  B0 ku 1 . Combining this condition with the momentum Eq. (1.9) leads
then directly to the definition of the Alfvén speed. This incompressible wave is called
shear Alfvén wave and falls into the category of transverse waves. It is an
incompressible wave, no density or pressure changes are associated with it. The
driving force of an Alfvén wave is the magnetic tension force alone. Using the
constraint kz = k cosθ (that an Alfvén wave propagates parallel to the magnetic field),
the dispersion relation (1.11) yields the following solution for the shear Alfvén wave,
  u A kz  u A k cos  . (1.12)
Thus the shear Alfvén wave propagates with speed u A in a parallel direction, but can
not propagate in a perpendicular direction (Vph = ω/k = 0 for θ = 90°). For the outward

propagating disturbances (  / k 0 ) there are two distinct solutions of dispersion

relation (1.11),
1 1 
k   (cs2  u A2 )  (cs4  u A4  2cs2u A2 c os 2 )1/ 2  .
2 2  (1.13)
The higher frequency mode is known as the fast magnetoacoustic wave and the other
one the slow magnetoacoustic wave. The Alfvén wave phase speed lies between that
of the slow and fast waves, and so the Alfvén wave is sometimes referred to as the
intermediate mode.
The EUV imaging telescopes on board SoHO and TRACE spacecrafts made it
possible to directly observe the MHD waves in the solar corona. The properties of
MHD waves and oscillations in the corona (periods, wavelength, amplitudes,
temporal, and spatial signatures) combined with a theoretical modeling of the wave
phenomena (dispersion relations, evolutionary equations, etc.) lead to a determination
of the mean parameters of the corona, such as the magnetic field strength and
transport coefficients (Nakariakov and Verwichte, 2005). The ground- and space-
based missions such as SoHO and TRACE detected the presence of small-amplitude
periodic oscillations or waves in coronal structures (Nakariakov et al., 1999;
Nakariakov, 2003). Using EIT/SoHO and TRACE, Berghmans and Clette (1999) and
De Moortel, Ireland, and Walsh (2000) reported propagating oscillations in coronal
loops, whereas Robbrecht et al. (2001) compared propagating disturbances in coronal
loops in the EIT/SOHO 195 Å with the disturbances in TRACE 171 Å passbands.
MHD waves generated by either photospheric footpoint motions or photospheric
supergranulation are capable to carry the sufficient amount of energy, and the
dissipation of these waves through viscosity, thermal conductivity, resistivity, and
radiation heats the corona. Dissipative processes cause the damping of MHD waves
(Braginskii 1965). Osterbrock (1961) studied the heating of the solar chromosphere
and corona by MHD waves in detail and pointed out that the upper chromosphere is
mainly heated by slow-mode shocks, while the corona is probably heated by Alfvén
waves. Gordon and Hollweg (1983) investigated the damping of surface waves and
trapped body waves by calculating the wave properties in the absence of dissipation.
They then estimated the damping lengths from these ideal MHD wave quantities.
They pointed out that the surface waves are linearly compressive and dissipated by
ion viscosity and electron heat conduction, so they are able to heat the corona. Davila
(1991) described the resonant absorption theory for a plasma with a turbulent
magnetic field, shear viscosity, resistive dissipation, compressive viscosity, and
nonlinear wave-wave interaction. Steinolfson and Davila (1993) studied the heating of
a compressible, low-β, and resistive plasma that is trapped in active region coronal
loops by the resonant absorption of MHD waves. They concluded that the dissipation
occurs primarily in a thin resonance layer, and the thickness of the layer varies with
the loop density ratio. Thus, MHD waves play an important role in heating the solar
corona.
1.2.2 MHD and Magnetic reconnection theory

Magnetohydrodynamics models a plasma as a electrically conducting fluid. This

approximation is useful in investigating collisional plasmas and is often used to model
astrophysical plasmas, especially the Sun’s corona. One can discover how the
magnetic fields in the MHD regime evolve by using the induction equation. This is of
interest to us as we are investigating how the magnetic fields change to facilitate
energy release. The induction equation can be derived by using Ampere’s, Faraday’s,
Gauss’s and Ohm’s Laws given as
  B =  j, (1.14)
B
E   ,
t (1.15)
 .B  0, (1.16)
E  u  B   j. (1.17)
In these equations E and B are the fields in the laboratory frame, u is the plasma bulk

flow velocity, j is the current density and  is the electrical resistivity. To derive the
induction equation we substitute for E in (1.15) using (1.17) and then substitute for j
using (1.14), which results in
B
   (u  B) -   (  B ) -   (  B ),
t (1.18)

where    /  is the magnetic diffusivity. By assuming that the resistivity is uniform

over the area and making use of a standard vector indentity, we obtain the induction
equation, i.e.
B
   (u  B ) +  2 B .
t (1.19)
In this equation the first term on the right hand side describes the advection of the
magnetic field by the flow and the second term describing the dissipation of the field
due to resistivity. We can define timescales associated with both of these processes,
i.e.
 a  L/u ,
 d  L2 /  ,
(1.20)
where L is the typical length scale for the variation in the magnetic field. The ratio of

 a and  d is called the magnetic Reynolds number

d u L
Rm   .
a  (1.21)

Normally in the corona dissipation is much slower than advection ( Rm 1 ), arising

from a low classical resistivity and large L andu . This is the regime of ideal MHD
where  0 meaning that Ohm’s law (1.17) reduces to E  u  B 0 and the
induction equation (1.19) reduces to
B
   (u  B ).
t (1.22)
We can learn more about this regime by considering the magnetic flux enclosed by a
contour C
 
 B.dS ,
S (1.23)
where S is the surface bounded by the contour C. Assuming that contour C moves
with the plasma then in a time dt and element ds of C sweeps out an element of area
u  ds dt , with the rate of change of magnetic flux through C is

d B
dt


S T
.ds   C Bu
.  ds.
(1.24)
Applying Stoke’s theorem to the second term on the right hand side we obtain
d

 B 
  T .ds    (u  B )  .
dt S (1.25)
So with the plasma being perfectly conducting in the ideal MHD limit (  = 0), then
using the induction equation (1.19) we see that the right hand side of (1.25) vanishes
in this regime. This means that the magnetic flux is conserved through contour C with
time. In this regime the magnetic field lines are “frozen-in” to the fluid which means
that the magnetic field lines are convected along with the flow. The “frozen-in”
condition of ideal MHD allows the magnetic field to arrange into a configuration that
is suitable for reconnection, such as closely approaching and oppositely directed field
lines. However for reconnection to occur some resistivity is needed to allow the
magnetic field to dissipate and release the stored magnetic energy.
Magnetic reconnection is the process whereby magnetic field lines from different
magnetic domains are spliced to one another, changing the overall topology of a
magnetic field. Solar flares, the largest explosions in the solar system, are caused by
reconnection of magnetic flux on the Sun, releasing energy in minutes which is stored
in the magnetic field over a period of weeks to years. Magnetic reconnection in
Earth’s magnetosphere is responsible for the aurora, and it is important to the science
of controlled nuclear fusion. Reconnection is the most likely mechanism by which the
Sun’s magnetic field powers the solar atmosphere, the chromosphere and corona. In
general, one can categorize the energy release due to reconnection as taking four
distinct forms, all of which are believed to occur commonly in the solar atmosphere.
First, reconnection can result in direct plasma heating. This has been proposed as the
process that heats both the non-flare (Parker, 1972, 1979, 1983; Sturrock and Uchida,
1981; Van Ballegooijen, 1986) and flare corona (Sweet, 1958; Parker, 1963;
Petschek, 1964; Carmichael, 1964; Sturrock, 1966). Second, reconnection can
produce strong mass motions, the so-called reconnection jets. These have been
proposed (Karpen et al. 1995, 1996, 1998) as the explanation for a large variety of
transient dynamic phenomena ranging from spicules (Blake and Sturrock, 1985) to
explosive events (Dere et al., 1991), and X-ray jets (Shibata et al., 1992). Third,
reconnection can lead to the acceleration of non-thermal particles. This process has
been proposed as the explanation for the electron beams that gives rise to the hard X-
ray emission in flares. Finally, reconnection can produce MHD waves. This process
has been proposed as the explanation for coronal heating (Forbes and Priest, 1982;
Falconer et al., 1997) and for accelerating the solar wind (Parker, 1988; Mullan,
1990). In fact, it is difficult to find a coronal phenomenon that has not been attributed
to magnetic reconnection. Furthermore, the surface of the Sun is covered with
millions of small magnetized regions 50-1,000 km across. These small magnetic poles
are buffeted and churned by the constant granulation. The magnetic field in the solar
corona must undergo nearly constant reconnection to match the motion of this
“magnetic carpet”, so the energy released by the reconnection is a natural candidate
for the coronal heating, perhaps as a series of “micro-flares” and “nano-flares” that
individually provide very little energy but together account for the required energy.
The idea that micro-flares and nano-flares might heat the corona was put forward by
Eugene Parker in the 1980s but is still controversial.
1.3 Various Solar Missions Observing the Sun
The solar coronal observations started with the space era of rocket flights and
spacecraft missions, which gives the soft X-ray and extreme ultraviolet (EUV)
observations above the absorbing Earth’s atmosphere. The first crude X-ray
photograph of the Sun was obtained by Friedman in 1963 with a pinhole camera from
an Areobee rocket of NRL on 19 April 1960. A brief history of the various solar space
missions and their observations is given below:
Skylab:- The launch of Skylab from NASA in 14 May 1973 initiated a new era of
multi-wavelength solar observations from space. Skylab made the first time-resolved
observations of the solar transition region and of ultraviolet emissions from the solar
corona and record »32,000 photographs during its mission.
Solar Maximum Mission (SMM):- This spacecraft was designed to observe gama-
rays, X-rays and UV radiation from solar flares during a time of high solar activity.
SMM made a number of scientific discoveries in observing some 12,000 solar flares
and several hundred coronal mass ejections (CME).
Yohkoh (Sunbeam) or Solar-A:- A great breakthrough in soft X-ray imaging of
the solar corona and flares came with solar mission Yohkoh which observed solar
flares at X-ray wavelengths. Mission data allowed us to identify several different
types of flares. Yohkoh provided a full decade of soft X-ray images from the solar
disk and from flares, revealing for the first time the geometry and topology of large-
scale magnetic field reconfigurations and magnetic reconnection processes in flares.
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SoHO):- The Solar and Heliospheric
Observatory, is a project of international cooperation between ESA and NASA to
study the Sun, from its deep core to the outer corona, and the solar wind. Especially
SoHO was designed and launched to answer the following three fundamental
scientific questions about the Sun:
 What is the structure and dynamics of the solar interior?
 Why does the solar corona exist and how is it heated to the extremely high
temperature of about 1 000 000°C?
 Where is the solar wind produced and how is it accelerated?
The SoHO observatory is a highly successful mission that provided an unprecedented
information about the Sun, from its interior, through the hot and dynamic atmosphere,
to the solar wind and its interaction with the interstellar medium. It identified the
source regions and acceleration mechanism of the slow and fast solar wind in the
magnetically “open” regions at the Sun's poles. The Solar and Heliospheric
Observatory is also helping us to understand the interactions between the Sun and the
Earth’s environment by giving up to three days notice of Earth-directed disturbances.
Transition Region and Coronal Explorer (TRACE):- TRACE is a solar
mission of NASA/GSFC within the SMEX (Small Explorer) program to image the
solar corona and transition region. The objective of the mission is to study the three-
dimensional magnetic structures of the Sun, to study the heating mechanisms of the
outer solar atmosphere, to investigate the triggers and onset of solar flares and coronal
mass ejections. TRACE has provided us with stunning high-resolution images that
reveal intriguing details about coronal plasma dynamics, coronal heating and cooling,
and magnetic reconnection processes.
Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory (STEREO):- Recently, STEREO
which is the third solar mission of NASA’s in Solar Terrestrial Probes program (STP)
has been launched on 26 October 2006. It is a two-year mission that will provide a
unique and revolutionary view of the Sun-Earth System as well as reveal the 3D
structure of coronal mass ejections which help us to understand why they happen.
Hinode or SOLAR-B:- Hinode (Sunrise in Japanese), or Solar-B, is a Japan
Aerospace Exploration Agency solar mission with United States and United Kingdom
collaboration. It is the follow-up to the Yohkoh mission and it is launched on
September 22, 2006. Hinode carries three main instruments to study the Sun in which
EIS (Extreme-Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrograph) will try to identify the processes
involved in coronal heating.