Solar Energy

1. Introduction

The sunlight is the “fuel” that drives the Earth/Atmosphere system “engine”, this system encompasses the earth’s solid
surface, oceans and layers of the gas that envelop the planet and make the atmosphere. At earth’s distance from the sun,
about 1370 W/m2 average of power reaches the top of this system, clouds reflect about 30% back to the space, and about
70% is absorbed by earth’s surface and atmosphere, and are then re-radiated in the form of solar radiation. Insolation
(power), or incident solar radiation, is defined as the amount of sunlight reaching the horizontal surface of the earth in W/m2.
On a peak day in a temperate climate, the solar power roughly reaches 1 kW/m2 on the earth’s surface, and this is a lot of
power. Harnessing this ultimate source of energy is the dream for a lot of researchers and engineers [1].
When examining the solar insolation, it is essential to consider the multitude of factors that affect the amount of solar
radiation received on Earth’s surface. Firstly, the height of the sun, the angle of incidence is large means the sun is high,
leading to large solar radiation energy. The atmospheric transparency affects directly solar radiation -atmospheric
transparency is a parameter that characterize the degree to which the atmosphere transmits sunlight- clear and cloudless sky
permits more sunlight to reach the Earth’s surface. Geographical latitudes have direct impact on solar insolation given that
the solar radiation energy weakens gradually with increasing latitudes. Sunshine time, the longer the surface is exposed to
sunlight the more solar radiation energy is gained by the ground. Altitudes impacts solar energy, the higher the altitude the
more sunlight is captured by the surface. Furthermore, a very powerful factor influences solar radiation energy and it is the
air quality, where solar radiation is attenuated while passing through the atmosphere, the longer it takes to the sun ray to hit
the ground, the more energy is lost. Adding to all of that, the intermittent nature of solar radiation necessitates research and
implementation of energy storage systems to overcome the challenges posed by the absence of direct sunlight during night
and limited scattered radiation, enabling the utilization of solar energy even in non-optimal conditions [2]. This leads us to
the fact that solar insolation accessible on Earth are spatio-temporally in nature. One of the most popular approaches for
systematically understanding and characterizing the fluctuation of solar insolation at geographical and temporal scales
referred to as spatio-temporal variability analysis. It is crucial to have knowledge of research techniques and advanced
analysis approaches in order to propose a comprehensive scientific research methodology that enables high-resolution
temporal analysis [3].
Fusion reactions at the core of the sun produce its energy. The sun derives about 99.98% of the world’s energy supply
including thermal, photovoltaic, photochemical, photobiological and hybrid solar, hydro, wind, wave and biomass energy
conversion [4]. Solar power is generated using several technologies, in two main ways. First, we have solar photovoltaic
PV cells that -using electronic devices- convert sunlight directly into electricity. Second, we have Solar Thermal energy,
which capture light to heat a certain fluid, most of these systems employ concentrated solar power CSP that uses mirrors to
concentrate solar rays to heat fluids. Solar energy data are the center of interest of many researchers and institutes, the data
collected and analyzed is reachable on many renewable energy reliable websites. Electricity generation trends, investments
trends, renewable energy employment and costs are available for seekers. Using this data, we can see that by 2020, the
generation of electricity using PV cells reached 110 GWh in Lebanon [5].
2. Unveiling the dynamics of solar energy

In this section, we delve into the fundamental aspects of solar energy, focusing on solar angles, radiation, and sun angles,
which play pivotal roles in understanding the interaction between the Sun and the Earth's surface, and consequently, in
harnessing and optimizing solar energy resources.
Solar angles
Sun’s rays’ direction can be described and calculated if three fundamental quantities are determined: location on the
earth’s surface, time of day and day of the year. McQuiston, Parker and Spitler described these three quantities the latitude
𝑙, the hour angle ℎ, and the sun’s declination 𝛿 [6].
 Figure 1-latitude, hour angle and sun's declination [10]

The sun’s declination 𝛿 varies throughout a typical year. To determine 𝛿 in degrees, the following equation, developed
from work by Spencer (1971), is used:
𝛿 = 0.3963723 − 22.9132745𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑁 + 4.0254304𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁
−0.3872050𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑁 + 0.05196728𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑁
−0.1545267𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑁 + 0.08479777𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑁
Where 𝑁 = (𝑛 − 1)(360/365), and here N is in degrees. Also, n is the number of the day in a year and
1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 365 [7].
Cooper (1969) has already demonstrated a simple and commonly used equation for sun’s inclination 𝛿 in degrees:
360
𝛿 =23.45sin [365(𝑛 + 284)].[8]

This equation is quite accurate, however for more accuracy and for digital machine, Spencer’s equation is more
preferable.
Solar radiation is the source of solar energy harnessed on the Earth’s surface. Calculation of the solar radiation on a
horizontal surface of the Earth requires the trigonometric relationships between the solar position in the sky and the surface
coordinates on the Earth [9].
At any time, the geometric relationship between a plane of any particular orientation relative to the Earth and the
incoming beam radiation -that is the position of the sun relative to that plane- could be defined with several angles (Benford
and Bock, 1939). These angles describe the sun’s position in the sky. The Zenith angle 𝜃𝑧 , also called zenith distance, is the
angle between the vertical and the line of the sun. The solar altitude angle 𝛼, is the angle between the horizontal and the line
of the sun. The solar azimuth angle 𝛾, is the angular displacement from south of the projection of beam radiation on the
horizontal plane (displacements east of south are negative, west of south are positive). 𝛼 and 𝜃𝑧 are complementary: 𝛼 +
𝜃𝑧 = 90° [10].

Figure 2-zenith, azimuth and solar altitude [10]

The trigonometric relationships between the sun (the center of the solar disk) and a horizontal surface in the absence of
the earth's refractive atmosphere are well known. These are listed below by M. Iqbal [9]:
 cos 𝜃𝑧 = sin 𝛿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑙 + cos 𝛿 cos 𝑙 cos ℎ = sin 𝛼
and
cos 𝛾 = (sin 𝛼 sin 𝑙 − sin 𝛿) / cos 𝛼 cos 𝑙 .
Solar constant
The solar constant is the total solar radiative energy at the top of the Earth’s atmosphere corrected for the mean sun-earth
distance [11]. The solar constant of 1366.1 W/m2, is got after 24 year of calculation and standardized by the American
Society of Testing and Material ASTM. The nomenclature “constant” has been questioned since it not accurate and the value
does vary over time, and that was found after a few decades of constant monitoring by sensors on various satellites. However
nowadays, this varying solar output should be referred to as total solar irradiance (TSI), whereas the term ‘‘solar constant’’
should be used only to describe the long-term average TSI. The following figure shows the measured TSI time series,
consisting of mean daily values, as well as a 27-day running mean to dampen short-term effects [12].

Figure 3-Daily TSI for the period 11/1978–1/2003 (top panel) and daily sunspot numbers for the same period (bottom panel) [12]

Extraterrestrial radiation
Extraterrestrial radiation is the power of sun rays at the top of top of the Earth’s atmosphere, usually expressed in
irradiance units (W/m2) on a plane normal to the sun. it varies along with the distance between the sun and the earth, which
is changing because of the elliptic orbit of the Earth around the sun. this effect can be expressed using the following empirical
equation:

𝑅𝑎𝑣 2
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 ( )
𝑅
With, I is the extraterrestrial irradiance, Isc is the solar constant (1366.1 W/m2), Rav is the average sun-earth distance, and
R is the actual sun-earth distance depending on the day of the year.

𝑅𝑎𝑣 2
( ) = 1.00011 + 0.034221 cos(𝑏) + 0.00128 sin(𝑏) + 0.000719 cos(2𝑏) + 0.000077sin (2𝑏)
𝑅
360
𝑏= (𝑛 − 1) in degrees [13].
365
 Figure 4-annual variation of extraterrestrial radiation [13]

Air mass
Monochromatic radiation traversing a medium, here the atmosphere, faces energy attenuation due to the molecules of
this medium. Attenuation is function of the type and number of molecules in the path of the sun ray, which are by their turn
function of the distance (the longer it takes for the sun ray to reach the surface the more it faces particles and molecules).
Air mass, or optical mass (M. Iqbal), is the density of the path multiplied by the length of the column of a unit cross-section
-that is the distance taken by the sun ray-. Since refraction is dependent on the wavelength, the slant path varies with
wavelength and consequently the air mass is monochromic. This problem is solved after many calculations, ignoring the
Earth’s curvature and assuming that the atmosphere is completely homogeneous and nonrefractive, the well know formula
for air mass now is as follows [14]:
1
𝐴𝑀 =
cos (𝜃𝑧 )
Other references tend to define the air mass as the path length which the light takes through the atmosphere, normalized
to the shortest possible path length (when the sun is directly overhead). This normalization gives meaning to the air mass as
it is the proportion of reduction of light passing through the atmosphere, due to moist and dust. Note that the formula used
is the same as first reference [15].

Types of solar radiation

Firstly, it is quite important to define irradiance before getting in details for the types of solar radiations. For that,
irradiance is the power carried by sun light, measured in reference of the surface it hits, so the irradiance is a measure of
watts per unit surface or simply W/m2. The wider the surface that we have, the more power we can collect. Whereas,
irradiation or insolation, is the energy harvested in a period of time. Energy is the accumulated power for metered time.
Since power (W)=energy (Wh)*time (h), therefore the unit of insolation is made to be Wh/m2 [16].
 Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) in W/m2, is the irradiance received by a surface held perpendicular (normal) the sun’s
straight lines (coming directly from the sun at its position in the sky). DNI is measured using a pyrheliometer with 5° as
field view, mounted on an automatic sun tracker.

Figure 5- Direct normal irradiation [17]

Diffuse horizontal irradiance DHI, characterizes the amount of energy coming from the sky, on a horizontal plane, after
being scattered or diffused by the atmosphere, especially from the air molecules and aerosols (dust). DHI is measured using
a pyranometer shaded from the direct sunlight (to remove the beam, or direct, component from the radiation).
Global horizontal irradiance GHI, is the amount of solar radiation received on the horizontal surface of the earth.
𝐺𝐻𝐼 = 𝐷𝐻𝐼 + 𝐷𝑁𝐼 × cos (𝜃𝑧 )

Figure 6-Global Horizontal Irradiance [17]

Plane of array irradiance POA, also known as Global tilted irradiance GTI, is the irradiance on tilted plane (such as PV
cells). It can be measured using a pyranometer positioned with the same tilt angle [18].
Additional definition, Albedo, that is a measure of how much solar energy is reflected. Albedo is the portion of solar
radiation that is reflected off of the earth's surface by the ground, vegetation, and water bodies, according to the solar energy
community. Reflection by air and clouds is taken into account by astronomers and meteorologists. Some solar researchers
refer to ground reflectance to avoid ambiguity [19].
Attenuation of direct and diffuse radiation
Distribution of direct solar irradiance is function of the air mass and several atmospheric factors such as, water vapor,
ozone layer, uniformly mixed gases (CO2 and O2), aerosols, molecules, Rayleigh scattering (small particles scattering the
light due to polarization) … each of these factors has different impact of each of the light’s wavelengths. Infrared waves are
scattered more due to water vapor and uniformly mixed gazes, ozone absorption affects essentially the UV and visible
region, that’s also affected by Rayleigh and aerosols attenuate, taking into consideration that aerosols absorption increases
with the air turbidity. Note that the ozone absorption occurs first up in the sky. Researchers notices that aerosols don’t have
much of effect on short wavelengths rays, their absorption increases with longer wavelengths.
Diffuse radiation is obtained from scattered sunlight, by air molecules and aerosols. This diffuse radiation in turn strikes
other molecules, so here a phenomenon of multiple scattering occurs, diffuse radiation from the first scattering is dominant.
Furthermore, rays reaching the Earth’s surface are reflected and will undergo the same phenomenon. The upgoing radiations
will be reflected by their turn by the atmosphere, and this will continue infinitely [20].

Figure 7-Multiple scattering [10]

In order to produce estimates or expected values of variation and uncertainty for the solar resource within various bands
of time under consideration, we must first understand how meteorological information is digested and processed [21].
Calculations of solar zenith and azimuth was the center of interest for many, several methods for solar position calculations
have been published, but most of them suffered a relatively big uncertainty (greater than ±0.01° in solar zenith and azimuth
angles). I. Reda and A. Andreas have described a procedure for Solar Position Algorithm SPA, with incertitude of
±0.0003° in solar zenith and azimuth in the period of years between -2000 and 6000 [22].
The following section will provide thorough explanation of the application of solar energy, Thermal Solar and
Concentrate Solar Power CSP and the Photovoltaic PV cells.
Irradiance in Lebanon
Global Solar Atlas provides measurements of irradiance for every region in the globe. Using the exposed data, average
irradiances for Lebanon are shown in the table below [17]:
Table 1-Irradiance in Lebanon [17]

Average power per year (kW/m2)

Direct Normal Irradiance DNI 2049.3
Global Horizontal Irradiation GHI 1943.9
Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance DIF 632.2
Global Tilted Irradiance (at optimum 2152.9
angle) GTI
 Figure 8-PV power potential in Lebanon [17]

3. Solar Thermal Energy and Concentrate Solar Power

Solar thermal energy is used to describe a group of technologies that capture solar energy and converts it into heat. Heat
produced is used in space heating -passive heating- and water heating, also it is used in electricity generation cycles (in
power plants). In addition to space heating systems, applications that use solar thermal energy are several, they include solar
water heater, solar dryer and solar cooker, all of these applications consist of a solar collector that collect sun rays and
transmits heat directly to the designated fluid (mostly water) for low-medium temperature applications, in addition to the
Concentrate Solar Power (CSP) applications, that in its turn, consists on different process of harnessing sunlight energy
[23].
Concentrate Solar power CSP is based on the principle of concentrating Direct Normal Irradiance DNI, via reflective
surfaces – combinations of mirrors or lenses- that are able to track the Sun in two or three dimensions. Concentrated light
heats up a heat transfer fluid HTF, employed to drive a heat engine in order to produce electricity. Thermal energy storage
TES can be coupled with CSP to benefit from peak irradiation time to improve dispatchability [24].
Passive space heating, Trombe walls
Passive solar heating, as the name indicates, is a system where heat flows naturally through the space without intervention
of mechanical systems and moving parts such as pumps, tubes, fans or any advanced technology in capturing and releasing
heat. And by naturally we mean natural convection, conduction, radiation and thermal storage of the place itself. Passive
solar heating uses the components of the building to collect, store and distribute heat [25]. Since the components of the
building are concerned in the heating process, therefore the design of the building and the materials used should assure
optimal profit from the sunlight. Designs made for passive heating should take into consideration cooling in the summer
and ventilation. Factor like landscape, siting, floor plan and window placement affect directly the efficiency of passive solar
heating [26].
Elements of passive space heating
Passive space heating has five essential elements, the collector, which can be south facing windows (30° to the south is
recommended), special-made plane tending to collect and absorb. The absorber, which is a hard darkened surface made to
absorb light for later use or storage. Storage, and usually storage is done in dense materials such as brick, sones, water,
concrete and adobe, and the storage may be integrated in walls or floors, even in the masonry partitions. Additionally,
thermal mass plays the role of absorber, but thermal mass is incorporated behind the surface that plays the role of absorber.
Distribution in passive heating systems happens naturally, without intervention of fans or ducts. Regulation, or control, in
passive heating systems is usually done with operable vents and dampers that can control the heated air, some buildings
include roof overhangs to shade light during summer [25][26].
Sun-metering, direct, indirect and isolated gain
 These four titles express four approaches for passive space heating.
Sun metering, is achieved through increasing south-facing windows. In this case no need for adding thermal masses.

Figure 9- sun-metered house with several south facing windows

Direct heating, which the basic passive heating approach, and it describes the sunlight that enters and heats the house
from windows throughout the day. This heat is stored in thermal mass incorporated in the walls or floor/house components.

Figure 10-direct heat gain through glazing, walls [25]

Indirect gain id achieved via south-faced walls, like direct gain, but the absorber and the storage are separate from the
living area. In that case, a Trombe wall is used.

Figure 11-indirect gain in presence of Trombe wall [25]

Isolated gain happens when sunlight is captured in a different room/extension from the building, mostly greenhouses are
used as isolated heat rooms, and doors, ducts or vents are installed to help air distributed inside the living rooms [25][26].
 Figure 12-isolated gain heating using greenhouse [26]

Trombe wall
Trombe walls are a passive method that lowers energy usage in structures and promotes the sustainable growth of the
residential sector. Applying these walls is crucial in regions that require heating load in the winter [27]. Trombe walls can
reduce up to 30% of building’s energy consumption when installed [28].
The construction of the Trombe wall relies on two main factors, material of thermal mass and glazing, to collect and
store solar radiation. The thermally dense wall is south-facing wall (generally), it consists of dense material (maybe with
matt dark-colored painting) to store heat. The glaze façade, slightly space from the dense wall, protects it from external
conditions. This architecture causes the phenomena of the greenhouse effect, where infrared radiations - and consequently
heat- are trapped. The heat from the wall is usually used either by vents, at the to and bottom of the wall assuring air
circulation, or by direction conduction with wall. Control can be made on Trombe wall, vents are closed at night to forbid
heating loss, shading are used at summer days [29]. Different configurations for Trombe walls are designed, to achieved the
desired goal for their applications, O. Saadatian et al reviewed these configurations in details: a classic and modified wall,
a zigzag wall, a solar water wall, a solar trans wall, a solar hybrid wall, a Trombe wall with phase-change material, a
composite Trombe wall, a fluidized Trombe wall and a photovoltaic Trombe wall [30].

Figure 13-Trombe Wall [30]

Solar Water Heater

Heating water using solar energy is quite an old concept. In the 19th century, people used burning coal and wood to heat
water in large stoves, and that was dangerous and expensive. To solve this problem large stoves painted black were placed
at the Sun to heat water, but that took hours. Engineers then developed the idea of solar water heating, since 1970, modern
systems for capturing the Sun light and transform it into heat started (Bennet T, 2007) [31]. Solar Water Heater (SWH)
systems consist on bringing a working fluid in contact with a dark surface exposed to sunlight, to be heated up. This fluid
might be the water directly (in direct systems), or heat transfer fluid such as glycol/water mixture, that will be used in a heat
exchanger later (in indirect systems) [32].
Main components that are found in most residential SWH systems are what follows: solar thermal collector, heat
exchanger, storage system, control system, and auxiliary hot water system.
1. Solar thermal collector: the design of this component allows it to absorb solar radiation energy and transform it into
heat. Main solar collectors used in SWH systems are flat plate collector and evacuated tube collector. The mentioned
collectors do not concentrate sun-light (no mirror or lenses are used) [33].
Flat plate collector (FPC): it consists of glazing on top (one or double glazing) that transmits radiation to the absorber
but preventive radiative and convective heat loss from the surface. Tubes and fins, where the fluid passes. Absorber
plate, blackened conducting flat surface absorbing solar radiation. Upper and lower headers, where cold water enters
and hot water is evacuated. Insulation, to minimize heat loss from the back. Casing surrounding various components
of FPC [34]. FPCs are the most commonly used SWH systems due to their simple design and low need of maintenance,
cheap prices and effective heating with temperature not exceeding 80°C, in addition to their ability of absorbing beam
and diffuse irradiance (no need for sun tracking), and all that made them affordable for residential applications [33].
Arrangement of SWH collectors affects the system’s performance. There are three obvious arrangements for FPC
modules: parallel where inlet ports of FPCs are fed to the same manifold (same for outlet) making one module, in order
to increase the volume of water to be heated. The series connection, where the first FPC’s (first module) inlet port is
connected to the second FPC’s (second module) and so on. Lastly, mixed arrangement of series and parallel modules,
in this case the first FPCs are connected in parallel making one module for a given capacity of hot water, such modules
are connected in series to increase to temperature per requirement. Note that, parallel arrangement can be used in forced
as well as in natural mode, whereas series and mixed arrangement are exclusively used in forced mode (modes are be
to discussed later) [34].

Figure 14-flat plate collector [33]

Evacuated tube collector (ETC): it consists of a row of twin glass tubes mounted in parallel. Each inner glass tube
contains a metal heat pipe attached to an absorber fin. The space between the two layers of glass tubes is vacuum,
which reduces conductive and convective heat losses. There are two main types of ETCs, heat pipe ETC and direct
flow ETC. The first type uses a heat pipe and a reflector to further increase radiation absorption inside the glass tube,
the collector contains condensed vapor rising to the heat exchanger, the water does not circulate inside the tube only in
the heat exchanger.

Figure 15-Heat pipe ETC [31]

 Whereas the second type, the water is pumped inside the tube to be heated directly from the heat absorber by the
absorber plate, similar process to the FPC but the presence of vacuum assures low heat losses [35]. ETC are more
practical than FPC in cold and cloudy areas, it can water even in windy days. Temperature of hot water could reach
200°C, but their running cost is higher due to their complex design [33].

Figure 16-direct flow ETC [35]

FPCs operate with typical 40-50% overall efficiency, in their normal conditions. ETCs operate with 30-40%
efficiencies, but generally, ETCs outperform FPCs in cold climate since their efficiency does not drop due to outside
temperature drop [35].
2. Heat transfer system, piping, valves, pumps, fans and heat exchangers if necessary.
3. Control system, where collection and distribution of solar energy is managed.
4. Storage system where solar energy is stored.
5. Auxiliary hot water system to provide supplementary hot water to meet demand, water heaters (with gas or electric
heaters) may be used.
Solar Water Heating systems:
Domestic solar water heaters can be classified into passive and active systems, depending on the method of circulation
of hot water. Additionally, they can be classified into direct and indirect systems, depending on whether the water is directly
heated by the solar collector, or it passes into a heat exchanger between the solar collector’s circulating loop and the hot
water loop [36].
Passive and Active systems: passive systems don’t use pump to circulate water. There are two main passive systems that
are integrated in solar building hot water systems: thermosyphon systems and integral collector storage (ICS) systems [35].
First the thermosyphon system, which depends on heat-driven convection to circulate water from solar collector to the water
tank. Water is held in a tank (on the roof), and circulates passively to another tank for direct use, it features a thermally
operated valve in order to protect the system from freezing, in addition to an isolation valve in case system draining is
needed [37]. And for the ICS, no storage tank is independent from the collector, instead the storage tank in an isolated
collector that heats the water inside of it. The tank presents glazing on top of it to help in solar absorption, and auxiliary
storage tank may be used in case of high demand. In case of ICS, no controller is integrated nor draining system, making it
ineffective in case of freezing and overheating [36]. Passive systems are mostly used in warm climates. Due to their low
price and low need for maintenance, almost 75% of residential application for hot water are thermosyphon systems (2014)
[36], this percentage lowered to 60% by 2021 [38].
 Figure 17-passive domestic solar water heating system [35]

On the other hand, active systems require an electrically driven pump to circulate hot water or the heat transfer fluid, in
addition to controllers and electrically operated valves to help in case of freezing. Active SWH systems can be categorized
in five major types: direct circulation systems or open-loop systems, indirect circulation systems or closed loop, drain-back
systems, air systems and pools heaters [39].

Figure 18-active domestic solar water heating systems [35]

Direct and indirect systems: as their names implies, direct systems or open-loop systems pass potable water through
solar collector, then the water flows directly to the desired application. Whereas, indirect or closed-loop systems, potable
water is heated via a heat exchanger. A mixture of fluid, generally water and glycol, between the solar thermal collector and
the heat exchanger, so the fluid is heated by solar energy instead of water directly [40].
Indirect solar water systems, despite their higher cost and higher losses due to heat exchanger efficiency, are more
efficient than direct SWH systems, and suitable for application where water may freeze and/or present some alkalinity.
Lastly, most of passive systems are open-loop systems, however, active systems present open and closed-loop systems [36].
 Figure 19-closed-loop solar water heater system [35]

Figure 20-open-loop solar water heater system [35]

Concentrate Solar Power (CSP)

CSP systems are the system where high temperature heat is used from solar collectors to generate power in a conventional
power cycle. This power cycle replaces or works in addition to burning fossil fuel. CSP concentrates large surface of sun-
light into a heat exchanger (receiver/absorber), via mirrors and lenses. Only beam (DNI) radiation is concentrated in CSP
systems, and in order to achieve significant concentration factors, sun-tracking, in either two or three dimensions, is needed
during the day. Arrangement of the concentrating mirrors distinguish between several types of CSP systems which will be
discussed later [41].
CSP systems or, as referred to, solar thermal electricity, can be seamlessly integrated with thermal energy storage (TES),
enabling the utilization of surplus solar energy generated during peak sunlight hours to enhance dispatchability, thereby
compensating for cloudy or overnight periods. TES in commercial CSP plants, are mainly molten salt storage and steam
accumulator storage. Because of its superior thermal characteristics and affordable price, molten salt is the most often used
storage medium in commercial CSP applications, and it be used as direct or indirect storage due to the plant philosophy.
However, water can be utilized in so-called Direct Steam Generation (DSG) plants as a heat transfer fluid and a storage
medium. Because DSG removes the need for intermediary heat transfer fluids, boosts overall plant efficiency, and is an
environmentally beneficial technology, it is a commercially available option in solar tower systems [42].
 Figure 21-Schematic flow diagram of a molten salt tower plant with 2-tank direct molten [44]

Figure 22-Schematic flow diagram of a direct steam generation tower plant with steam [44]

Figure 23-Schematic flow diagram of an oil-parabolic trough solar power plant with 2-tank indirect molten salt [43]

For the heat transfer fluid, melting salt and thermal organic or synthetic oils are adequate to be HTF since they have low
melting point and high boiling point, as an alternative, using water or steam as a heat transfer medium has also been
examined and is currently being developed [43].
Additional definition, concentration factor:
As we embark on this journey through the world of concentrated solar power, let us uncover the marvels and possibilities
that lie within these cutting-edge technologies, all powered by the radiant energy of our Sun.
 Exploration of CSP technologies
In the coming section, we’ll be discussing four main systems of CSP plants: parabolic trough systems, Fresnel systems,
central receiver systems (also called solar tower) and parabolic dish engine systems. CSP systems can be differentiated
based on the configuration of their concentrator mirrors. Line-focused systems such as parabolic troughs or Fresnel systems
only require single-axis tracking to concentrate solar radiation onto an absorber tube. In practical applications, concentration
factors of up to 100 can be attained. On the other hand, point-focused systems like parabolic dish concentrators or central
receiver systems (Solar Power Towers) utilize numerous heliostats that individually track the sun to concentrate solar
radiation onto a receiver positioned at the top of a central tower. These point-focused systems can achieve concentration
factors of several thousand but necessitate two-axis tracking, making them more complex and expensive [41]. In conclusion,
the capacity of the power block is directly correlated with the size of the solar field. When determining the size of the solar
field, it is crucial to take into account the solar multiple, which is the ratio of the thermal power produced by the solar field
to the power needed by the power block at the design point. The thermal energy storage (TES) and the solar multiple must
both be considered. A larger solar multiple could result in over-engineering, while a lower solar multiple would cause the
TES to be underused because of less heat being produced. In order to get the lowest Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE)
and highest Capacity Factor of the power plant, the solar multiple and TES size must be optimized [….]. Furthermore, DNI
plays a major role impacting the design of any CSP plant, especially point focusing systems, A higher DNI allows for a
smaller solar field to operate the power block at its rated output, resulting in a decrease in the Levelized Cost of Electricity
(LCOE) for the power plant. The International Energy Agency (IEA) suggests that CSP developers consider areas with an
annual DNI ranging from 1900 kWh/m2 to 2100 kWh/m2 for optimal CSP operation. Threshold values of annual DNI for
power plants with CSP technology as suggested by Deutsches Zentrum für Luftund Raumfahrt (DLR) are presented as
follows: DNI of economic potential based on measured values should be larger than1800 kW h/m2 per annum, and DNI of
technology potential based on measured values should be larger than 2000 kW h/m2 per annum Below this DNI range, other
solar electric technologies like photovoltaic become more competitive, as they can take advantage of both direct and diffuse
irradiances. Therefore, careful site selection is vital in the design process [45].

• Parabolic trough system

First practical experience with parabolic trough collector succeeded back at 1870, when Swedish engineer drove a
small 373 W engine where steam was produced directly from solar collector, nowadays the application of this system
is called Direct Steam Generator (DSG) [45]. Parabolic Trough technology for CSP came into light in the 1980s, in
response to the oil crisis. The solar technology for electricity generation with the most experience currently is a field
of parabolic reflectors with linear focus coupled to a thermal to electric energy conversion system [46]. The parabolic
trough system (PTC) utilizes line focus technology for concentrating solar power (CSP), PTC consists of an
elongated collector shaped like a parabolic trough, supported by uncomplicated pedestals on the ground. It focuses
the beam radiation onto its focal line, where the receiver is positioned to efficiently absorb the energy. The receiver
is coated with a highly absorptive material and enclosed within a glass tube, which creates a vacuum to minimize
convective heat loss [47]. Comparison between two receiver tube configurations—one with an evacuated tube and
the other without—it was discovered that the evacuated tube receiver was 1.4% more effective [48]. The parabolic
trough system (PTC) possesses the capability to function within the temperature range of 100 to 400 °C, rendering
it highly suitable for diverse applications. PTC can be classified into two distinct groups, distinguished by the
temperature range within which they operate. The first group operates within the range of 300-400 °C and primarily
serves the purpose of electricity generation. Meanwhile, the second group operates within the range of 100-250 °C
and finds application in the heating of industrial processes [49]. Based on tracking modes, the tracking systems are
two types: East-west tracking, in which PTCs are aligned in the north–south axis and north–south tracking where
PTCs are aligned in the east-west axis. Thermal and optical efficiencies enhancement are studied, in order to improve
the performance of PTC in power plants [50].
 Figure 24-parabolic trough solar collector [42]

Most of the existing PTC, plants steam is generated indirectly, and a heat transfer fluid (HTF) is heated and
transported to a heat exchanger for steam generation in a secondary circuit in power block. HTF affects directly the
efficiency of the receiver tubes, determines the TES technology to be chosen and the performance and type of the
thermodynamic cycle, knowing that the major limitation for the CSP plant’s efficiency is the maximum allowable
temperature and thermal stability of the HTF. Several HTFs are used in commercial PTC including synthetic thermal
oil, water, air at atmospheric pressure and molten salts. Other HTFs are being experienced for usage in PTC plants
(Therminol VP-1, sodium liquid, carbon dioxide and helium…). When water and synthetic oil are more suitable for
low temperature levels, molten salts are more suitable for medium and high levels and gazes should be used in high
temperature performances [51].

Figure 25- PTC based CSP plant [42]

• Linear Fresnel system

Linear Fresnel reflector solar collector systems, or Fresnel reflectors, were established in 1818 when French
engineer Fresnel discovered that the effect of a large lens can be achieved by multiple small lenses. In 1968, the
Italian solar pioneer Francia developed both linear Fresnel and two-axis tracking Fresnel reflector systems, making
himself the first person in modern time to apply this system’s concept on a large system for solar collection [52].
LFR is simplified PTC system, the parabolic trough collector is replaced by surface mirrors, that present low wind
load, small distance to the ground, a simple structure and higher land-use efficiency, and finally the vacuum use is
not necessary which make the LFR system cost comparatively low [53].

Figure 26- basic LFR configuration seen from one end [57]

The collector in a parabola made up from 10 flat ground mounted mirrors, tracking the sun position by rotating in
order to reflect the sun’s DNI into a linear receiver, which consist of selectively coated tube. The advantage of a
fixed receiver is the simple piping system that does not require flexible connections, and the choice for HTF would
be easier because the fixed receiver can easily accommodate with HTFs such as thermal oil, water and molten salts
[54]. Three broad approaches to linear Fresnel primary mirror field design can be identified in the literature:
designing for peak conditions, optimizing the conventional LFR layout, and proposing novel linear Fresnel layouts.
When designing for a vertical sun angle, the most commonly considered condition is to ensure no blocking or shading
occurs between the mirrors. Subsequent studies have focused on optimizing mirror position and field parameters,
primarily targeting optical or exergetic efficiency improvements. Furthermore, several innovative configurations
have been proposed for linear Fresnel fields. These configurations introduce alternating targets, varied mirror
heights, and curved Fresnel mirrors as major contributions. While these configurations exhibit improved optical
performance, the increased complexity of the designs is expected to raise the cost of the primary mirror field. Linear
Fresnel collectors exhibit considerable potential as a line-focusing technology and offer numerous advantages.
However, the primary drawback lies in their lower optical performance, making it crucial to prioritize advancements
in the optical design of the primary collector to enhance the overall competitiveness of this technology. To
comprehensively evaluate the potential competitiveness of these configurations, their performance and cost need to
be compared against those of a standard linear Fresnel field and a parabolic trough field [55]. As a solution for the
major problem of LFC, compact linear Fresnel collector (CLFC) presents multiple linear absorbers, that means the
mirrors will direct DNI to at least two absorbers and this additional variable for the reflector orientation provides the
means for much more densely packed arrays: by establishing patterns of alternating reflector inclination, it becomes
possible to position closely packed reflectors without encountering shading and blocking issues [56].

Figure 27- Schematic diagram showing interleaving of mirrors without shading between mirrors [57]

PTC vs LFC: The parabolic trough collector (PTC), as the first concentrated solar thermal (CST) technology to
emerge, has reached a commercially mature stage of development. PTC-CST technology has found widespread use
in various energy systems, including power generation, solar cooling, desalination, industrial process heat, and solar
fuel production. The general structure of PTC has remained relatively unchanged, characterized by an integrated
concentrator and receiver module. Recent efforts have primarily focused on improving sun-tracking strategies,
addressing wind load challenges, enhancing heat transfer fluid (HTF) performance, optimizing in-tube heat transfer,
achieving thermal uniformity, and refining modeling techniques. Looking ahead, there is potential for further
exploration of hybrid energy systems, presenting new opportunities for PTC applications. Whereas, the linear Fresnel
reflector (LFR) technology, being the most recent concentrated solar thermal (CST) technology to emerge, is still
undergoing rapid development towards commercial maturity. Extensive reevaluation and improvement efforts have
been dedicated to various aspects of LFR, such as the receiver cavity, primary and secondary reflectors, optical
optimization, and modeling methods. In recent years, several innovative designs of LFR modules and systems have
been demonstrated, showcasing distinct advantages. These advancements highlight the significant substitution
potential of LFR across various application areas compared to parabolic trough collectors (PTC), particularly
considering the significantly lower cost of LFR, which is only about half or even less than that of PTC [57]. On the
economical scale, the comparison between LFC and PTC power plants show clearly that LFC cost much less:
roughly 50% cost reduction happened with the use of LFC power plant [58].
Table 2- Economic analysis between PTC and LFR plants [57]

PTC (reference) LFR

Heat transfer fluid DSG DSG
Solar field size/103 m2 273 373
Land requirement/ 103 m2 995 746
O&M/106 EUR 3.6 3.1
Solar field cost/EUR.m-2 275 150.1
Capital cost reduction/% - 45.4
LCOE/EUR.kWh-1 176.1 176.1

• Solar power tower

A typical Solar Power Tower (SPT) system comprises multiple heliostats, a tower with a receiver, a heat transfer
fluid (HTF), and a power generation system. The heliostats consist of independently controlled mirrors that redirect
solar radiation towards the receiver's effective area. The receiver is constructed from durable materials such as
ceramic or metal alloys, capable of withstanding high temperatures. The heliostats typically utilize flat or slightly
concave mirrors, each equipped with a two-axis tracking system for precise alignment [59]. SPT present a great
advantage in concentration factor, SPT present high overall conversion efficiency, high working temperatures, where
it reaches 1200°C if molten salt is the HTF, and large thermal storage capability [60]. The solar tower concept was
initially tested in Spain in 1981 at a 500-kW facility using liquid sodium as the heat transfer fluid. In 1982, the Solar
One plant was constructed in California, generating 10 MW with a water/steam heat transfer medium. It operated
until 1986 but did not become commercially viable. In 1996, Solar One was upgraded to Solar Two, utilizing molten
salt and adding a ring of 108 mirrors. Several pilot plants were also developed in France, Italy, Japan, and Russia,
these projects proved the technical feasibility of a large SPT. In 2007, the first commercial SPT plant, PS10, was
built in Spain with a capacity of 10 MW. Other commercial plants followed, including a 392 MW facility in
California with three central towers. Energy storage can be easily integrated into some SPT plants [61].

Figure 28- Commercial SPT plant Crescent Dunes, Nevada, United States [42]

The most commonly used heat transfer fluids (HTFs) in Solar Power Tower (SPT) systems today include water,
molten salts, and air. Molten salts offer advantages over water as they are non-toxic, non-flammable, and possess
superior heat storage properties. Current SPT systems achieve gross thermal to electrical efficiencies ranging
from 30% to 40% [62].
 Figure 29-Schematic representation of a molten salt central receiver system [63]

Figure 30- Schematic representation of solar power tower system with air as the heat transfer fluid [63]

Heliostat errors can be categorized as imaging errors and direction/tracking errors, both leading to a loss of
radiative energy. Imaging errors arise from off-axis reflection, astigmatism, and mirror slope error. Direction
errors cause deviations from the desired aim point due to uncertainties in heliostat positions, geometrical
dimensions, axis orientations, heliostat drive tolerances, backlash, encoder signal defects, encoder resolution
limitations, heliostat structural deformation caused by external forces like gravity or wind loads, imperfections
in the solar position algorithm, and imprecise knowledge of geographical coordinates and directions. Tracking
errors can be minimized to less than 1 mrad by regularly applying offset corrections and incorporating the
corrective motion of the drives in an error model that encompasses systematic error sources [64].

• Solar Dish Stirling system

Solar Dish Stirling systems (SDSS) have exhibited the utmost efficiency among all solar power generation
systems, achieving a conversion rate of almost 30% for direct-normal incident solar radiation into electricity,
while factoring in parasitic power losses [65]. The reviewed data demonstrated the superior performance of the
SDSS in distributed energy systems. These systems have high levels of flexibility and generate capacities
between 1.0 and 38.8 kW with overall efficiencies between 13% and 32%, and generation costs between 0.115
and 0.256 $/kWh, depending on the size, shape, and solar radiation level of the dish concentrator [66]. Robert
Stirling developed the Stirling engine as a regenerative cycle heat engine and first produced it. He received a
patent for the engine in 1816 [67]. Eight distinct dish-Stirling systems have been produced during the past two
decades by businesses in the USA, Germany, Russia, and Japan. With a total capacity of 1.5 MW, the first large-
scale solar dish-Stirling plant went into operation in Arizona, USA, in 2010 [68]. The dish/ Stirling systems'
excellent solar-to-electric conversion efficiency, 29.4% reported in 1984 [69] and a new record of 31.25% in
2007 [70], makes them one of the least expensive sources of renewable energy. The solar parabolic dish consists
of a solar reflector dish, solar receiver, and the mounting structure. s
 Figure 31-parabolic dish concentrator [42]

The dish is mounted on the dual-axis solar tracker that keeps it oriented always toward the sun. The solar
radiation after being reflected by the dish are concentrated on the central receiver positioned at the focal point
of the solar parabolic dish. The solar parabolic dish finds its major application in electricity generation using the
Stirling engine mounted at the central receiver [71]. In addition to Stirling engines, micro-turbine can be used
as receivers. The design eliminates the need for HTF and for cooling water. The investment costs of the SD
(Solar Dish) technology remain high as it is still in the demonstration phase. Over the past decade, various SD
prototypes with capacities ranging from 10-100 kW, such as the Big Dish developed by the Australian National
University, have been successfully operated. The Big Dish technology incorporates an ammonia-based thermo-
chemical storage system. However, thermal storage systems for SD are still in the developmental stage. There
are plans for multi-megawatt SD projects, with capacities of up to 100 MW, being proposed and considered in
Australia and the United States [72]. There is growing interest in the research field regarding the combination
of the SDSS with other renewable energy devices and thermal energy storage. This hybridization strategy
enhances the overall system performance and ensures the uninterrupted operation of the standalone SDSS [66].

Potential for solar thermal energy

Unlike solar photovoltaic systems, which can utilize both direct and diffuse solar radiation, concentrated solar thermal power
plants rely on high direct normal irradiance (DNI) for efficient operation, as mentioned before. Areas with high annual DNI
availability are deemed most suitable for CSP installations. The optimal geographical regions for CSP technology, covering
North Africa, southern Africa, the Middle East, western India, southwestern United States, Mexico, South America, and
Australia, are identified [73]. The best global horizontal irradiation for CSP power plants is found between 151°N and 40°S,
with a few exceptions at higher latitudes as shown in fig.5.
This map, which displays the areas with the ideal Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) for CSP, serves as a general illustration
of the varying levels of potential for the deployment of solar thermal energy throughout the world. High insolation areas
with clean, particulate-free air have the best DNI. Please choose the country(ies) linked by name to determine each country's
potential CSP.

Figure 32- world map for DNI [17]

The projected breakdown of the world's electricity production in 2050 is depicted in Fig. 33. Around 85% of the world's
energy production is predicted to come from renewable sources. Additionally, there is a significant anticipated dependency
on wind energy, followed by solar PV and a 4% minimal dependence on CSP [74].

Figure 33- Electricity generation breakdown projection of the world in 2050 [80]

MENA region (Middle East and North Africa) is quite interesting in the world of solar energy. Regarding solar energy
technologies, the majority of the countries are located in the so-called Sunbelt, where global horizontal irradiance (GHI)
values range from 1,600 kWh/m2/y in Mediterranean coastal regions to 2,600 kWh/m2/y in desert regions, and direct normal
irradiance (DNI) values range from 1,800 kWh/m2/y to more than 2,800 kWh/m2/y. With regard to solar energy, both for
photovoltaic (PV) and concentrated solar power (CSP) applications, this is one of the regions of the globe with the best
resources [74]. In order to maximize power output and reduce LCOE, studies were conducted regarding the technical and
economic viability of a solar thermal power plant using parabolic trough collectors. These studies established the impact of
the optimization of a number of parameters, including solar field size/solar multiple (SM), thermal storage size, heat transfer
fluid type, and solar radiation. Furthermore, in order to encourage the adoption of this technology, technical and economic
studies have been conducted in the MENA region [75]. Results show that MENA region possesses a great potential to
produce electricity from CSP with a competitive LCOE of 11.58 c€/kWh in comparison to Spain the leader on CSP
production in the area. Those results can provide a good idea to the policymakers and investors in the field to push forward
the installation of large-scale CSP plants in this region. This can lead to the creation of new job opportunities as well as
sustainable development for the region’s countries [75]. Among all the obstacles that CSP plants face in MENA region (high
cost, preference, the lack of tenders for CSP projects is seen as a major obstacle to financing in the region. Suggestions of
combining CSP with existing conventional power plants and sharing infrastructure costs could make CSP more cost-
competitive and facilitate financing. Hybridization, particularly combining CSP with gas turbines and recovery steam
generators, is seen as a promising approach to reduce costs and improve efficiency. We conclude that following the example
of the existing operational CSP plants in the region could be a viable path for future CSP projects [76].

Figure 34- Local manufacturing shares by component (total plant and solar field) achievable by MENA countries [77]
Global CSP plants: Status and Progress

Despite decreases in technological costs, the global CSP market's growth slowed down in 2021. The combined capacity of
the CSP market decreased to 6 GW, as the decommissioning of approximately 300 MW of outdated CSP facilities in the
United States countered the startup of the 110 MW Cerro Dominador facility in Chile. The competition from solar PV,
regulation changes, and project failures in the previously dominating markets of Spain and the United States have all
contributed to the downfall of CSP during the past ten years [79]. Globally, 146 CSP power plants are installed, with 116
operational power plant. Between all installed plants, 81 are parabolic troughs, being the most installed CSP with 5445 MW
overall capacity [80]. A study conducted by Richard Thonig and Alina Gilmanova in collaboration with the SolarPACES
secretariat and reflects the CSP market in the middle of 2023:’’ The Chinese market continues to develops favorably with
many new projects tendering being developed and 1 GW now under construction. To reflect the economics of these Chinese
hybrid projects new columns on hybrid economics have been included. Outside China some plants in Italy and the third
generation CSP pilots G3P3 have been added’ [80]. The study revealed that the combined operational capacity of
Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) plants amounted to 7614.16 MW. Whereas renewable energy statistics by IRENA, asserts
that the total produce energy by CSP plants in 2022 happens to be 6602 MW [79].

Figure 35- CSP plants global commissioning status [79]

Parabolic trough technology would account for around 70% of the CSP capacity being built, with tower technology
accounting for the remaining 30% systems. The thermal energy storage capacity of these facilities totals 8.8 GWh. After
the downfall, there was some hope for a market recovery in 2022 due to the addition of 750 MW of new capacity in China
and the United Arab Emirates. To boost the CSP sector, it is essential to prioritize policies that emphasize the flexibility of
CSP with thermal energy storage (TES) and continue efforts to reduce costs and increase capacity factors. [80].

Figure 36-CSP global capacity [80]

 Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) costs have decreased significantly, with a record-low bid tariff of USD 34 per MWh
for the Likana plant in Chile. This comes after a 70% drop in average CSP costs from the last decade until 2020. Factors
contributing to these cost declines include technological advancements, improved supply chain competitiveness, and CSP
expansion in regions with abundant solar irradiance. The overall capacity factor of the global CSP fleet has improved, with
competitiveness influenced by power auction structure, procurement processes, dispatch flexibility, and capacity factor.
The countries with most capacity CSP installed are shown in the following table:

Table 3- Biggest CSP plants globally [79]

COUNTRY CAPACITY TRENDS

CHILIE 110 First commercial CSP plant in Latin America; Construction
delays
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES 700 New installations expected in 2022, bringing total capacity in
the region to 1.7 GW

CHINA 250 Active CSP market, with new plants and support in the 14th
Five-Year Plan
SOUTH AFRICA 100 Construction ongoing, delays in the Redstone CSP tower facility

NAMIBIA 50-130 Plans to tender a CSP project in 2022

SPAIN 2300 Global leader, but share of global CSP capacity declined due to
no new additions in 8 years

UNITED STATES 1300 Second in global CSP capacity, decline in 2021 due to
decommissioning of SEGS facility units

GLOBAL TES 23 GWh Estimated thermal energy storage capacity in conjunction with
CSP plants worldwide

Overall, CSP with TES shows significant potential in enhancing power systems relying heavily on variable renewable
sources like solar PV and wind.

Figure 37-thermal energy storage global capacity and annual addition [80]
PV cells
The working principle of photovoltaic cells
Photovoltaic (PV) technology harnesses the power of sunlight to generate electricity, completely independent of any heat
engine. Photovoltaic devices have a durable and simple design, requiring minimal maintenance. One of their major
advantages is their ability to function as independent systems, capable of providing power outputs ranging from microwatts
to megawatts. As a result, they are widely used in various applications such as power sources, water pumping, remote
buildings, solar home systems, communications, satellites, space vehicles, reverse osmosis plants, and even megawatt-scale
power plants. The demand for photovoltaics is steadily increasing each year due to their extensive range of applications
[81].

Figure 38- PV panels [82]

A PV cell is an essential unit of solar energy generation systems, where electricity is immediately produced from
sunlight. The solar cell functions as a p-n junction device, where the n-type region corresponds to the presence of negatively
charged electrons donated by donor impurity atoms, and the p-type region represents the existence of positively charged
holes created by acceptor impurity atoms. The working principle of PV cells is based on Photovoltaic effect, and mainly
three processes occur. One, photons absorbed in p-n junction semiconductor, generating electron-hole pairs. Two, separation
of light-generated charge carriers and their flow in external solar circuit. Three, use of separated electrons to drive an electric
circuit, with design considerations for efficient current generation [83].

Figure 39- construction on p-n P V cell [84]

Solar panels consist of multiple interconnected solar cells arranged in series and parallel configurations to achieve the
desired power output. Since a single solar cell typically produces only around 0.5 V, multiple cells are connected in series
to increase the voltage [83].
 Figure 40- solar module, connection of single solar cells [84]

Series and parallel connections enhance the current capacity. In the series-parallel combination of cells the magnitude of
both the voltage and current increases [84].

Figure 41- series-parallel combination of PV cells, both current and voltage increase [84]

The main components of a solar energy system, or solar panel system are what follows: PV panels, that convert solar
energy into electricity and provides DC electricity. Inverter, whether string inverter or micro-inverter, inverting DC current
into AC electricity. Batteries (supercapacitor or storage system) to store electricity generated throughout the day in order to
be used at night, or when solar radiation is not provided. Additionally, the racking, or mounting, which plays a crucial role
in securely attaching the PV system to rooftop [85]. The system may also have an interface installed generally to a switch
panel and detects the voltage; it disconnects the PV generator from the rest of the system in case of absence of measurable
voltage [86].

Figure 42- PV system main components diagram [86]

 Solar cell characteristics
As already mentioned, PV cell is a P-N junction, working on the principle of photovoltaic effect, so when hit by sun
rays, it produces DC electricity. The relationship between the current and voltage produced on a typical solar cell I-V
characteristics curve summarizes the primary electrical properties of a PV cell or module. PV cells have the following basic
characteristics: short circuit current ISC, open circuit voltage VOC, Fill Factor FF and solar energy conversion efficiency 𝜂,
the maximum power point MPP, corresponding to the point where the power supplied by the array that’s connected to the
load is at its maximum [87].

Figure 43- solar PV cell electrical characteristics showing the MPP [88]

Solar cell technologies

The most abundant material used in PV cells construction is silicon Si, despite its difficult manufacturing process and
expensive price, crystalline silicon still rules the market and most likely will for the foreseeable future, where wafer-based
silicon accounts for 90% of solar cells [87]. In addition to the three forms of silicon (single crystal, multi-crystalline,
amorphous silicon), materials for PV include cadmium-telluride, copper-indium-gallium-selenide, copper-indium-gallium-
sulfide, characterized in various classes [89].
PV cell technology can be divided into three generations based on the manufacturing process and level of commercial
maturity, first generation PV cells, silicon wafer-based, the oldest and most popular with high power efficiencies [90].
Second generation are thin film solar cells, and are more economical comparing to first degeneration solar cells, they have
very thin light absorbing layer, generally in order of 1 𝜇, compared to the 350 𝜇 of silicon wafer solar cells [90]. Second
generation solar cells include amorphous silicon a-Si, cadmium telluride thin film (CdTe), Copper Indium Gallium Di-
Selenide (CiGs), Cadmium Sulfide (CdS) and Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) (or compounds of group III-V), Copper Zinc Tin
Sulfide (CZTS) [93][94]. Third generation solar cells are a type of photovoltaic cell technology that are based on more
recent chemical compounds, including Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs), Quantum Dot Solar Cells (QDSCs),
Polymer/Organic Solar Cells (OSCs), Perovskite Solar Cells (PSCs), multijunction and concentrated solar cells (CPV). They
are designed to be more efficient and cost-effective than previous generations of solar cells [91] [94]. Recent reviews on
solar cells generations present a fourth generation which includes the low flexibility or low cost of thin film polymers along
with the durability of “innovative inorganic nanostructures such as metal oxides and metal nanoparticles or organic-based
nanomaterials such as graphene, carbon nanotubes and graphene derivatives [92].
 Figure 44-Various solar cell types and current developments within this field [91]

Type of Cell Size Cost High Max Status in the Market Notes and Recommendation
Temperature Efficiency
performance % (2022)
Monocrystalline Require 1-1.5 $ Not good at 26.7 The most used in PV solar cells mono-crystalline are costly
less volume per watt [98]. high temperature, [97] with 75% market share and growing (two times compared to thin film)
for the same drop 10-15% [90] [95], Monocrystalline Silicon Solar [89].
energy , Lower Cell Market size is projected to reach They are durable but they are
produced temperature Multimillion USD by 2029, In fragile and sensitive to dust and
coefficient/more comparison to 2022, at unexpected shading [83].
effective when compound annual growth rate (CAGR) Their high efficiency and medium
temperature during 2022-2029 [96] size made them the most used type
changes[99] of PV cells in different
applications.
Polycrystalline Consume 0.9-1 $ Not good at 22.3 Multicrystalline silicon (mc-Si) Economical choice, cost
larger than per watt [98]. high temperature, [97] wafers will shrink continuously from effective compared to
mono- 20% drop [90], about 20% in 2020 down to only 5 monocrystalline [83]. It is durable
crystalline Higher percent until 2030 [95]. Whereas, Data but has lower efficiency and
solar cells temperature Bridge Market Research analyses that consumes more area [83].
coefficient/less the polycrystalline solar cell (Multi Si)
effective when market was valued at USD 25,203.40
temperature million in 2021 and is expected to reach
changes [99]. USD 35,841.77 million by 2029,
registering a CAGR of 4.50 % during
the forecast period of 2022 to 2029
[100].
DSSC Offers a About Not good at 11.1 Between 2022 and 2030, a 50% less expensive than
wide range of 0.88 $ per high temperature [93] significant growth rate is projected for silicon-based cells [90]. It presents
product watt [104]. [93]. the global dye-sensitized solar cells long life and mechanical
design from (DSSC) market [101]. No roadblock robustness, but inefficient in
flexible, light for their commercial application, with application where high efficiency
durable [89]. many available demonstration is a priority [93].
modules, however, they still need
further modification due to limitations
associated with stability failure and
loss in energy of oxidized dye during
the process of regeneration [102]. The
global dye sensitized solar cell market
size was valued at USD 90.5 million in
2019 and is expected to grow at a
compound annual growth rate (CAGR)
of 12.4% from 2020 to 2027 [103].
a-Si Offers a 0.5-1.5 $ Effective at 13.4 The amorphous silicon PV market A multijunction device offers
wide range of per watt low temperatures [93] is poised for growth due to its low high capacity, easy fabrication, a
product [105]. as well as high production costs, availability in various high optical absorption coefficient,
design from temperatures shapes and sizes, and non-toxic nature. utilizes less toxic materials
flexible, light [89]. The flexibility and lightweight nature compared to CIGS and CdTe, and
durable [89]. of amorphous silicon thin film solar possesses flexibility while being
cells make them suitable for diverse less susceptible to cracks, but it is
applications on different surfaces. low efficient [93]. Efficiency
Manufacturers are investing in research usually drops from 10-30% at the
to improve the efficiency of these cells, start of the operation [105].
which presents profitable
opportunities. Integrated photovoltaic
(BIPV) applications offer architectural
and energy benefits. Amorphous
silicon modules can serve as a cost-
effective and aesthetically pleasing
component in skylight systems [106].
CdTe/CdS Offers a 0.40-0.5 Effective at 22.1 CdTe is the most common solar Cd is toxic, disposing CdTe
wide range of $ per watt low temperatures [107] cells after c-Si, representing about 5% solar cells is a concern [93]. Cd is
product [107]. as well as high of the global market. CdTe market was abundant but Te is rare [90].
design from temperatures valued at USD 729.20 million in 2021 Lower cost the c-Si, and absorbs
flexible, light [89]. and is expected to reach USD 18,18.41 sunlight at shorter wavelengnths
durable [89]. million by 2029, registering a CAGR of [93]. The polycrystalline
12.10% [108]. CdTe/CdS thin-film solar cells are
an alternative way to harvest
sunlight for energy conversion
[110].
CIGS/CIS Offers a 0.39- Effective at 22.9 Although just 1% of the market is CGIS have high efficiency
wide range of 0.43 $ per low temperatures [107] now occupied by CIGS thin-film solar that is similar to that of c-Si PV
product watt [107]. as well as high panels, the technology has been cells. Less expensive as CIGS can
design from temperatures steadily advancing since 2017 in the absorb light using only ~2.0–2.5
flexible, light [89]. solar sector. From 2019 to 2027, CIGS mm layer thickness, which
durable [89]. thin-film solar panel technology is decreases the use of raw materials.
expected to increase at a compound Easy to fabricate compared to c Si
annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.97%. based PV cells. In and Ga sources
There are several CIGS solar panel are limited [83].
producers at the moment [109].
GaAs wide 7.15 $ Highly 30% GaAs solar cells market size was GaAs has the highest PCE,
range of per watt resistive to heat [2][111] valued at 13.42 billion $, and expected high absorption coefficient due to
products, [112]. damage [2]. to grow from 14.55 billion $ in 2022 to direct band gap. Ga is expensive
same power 25.68 billion $ by 2030, with CAGR of material due to low abundance, As
production 8.45% during this period [111]. is toxic. Is is used mostly in
for smaller aerospace and military
size. applications [83][111].
QDSC Quantum Average Better 66.6 % QDSC market was valued at USD Possibility for multiple
dots replace cost of solar performance at [113] 758.20 million in 2021 and is expected electron generation MEG [116].
bulky panels lower to reach USD 2626.19 million by 2029, Varying the size of quantum dots
material like reduced to temperatures registering a CAGR of 16.80% during effectively “tunes” them to
Si, CdTe and 0.38 USD per [119]. the forecast period of 2022 to 2029 respond
CIGS [113]. Watt in 2019, [114]. And it is expected to reach to different wavelengths of light.
compared to CAGR 20.5% [115]. As quantum dots get smaller, the
2.04 USD per light spectra that
Watt in 2010 they absorb will shift to the blue,
[117]. which represents greater energy or
shorter wavelength. The smaller
the dot, the greater the shift [113].
However, stability of QDSC is not
quite understood, and further
research is needed [118].
OSC Offers a 0.45-0.5 Not good at 12.6 % The Global Polymer Photovoltaic It presents low efficiency and
wide range of $ per watt high temperature [107] Cell Market was valued at USD 698.2 faster degradation at outdoor
product [107]. [89]. Million in 2021. The market is conditions. Whereas it is
design from projected to grow USD 1533.4 Million environmentally friendly, flexible,
flexible, light in 2030, at a CAGR of 25.6% [120]. light and easy to store and shape
durable [89]. [93]. Most organic solar cells are
polymer solar cells.
 CSC Offering 50% less Excellent 40% The Global CPV market size is It requires a smaller amount of
a specialized expensive thermal stability [89] estimated at 883 million $ and is photovoltaic material to capture
range of than [89]. predicted to grow at a CAGR of the same amount of sunlight
product conventional 11.83% between 2023 and 2028. It is compared to non-concentrating
design [89]. silicon cells predicted to reach aroun 1700 million $ PV systems. This makes it
Needs large [89]. in 2028 during the foreseen period economically feasible to use high-
space and 2023-2028 [123]. efficiency but costly multi-
long The surge in the concentrator PV junction cells, as the space
installation market can be attributed to government requirements are reduced. The
time [90]. incentives and subsidies aimed at optical system is made up of
fulfilling renewable energy goals. standard materials produced
However, as a result of extensive through established processes,
photovoltaic installations, these making it less dependent on the
subsidies have been withdrawn due to still-evolving silicon supply chain.
their high costs, and it is unlikely that Furthermore, optics tend to be less
they can be sustained for the next two expensive than PV cells [121].
decades. The primary driving forces Despite its thermal resistance, high
behind CPV technology are its concentration may lead to hot
affordability and its ability to be spots, direct beam is only captured
deployed on a large scale [123]. and one or two axis tracking
maybe needed to achieve high
concentration factors [122].
Peroviskyte Offers a 0.33- Excellent 26% The global Perovskite solar cell Material toxic in nature, and
wide range of 0.40 $ per thermal stability [124], and market size was valued at $0.4 billion breakdown faster when exposed to
product watt [107]. [90]. 32.5% for in 2020, and is forecasted to reach $6.6 heat and snow [93]. Power
design from tandem billion by 2030, growing at a CAGR of conversion efficiency is a
flexible, light Peroviskyte 32.4% from 2021 to 2030, where China parameter that it is well defined
durable [89]. [125] leads in the production of raw material and can be certified according to
Less space needed for producing PSC [127]. standards, this is not the case for
required [93]. Despite the growing market and stability-related parameters, such
services for solar which played a as lifetime or degradation rates
positive role in driving PSCs, the high [126].
production cost of raw material for PSC
is still a challenge and will limit the
market expansion [128].
Multijunction less 0.44- May be 46 % Multi-junction cell is not yet put in Adding more junction
bulky and 0.46 $ per subjected to [107] the market, however, research for (potentially 5 ot 6 junctions) could
thinner than watt [107] damage if the market has a place, and it was valued at increase the effeciency to 70%.
c-Si cells temperature USD 1.74 billion in 2021 and is Multi-junction solar cells are not
(thickness exceeds 110°C expected to reach USD 5.05 billion by commercial yet, they're still under
400 nm) [131]. 2029, registering a CAGR of 11.70% testing and research [129].
[107]. during the forecast period of 2022-
2029 [130].

Factors affecting the performance of Solar Panel Systems

The efficiency and overall performance of photovoltaic (PV) panels are influenced by a multitude of factors, which can
be categorized into distinct groups as outlined in the document. First and foremost, environmental factors play a crucial
role, including solar irradiance or radiation, temperature, dust accumulation, shading from nearby objects, and soiling.
Secondly, PV system factors have a significant impact, encompassing the I-V characteristics, inverter and battery efficiency,
the material and atomic structure of the panel, band-gap energy, and overall panel efficiency. Additionally, PV installation
factors such as cable characteristics, angle of inclination, mismatch effects, and the type of fixed or tracking mechanisms
employed are vital considerations. Moreover, the Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) technique is essential for
optimizing energy output. On another front, PV system cost factors like cable expenses and overall system costs have
financial implications. Lastly, miscellaneous factors like degradation (PID, LID), glass breakage, hotspots, characteristic
and shunt resistance, performance ratio, maintenance and cleaning practices, as well as proper sizing and surface area of the
panels must all be carefully addressed to ensure optimal PV performance. Through a comprehensive examination of these
factors, stakeholders can make informed decisions to maximize the efficiency and longevity of their PV systems [132,135].
Category type Author Factor Way of affecting PV panels
Environmental Laxmikant Solar irradiance When a module's surface is aligned at a right angle to the sun's direction, the
D. Jathar et al. module receives the most solar energy. According to various studies, production
(2023) [133] is reduced by 0.08% for every degree of departure from the south, especially in
the azimuth position.
Temperature The influence of temperature on the performance of the module is mostly
evident in both the open circuit voltage and the fill factor (FF), both of which
drop noticeably as the temperature rises. To prevent the loss of efficacy, several
thermal management techniques have been introduced with the aim of keeping
the cell temperature as low as possible.

Dust Dust accumulation on PV modules, present in the air and settling on their
surface, obstructs sunlight, reduces efficiency, causes damage, and contributes
to the panels' degradation over time.
Shading Shading on photovoltaic (PV) panels can significantly impact their
performance, affecting hard shading, soft shading, and self-shading. Hard
shading is caused by specific substances, while soft shading results from small
particles. Self-shading occurs when one PV module shades modules in series
before it. The effects of shading can vary in speed, from slow changes due to the
sun's angle to rapid changes caused by moving clouds. To address these negative
effects, various mitigation techniques have been proposed, including circuit-
based topologies and modified Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)-based
approaches. The ultimate goal is to find effective solutions to improve PV array
performance despite shading challenges.
Soiling Soiling negatively impacts the optical, thermal, and electrical characteristics
of PV modules. Spectral losses due to soiling are more significant between 450
and 500 nm, affecting larger bandgap absorber photovoltaics even more. The
reduction in performance varies depending on the type of PV cell and the
concentration of dust, with higher dust concentrations leading to greater losses.
The angle of incidence of sunlight on the PV surface also plays a role, as soiling
effect increases as the angle of incidence deviates from perpendicular.

Wind Wind speed and wind direction significantly impact the performance of
photovoltaic (PV) modules. Wind speed can slow dust deposition, benefiting PV
modules, but can also disperse dust and sand particles, affecting performance.
As wind speed increases, dust deposition increases, affecting the fill factor of
solar cells. Studies have shown that increasing wind speed reduces module
temperature, improving power output and efficiency for both monocrystalline
and polycrystalline modules. Wind direction also plays a role, with west-east-
oriented PV plants experiencing lower temperatures, increasing electricity
production, and influencing heat island potential. In conclusion, wind speed and
direction significantly impact cooling performance and efficiency of PV cells.
An average wind speed of up to 3 m/s is recommended for improved
performance, as above this speed, convection becomes more dominant.

Humidity Humidity affects the performance of photovoltaic cells, with a nonlinear

relationship between humidity and light energy received. Reduced relative
humidity in the morning leads to increased efficiency, but other factors like cell
temperature and radiation intensity also influence efficiency. Silicon-based PV
cells benefit from humidity acting as a layer that traps incident light, but
prolonged exposure to humid climates can reduce cell performance. Factors like
wind velocity, dust accumulation, and rain also influence humidity's impact.
Research indicates that humidity can cause corrosion of solar cell structures,
degrading performance. Studies have explored methods to improve humidity
resistance, particularly in perovskite-type solar cells. Some additives and
coatings have shown promising results in protecting against high humidity
levels.
PV system M.M. I-V The panel's rated current IMPP, rated voltage VMPP, short circuit current
Fouad et al. Characteristics Isc, open circuit voltage Voc and rated power PMPP are all characteristics of the
(2017) [132]. PV panel itself affecting the power generated from it.
Inverter The overall performance of a photovoltaic (PV) system is notably influenced
Efficiency by the inverter efficiency, which can be attributed to several key factors: power
conversion efficiency, losses and factors affecting efficiency, impact on grid
connection, effect of incident energy levels, importance of high efficiency, and
the introduction of transformer-less inverters.
Battery Efficiency Batteries are essential in standalone PV systems, storing excess energy and
compensating for output fluctuations. Efficiency is determined by the ratio of
 charge extracted during discharge to the charge needed for restoring initial state.
Factors like state of charge, charging and discharging currents, and battery type
affect efficiency. Battery lifespan ranges from 3 to 5 years. PV batteries have
higher costs than car batteries but offer longer lifespans and lower discharging
rates, making maintenance more economical.
Panel Material The efficiency and performance of a PV panel are significantly influenced
by its structure, including the choice of PV material, atomic structure, and band-
gap energy. PV materials such as silicon, gallium arsenide, copper indium
diselenide, cadmium telluride, and others offer varying cell efficiencies and
panel costs. Crystalline silicon cells are most efficient but require more raw
materials, while thin film technology cells have lower efficiencies but better heat
dissipation. The atomic structure can be mono-crystalline, poly-crystalline,
amorphous, or nano, each with distinct advantages and efficiencies. The band-
gap energy, which dictates the photon energy required to free electrons, also
varies among materials and structures. Ultimately, a PV panel's energy
conversion efficiency depends on its rated power, surface area, solar irradiance,
material choice, and band-gap energy.
PV system installation M.M. Cable Power losses in the wiring connections should be minimized, although it is
factors Fouad et al. characteristics challenging to keep them below 3%. On average, these losses can be reduced by
(2017) [132]. about 95%. Calculating power losses in the cables involves considering factors
such as wire internal properties, array irradiance, temperature, frequency
distribution of irradiance, power output from the PV array, and array voltage.
Proper cable selection and maintenance are crucial for optimal system
performance.
Angle of The angle-of-incidence (AOI) affects the direct component of solar
inclination irradiance, while the diffuse component remains independent of module
orientation. PV panels are most efficient when their surface is perpendicular to
the sun. For fixed-tilt installations, setting the tilt angle equal to the installation
location's latitude is recommended, with slight adjustments in winter and
summer. However, this rule may not work well in latitudes above 45°. Using
MATLAB software to calculate the optimum tilt angle based on maximizing
solar radiation can yield better results. Adjusting tilt angles six times per year
can harvest about 99.5% of solar radiation, making the angle of inclination site-
specific and dependent on the PV panel location.
Mismatch effect Mismatch losses in a PV array occur when non-matching solar modules are
connected in series and parallel, causing significant problems. The output of the
entire array depends on the degree of variation among modules, solar cells, and
series and parallel connections. Module mismatch can result in a 2% loss in
system power, and in some cases, up to 10%. To optimize system efficiency,
carefully select and match solar modules and implement appropriate
connections. Proper system design and component selection are crucial for
achieving the desired energy output from the PV array.
Tracking and Solar tracking systems can significantly increase energy output from solar
MPPT PV modules, particularly those made from crystalline silicon cells. These
systems can be single-axis or dual-axis, with dual-axis systems producing 25-
45% more power than fixed panels. However, in cloudy conditions, the
efficiency of tracking systems decreases due to isotropic solar radiation. The
decision to use tracking mechanisms depends on initial investment, location, and
weather conditions. Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT) is used to optimize
power output, ensuring the module operates at the point of maximum power
despite fluctuations in solar irradiance and temperature. A 100% efficient MPPT
can achieve a 42% increase in charge current, but practical efficiency
considerations result in a charge current increase of 10-25% under typical battery
conditions.
System and cables Using large costly cables between the PV array and the point of connection
cost to the battery or inverter can reduce array power losses. The initial cost of setting
up a PV system involves various components such as PV panels, batteries,
inverters, charge controllers, cables, accessories, transportation, installation,
project management, design, and engineering costs. Once the payback period is
reached, the PV system has low running costs, with maintenance being the
primary ongoing expense.
Miscellaneous K.V. Sizing and PV system sizing involves estimating energy requirements, determining the
Vidyanandan Surface area number and power of PV modules, and analyzing the connections. Various
(2017) [134] methods are available for this purpose, and the efficiency of solar cells plays a
significant role in the sizing process. The field of PV system performance
analysis is continuously evolving, with opportunities for additional research to
understand and optimize various influencing factors better.
Parasitic Parasitic resistances, such as series and shunt resistances, in a PV cell can
resistances cause increased I2R losses and reduced efficiency. Series resistance (Rs)
 represents internal resistance, while shunt resistance (Rsh) is responsible for
leakage current and can cause significant power losses. Optimal performance
requires low Rs and high Rsh values, which are often not provided in data sheets
but can be calculated. Low shunt resistance reduces current flow through the
solar cell and voltage, while increasing shunt resistance increases current in the
load, leading to cell heating and hotspots in the module's material.
Potential induced PID poses a significant threat to the performance and efficiency of PV
degradation PID systems, especially in systems with ungrounded inverters. It can cause
substantial power losses over time, leading to reduced overall energy production
from the PV modules. Preventive measures and grounding solutions are
necessary to mitigate the effects of PID and ensure the long-term performance
of PV systems.
Operation and Feroz Degradation of Solar PV panels generally experience faster degradation in the initial years
maintenance factors Shaik et al. panels of their life. On average, the rated power output of solar panels degrades at a rate
(2023) [135] of about 0.5% per year. Thin-film PV modules (such as a-Si, CdTe, and CIGS)
tend to degrade at a faster rate compared to crystalline silicon-based modules.
The degradation processes in PV modules can have various causes, including
chemical, electrical, thermal, or mechanical factors. Early degradation of PV
modules may be attributed to design flaws, poor-quality materials, or
manufacturing issues. In most cases, module failures and performance losses
occur gradually due to long-term exposure to harsh environmental conditions,
leading to accumulated damages over time. Glass breakage and hotspot lead also
to panel’s degradation.
Cleaning and Since dust accumulation and soiling on PV panels can lead to reduced glass
maintenance transmittance and overall power generation, resulting in a potential loss of up to
30% or more, many cleaning techniques are introduced by the author: natural
cleaning, water cleaning, manual cleaning, mechanical cleaning and forced air-
flow cleaning. Self-cleaning material which involves coating the PV surface
with hydrophobic or hydrophilic properties, allowing water to sweep away dirt
and self-clean the panel surface. Furthermore, battery maintenance is also a
must, proper battery maintenance is crucial for optimal performance and
longevity. Regular watering is necessary to maintain a safe water level in each
cell. Excessive or inadequate watering can shorten battery life. Monitoring
charging and discharging cycles and adding water to depleted cells as per
manufacturer's instructions is essential. Charging batteries in conjunction with
PV modules may cause slight degradation over time.

Status in the market

2022 will be remembered as the year when solar deployment, driven by soaring energy prices, supply chain stabilization,
and post-pandemic recovery programs, entered a new sphere of growth [136]. The industry for solar photovoltaics (PV)
continued to set records, with new capacity additions totaling 175 gigawatts (GW) in 2021, an increase of 36 GW from the
previous year. This pushed the total worldwide solar PV capacity to 942 GW [78]. 239 GW of additional solar power were
added to the grid in 2022, setting yet another record and showing an amazing 45% annual growth rate, the highest since
2016. As a result, the total quantity of installed solar power worldwide surpassed the Terawatt mark in early 2022 and
reached approximately 1.2 TW by the end of the year, representing a 25% increase over 2021 levels [136]. In 2022, another
record year, global investments in solar PV capacity expansions climbed by more than 20% and topped USD 320 billion. In
2022, solar PV accounted for roughly 45% of all investments made in the world's energy generation, which is three times
more than was spent on all fossil fuel technologies combined. Thanks to ambitious government goals, supportive policies,
and rising competitiveness, investment in PV is anticipated to increase even more in the upcoming years [137]. By 2027,
solar PV is expected to have the greatest global installed electricity capacity, surpassing coal. Predictions say that total solar
PV capacity nearly triples, increasing by approximately 1 500 GW over the timeframe, surpassing coal by 2027 and natural
gas by 2026. Over the next five years, annual solar PV capacity additions will grow yearly [137].
 Figure 45- Solar PV capacity shares [136]

The international renewable energy agency IRENA developed indicators, The IRENA Solar PV Cost and
Competitiveness Indicators series, that compare solar PV costs to electricity rates. The aim is to help policy makers track
the rapid improvements in the competitiveness of renewables, only the solar PV LCOE and the retail electricity prices of
the respective locations are compared and closely monitored, to indicate the trend of PV competitiveness. These indicators
show the declining costs of residential rooftop solar PV indicate a positive trend for the renewable energy sector. As
technology continues to advance and economies of scale improve, it is likely that solar PV will become even more
competitive and widespread as a clean energy solution for residential electricity generation [138]. Fog.8 shows the general
trend of the main power generation technologies, based on the data provided by the international energy association IEA
[137].

Figure 46-Share of cumulative power capacity by technology between 2010-2027 [137]

 The global market outlook for solar power provided by solar power Europe [136], talks about the global solar market:
updates from 2000 to 2022 and prospects from 2023 to 2027, offering a clear view of the market status for the PV cells in
10 leading countries, shown in tables
Table 4- leading countries in solar PV [136]

Country Solar PV capacity Latest trend

(GW)
China 94.7 Strong growth, market leader, dominance in rooftop segment
United 21.9 Turbulent year, second-largest market, decrease in utility-scale
states segment
India 17.4 Rebound, impressive growth, challenges in rooftop market
Brazil 10.9 Entered top 5, significant growth in distributed solar systems
Spain 8.4 Leading European market, PPA-driven utility-scale segment, rooftop
market growth
Germany 7.4 Mostly rooftop installations, strong government targets for
renewables
Japan 6.5 Transition period, stagnating installations after FIT era
Poland 4.5 Continued growth, focus shifting towards large-scale segment
Netherlands 4.1 First entry in top 10, strong growth in residential segment
Australia 4 Step backwards, challenges from external factors, favorable
government expected

Renewables 2022 global status report [78], provides further information about the market of each PV market: utility-
scale PV, rooftop PV, floating PV, agriculture PV, building-integrated PV, vehicle-integrated PV and micro-distribution solar,
with 100 GW and 75 GW installed capacity in 2021 for the first two kinds. Renewable capacity statistics [139] presents the
capacity for each country in solar PV. Lebanon’s capacity in solar energy is about to be 440 MW in 2022, almost all of the
energy produced is rooftop PV, the MEA region presents 12882 MW capacity in 2022 [139].
Solar PV is currently the fastest growing renewable energy sector and strong growth is expected toward 2030 and beyond
[140]. In 2030, utility-scale solar projects will represent over 50% of the world's solar capacity. In summary, with solar
power becoming increasingly competitive and widely adopted globally, it has emerged as a leading clean energy solution.
As we move forward, the prospects for solar PV remain bright, with the potential to surpass traditional fossil fuels and
reshape our energy landscape for a sustainable future.

Environmental effects of solar energy systems

Solar energy plays a crucial role in combatting climate change and safeguarding the environment by reducing greenhouse
gas emissions and enhancing air quality, while also minimizing water consumption from energy production. To ensure
minimal impact on local wildlife, habitats, and natural resources, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Solar Energy
Technologies Office (SETO) conducts research to optimize site selection and design, fostering a harmonious interaction
between solar installations, wildlife, and ecosystems to maximize environmental benefits [141]. In contrast to their benefits
over fossil fuel systems, solar installations bring about direct adverse effects on the lands they occupy. This results in a
transformation of these lands into a novel constructed environment due to factors like exposure to sunlight, altered
temperature, and changes in moisture levels. These factors collectively influence plant life, animals, and even the local
microbiome of the area [142]. For PV cells, just like the semiconductor manufacturing process, PV manufacturing includes
extensive use of chemicals such as acids and solvents, which are all hazardous materials. The amounts of these chemicals
are subject to the type of solar cell and the manufacturing technology used. At utility scale, PV and CSP system’s components
present a risk for environmental effects [143].
Table 5- Environmental effect of PV and CSP systems [143]

Aspect PV solar CSP

Land Safe to the environment when fully installed Soil loss due to land use
Spill of high-temperature fluids
Space-efficient designs reduce land usage
Water Manufacturing involves harmful materials Contamination of surface and ground waters

Air No noise or toxic GHG when installed GHG emissions

 Manufacturing involves hazardous chemicals Change in albedo, light and noise pollution, and dust
Effects on biodiversity

Other The processes of transportation, installation, and disposal Generally safe for human health with precautions
of PV-modules come with considerable energy Minimal impact on wildlife and habitat
consumption and other harmful environmental impacts Significant local environment impacts during construction
that should not be neglected.

A detailed comparison of possible GHG emissions from each component of the system over a 100-year lifetime period
was presented. This comparison highlighted the GHG emissions from different components, such as mineral resources,
fossil resources, renewable resources, water resources, ozone depletion, land use, acidification, climate change, human
toxicity, and more [144].

Figure 47- GHG emission of CSP system with a time of 100 years [144]

Figure 48- GHG emission of PV system with a time of 100 years [144]

The results of this study suggest that careful selection of less harmful solar panels, batteries, and heat storage is necessary
to improve both systems' environmental performance [144].

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