Solar Radiation

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 Solar Radiation
• The Sun is a hydrodynamic spherical body of extremely hot ionized
gases (plasma) having predominance of hydrogen. It consists of
73% of hydrogen, 25% of helium, 2% other elements (oxygen,
carbon, nitrogen etc.)

• It generates energy by the process of thermo-nuclear fusion

• The hydrogen in the sun is continuously going through process of

fusion:
combine
4 hydrogen atoms one heavy molecule of helium

This fusion process gives tremendous amount of energy, equivalent

to loss of mass in the process (Einstein’s formula: E = mc2)
It is this energy release by the fusion process that is responsible for
the high temperature of the sun.
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• The temperature of the interior of the sun is estimated as 8x106 K to
40x 106 K

• The distance between the sun and the earth : 1.495 x 108 km

• Energy flux received from the sun before entering the earth’s
atmosphere, is a constant quantity.

• Energy Radiated is Electromagnetic Waves

• It reaches the planet earth in three spectral regions:

• i) Ultraviolet – 6.4% (λ < 0.38 µm)

• ii) Visible light 48% (0.38 µm < λ < 0.38 µm)

iii) Infrared 45.6% (λ > 0.78 µm)

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Electromagnetic spectrum

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www.wikipedia.org 4
As the distance between the sun and the earth is very large the beam
radiation received from the sun on the earth is almost parallel and the
solar rays subtend an angle of only 32 minutes on earth.

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 Some Definitions:
Solar Constant, Isc
• Total radiation energy received from the sun
per unit time
on a unit area perpendicular to solar rays and
at the Earth’s mean distance from the Sun
outside the atmosphere is termed as Solar Constant.

• In short it can be said as average solar radiation outside the

Earth’s atmosphere

• Standard value of solar constant:

1367 W/m2 or
1.958 langley per minute (1 langley/min is the unit,
equivalent to 1 cal/cm2/min)

• It is most accurately measured from satellites where

atmospheric effects are absent.
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Irradiance (power density):
It refers to the rate of energy received by a surface per unit area;
essentially it is nothing but the flux of solar energy
Unit: J/m2-s or W/m2

Irradiation or Insolation (energy density):

It is the amount of energy received by a surface over a period of
time. Thus it is the integrated irradiance over a time.
Unit: W-Hr/m2 per hour or per day or per month
Sometimes long-term average intensity of incoming solar radiation is
given in units such as W/m2 and called insolation with duration
(such as daily, monthly, annual, etc.) stated.

Extra-terrestrial Solar Radiation:

The solar radiation just outside the earth’s atmosphere. In other
words, it is the measure of solar radiation that would be received
in the absence of atmosphere.
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 Spectral Distribution of Extraterrestrial Radiation

The curve sharply rises with the wavelength and reached the maximum
value of 2074 W/m2/µm at a wavelength of 0.48 µm. It then decreases
asymptotically to zero, showing that 99% of the sun’s radiation is
obtained up to a wavelength of 4 µm.

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How to calculate Extraterrestrial Flux?

The distance between the sun and the earth varies due to
the elliptical motion of the earth. Accordingly, the
extraterrestrial flux also varies, which can be calculated
(on any day) by the equation

In = Isc [1 +0.033 cos(360n/365)]

n is the day of the year counted from the first day of

January

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 Terrestrial Solar Radiation:
The sunrays outside the earth’s atmosphere travel parallel to each other.
When the solar radiation passes through the atmosphere, it undergoes
several interactions.

i) Some parts are subjected to scattering and absorption. A part of the

scattered radiation is reflected back into the space.

ii) Short wave ultraviolet rays are absorbed by ozone and long wave infra red
rays are absorbed by CO2 and water vapours.

iii) Scattering is due to air molecules, dust particles and water droplets that
cause attenuation of radiation

Minimum attenuation takes place in clear sky when the earth’s surface
receives maximum radiation.

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 Some definitions related to Solar Radiation:

(i) Diffuse radiation: The scattered radiation is called diffuse radiation

(ii) Direct or Beam Radiation: The radiation which does not go

through either absorption interaction or scattering interaction and
reaches the earth’s surface directly

(iii) Albedo Radiation: Once the radiation reaches the earth’s surface,
some of it (diffuse and direct as well) gets reflected by the ground
and other objects on the ground. This reflected component is
called Albedo Radiation

(iv) Total or Global Radiation: This is the total radiation reaching at a

point on the earth’s surface which is the sum of (i), (ii) & (iii)

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• Solar energy is available as radiant flux. Its intensity is
greatest when the earth is closest to the Sun and is least
when it is furthest.

• India – tropical country- lies within the latitude 7oN and

37oN
• Annual average intensity of solar radiation :
• between 500 and 600 W/m2/day
• about 750 W/m2/day (in arid and semiarid regions)

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 Solar Radiation Geometry

• To find the beam energy falling on a surface

having any orientation, it is necessary to convert
the value of beam flux coming from the direction
of the sun to an equivalent value corresponding
to the normal direction to the surface

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Angle of incidence: θ, Zenith angle: θz, Solar Altitude Angle: αa , Slope: β,
Surface Azimuth Angle: γ, Solar Azimuth Angle : γs

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•The Zenith Angle (θz) : The angle made by the sun rays
with the normal to a horizontal surface (or horizontal
plane through a point when a point is considered)

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The Angle of Incidence (θ) : The angle between an
incident beam of flux and the normal to the plane on
which the ray is incident
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Slope (β): The angle made by the plane /surface
with the horizontal.
It can vary from 0o to 180o.
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Surface Azimuth Angle (γ) : The angle made in the horizontal
plane between the horizontal line due south and the projection of
the normal to the surface on the horizontal plane.
It can vary from -1800 to +1800. The angle is positive if the
normal is east of south and negative if west of south
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•Solar Altitude Angle (αa): It is the complement of zenith angle
(θz). i.e, it is a vertical angle between the direction of the sun rays
(passing through the point) and its projection on the horizontal
plane.

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Solar Azimuth Angle (γs): It is an angle in the horizontal plane
between the line due south and projection of beam radiation on the
horizontal plane
Conventionally, it is considered positive if the projection of the sun
beam is west of south and negative if east of south in northern
hemisphere. EE 721/3, SP 21
The latitude (Φ): The latitude Φ of a location is the angle made by the
radial line joining the location to the centre of the earth with the projection
of the line on the equatorial plane.

By convention: the latitude is measured as positive for the northern

hemisphere. It can vary from -90deg to +90deg.
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The Declination Angle (δ): The angle made
by the line joining the centres of the sun
and the earth with the projection of this
line on the equatorial plane.

This is basically the angular

displacement of the sun from the
equatorial plane.

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Declination arises by the fact that the earth rotates about an axis which
makes an angle of approximately 66.5° with the plane of its rotation
around the sun.

δ varies from a maximum value of +23.45° on June 21 to a minimum value

of -23.45° on December 21.

δ = 0 on two equinox days of March 21 and September 22.

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 Declination  360 
Angle variation δ = 23.45 sin  ( 284 + n )
 365 
δ: in degree, n – day of year (=1 for Jan-1)

30
June 21
20
Declination (degree)

10 Sep 21
Mar-21
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-10

-20

-30
Dec-21 Days of year
Dec-21

How to find n for June 21, 2004?

n = 31+ 29 + 31 + 30 + 31 + 21 =173
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Air mass (AM): It is the ratio of the path length of beam
radiation through the atmosphere, to the path length if the
sun were at zenith.

At zenith angle, θz, air mass is calculated as:

AM = AB
AC = sec θ z
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At sea level AM =1, when the sun is at zenith or directly
overhead

AM=2, when the angle subtended by zenith and the line

of sight of the sun is 60o.

AM=0, just above the earth’s atmosphere

During winter, the sun is low and hence the air mass is
higher and
vice versa during summer

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• Hour Angle (ω) : It is the angular measure
of time and is equivalent to 15o per hour.
• It varies from -180o to +180o. It is
measured from noon, based on local
apparent time (LAT) being positive in the
afternoon and negative in the forenoon.

• Another way to define: It is the angle

through which the earth must rotate to
bring the meridian of the point directly
under the sun.
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Computation of cosθ for any Location haiving any Orientation

A general equation:

cosθ = sinΦ (sinδ cosβ + cosδ cosγ cosω sinβ)

+ cosΦ (cosδ cosω cosβ - sinδ cosγ sinβ)
+ cosδ sinγ sinω sinβ -------(1)

For a vertical surface, β = 90o

cosθ = sinΦ cosδ cosγ cosω - cosΦ sinδ cosγ
+ cosδ sinγ sinω --------(2)
For a horizontal surface, β = 0o
cosθ = sinΦ sinδ + cosΦ cosδ cosω --------(3)
In this case θ is the zenith angle θz

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• In northern hemisphere the sun during winter is towards south. For a
surface facing due south, γ = 0o.

• cosθ = sinΦ (sinδ cosβ + cosδ cosω sinβ)

+ cosΦ (cosδ cosω cosβ - sinδ sinβ)
=sinδ sin(Φ- β) + cosδ cosω cos(Φ- β) --------(4)

For a vertical surface facing due south, β = 90o, γ = 0o

cosθ = sinΦ cosδ cosω - cosΦ sinδ --------(5)

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 Sunrise, Sunset and day Length
• The times of sunrise, sunset and the duration of the day length depend
upon the latitude of the location and month in the year.

• At sunrise and sunset, the sunlight is parallel to the ground surface with a
zenith angle of 90o. From (3), the hour angle pertaining to sunrise or
sunset is obtained
• cosωs = - tanΦ tanδ
ωs = cos-1(- tanΦ tanδ)

The value of hour angle corresponding to sunrise is positive and negative

corresponding to sunset.

The total angle between sunrise and sunset is given by:

2ωs = 2cos-1(- tanΦ tanδ)

Since 15o of hour angle corresponds to one hour, the corresponding day
length (Td) in hours is given by:
Td = [2cos-1(- tanΦEE
tanδ)] /15
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 Local Apparent Time (LAT)

The time used for calculating the hour angle ω is the ‘local apparent
time’. This is obtained from the local time observed on a clock by
applying two corrections.

The first correction arises due to the difference between the longitude
of a location and the meridian on which the standard time is
determined. This correction has a magnitude of 4 minutes for each
degree difference in longitude.

The second correction is known as: ‘equation of time correction’

required due to the fact that the earth’s orbit and the rate of rotation
are subject to certain fluctuations. This correction is applied by
results of experimental observations as given in the following figure

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Local Apparent Time (LAT)
= Standard time ± 4(Standard time longitude – Longitude of location)
+ (Time correction)

The positive sign in the first correction is for the western hemisphere
while the negative sign is applicable for the eastern hemisphere

Example: Determine the local apparent time (LAT) corresponding to

14:30 h (IST) at Mumbai (19o07’ N, 72o51’E) on July 1. In India,
standard time is based on 82.50oE. From the plot, the equation of
time correction on July 1 is -3.5 minutes.

LAT = 14:30 h -4(82.50 -72.85) minutes + (-3.5 minutes)

= 14:30h - 38.6 minutes – 3.5 minutes =13:48 hrs

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 Measuring Solar Radiation

Pyranometer : Measures global and

diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface

• It covers total hemispherical solar

Radiation with a view angle of 2π radians

• Operates on the principle of thermopile

• It consists of a black surface which heats up when exposed to solar

radiation. Its temperature rises until the rate of heat gain from solar
radiation equals the heat loss by conduction, convection and radiation.

•On the black surface the hot junctions of a thermopile are placed, while
the cold junctions are placed in a position (under a guard plate)
such that they do not receive the radiation.
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 Pyranometer (contd.)

1. Black Surface, 2. Glass domes, 3. Guard Plate, 4. Leveling Screws

5. Mounting plate, 6. Grouted bolts, 7. Platform
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 Pyranometer (contd.)

• An electrical output voltage ( 0 to 10 mV range) generated by the

temperature difference is the measure of global radiation. The
output can be obtained on a strip chart or on a digital printout over a
period of time.

• Pyranometer can also be used for measurement of diffuse radiation.

This is done by mounting it at the center of a semicircular shading
ring.

• The shading ring is fixed in such a way that its plane is parallel to
the plane of the path of the sun’s daily movement across the sky
and it shades the thermopile element and the two glass domes of
the pyranometer at all the times from direct sunshine. So it
measures the diffuse radiation received from the sky.

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Shading Ring Arrangement for Measurement of Diffuse Radiation

ABCD: Horizontal Rectangular Frame, EF &GH: Two angle-iron arms

R: Shading Ring, P: The bottom of ABCD is fixed with a thick metal plate
with circular slot, P’: Another thick metal plate fitted on top of the frame on
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 Pyheliometer

•Measures only direct solar radiation

• Principle same as Pyranometer

(the sensor is a thermopile)

•Only direct radiation falls on the detector

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 Sunshine Recorder :
Measures the duration of bright sunshine in a day

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Sunshine Recorder (contd.)

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 Sunshine Recorder (contd.)

• The sun’s rays are focused by a glass sphere to a point

on a card strip held in a groove in a spherical bowl
mounted concentrically with the sphere.

• Whenever there is bright sunshine, the image formed is

intense enough to burn a spot on the card strip.

• Through the day as the sun moves across the sky, the
image moves along the strip.

• Thus, a burnt trace whose length is proportional to the

duration of sunshine is obtained on the strip.

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 Solar Radiation Map of India

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8/28/2020 © IIT Bombay, C.S. Solanki 43
 The daily solar insolation values over selected cities in
India with seasonal variation:

Peak Values: Western Rajasthan and Gujrat (from March to May) over
600 cal/cm2/day
• During Monsoon and winter the value reduces around 400
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 Solar Radiation Data for INDIA
• India lies within : latitudes 7o N and 37oN

• Annual Intensity of solar radiation between: 400 and 700 cal/cm2/day

• Most parts of India receive 4-7 kWh/m2/day of solar radiation with 250-
300 sunny days in a year

• The highest annual radiation energy received in: Western Rajasthan

• The lowest annual radiation energy received in: North-eastern region

• The daily record of global radiation data is useful for industry as India
lies in the sunny regions of the world.

• Other countries having rich solar flux belt : Saudi Arabia, Central
Australia and South Africa
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• A solar equipment designed needs the average value of radiation for
a location where the equipment is to be used
• The average global and diffuse radiations are recorded for a month,
tabulated with hourly variation.
1

0.8
Global
Radiation (kW/m2)

radiation
0.6

0.4 Diffuse
radiation
0.2

0
6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Hours

Data are for a clear sky

In general diffusion radiation is an-isotropic, varies with
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direction
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 Routes of
Solar Energy
Utilisation

Photovoltaic route that converts

Thermal route for
Solar radiation into electricity
water heating, cooking, drying,
which is used for power supply in
water purification and
non-electrified areas,
power generation
pumping water etc.

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