Solar Photovoltaic Conversion

The devices used in photovoltaic conversion – Solar Cell

It is basically – P-N Junction under illumination
When solar radiation falls on these devices, it is
converted directly into dc electricity.
No sunlight ⇒ No electricity

2
Principal Advantages of Solar cell:

• They have no moving parts

• Require little maintenance
• Work quite satisfactorily with beam or
diffuse radiation
• They can be readily adapted for varying
power requirements because a cell is like
a ‘building block’

3
 Solar PV array
Cell Module Array

Solar PV array:
•Interconnected
solar PV modules.

•Provide power of
100 W to several
MW. I

_ _
PV module + +
V

Interconnection of solar cells into solar PV modules and modules into solar
PV arrays. Schematic representation of PV module is also shown. 4
Various types of Solar PV modules
Various modules

5
 Solar Cell I-V Curve
Power is consumed if (V.I) → positive
(1st and 3rd quadrant)
Power is delivered if (V.I) → negative
(2nd and 4th quadrant)

Under illumination
solar cell can be operated
in the 4th quadrant 
it delivers power to the
external circuit

Current in the illuminated solar cell is negative, flows

against the conventional direction of a forward diode.

6
 Solar Cell I-V Curve
Usual I-V plot of solar cell – Current is shown on positive Y
axis

I
Isc Pmax
IMP

V
VMP Voc

7
P-V Curve : Maximum Power

Maximum Power
Point

8
 The Model of an Ideal Solar Cell

IL : Light Generated Current (A)

Id : Diode current (A)
I : Current output from the cell (A)

Id = Io [exp(V/nVT) -1]

I =IL –Id = IL - Io [exp(V/nVT) -1]

Io: Reverse Saturation Current (A), V: diode voltage (V) or Cell

voltage (V)
VT: Thermal Voltage (V), n: Diode Ideality Factor, 1 to 2, n=1, for
ideal diode
VT = kT/q
k : Boltzmann Constant, 1.38 x 10-23 J/K, T : Temperature (K)
9
q: charge of an electron, 1.6 x 10-19 coulombs
P-V Curve : Maximum Power

Maximum Power
Point

10
The Model of a Practical Solar Cell: Effect of Parasitic Resistances
Rs : Series Resistance
RP : Parallel Resistance

These Resistive effects reduce the

efficiency of the solar cell
by dissipating power in the
resistances

 q(V + IRS )  V + IR S
I = I L − I o  exp −
 nkT  RP

I : cell output current, IL: light generated current,

Io: Reverse saturation current V : voltage across the cell terminals,

11
  q(V + IRS )  V + IR S
I = I L − I o  exp −
 nkT  RP

T : temperature
q: charge of an electron, 1.6 x 10-19 coulombs
k: Boltzmann Constant, 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
n : ideality factor
Rs : cell series resistance.
RP: cell parallel resistance

The formula is an example of an implicit function due to the appearance of

the current, I, on both sides of the equation and requires numerical methods
to solve.

12
 Solar cell parameters
Voc - open circuit voltage,
Isc - short circuit current,
Pm - maximum power point
Im, Vm – current and voltage at maximum
Symbol power point
FF – Fill factor
η – Efficiency

13
 Open Circuit Voltage: Voc
I
Isc It is the maximum voltage available
Pm from a solar cell, and this occurs at
Im zero current.

The open-circuit voltage

X corresponds to the amount of
Vm forward bias on the solar cell
Voc junction due to illumination.

by setting I = 0

Depends on I0, IL, T

14
 Short-Circuit Current, Isc
I
The short-circuit current is the
X Pmax current through the solar cell
IMP when the voltage across the solar
cell is zero (i.e., when the solar
cell is short circuited).
V
VMP Voc
The short-circuit current is the
largest current which may be
drawn from the solar cell.

15
 The short-circuit current depends on :
•The area of the solar cell : To remove the dependence of the
solar cell area, it is more common to list the short-circuit current
density rather than the short-circuit current;

•The number of photons (i.e, the power of the light source) :

If intensity increases Isc increases.

•The spectrum of the incident light: For most solar cell

measurement, the spectrum is standardised to the
AM1.5 spectrum .

•The optical properties (absorption and reflection) of the solar cell

16
 The short-circuit current depends on (contd.)

• The collection probability of the solar cell, which

depends chiefly on the surface passivation and the
minority carrier lifetime in the base.

• [Surface passivation of silicon solar cells describes a

technology for preventing electrons and holes to
recombine prematurely with one another on the wafer
surface. It increases the cell's energy conversion
efficiencies and thus reduces the cost per kWh
generated by a PV system.]

17
 Maximum power: Pm
I
Isc Pmax
Power out of a solar cell
IMP X increases with voltage,
reaches a maximum (Pm)
and then decreases again.

VMP Voc
Pmax = IMP x VMP

We get DC power from a solar cell

18
 Fill Factor
The power from the solar cell at the conditions of Isc and
Voc are zero. This factor tells how good or how bad a solar
cell is.

The "fill factor (FF)", is a parameter which, in

conjunction with Voc and ISC, determines the maximum
power from a solar cell.

A key parameter to evaluate the

performance of solar cell

PT → Ideal condition, can

not be reached,
theoretical maximum power
VMP I MP
FF =
VOC I SC 19
 Fill Factor (contd.)

VMP, IMP, VOC, ISC : can be

determined from data sheet of cell

FF = 0.5 → lower grade cell

FF = 0.8, 0.85 → very good cell

Typical commercial panel: FF>0.7

A higher fill factor solar panel has less loss due to series and
parallel resistances within the cells themselves.

20
Multicrystaline PV Modules (BISOL BMU/214-245)

21
 Efficiency (η) or Conversion Efficiency

Ratio of energy output from the solar cell to input energy

from the sun.

η is determined as the fraction of incident power which is

converted to electricity and is defined as:

Pout Pout : Output Power

η= Pin : Input Power
P in
P out = Pmax = VMP I MP

Pin → Insolation

22
Standard insolation = 1kW/m2

∴ Pin = (1 kW/m 2 ).(area of the panel)

Area of the panel = 60 x 156 mm x 156 mm
= 60 x 0.156 x 0.156 m 2
= 1.46 m 2

∴Pin = (1 kW/m ).1.46 = 1.46 kW

2

From the data sheet ηcell = 13.5%

13.5
P out = Pmax = ηcell .P in = .1.46.1000 W = 197.10 W
100
23
Multicrystaline PV Modules (BISOL BMU/214-245)

24
 Pout P max V MPI MP
ηcell = = = G → insolation kW/m2
P in Pin GAcell

For G = 1kW/m2, ηcell is fixed

η module < η cell

In most of the cases maximum power ratings given in the

data sheet are based on cell efficiency and cell area.

For all practical purposes, it is better to use ηmodule in order

to get output power.
25
Various types of Solar PV modules
Various modules

26
 Efficiency depends on :
•Spectrum and intensity of the incident sunlight

• Temperature of the solar cell.

•Therefore, conditions under which efficiency is measured

must be carefully controlled in order to compare the
performance of one device to another.

•Terrestrial solar cells are measured under AM1.5

conditions and at a temperature of 25°C.

Courtesy: Prof. C. S Solanki, IIT 27

Bombay
 Characteristic Resistance of a Solar Cell:
It is the output resistance of the solar cell at its maximum
power point.

It can alternately be given as an approximation where:

28
 Characteristic Resistance of a Solar Cell:

•It is the output resistance of the solar cell at its maximum

power point.

•If the resistance of the load is equal to the characteristic

resistance of the solar cell, then the maximum power is
transferred to the load and the solar cell operates at its
maximum power point.

It is a useful parameter in solar cell analysis, particularly

when examining the impact of parasitic loss mechanisms.

29
Factor affecting electricity generated by a
solar cell
Five common operating conditions affecting the power
generated by a solar cell are as follows:
• The efficiency or conversion efficiency (η ),
• The amount of light (Pin),
• The solar cell area (A),
• The angle at which day light falls (θ), and
• The operating temperature (T ).

Courtesy: Prof. C. S Solanki, IIT 30

Bombay
 Conversion Efficiency (η )

As conversion Efficiency (η) increases, output power of

a solar cell increases.

Amount of Light (Pin)

Large amount of light falling means high generated power,

less amount of light falling means low generated power

31
 Amount of Light (Pin)
• Effect of incident light

Cell Parameters:
JSC = 35mA/cm2
VOC = 0.7V
FF = 65%
η = 16%

IV characteristics of a solar cell and power variation

as function of variation in solar radiation intensity.
(Dotted line shows the maximum power point line)
Courtesy: Prof. C. S Solanki, IIT 32
Bombay
 Solar cell Area (A)
Change in area of a solar cell ⇒ Change in power
generated by a solar cell

Short-circuit current density (JSC) for a given solar cell is

always fixed or constant.

Large solar cell area means high current, small solar cell
area means low current

Solar cell area increases ⇒ Power generated increases

Courtesy: Prof. C. S Solanki, IIT 33

Bombay
 Angle at which day light falls (θ)

θ = 90° θ ≠ 90°

Sunlight absorption is maximum for sunlight falling perpendicular

to the surface of a solar cell
Maximum electricity is generated when θ = 90°
Courtesy: Prof. C. S Solanki, IIT 34
Bombay
 Operating Temperature (T )

How a solar cell operating temperature affects the power

generated ?
As operating temperature increases, VOC of a solar cell
decreases
I
ISC increase slightly

High Temp.

VOC decreases V
35
 Effects of Parasitic Resistances:

Both the magnitude and impact of series and shunt resistance

depend on the geometry of the solar cell and solar cell area
Resistances are given in Ω-cm2

•The key impact of parasitic resistance is to reduce fill factor.

Since the value of resistance will depend on the area of the solar cell,
when comparing the series resistance of solar cells which may have
different areas, a common unit for resistance is in Ωcm2.

This area-normalized resistance results from replacing current with

current density in Ohm's law as shown below:

V
R (Ω - cm ) =
2 J: Current density
J
36
 Effect of Series Resistance

• Series resistance in a solar cell is due to the following:

• 1. The movement of the current through the pn materials

of the solar cell

• 2. The contact resistance between the silicon and the

metal contact

• 3.The top metal contacts and rear metal contacts

resistance.

• The series resistance is basically a result of the bulk

resistances of the semiconductor and all its metallic
contacts in addition to the contact resistance between
these two materials.
37
 Effect of Series Resistance

The short circuit current (Isc)

is unaffected by the series
resistance until it is very large.

It reduces the fill factor

Series resistance does not affect the solar cell at open-circuit voltage since
the overall current flow through the solar cell, and therefore through the
series resistance is zero. However, near the open-circuit voltage, the IV
curve is strongly effected by the series resistance.

A straight-forward method of estimating the series resistance from a solar

cell is to find the slope of the IV curve at the open-circuit voltage point.
38
 Effect of Shunt Resistance

• Shunt resistance is due to non-idealities, mainly

impurities near the p-n junction, which cause partial
shorting of the junction.

• It can be due to leakage at the edge of the cell or any

extended defects in the depletion zone.

• It does not affect the open circuit voltage or short circuit

current, it reduces the fill factor

39
 Effect of Shunt Resistance
•Significant power losses caused by
typically due to manufacturing defects,
rather than poor solar cell design.

•Low shunt resistance causes power

losses in solar cells by providing an
alternate current path for the
light-generated current. Such a
diversion reduces the amount of
current flowing through the solar
cell junction and reduces the voltage
from the solar cell.

•The effect of a shunt resistance is particularly severe at low light

levels, since there will be less light-generated current. The loss of this
current to the shunt therefore has a larger impact.

•In addition, at lower voltages where the effective resistance of the

solar cell is high, the impact of a resistance in parallel is large. 40
Series Parallel Connection of Solar Cells

41
 Series connection
•Let us consider a solar cell having Voc of 0.6 V and Isc of 0.8 A.

When two identical cells are connected in series, the Voc of the two cells
will be added.

The Isc will be the same as that of a single cell

(a) (b)
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
Current (A)

0.4 Current (A) 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2

Voltage (V) Voltage (V)

I-V characteristics of identical solar cells (a) single cell, (b) two cells in
series Courtesy: Prof. C. S Solanki, IIT 42
Bombay
 Parallel connection:
• Isc of the two cells will be added .
• Voc of the combination will remain same as that of single cell.

Series and Parallel Combination:

•When more than one series connected cells are connected in parallel,
more current and voltage will obtain

1.6 1.6

Current (A)
1.2 1.2
Current (A)

0.8 0.8

0.4 0.4

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2

Voltage (V) Voltage (V)
I-V characteristics of identical solar cells (a) two cell connected in
parallel, (b) series and parallel combination of cells.
Courtesy: Prof. C. S Solanki, IIT 43
Bombay
 Solar Cell to Solar PV Module Why ?
Cell Rating
Im = 5 A
Vm = 0.5 V
Single solar cell Pm = 2.5 W

How can we generate higher wattage using single

solar cell? Not possible.

In order to get larger power many cells are

connected together in series and parallel in the
solar PV modules.
Courtesy: Prof. C. S Solanki, IIT 44
Bombay
Solar Cell to Solar PV Module Why ?
Series connection ⇒ Voltage is additive

Single solar cell

power = 2.5 Watts

6 cells in series connection ⇒ 15 Watts

Courtesy: Prof. C. S Solanki, IIT 45
Bombay
 Solar PV module
A solar PV module is a device in which several solar
cells are connected together to generate more power
than a single solar cell.

Single solar cell

Solar PV module
Courtesy: Prof. C. S Solanki, IIT 46
Bombay
 PV module
PV module
-array of several solar cells connected in series and parallel
for getting larger power output.
Power output:
• Power output per solar cell can be as small as 0.25 Wp
( I= 1000 W/m2 , Normal cell area- 15 x15=225 cm2 ,Cell
efficiency - 10 to 25% )

Wp: Watt peak ( maximum power that can be delivered by the

cell under standard test condition)

• This power is not enough for home lighting, water pumping

applications.
PV module Power rating is from 3 Wp to 300 Wp
.
47
 PV module
Inter connection of solar cells:
Wafer based technology:
• These are the first generation cells, conventional,
traditional wafer based cells

• Solar cells are manufactured first and then interconnected

• The cell consists of a large-area, single-crystal, single

layer p-n junction diode, capable of generating electrical
energy.

• The cells are typically made using a diffusion process

with silicon wafers. These silicon wafer-based solar cells
are the dominant technology in the commercial
production of solar cells. 48
• Thin film technology: Inter-connection is done
while process of manufacturing of solar cell.

• A thin-film solar cell is a 2nd generation solar

cell that is made by depositing one or more thin
layers, or thin film (TF) of photovoltaic material
on a substrate, such as glass, plastic or metal.

49
Blocking Diodes & Bypass Diodes

50
 Blocking Diode
Without the diode:
When the sun shines, as long as the voltage
produced by the two panels is greater than
that of the battery, charging will take place.

In the dark, when no voltage is being produced

by the panels, the voltage of the battery would
cause a current to flow in the opposite
direction through the panels, discharging the
battery.

Blocking diode will prevent the discharging of the battery

They will be of benefit in any system using solar panels to charge a battery.

They are usually included in the construction of solar panels so further

blocking diodes are not required
51
Bypass Diode
Let us consider a situation when there are
no bypass diodes and one panel is
shaded :

• Shading of part of a panel may be caused

by a tree branch, debris, or snow.

Due to shading:
1. The shaded cells will not be able to
produce as much current as
unshaded cells.

2. The shaded panel will not produce any

significant power as well as it will offer a
high resistance blocking the flow of power
from the unshaded panel.

3. Since all the cells are connected in

series, same amount of current must
52
flow through every cell.
 Result of Shading
• The unshaded cells will force the shaded cells to pass
more current than their new short circuit current.

• The only way the shaded cells can operate at a current

higher than their short circuit current is to operate in a
region of negative voltage that is to cause a net voltage
loss in the system.

• The shaded cells will dissipate more power and form “hot
spots”.

• The shaded cells will drag down the overall I-V curve of
the group of cells.

53
Bypass Diode

With Bypass Diodes:

• Free-wheeling diode
•If one panel is shaded, the current
produced by the unshaded panel can
flow through a by-pass diode to avoid
the high resistance of the shaded
panel.

By-pass diodes will not be of use unless

panels are connected in series to produce a
higher voltage.

•Some solar panels are constructed with the

cells divided into groups, each group having
a built-in by-pass diode.

54
 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

Each solar cell has a point at which the current (I) and voltage (V) output
From the cell result in the maximum power output from the cell.

The principle is that if the output from the cell can be regulated to the voltage
and current levels needed to achieve a power output at this point, then the
power generated from the solar cell will be used most efficiently 55
Characteristic Resistance

56
 Ro

Operating point
Load line

∆I
Ro = 0

1
slope = =
Ro ∆V

Ro → ∝

57
P-V Curve : Maximum Power

1
slope =
RT Ro
RT

RT : Resistance observed
at the output terminals as
viewed from the PV
module

58
 RT Ro
=RCH

Control Input

Whatever be the value Ro, with the help of this interfacing

block, RT will always be maintained at RCH.
59
 General Block Diagram of MPPT Scheme

RT Ro
=RCH

If there is any change in Ro, the duty ratio will change

to keep the input resistance of the converter block
60
constant.
 Types of PV Systems
Types of PV System

Directly connected systems  Simplest possible PV systems

 Example: A DC fan, water pumping
system etc.
PV DC
Panel Load

Battery used vary widely as a

Systems with battery storage storage medium
Battery regulates voltage,
PV Charge DC suppresses transients, can provide
Panel Controller Load higher current than PV array capability
 Charge controller is required to
protect overcharging or over-
Battery discharging of battery

61
 Types of PV Systems
Systems with both AC and DC loads
• Inverter is required to convert DC into
DC-AC AC
AC current
converter Load
• Inverter efficiency is in the range of
90-95%
PV Charge DC
Panel Controller Load

Systems connected with grid / generator

Battery
Utility DC-AC AC
grid converter Load
•Back-up or additional energy source
can be used with in a PV system,
PV Charge DC
•A back-up can be a DG set Controller Load
Panel
•PV System can also take of give power
to utility
Generator Battery
62
 PV Module
Applications
63
Solar PV modules used for rural electrification

64
Solar Street Light

Battery Box

65
Solar PV modules used in solar
lanterns

66
Grid connection

67
67
Building integrated Solar PV modules

68
 Long strip
Of
Solar PV modules
69
Transparent Solar PV modules

70
Huge 18 MW Solar PV plant, Nevada Desert

71
 PV Cell for Communication Equipment in Snow-bound Areas
• India’s international boundary in Himalayas touches two
neighbouring countries and hence reliable communication
is a defense necessity.

• Grid power is not available

• Diesel generators are difficult to operate at sub-zero

temperature

• Wind power generation is not feasible due to unsteady wind

conditions with blizzards and snow storms occurring
frequently

• Only option – to use solar cells to produce electricity and

charge the battery bank. The system is virtually
maintenance free with a reliable life of 25 years
72
PV Cell for Communication Equipment in Snow-bound
Areas

A dc Stand Alone System for Telecommunication

73
 References
1. Renewable Energy by Bent Sorensen; Academic Press
2. Renewable Energy Sources and Energy Technology by Kothari,
Singal and Ranjan; Prentice Hall India
3. 3. Solar Energy - Principles of thermal collection and storage by S.
P. Sukhatme, Tata McGraw-Hill, India
4. 4. Renewable Energy Resources, J. Twidell and T. Weir, Taylor and
Francis
5. 5. Renewable and efficient electric power systems, G.M. Masters,
John Wiley and Sons
6. 6. Renewable energy engineering and Technology. Ed. V V N
Kishore, TERI
7. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, J. A. Duffie and W. A.
Beckman, John Wiley, New York
8. Principles of Solar Engineering, D. Y. Goswami, F. Kreith and J. F.
Kreider, Taylor and Francis, Philadelphia
9. Non-Conventional Energy Sources, G.D Rai, Khanna Publisher
10. www.pveducation.org
11.Lectures on Design of Photovoltaic Systems, Prof. Umanand, IISC
Bangalore.
74